DSP:

Programming And
Application
Lecture 11+12 Lecture 11+12 Lecture 11+12 Lecture 11+12
The The The The
z zz z- -- -Transform Transform Transform Transform
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description
Introduction: Introduction: Introduction: Introduction:
Pole-zero description of discrete-time systems:
In most practical discrete-time systems the z-transform (i.e. the system
transfer function, H(z)) can be expressed in terms of its poles and zeros.
Consider, for example, the following z-transform representing a
general, N
th
-order discrete-time filter (where N = M):
where
The a
k
and b
k
are the coefficients of the filter.
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description
Introduction: Introduction: Introduction: Introduction:
If H(z) has poles at z = p
1
, p
2
, . . . , p
N
and zeros at z zz z = z
1 11 1
, z
2
, . . . , z
N
,
then H(z) can be factored and represented as
where z
i
is the i
th
zero, p
i
is the i
th
pole and K is the gain factor.
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description
Summary: Summary: Summary: Summary:
The poles poles poles poles of a z-transform, H(z), are the values of z for which H(z)
becomes infinity.
The values of z for which H(z) becomes zero are referred to as zeros zeros zeros zeros.
The poles and zeros of H(z) may be real or complex.
When they are complex, they occur in conjugate pairs, to ensure that
the coefficients, a
k
and b
k
, are real.
If the locations of the poles and zeros of H(z) are known, then H(z)
itself can be readily reconstructed to within a constant.
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Diagram: Zero Diagram: Zero Diagram: Zero Diagram:
The Information contained in the z-transform can be conveniently displayed
as a pole-zero diagram.
In the diagram, X XX X marks the position of a pole and denotes the position of
a zero. Here, the poles are located at z = 0.5 j0.5, and at z = 0.75. A single
zero is at z = 1.
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Diagram (Summary): Zero Diagram (Summary): Zero Diagram (Summary): Zero Diagram (Summary):
An Important feature of the pole-zero diagram is the unit circle, that
is the circle defined by | z | = 1.
As will become clear, the unit circle plays an important role in the
analysis and design of discrete-time systems.
The pole-zero diagram provides an insight into the properties of a
given discrete-time system.
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Diagram (Summary): Zero Diagram (Summary): Zero Diagram (Summary): Zero Diagram (Summary):
From the locations of the poles and zeros we can infer:
the frequency response of the system the frequency response of the system the frequency response of the system the frequency response of the system
as well as its degree of stability. For a stable system, all the as well as its degree of stability. For a stable system, all the as well as its degree of stability. For a stable system, all the as well as its degree of stability. For a stable system, all the poles must poles must poles must poles must
lie inside the unit circle (or be coincident with zeros on the u lie inside the unit circle (or be coincident with zeros on the u lie inside the unit circle (or be coincident with zeros on the u lie inside the unit circle (or be coincident with zeros on the unit nit nit nit
circle). circle). circle). circle).
Often, the z-transform is not available in factored form but as a ratio
of polynomials.
In these cases, describing the z-transform, H(z), in terms of its poles
and zeros will require finding the roots of the denominator
polynomial, D(z), and those of the numerator polynomial, N(z).
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Diagram: Zero Diagram: Zero Diagram: Zero Diagram:
Example 1: Example 1: Example 1: Example 1:
Express the following transfer function in terms of its poles an Express the following transfer function in terms of its poles an Express the following transfer function in terms of its poles an Express the following transfer function in terms of its poles and zeros d zeros d zeros d zeros
and sketch the pole and sketch the pole and sketch the pole and sketch the pole- -- -zero diagram: zero diagram: zero diagram: zero diagram:
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Diagram: Zero Diagram: Zero Diagram: Zero Diagram:
Example 2: Example 2: Example 2: Example 2:
Determine the transfer function, Determine the transfer function, Determine the transfer function, Determine the transfer function, H(z), of a discrete , of a discrete , of a discrete , of a discrete- -- -time filter with the time filter with the time filter with the time filter with the
pole pole pole pole- -- -zero diagram shown: zero diagram shown: zero diagram shown: zero diagram shown:
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description
Stability Considerations: Stability Considerations: Stability Considerations: Stability Considerations:
Stability analysis is often carried out as part of the design of discrete-time
systems.
A useful stability criterion for LTI systems is that all bounded inputs
produce bounded outputs.
This is the so-called BIBO (bounded Input, bounded output) condition.
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description
Stability Considerations: Stability Considerations: Stability Considerations: Stability Considerations:
An LTI system is said to be BIBO stable if and only if it satisfies the
criterion
where h(k) is the impulse response of the system.
It is obvious that if the impulse response is of finite length the condition
above is satisfied since the sum of the impulse response coefficients will
be finite.
Thus, stability considerations apply only to systems with impulse
response of infinite duration.
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description
Stability Considerations: Stability Considerations: Stability Considerations: Stability Considerations:
For the output to be bounded all the poles must lie inside the unit
circle. When a pole lies outside the unit circle the system is unstable.
In practice, a system with a pole on the unit circle is also regarded as
unstable or potentially unstable, since a minor disturbance or error will
invariably push the system into instability.
An exception is when a pole is coincident with a zero on the unit circle
so that its effects are nullified.
Pole Pole Pole Pole- -- -Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description Zero Description
Stability Considerations: Stability Considerations: Stability Considerations: Stability Considerations:
For an unstable system, the impulse response will increase indefinitely
with time.
In principle, testing for stability is simple:
find the pole positions of the z-transform. If any pole is on or
outside the unit circle (unless it is coincident with a zero on the
unit circle) then the system is unstable.
The The The The
Inverse Inverse Inverse Inverse
z zz z- -- -Transform Transform Transform Transform
Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z- -- -Transform Transform Transform Transform
Introduction: Introduction: Introduction: Introduction:
The inverse z-transform (IZT) allows us to recover the discrete-time
sequence x(n), given its z-transform.
The IZT is particularly useful in DSP work, for example in finding the
impulse response of digital filters.
Symbolically, the IZT may be defined as
where X(z) is the z-transform of x(n) and Z
-1
is the symbol for the
inverse z-transform.
Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z- -- -Transform Transform Transform Transform
Introduction: Introduction: Introduction: Introduction:
Assuming a causal sequence, the z-transform, X(z), can be expanded
into a power series as
It is seen that the values of x(n) are the coefficients of z
-n
(n = 0, 1, . . .)
and so can be obtained directly by inspection.
Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z- -- -Transform Transform Transform Transform
Introduction: Introduction: Introduction: Introduction:
In practice, X(z) is often expressed as a ratio of two polynomials in z
-1
or equivalently in z:
In this form, the inverse z-transform, x(n), may be obtained using one
of several methods including the following three:
Power Series Expansion method; Power Series Expansion method; Power Series Expansion method; Power Series Expansion method;
Partial Fraction Expansion method; Partial Fraction Expansion method; Partial Fraction Expansion method; Partial Fraction Expansion method;
Residue method. Residue method. Residue method. Residue method.
Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z- -- -Transform Transform Transform Transform
Power Series Method: Power Series Method: Power Series Method: Power Series Method:
Given the z-transform of a sequence, it can be expanded into an
infinite series in z
-1
or z by long division (sometimes called synthetic
division):
In this method, the numerator and denominator of X(z) are first
expressed in either descending powers of z or ascending powers of z
-1
and the quotient is then obtained by long division.
Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z- -- -Transform Transform Transform Transform
Power Series Method 2: Power Series Method 2: Power Series Method 2: Power Series Method 2:
In addition, the long division can be reformulated so that the values
of x(n) are obtained recursively:
Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z- -- -Transform Transform Transform Transform
Power Series Method: Power Series Method: Power Series Method: Power Series Method:
Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples:
See Ex. 4.2 and 4.3. from the textbook
Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z- -- -Transform Transform Transform Transform
Partial Fraction Expansion Method: Partial Fraction Expansion Method: Partial Fraction Expansion Method: Partial Fraction Expansion Method:
In this method, the z-transform is first expanded into a sum of simple
partial fractions;
The Inverse z-transform of each partial fraction is then obtained from
tables (such as the one on the next slide) and then summed to give the
overall Inverse z-transform.
Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z- -- -Transform Transform Transform Transform
Partial Fraction Expansion Method: Partial Fraction Expansion Method: Partial Fraction Expansion Method: Partial Fraction Expansion Method:
In many practical cases, the z-transform is given as a ratio of polynomials
in z or z
-1
and has the now familiar form
If the poles of X(z) are of first order and N = M, then X(z) can be expanded
as
Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z- -- -Transform Transform Transform Transform
Partial Fraction Expansion Method: Partial Fraction Expansion Method: Partial Fraction Expansion Method: Partial Fraction Expansion Method:
p
k
are the poles of X(z) (assumed distinct),
C
k
are the partial fraction coefficients, and
B
0
= b
N
/ a
N
If the order of the numerator is less the that of the denominator (i.e. N < M )
then B
0
will be zero. This is referred to as a proper proper proper proper rational function.
If N > Mthen this is referred to as an improper improper improper improper rational function.
Here X(z) must be reduced first, to make N M.
This can be done by long division with the numerator and denominator
polynomials written in descending powers of z
-1
. This will result in in the
function being represented as the sum of a polynomial and a proper
rational function.
Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z Inverse z- -- -Transform Transform Transform Transform
Power Series Method: Power Series Method: Power Series Method: Power Series Method:
Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples:
See Ex. 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6. from the textbook