Functional and Clinical Significance of Skeletal Muscle Architecture

INVITED REVIEW ABSTRACT: Skeletal muscle architecture is the structural property of
whole muscles that dominates their function. This review describes the basic
architectural properties of human upper and lower extremity muscles. The
designs of various muscle groups in humans and other species are analyzed
from the point of view of optimizing function. Muscle fiber arrangement and
motor unit arrangement is discussed in terms of the control of movement.
Finally, the ability of muscles to change their architecture in response to
immobilization, eccentric exercise, and surgical tendon transfer is reviewed.
Future integrative physiological studies will provide insights into the mecha-
nisms by which such adaptations occur. It is likely that muscle fibers trans-
duce both stress and strain and respond by modifying sarcomere number in
a way more suited to the new biomechanical environment.
© 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Muscle Nerve 23: 1647–1666, 2000
FUNCTIONAL AND CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

OF SKELETAL MUSCLE ARCHITECTURE
RICHARD L. LIEBER, PhD,1,2 and JAN FRIDÉN, MD, PhD3
1
Veterans Affairs Medical Center and University of California, Department of
Orthopaedics, U.C. San Diego School of Medicine and V.A. Medical Center,
3350 La Jolla Village Drive, San Diego, California 92161, USA
2
Veterans Affairs Medical Center and University of California, Department of
Bioengineering, San Diego, California, USA
3
Department of Hand Surgery, Göteborg University, Göteborg, Sweden
Accepted 5 June 2000
Structure–function relationships in skeletal muscle provides guidelines for electrode placement during
have been described and examined for over a cen- electromyographic measures of muscle activity, ex-
tury. Classic studies have elucidated the microscopic plains the mechanical basis of muscle injury during
and ultrastructural properties of skeletal muscle fi- normal movement, and aids in the interpretation of
bers, yielding great insights into their function. How- histological specimens obtained from muscle biop-
ever, less attention has been paid to the studies of sies. The purpose of this review is to describe the
the macroscopic properties of skeletal muscle tissues theoretical significance of muscle architecture, to
dating back to the 1600s (see discussion and refer- describe the basic architectural properties of human
ences in Kardel27). This macroscopic arrangement upper and lower extremity muscles, and to intro-
of muscle fibers is known as a muscle’s architec- duce advanced topics that represent current issues
ture.20 Because muscle architecture is a primary de- not yet resolved in the literature.
terminant of muscle function, understanding this
structure–function relationship is of great practical BASIC ARCHITECTURAL DEFINITIONS
importance. This understanding not only clarifies
the physiological basis of force production and It is well-known that skeletal muscle is highly orga-
movement but also provides a scientific rationale for nized at the microscopic level, as witnessed by the
surgery that may involve tendon-transfer procedures, incredible number and diversity of electron micro-
graphs and schematics of muscle sarcomeres that
Abbreviations: CT, computed tomography; dSL/d␻, sarcomere length have been published in review articles and text-
change during joint rotation; ECRB, extensor carpi radialis brevis; ECRL, books. However, with few exceptions, the arrange-
extensor carpi radialis longus; EMG, electromyography; Lf, muscle fiber
length; Lm, muscle length; Lo, optimal length; MRI, magnetic resonance ment of muscle fibers within and between muscles
imaging; MTU, muscle tendon unit; PCSA, physiological cross-sectional has received much less attention. Muscle fibers are
area; Po, maximum tetanic tension; ␳, muscle density; r, moment arm;
ROM, range of motion; ␪, muscle fiber pennation angle; Vmax, maximum often depicted as projecting in bundles (fascicles)
contraction velocity from an origin on a proximal tendon plate to an
Key words: architecture; muscle design; muscle fiber; skeletal muscle;
tendon transfer surgery insertion more distally. This simply does not do jus-
Correspondence to: R.L. Lieber; e-mail: rlieber@ucsd.edu tice to the wide array of muscle “designs” that are
© 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. apparent throughout the animal kingdom. The ar-
Skeletal Muscle Architecture MUSCLE & NERVE November 2000 1647

chitecture of a given muscle is extremely consistent Muscles composed of fibers that extend parallel
between individuals of the same species, giving rise to the muscle’s force-generating axis are described
to the concept that certain constraints that deter- as having a parallel or longitudinal architecture (Fig.
mine muscle architectural properties are pres- 1A). Although the fibers may project along a line
ent.5,26,34,36,41,55,58,59,65 Although much attention has parallel to the force-generating axis, experimental
been paid to factors such as fiber-type distribution in studies of mammalian muscle suggest that muscle
determining muscle function, there is no question fibers do not extend the entire muscle length. In
that function is also strongly determined by a mus- fact, detailed studies of muscle fiber lengths demon-
cle’s architecture.7 strate that muscle fibers may not even extend the
Skeletal muscle architecture can be defined as entire length of a fascicle.41,47 Muscles with fibers
“the arrangement of muscle fibers within a muscle that are oriented at a single angle relative to the
relative to the axis of force generation.”31 Whereas force-generating axis are described as having uni-
muscle fibers have a relatively consistent fiber diam- pennate architecture (Fig. 1B). The angle between
eter between muscles of different sizes and fiber size the fiber and the force-generating axis has been
is directly proportional to fiber force generation, ar- measured at resting length in mammalian muscles of
chitectural differences between muscles demon- very different designs and varies from about 0° to
strate much more variability and more strongly affect 30°. It becomes obvious when performing muscle
function. Although it might be proposed that differ- dissections that most muscles fall into the third and
ent muscles produce different amounts of force most general category, multipennate muscles—
based on differences in fiber size, fiber size between muscles constructed of fibers that are oriented at
muscles actually varies little. Architectural differ- several angles relative to the axis of force generation
ences between muscles are the best predictors of (Fig. 1C). Although these three designations are
force generation. The various types of architectural oversimplified, they provide a vocabulary with which
arrangements are as numerous as the number of to describe muscle designs. Because fiber orienta-
muscles themselves. For discussion purposes, how- tion may have nothing to do with classic anatomical
ever, we describe three general classes of muscle fi- axes, determination of muscle architecture is impos-
ber architecture. sible from a single biopsy or even a magnetic reso-
FIGURE 1. Artist’s conception of three general types of skeletal muscle architecture. (A) Longitudinal architecture in which muscle fibers
run parallel to the muscle’s force-generating axis, as in the biceps brachii. (B) Unipennate architecture in which muscle fibers run at a fixed
angle relative to the muscle’s force-generating axis, as in the vastus lateralis muscle. (C) Multipennate architecture in which muscle fibers
run at several angles relative to the muscle’s force-generating axis (gluteus medius muscle). Lf, muscle fiber length; Lm, muscle length.
1648 Skeletal Muscle Architecture MUSCLE & NERVE November 2000

nance imaging (MRI), computerized tomography angles may vary from superficial to deep and even
(CT), or ultrasound image, as these methods cannot from proximal to distal (Fig. 1). Although more so-
account for variations in fiber length and orientation phisticated methods could be developed for mea-
that occur along the muscle length. Thus, experi- surement of pennation angle, it is doubtful they
mental methods have been developed to character- would provide a great deal more insight into muscle
ize the architectural properties of skeletal muscle. function, because variations in pennation angle may
not strongly affect function20 (see below).
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF SKELETAL Muscle length Lm is defined as “the distance from
MUSCLE ARCHITECTURE
the origin of the most proximal muscle fibers to the
Quantitative studies of muscle architecture were pio- insertion of the most distal fibers.”31 This is not the
neered by Gans and Bock20 and Gans and De Vries,21 same as Lf because of the variable degree of “stagger”
who developed precise methodology for defining seen in muscle fibers as they arise from and insert
muscle architecture based on microdissection of onto tendon plates. To date, muscle fiber length can
whole muscles. The usual parameters included in be determined only by microdissection of individual
an architectural analysis are muscle length (Lm), fibers from fixed tissues or by laborious identifica-
fiber length (Lf), pennation angle (i.e., the fiber tion of fibers by glycogen depletion on serial sections
angle relative to the force-generating axis, ␪), and along the length of the muscle.47 Unless investiga-
physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA). Typically, tors are explicit, when they refer to muscle fiber
muscles are chemically fixed in 10% buffered forma- length, they are probably referring to muscle fiber
lin in order to maintain fiber integrity during dissec- bundle length, because it is extremely difficult to
tion. The muscles should be chemically fixed while
isolate intact fibers, which run from origin to inser-
attached to the skeleton, to roughly preserve their
tion, especially in mammalian tissue.41,47 Thus, when
physiological length, or physiological length in the
microdissection is performed, bundles consisting of
skeleton should at least be noted. After fixation,
5–50 fibers are typically used to estimate Lf. Because
muscles are dissected from the skeleton, their mass
of the many different methods available for Lf deter-
determined, and their pennation angle and muscle
mination, a distinction between “anatomical” fiber
length are measured.
length and “functional” fiber length may be made.
The majority of reported studies fix muscles by
The anatomical fiber length determined by micro-
direct immersion into fixative, relying on diffusion
dissection may not accurately represent the function
of the fixative throughout the tissue thickness to fa-
cilitate subsequent dissection. However, for very of the fibers within the muscle, because fibers may
thick muscles, the quality of the resulting fixation be broken and their activation pattern unknown. In
may not be adequate for architectural measurements contrast, when determining Lf by glycogen depletion
to be made. Some investigators advocate allowing of single motor units,47 it is clear that the entire fiber
the muscle to go into rigor prior to fixation to pre- length is activated and can be identified histologi-
serve sarcomere length homogeneity. Recently, we cally.
implemented a high-pressure infusion method to The final experimental step required to perform
chemically fix large human muscles of the shoulder architectural analysis of a whole muscle is to measure
and chest.17 Muscles from fresh cadaveric specimens sarcomere length within the isolated fibers. This is
were fixed by high-pressure perfusion of 10% buff- necessary to compensate for differences in muscle
ered formaldehyde via the carotid artery. To achieve length that occur during fixation. In other words, to
adequate pressure, ∼50 L containers filled with fixa- conclude that a muscle has “long fibers,” one must
tive were placed at a height of approximately 3 m ensure that it truly has long fibers and not that it
above the cadaver. The infusion tubing had a diam- was fixed in a highly stretched position correspond-
eter of approximately 5 mm. The carotid artery was ing to a long sarcomere length. Similarly, muscles
cannulated and fixative introduced under pressure with “short fibers” must be further investigated to
over a period of about 3 days. This method produced ensure that they were not simply fixed at a short
the best fixation of muscle tissue from cadaveric sarcomere length. In order to permit such conclu-
specimens that we have observed in approximately sions, architectural measurements should be nor-
10 years of this type of experimentation. malized to a constant sarcomere length, which elimi-
After fixation, ␪ is measured by determining the nates fiber length variability due to variation in
average angle of the fibers on the superficial muscle fixation length. This provides a reference value that
surface relative to the muscle’s axis of force genera- can even be related back to the physiological length
tion. Of course, this is only an estimate, because if the relationship between muscle length and joint

position is noted. Then, based on measured archi- niques) of guinea pig skeletal muscle.50 It was found
tectural parameters and joint properties, the rela- that the estimations and predictions agreed within
tionship between sarcomere length and joint angle experimental error and that the only exception was
can be calculated. Because sarcomere length also the soleus muscle (Fig. 2). For all “fast” muscles,
strongly influences muscle force generation, an un- force per unit cross-sectional area was ∼22.5N/cm2,
derstanding of the relationship between sarcomere which serves as a nominal value of specific tension
length change and movement has been used in for mammalian muscle.
many studies to provide added understanding of A potential problem with eq. 1 is that it assumes
muscle design.8,37,38,52,54 muscle fiber pennation angle is constant during
After measurement of the architectural param- muscle contraction. Experimental measurement of
eters described above, the PCSA is calculated. The muscle fiber pennation angle in the unipennate rat
PCSA of a muscle is the only architectural parameter gastrocnemius muscle have revealed that this is not
that is directly proportional to the maximum tetanic the case.70 Zuurbier and Huijing69 placed small wire
tension generated by the muscle. This value is almost markers across the gastrocnemius surface and filmed
never the actual cross-sectional area of the muscle as marker movement during muscle contraction. Using
measured in any of the traditional anatomical these data, the authors measured fiber pennation
planes, as would be obtained, for example, using a angle and showed that muscle fiber angle varied con-
noninvasive imaging method such as MRI, CT, or siderably as muscle length was altered throughout
ultrasound. Theoretically, PCSA represents the sum the normal physiological range of motion (Fig. 3A).
of the cross-sectional areas of all the muscle fibers While resting fiber ␪ was approximately 30°, during
within the muscle. It is calculated using eq. 1, which isotonic contraction, ␪ increased to almost 60° and
was verified experimentally by Powell et al.,50 the angle between the muscle aponeurosis and the
muscle axis rotated from about 10° to 15°. The fact
muscle mass (g) ⭈ cosine ␪ that muscle fibers appear to be free to rotate during
PCSA (mm2兲 =
␳ 共gⲐmm3兲 ⭈ fiber length (mm兲 contraction has a number of implications. First,
(1) PCSA as calculated from eq. 1 may be somewhat
arbitrary in its ability to predict force. Second, fiber
where ␳ represents muscle density (1.056 g/cm3 for
mammalian muscle) and ␪ represents surface pen-
nation angle.
Equation 1 represents muscle volume (mass/
density) divided by fiber length and has units of area
(in this case, cm2). Because fibers may be oriented at
an angle relative to the axis of force generation, the
cosine term is often included, considering that not
all the fiber tensile force is transmitted to the ten-
dons. This idea can be envisioned using a model of
a muscle fiber pulling with x units of force at an
angle ␪ relative to the muscle axis of force genera-
tion. In this configuration, only a component of
muscle fiber force will actually be transmitted along
the muscle axis, which will be x ⭈ cos␪. In other
words, in this scenario, pennation is seen to result in
a loss of muscle force relative to a muscle with the
same mass and fiber length but with zero pennation FIGURE 2. Comparison between measured Po and estimated Po,
angle. based on measurement of PCSA in guinea pig muscles. Note
that PCSA and Po are proportional for all muscles except the
soleus, the one muscle with a preponderance of slow muscle
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF MUSCLE fibers. (Abbreviations: EDL, extensor digitorum longus; FHL,
ARCHITECTURE EQUATIONS flexor hallucis longus; LG, lateral gastrocnemius; MG, medial
Cross-Sectional Area. The accuracy of Eq. 1 was gastrocnemius; PLT, plantaris; SOL, soleus; TA, tibial anterior;
highlighted by experimental comparison between TA–TAA, combined tibialis anterior accessorius and tibialis ante-
rior; TAA, tibialis anterior accessorius; TP, tibialis posterior.) Note
the calculated maximum muscle tetanic tension the close linear correlation between PCSA and measured Po.
(based on PCSA) and measured maximum tetanic The slope of the line 22.5N/cm2 represents a reasonable value
tension (using traditional physiological testing tech- for muscle-specific tension. (Data replotted from Powell et al.50)

Thus, fiber rotation during muscle shortening pro-
vides a degree of freedom that allows muscle fibers
to maintain a higher level of force generation than
when fibers are constrained to maintain a constant
pennation angle.
Does significant fiber rotation occur in human
muscles? An affirmative answer to this question was
provided in a most dramatic example by Fukunaga
and colleagues19 and Kawakami and colleagues,28
who measured fascicle plane orientation during vol-
untary contraction of the human quadriceps, dorsi-
flexor, and plantarflexor muscles. Their measure-
ments revealed that during low-level voluntary
contraction, vastus lateralis pennation angle in-
creased from 14° with the knee extended to 21° with
the knee flexed, and, during this voluntary contrac-
tion, fascicle length decreased from 126 mm to 67
mm. Similarly, the medial gastrocnemius increased
from about 20° to 45°, with a similar significant de-
gree of shortening (Fig. 4). These data provide a
real-time picture indicating that muscle fiber short-
ening and rotation are simultaneous and normal
events that occur during muscle contraction. Fiber
rotation during muscle contraction permits tensile
force transmission to occur even when muscle fibers
are oriented at an angle relative to the muscle’s
force-generating axis. The fact that pennation angles
are small at muscle resting lengths (0–30°) probably
accounts for the agreement between experiment
and theory observed by Powell et al.50 Thus, in pre-
dicting maximum muscle force–producing capacity,
correction for fiber angulation may not be necessary.
Muscle Fiber Length. Even though it is often stated

that muscle fiber length is proportional to fiber ex-
cursion (or velocity), there has not been a compre-
FIGURE 3. Changes in muscle structural properties as a function hensive study in mammalian muscle, analogous to
of muscle length in rat medial gastrocnemius muscle. (A) Fiber the study described above for PCSA that confirms
pennation angle. This angle increases as the muscle shortens. this relationship quantitatively. However, there is a
(B) Fiber velocity expressed relative to muscle velocity during good deal of experimental evidence available in the
isotonic shortening. Notice that at shorter lengths, fiber velocity is
literature to suggest that this relationship is valid.
a decreasing percentage of muscle velocity, due to fiber rotation.
(C) Aponeurosis angle. (Data replotted from Zuurbier and Hui- First, in mechanical studies of isolated frog single
jing.70) muscle fibers, in which fiber length, and thus the
number of sarcomeres in series, is easily measured,
rotation has a significant impact on the estimation of maximum contraction velocity is directly propor-
muscle fiber contraction velocity based on the mea- tional to fiber length, as is the width of the isometric
surement of whole muscle velocity. During shorten- length–tension relationship.15,67 This is the reason
ing of the rat gastrocnemius, if fiber contraction that muscle contraction velocities are often normal-
velocity is calculated holding pennation angle con- ized and expressed in “fiber length/s” or “sarcomere
stant, it will simply scale with whole muscle velocity. lengths/s.” Second, in a mechanical and anatomical
However, if fiber rotation is included, fiber velocity is study of the cat semitendinosus muscle, which rep-
actually much lower than whole muscle velocity, resents a unique model in that it is composed of
which, functionally, results in prediction of greater distinct proximal and distal heads separated by a ten-
force generation by the muscle fibers (Fig. 3B). dinous inscription and which has distinct innerva-

serial fibers would be expected to be activated simul-
taneously. This led to the suggestion that short fibers
arranged in series are simultaneously activated to act
effectively like long muscle fibers. The reason this
was viewed as a good design is that it is known that
electrical conduction along muscle fibers is relatively
slow (2–10 m/s).13 Because of the long length of
these cat muscles (10–15 cm), it was conceived that
by the time the action potential reached the end of
the fiber, the central region might already be relax-
ing. Mechanically, this is clearly unfavorable. This is
not to say that longer fibers do not exist within cat
muscles. In a histological study of the cat tibialis an-
terior, Ounjian et al.47 traced single muscle fibers
within single motor units along the muscle belly
cross-section and clearly demonstrated that the fi-
bers did not run the entire muscle length nor even
the entire fascicle length (Fig. 5). Fibers within mo-
tor units ranged from ∼8 mm to ∼50 mm. Further-
more, the authors elucidated the general pattern
that slow (S) units tended to have more uniform
fiber lengths compared with fast (F) units. Fiber
ends within the F units also tapered to a greater
extent compared with S units. Additionally, some
units actually began and ended within a fascicle,
whereas others extended all or part of the length of
a fascicle (Fig. 5). These data, taken in concert with
the motor unit stiffness data of Petit et al.48 and Petit
et al.,49 imply that the higher stiffness of the S com-
pared with F units could result from the relatively
FIGURE 4. Ultrasound image of human medial gastrocnemius short muscle fibers within those units and could rep-
measured in the sagittal plane. (A) Muscle image at rest demon-
strating passive fiber angle (␪p) of 20° relative to the aponeurosis.
resent a beneficial design for postural control. Be-
(B) Muscle image with the muscle activated demonstrating active cause the S units are implicated in posture and also
fiber angle (␪a) of 45° relative to the aponeurosis. (Ultrasound have a relatively high stiffness, small positional per-
images courtesy of T. Fukanaga and Y. Kawakami.) turbations would be effectively damped by the intrin-
sic properties of the fibers within those units. It
tion to each head, the maximum contraction velocity would also be predicted that slow units would have a
of the two heads stimulated simultaneously was the narrower length–tension relationship compared
same as the sum of the maximum contraction veloc- with fast units as a direct reflection of differences in
ity of the two heads stimulated individually.2 muscle fiber length, but this suggestion has only re-
The relationship between fiber length and whole ceived weak experimental support.25
muscle properties is also complicated by the obser- To summarize the results of muscle fiber length
vation that some very long feline muscles are com- determinations, most studies report fiber bundle
posed of relatively short muscle fibers arranged in lengths rather than fiber lengths. These may be ac-
series.41 The cat sartorius, tenuissimus, and semiten- tual anatomical lengths based on microdissection or
dinosus muscles were microdissected and shown to a functional length based on a physiological phe-
be composed of relatively short fibers, 2–3 cm in nomenon such as glycogen depletion of single fi-
length, that were arranged in series. By staining bers. However, because fibers may terminate end to
these specimens with acetylcholinesterase, the au- end, functionally, a fascicle may perform like a single
thors also showed that the endplates occurred in muscle fiber of equivalent total length. Fibers may
about the same serial arrangement. These data were terminate within the muscle belly in the complex
combined with electromyographic data that demon- extracellular matrix composed of endomysial con-
strated that the “in series” fibers were innervated by nective tissue.62 These connective tissues merge into
branches of axons also arranged in series, so that all a final “external tendon” where force can be applied

maximum muscle excursion). The relationship be-
tween these two parameters for human muscles is
shown in Figure 6. Although each muscle is unique
in terms of its architecture, taken as functional
groups (e.g., hamstrings, quadriceps, dorsiflexors,
plantarflexors), a number of generalizations can be
made regarding lower extremity muscles. Quadri-
ceps muscles are characterized by their relatively
high pennation angles, large PCSAs, and short fi-
bers. In terms of design, these muscles appear suited
for the generation of large forces. The hamstrings,
on the other hand, by virtue of their relatively long
fibers and intermediate PCSAs, appear to be de-
signed for large excursions. Specifically, note that
the sartorius, semitendinosus, and gracilis muscles
have extremely long fiber lengths and low PCSAs,
which permit large excursions at low forces (Fig. 6).
Specialization of functional groups also appears to
be true of the plantarflexors and dorsiflexors. A very
general conclusion might be that the antigravity ex-
tensors are designed more toward force production,
and the flexors are designed more for long excur-
sions. The most extreme example of such a design is
the soleus muscle, with its high PCSA and short fiber
FIGURE 5. (A) Muscle fiber length and position determined by length, suitable for generating high force with small
glycogen depletion within seven different single motor units of the excursion. This would suit it well for a postural sta-
cat tibialis anterior muscle. Motor units 1–5 were physiologically bilization role.
typed as fast, and motor units 6 and 7 were physiologically typed
as slow. The most proximal end of the muscle is defined as 0 mm,
The relatively high pennation angles of the quad-
whereas the most distal portion of the muscle is denoted by the riceps also have implications for muscle biopsy analy-
⊥ symbol. Note that some muscle fibers actually begin and end sis and electromyogram (EMG) measurement. Be-
within the muscle fascicle itself. (B) Cross-sectional area of fibers cause the fibers are relatively short, a biopsy obtained
within motor unit 4 shown in A. Note that, typically, fibers taper in
ending within the fascicle. (Figure redrawn from Ounjian et al.47)
along the length of the muscle may not be represen-
tative of all the fibers along the muscle, which are
staggered to a high degree. Experimental quantifi-
to bone. It would be important to demonstrate quan-
cation of repeated biopsies from four rhesus mon-
titatively the relationship between fiber or fascicle
length and measured maximum contraction velocity keys was studied in three different locations along
of muscle (Vmax). the length of the soleus, medial gastrocnemius, and
tibialis anterior muscles.56 The authors demon-
ARCHITECTURE OF HUMAN SKELETAL MUSCLES strated a much greater fiber-type percentage variabil-
Several architectural investigations have been per- ity between animal subjects than between biopsies
formed in human upper and lower limb mus- within a subject. The authors also demonstrated
cles.5,18,34,36,65 Reported pennation angles normally that, in spite of sampling different fibers along
range from 0° to 30°, and the ratio of muscle fiber muscles with very different architectures (Lf/Lm ra-
length to muscle length ranges from ∼0.2 to ∼0.6. In tios ranging from 0.23 to 0.35), it was possible to
other words, even the most “longitudinally oriented” obtain representative percentages within these dif-
muscles have fiber bundles that extend only about ferent muscle regions. Fiber-type variability was
60% of the muscle length. 5–10% within a muscle but as much as 30% between
the same muscles of different animal subjects.
Muscles of the Human Lower Limb. The two most With regard to EMG measurements, a similar
important muscle architectural parameters are sampling problem may arise as a result of muscle
muscle PCSA (proportional to maximum muscle fiber stagger. Electrodes placed in one region of the
force) and muscle fiber length (proportional to muscle may not provide an electrical signal that is

FIGURE 6. Scatter graph of the fiber length and cross-sectional areas of muscles in the human lower limb. Fiber length is proportional
to muscle excursion, and cross-sectional area is proportional to maximum muscle force. Thus, this graph can be used to compare the
relative forces and excursions of muscles within the lower limb. (Abbreviations: AB, adductor brevis; AL, adductor longus; AM, adductor
magnus; BFl, biceps femoris, long head; BFs, biceps femoris, short head; EDL, extensor digitorum longus; EHL, extensor hallucis longus;
FDL, flexor digitorum longus; FHL, flexor hallucis longus; GR, gracilis; LG, lateral gastrocnemius; MG, medial gastrocnemius; PB,
peroneus brevis; PEC, pectineus; PL, peroneus longus; PLT, plantaris; POP, popliteus; RF, rectus femoris; SAR, sartorius; SM, semi-
membranosus; SOL, soleus; ST, semitendinosus; TA, tibialis anterior; TP, tibialis posterior; VI, vastus intermedius; VL, vastus lateralis;
VM, vastus medialis.) (Data from Wickiewicz et al.65)
representative of motor units from different regions fiber-type distributions are innervated by distinctly
of the same muscle.40 This is due to two factors. First different motor nerves. As a result, their activation
and most obvious, muscle fibers do not extend the pattern and general level of use can differ, in spite of
length of the muscle, and second, a natural grada- the fact that they are in the same muscle.
tion exists in fiber-type percentage and thus motor
unit types from superficial to deep within a muscle.6 Muscles of the Human Upper Limb. In light of the
Because motor units are activated in a stereotypical specialization observed in the lower limb, it is prob-
fashion from slow to fast,23 this may affect duration ably not surprising to note that there is also a high
and amplitude of EMG signals measured at different degree of specialization “built into” upper extremity
depths. It should be noted, however, that the extent muscles, by virtue of their architecture. Such special-
to which this inability to sample uniformly affects ization makes sense in light of the fact that a great
either clinical judgment or the understanding of deal more functional diversity is seen in upper ex-
muscle activation has not been clearly determined. tremity compared with lower extremity movement.
A second level of complexity that may affect the From an architectural point of view, the superficial
extent to which an EMG signal is representative of and deep digital flexors are similar to each other but
muscle function arises from the fact that some are different from the digital extensors (Fig. 7). The
muscles, such as the cat lateral gastrocnemius, dem- flexors would be predicted to generate almost twice
onstrate compartmentalization.16,64 Under these the force as the extensors and with a slightly greater
conditions, separate portions of muscles with unique active range. As another example, based on its very

FIGURE 7. Scatter graph of the fiber length and cross-sectional areas of muscles in the human forearm. Fiber length is proportional to
muscle excursion, and cross-sectional area is proportional to maximum muscle force. Thus, this graph can be used to compare the
relative forces and excursions of arm and forearm muscles. (Abbreviations: BR, brachioradialis; ECRB, extensor carpi radialis brevis;
ECRL, extensor carpi radialis longus; ECU, extensor carpi ulnaris; EDC I, EDC M, EDC R, and EDC S, extensor digitorum communis to
the index, middle, ring, and small fingers, respectively; EDQ, extensor digiti quinti; EIP, extensor indicis proprius; EPL, extensor pollicis
longus; FCR, flexor carpi radialis; FCU, flexor carpi ulnaris; FDP I, FDP M, FDP R, and FDP S, flexor digitorum profundus muscles; FDS
I, FDS M, FDS R, and FDS S, flexor digitorum superficialis muscles; FDS I (C), the combined properties of the two bellies as if they were
a single muscle; FDS I (P) and FDS I (D), proximal and distal bellies of the FDS I; FPL, flexor pollicis longus; PQ, pronator quadratus;
PS, palmaris longus; PT, pronator teres.) (Data from Lieber et al.34,36)
high PCSA, the flexor carpi ulnaris is expected to to the original muscle in order to perform the origi-
generate very high forces. Examination of this type nal muscle’s function. (Numerous other factors also
of information can be used to compare functional influence donor selection, including donor muscle
properties between muscles that might be surgically availability, donor muscle morbidity, preoperative
transferred to restore lost function (see below). In- strength, integrity, expendability, synergism, transfer
tuitively, it might be considered important to match route and direction, and surgical experience and
the transferred muscle’s architectural properties to preference.)
the architectural properties of the muscle whose
function was lost.
Surgical Restoration of Digital Extension. We envi-
SIGNIFICANCE OF MUSCLE ARCHITECTURE IN

sion that architectural differences might be useful in
SURGICAL TENDON TRANSFER tendon transfer when making a choice involving
In addition to improving our understanding of multiple donors or when a combination of transfers
muscle anatomy and function, elucidation of muscle is available for selection. For example, in the surgical
architecture may ultimately provide information use- restoration of digital extension following high radial
ful for selection of muscles used in tendon transfers. nerve palsy, described and accepted potential donor
To substitute lost muscle function, the distal tendons muscles (which are transferred to the extensor digi-
of muscles are often transferred from one position to torum longus) include the flexor carpi radialis, the
another,3,4,22,51 a procedure known as a “tendon flexor carpi ulnaris, the flexor digitorum superfi-
transfer.” It would seem reasonable to select a donor cialis to the middle finger, and the flexor digitorum
muscle with architectural properties that are similar superficialis to the ring finger. From the standpoint

of architecture alone, the flexor digitorum superfi- which architectural properties best discriminated be-
cialis to the middle finger most closely resembles the tween functional groups and then a scaled calcula-
extensor digitorum communis in terms of force gen- tion was made comparing pairs of muscles using
eration (i.e., cross-sectional area) and excursion these parameters.33 The multivariate method of the
(i.e., fiber length). This is emphasized by the rela- discriminant analysis first determined architectural
tively close position in “architectural space” of the properties which uniquely characterized muscle
flexor digitorum superficialis to the middle finger to groups in either the rabbit hindlimb32 or the human
the extensor digitorum communis (Fig. 7). If indi- wrist and hand musculature.34,36 For both species, it
vidual architectural properties are compared, it is was possible to identify five specific discriminating
clear that the flexor digitorum superficialis to the parameters that successfully characterized the appro-
middle finger has more than enough excursion com- priate functional groups. The best discriminators
pared with the extensor digitorum communis, were (in order): Lf, PCSA, Lm, Lf/Lm ratio, and
whereas the flexor carpi ulnaris has excessive force- muscle mass. These five parameters were then used
generating potential but may lack sufficient excur- to calculate an “architectural difference index” for
sion. Thus, if the concern were sufficient force, the pairs of muscles, according to a modification of the
flexor carpi ulnaris might be chosen, whereas if the distance formula for two points in Cartesian coordi-
concern were excursion, the flexor digitorum super- nates. The difference is calculated from linear com-
ficialis to the middle finger might be chosen. Either binations of discriminating parameters in order to
way, a knowledge of muscle architecture permits an obtain a single number, the magnitude of which de-
informed decision to be made. It should be noted scribes the architectural difference between two
that architectural mismatch between the flexor carpi muscles (high values implying architectural differ-
ulnaris and extensor digitorum communis has been ences).
blamed for the poor clinical result of this transfer.39
SIGNIFICANCE OF MUSCLE ARCHITECTURE IN
Surgical Restoration of Thumb Extension. To re- MOTOR CONTROL
store thumb extensor function in high radial nerve One consequence of the architectural specialization
palsy, potential donors include the flexor digitorum noted throughout the body is that the neuromuscu-
superficialis to the middle finger, flexor digitorum lar system is not the only means available to modify
superficialis to the small finger, and palmaris longus. muscular force and excursion. Although neural in-
Again, in terms of architecture, the flexor digitorum put to muscles can change muscle force, the effec-
superficialis to the small finger and the palmaris lon- tiveness of neural input is increased, because indi-
gus are similar to the extensor pollicis longus and vidual muscles are intrinsically designed for a
therefore should provide the force generation and specific function, large excursion, for example. The
excursion required to restore lost function (Fig. 7). nervous system provides the input signal to modulate
the timing and intensity of the activation signal to
Surgical Restoration of Thumb Flexion. As a final the muscle. It is as if the nervous system acts as the
example, following high median nerve palsy, ante- central control and the muscle interprets the control
rior interosseous nerve injury, or isolated, irrepa- signal into the actual external action by virtue of its
rable flexor pollicis longus muscle injury, multiple intrinsic design.
potential donors for transfer to restore thumb flex-
ion are available. These donors include the brachio- MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MUSCLES WITH
radialis, extensor carpi radialis brevis, extensor carpi DIFFERENT ARCHITECTURES
radialis longus, extensor carpi ulnaris, extensor di- As stated above, muscle force is proportional to
giti quinti, and flexor digitorum superficialis to the PCSA and muscle velocity is proportional to fiber
ring finger. From an architectural standpoint, the length. By stating that velocity is proportional to fi-
extensor carpi radialis brevis, flexor digitorum su- ber length, it is implicit that the total excursion (ac-
perficialis to the ring finger, and extensor carpi ul- tive range) of a muscle is also proportional to fiber
naris are most similar to the flexor pollicis longus length.
(Fig. 7).
Comparison of Two Muscles with Different PCSA.
Quantification of Architectural Differences between Suppose that two muscles had identical fiber lengths
Pairs of Muscles. To perform a quantitative com- and pennation angles but one muscle had twice the
parison between muscles in terms of their architec- mass (equivalent to saying that one muscle had twice
tural properties, a method was developed to determine the number of fibers and thus twice the PCSA). Also

suppose that their fiber-type distributions are identical properties. This demonstrates that although ar-
tical and that they generate the same force per unit chitectural properties profoundly affect the extrinsic
area (specific tension). The functional difference be- muscle properties (i.e., the properties that vary with
tween these two muscles is shown in Fig. 8. The absolute muscle size, such as Po, PCSA, or mass),
muscle with twice the PCSA has a length–tension they have no effect on its intrinsic properties (i.e.,
curve with the same shape but is amplified upward the properties that are independent of absolute
by a factor of two. Thus, the maximum tetanic ten- muscle size, such as the shape of the length–tension
sion (Po) of the larger muscle will be twice that of the or force–velocity curves or fiber length/muscle
smaller muscle. Similarly, comparison of schematic length ratio).
force–velocity curves indicates that the differences
between muscles are simply an upward shift in Po Comparison of Two Muscles with Different Fiber
for the larger muscle but the curve retains the same Lengths. If two muscles have identical PCSAs and
shape. If both curves were plotted on relative scales pennation angles but different fiber lengths, then
(i.e., percent maximum tension instead of absolute the effect of increased fiber length is to increase
tension), the two muscles would appear to have iden- muscle velocity (or muscle excursion), as demon-
strated in the schematic in Figure 9. Peak absolute
force of the length–tension curves is identical be-
tween muscles, but the absolute muscle active range
is different. For the same reason that an increased
fiber length increases active muscle range of the
length–tension relationship, it results in an increase
in the muscle’s Vmax. As in the example with altered
PCSA, an increase in fiber length increases absolute
properties but has no effect on the intrinsic proper-
ties of the muscle. Experimental support for this
concept was obtained indirectly in the study men-
tioned above on the cat semitendinosus muscle.2
When only the proximal semitendinosus head was
activated, its Vmax was 224 mm/s, whereas when only
the distal semitendinosus head was activated, its Vmax
was 424 mm/s. Then, when both heads were acti-
vated simultaneously, the whole muscle Vmax was 624
mm/s, or the sum of the two velocities. The values
for Vmax were proportional to the different lengths
of the proximal and distal heads. These data indicate
that the longer are the fibers in series (equivalent of
saying the greater number of sarcomeres in series),
the greater is the muscle contraction velocity. As ex-
pected, maximum isometric tension was essentially
the same regardless of which activation pattern was
used.
RANGE OF MOTION (ROM) AS A FUNCTION

OF ARCHITECTURE
Muscles with longer fibers have longer functional
ranges than do muscles with shorter fibers. This does
not necessarily indicate that muscles with longer fi-
bers are associated with joints that have larger ranges
FIGURE 8. Schematic drawing of two muscles with different PC- of motion. It is true that a muscle with longer fibers
SAs but identical mass. (A) Comparison of isometric length– does have a longer working range, but the amount of
tension properties. (B) Comparison of isotonic force–velocity
change in muscle fiber length that occurs as a joint
properties. The effect of increased PCSA with identical fiber
length is to shift the absolute length–tension and force–velocity rotates depends on the muscle moment arm, the
curves to higher values but with retention of the same range and “mechanical advantage” that a muscle has at a par-
intrinsic shape. ticular joint. This idea can be explained by compar-

ing the situation in which a simulated “muscle” is sons: (1) joint moment arm is not always constant,
attached to a joint using two different moment arms and therefore linear changes in joint angle do not
but muscles with identical fiber lengths. In the case correspond to linear changes in either muscle or
where the moment arm is greater, the muscle fibers muscle fiber length; (2) muscle activation is neither
will change length much more for a given change in instantaneous, constant, nor maximal, all of which
joint angle compared with the same change in joint are required to generate the classic force–velocity
angle in the system with shorter fibers. As a result, relationship; and (3) the compliance of the tendon
the active ROM for the muscle-joint system with the permits muscle length changes that are not propor-
larger moment arm will be smaller compared with tional to joint angle changes. Although these points
the system with the larger moment arm in spite of have been known for some time, nonconstant
the fact that their muscular properties are identical. muscle velocity was directly demonstrated experi-
Therefore, the design of a muscle when considered mentally by Fukunaga and colleagues,19 who used
in isolation may or may not be directly related to the ultrasonography to measure fascicle length changes
actual function of a muscle once placed in the skel- during isokinetic tasks. The authors found that, for
etal system. the reasons stated above, the only parameter con-
It is now important to qualify the previous state- stant about isokinetic motion was joint angular ve-
ment about muscle design and architecture. Muscles locity. Muscle fiber velocity, tendon velocity, and
that are designed for speed based on their long fi- muscle velocity all changed in a highly nonsteady
bers may not actually produce large velocities if they state manner.
are placed in the skeleton with a very large moment
arm. The increased moment arm results in a very Influence of PCSA and Fiber Length on Isokinetic
large joint moment, so that the muscle would be Torque. It is reasonable to assume that joint kine-
highly suited for torque production but at low angu- matics are velocity independent and, thus, that varia-
lar velocities. Similarly, a muscle that appears to be tions in the moment–angle curves as a function of
designed for force production due to the large velocity represent variations in muscle force. The
PCSA, if placed in position with a very small moment moment achieved during isokinetic contraction
arm, may actually produce high joint excursions or (concentric muscle contraction) must necessarily be
angular velocities. Differences between muscle-joint less than that achieved during isometric contraction,
systems thus require complete analysis of both joint due to the muscle’s force–velocity relationship. Also,
and muscular properties (see below). muscle force generated during an isokinetic contrac-
tion is a function of the muscle’s PCSA and fiber
ISOKINETIC DYNAMOMETERS USED IN length. The reason that isokinetic muscle force var-
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT ies with PCSA is obvious because force is directly
It is necessary to characterize human performance proportional to PCSA. The reason that muscle force
objectively, not only to evaluate patient progress but varies with fiber length is less obvious, although
also to ascertain the efficacy of clinical treatment. straightforward. The isokinetic moment measure-
Using objective criteria such as maximum joint mo- ments are obtained while the joint is limited to a
ment, shape of the moment–angle relationship, and specific isokinetic movement. This means that the
ROM, it is possible to evaluate the efficacy of many muscle is also forced to maintain a certain (but not
surgical and rehabilitative procedures or the pro- necessarily constant) shortening velocity. Because
gression of neuromuscular diseases. One of the most shortening velocity is fixed (because excursion is
commonly used tools for musculoskeletal assessment fixed), the longer are the muscle fibers, the higher is
is the isokinetic dynamometer. If joint velocity is set the muscle force that can be sustained during short-
to zero, an isometric joint moment versus joint– ening. This is because longer muscle fibers have
angle relationship is generated which, as described more sarcomeres in series and, with longer fibers,
above, represents the interaction between muscle each sarcomere has a slower absolute contraction
and joint properties. It is clearly not appropriate to velocity, allowing it to stay higher on its force–
ascribe any portion of a moment versus joint angle velocity curve (i.e., closer to Po). This idea is illus-
curve to either muscle or joint properties alone. trated in the force–velocity curve of Figure 9, where
Such moment–joint angle curves are also often gen- force is measured from two hypothetical muscles
erated at constant angular velocities, hence the term, that are shortening at the same velocity. Note that,
“isokinetic.” It is assumed that constant angular ve- for a given shortening velocity (vertical dotted line),
locity corresponds to constant muscle velocity. How- the muscle with longer fibers maintains a higher
ever, this is a poor assumption for a number of rea- force compared with the muscle with shorter fibers.

large effect on force production. It is not effective to
“design” a high-force muscle by giving it a huge
PCSA and short Lf, if it is placed in a situation where
shortening velocity is sizable. This is because the
short fibers have a high sarcomere shortening veloc-
ity and thus force depression. We investigated the
trade-off between PCSA and Lf in producing muscle
force for the mouse tibialis anterior muscle, whose
architectural 7 and kinematic properties were
known.10 We considered the various ways in which
this muscle could be “designed,” given the constraint
of constant volume (or mass) within the shank. The
main result was that an optimal fiber length can be
shown to be long enough to permit low sarcomere
velocity but short enough to permit high PCSA. The
logic is as follows: If muscle fiber length of the tibialis
anterior is increased while maintaining muscle mass,
PCSA (and thus isometric muscle force) necessarily
decreases (Fig. 10A). This is a detriment to force
production. In contrast, as fiber length increases at
constant muscle mass, sarcomere velocity decreases,
resulting in increased muscle force at this velocity
(Fig. 10B). These two effects oppose one another,
resulting in a theoretically “optimal” fiber length,
representing the simultaneous satisfaction of both
criteria. By calculating the tension expected during
muscle shortening as a function of calculated fiber
length variation, the interaction between isometric
force production (resulting from PCSA) and dy-
namic force production (sarcomere number and ve-
locity) can be seen (Fig. 10C). The two opposing
effects in Figures 10A and 10B result in the existence
FIGURE 9. Schematic drawing of two muscles with different fiber of an “optimal” fiber length, because at longer fiber
lengths but identical PCSAs. (A) Comparison of isometric length–
tension properties. (B) Comparison of isotonic force–velocity
lengths, PCSA continues to decrease hyperbolically,
properties. The effect of increased fiber length is to increase the whereas sarcomere velocity decreases linearly. This
absolute range of the length–tension curve and absolute velocity diminishing sarcomere velocity increases force as fi-
of the force–velocity curve but with retention of the same peak ber length increases, but the concomitant reduced
force and intrinsic shape. Dotted vertical line demonstrates that, PCSA decreases force with increasing fiber length,
for an equivalent absolute velocity, the muscle with longer fibers
generates a greater force.
and the latter effect outweighs the former. At shorter
fiber lengths, the increased sarcomere shortening
This means that the muscle with longer fibers gen- velocity overpowers the increased isometric force po-
erates the greater force at all velocities. tential, again resulting in lower dynamic force pro-
Earlier, it was stated that a muscle with longer duction. For the mouse tibialis anterior, dynamic
fibers was designed for speed or excursion, whereas tension was calculated to maximize at a fiber length
a muscle with a high PCSA was designed for force (8.1 mm) that was very close to that observed by
production. It is now apparent that in the intact mus- direct measurement (7.6 mm).30 The tension pro-
culoskeletal system, this is not necessarily the case. duced by the observed 7.6-mm fiber was still 99% of
maximum. These data reinforce the idea that in
Theoretical Calculation of Optimal Architecture. some muscles that experience cyclic and stereotypic
The previous discussion highlights the general prin- activity, architecture is optimized to achieve maximal
ciple that force production in muscle is highly de- force production under the precise conditions that
pendent on architecture, although not necessarily in the muscle experiences. In the previous study con-
ways that are intuitively obvious. This is because sidered,30 fiber length was optimized in the soleus
muscle velocity achieved during motion has a very and medial gastrocnemius muscles, as well.

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN OF
SYNERGISTIC MUSCLES
Given the specific design of individual muscles, it
might be expected that muscle placed in similar lo-
cations within the body might have similar architec-
tures. This is a difficult statement to support and, in
fact, a number of examples in the literature demon-
strate that two muscles of divergent architectures are
placed in synergistic locations.
Human Wrist Extensors. One fairly detailed ex-

ample of divergent architecture was seen in the long
and short extensors of the human wrist: the extensor
carpi radialis longus (ECRL) and extensor carpi ra-
dialis brevis (ECRB). The ECRL muscle is the
shorter muscle of the two but contains longer muscle
fibers. The Lf/Lm ratio is relatively high (∼0.8) and
PCSA relatively low (∼1.5 cm2), leading to the asser-
tion that the ECRL is a muscle designed for high
excursion or velocity. The ECRB, on the other hand,
is a longer muscle with shorter fibers and, therefore,
a much lower Lf/Lm ratio (∼0.4) but a higher PCSA
compared with the ECRL (∼2.7 cm2). These data
suggest that, from a muscle point of view, the
ECRB is designed preferentially for high force pro-
duction. Using rigid body kinematics, we quantified
the moment arms of both muscles acting in wrist
extension.42 We wondered whether architectural dif-
ferences between muscles might actually be compen-
sated for by changes in wrist moment arm (r). We
also measured the sarcomere length change in each
muscle during wrist rotation in patients undergoing
surgery for tennis elbow.37 Sarcomere length change
during joint rotation (i.e., dSL/d␻) is a direct reflec-
tion of the relative ratio of the Lf:r ratio in a muscu-
loskeletal system.68 The interesting result of this
study was that the skeletal kinematics actually accen-
tuated the architectural differences between
muscles. The extensor moment arm of the ECRB was
much greater throughout the range of motion com-
pared with that of the ECRL. Thus, muscle fiber
length change with joint rotation was expected to be
greater in the ECRB compared with the ECRL. This
was confirmed by the intraoperative sarcomere
FIGURE 10. (A) Theoretical relationship between muscle fiber
length measurements that showed an average dSL/
length and isometric force for a constant muscle mass. As fiber d␻ for the ECRB of 9.1 nm/degree, whereas that of
length increases, PCSA and thus Po decreases nonlinearly. (B) the ECRL was approximately half this value, or only
Theoretical relationship between muscle fiber length and dy- 4.7 nm/degree. This led to a mechanical model of
namic muscle force at a constant shortening velocity. Dynamic the wrist extensors (Fig. 11) explaining that the large
force increases due to decreasing sarcomere velocity. (C) Pre-
dicted force calculated to be generated by a tibialis anterior as
dSL/d␻ of the ECRB was due to the large moment
fiber length is altered. Optimal fiber length results from a trade-off arm and short fibers, whereas the small dSL/d␻ of
between decreasing sarcomere shortening velocity (which in- the ECRL was due to the small moment arm and
creases force) and decreasing muscle isometric force capacity as long fibers. Using the architectural properties of the
fiber length increases. (Data from Lieber.31) two muscles,34 along with nominal values for the

(∼4.0 cm) and a small PCSA (0.6 cm2), whereas the
extensor digitorum longus has shorter fibers (∼1.5
cm) and a higher PCSA (1.4 cm2).32 Interestingly,
the former muscle crosses only the ankle joint,
whereas the latter crosses the ankle, tarsal, metatar-
sophalangeal, and phalangeal joints. One might ex-
pect that, in general, muscles that cross multiple
joints would have longer muscle fibers in order to
provide the functional range required when numer-
ous joints move simultaneously. In the case of the
tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus of
the rabbit, this is not the arrangement. The rationale
FIGURE 11. Schematic diagram of the interrelationship between for such diversity is not clear. As with the human
fiber length and moment arm for the ECRB and ECRL torque ECRB/ECRL muscles, were a single “supermuscle”
motors. The ECRB (bold print, thick lines) with its shorter fibers to be designed with the force-generating capacity of
and longer moment arm changes sarcomere length about 2.5
the sum of the two muscles and the overall excursion
times as much as the ECRL, with its longer fibers and smaller
moment arm. (Adapted from Lieber et al.37) of the long tibialis anterior, the total mass would be
significantly greater by 45%. Additionally, if synergis-
Vmax of mammalian muscle,11 the force–velocity re- tic motion of the ankle and toes were to routinely
lationship for each muscle was also calculated. The occur during the gait cycle, then short fibers of the
contraction velocity at which the ECRL becomes extensor digitorum longus would not be a limitation
stronger was calculated to be ∼80 mm/s which, on and might simply represent a design that permits
the basis of the two muscle moment arms, corre- packing of a large number of fibers into a small vol-
sponded to an angular velocity of ∼240°/s. This re- ume, to generate high force.
sults in a design in which the ECRB is stronger iso-
metrically but, as angular velocity increases, the Cat Triceps Surae. Architectural disparity in the
ECRL becomes the stronger muscle. cat triceps surae between the medial gastrocnemius
Differential muscle strength that is velocity- and soleus muscles may have a more obvious func-
dependent may provide insight into the diversity of tional role.60,63 Cat soleus muscle fibers are fairly
architectural design among muscles. The ECRB and long: the soleus is composed of 100% slow muscle
ECRL muscles as a synergistic group can generate a fibers and the muscle crosses only the ankle joint. In
maximum tetanic tension (based on the sum of the contrast, the medial gastrocnemius is composed of
PCSAs) of 25.6 kg and can produce a maximum an- about 80% fast fibers, has relatively short fibers, and
gular velocity (based on the length of the ECRL fi- crosses both the ankle and knee joints. Based on
bers) of approximately 2800°/s. In order for a single joint kinematics measured during walking, it has
muscle to generate that much force while maintain- been shown that the cat knee and ankle joints move
ing the same Vmax, the fiber length would have to be in opposite directions during normal gait, which
76 mm and the cross-sectional area would have to be means that the medial gastrocnemius muscle length
4.2 cm2. Using eq. 1 to calculate muscle physiologi- change during locomotion is minimized. Based on
cal cross-sectional area,59 this single muscle would the known mechanical properties of muscle, high
weigh 33.7 g, which is over 30% greater than the sum shortening velocities are unfavorable because they
of the two muscle masses.34 Having two muscles as result in low muscle force, even when the muscle is
synergists thus accomplishes the same task at the ve- fully activated. Therefore, the gastrocnemius can
locity extremes but with a lower mass than a compa- produce high muscle force, due to its large number
rable, single, “supermuscle.” The design lesson is of fibers packed at a relatively high pennation angle,
that it is more efficient from a mass point of view to even though the fibers are relatively short.
have more highly specialized muscles than a single The soleus muscle is fairly active even during sta-
“supermuscle” that can accomplish the task of mul- tionary standing in the cat and is nearly maximally
tiple muscles. activated when the cat is walking relatively slowly.63
Because the soleus is uniarticular, moderate length
Rabbit Dorsiflexors. A similar disparity of architec- changes and thus high shortening velocities are ob-
tural properties is also seen in the rabbit dorsiflexor served during locomotion, which can compromise
muscles: the tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum muscle force. Long soleus muscle fibers “oppose”
longus. The tibialis anterior has relatively long fibers this tendency. That the soleus is composed of only

slow fibers makes the force depression due to short- wrist range of motion. In fact, although at the mus-
ening even more pronounced, as the muscle has a cular level, the flexors are considerably stronger
relatively low Vmax. The triceps surae in the cat thus than the extensors,5,34 when including the wrist ki-
represents a system in which fiber type and muscle nematics, extensor moment actually slightly exceeds
architecture appear to have developed in a comple- flexor moment. Additionally, wrist resistance to an-
mentary manner. gular perturbation increases as the wrist is moved to
full extension, because both flexor and extensor mo-
MUSCULOSKELETAL BALANCE ments increase in a similar fashion. This is another
The previous discussion focuses primarily on torque way of saying that the wrist is most mechanically
production of a single musculoskeletal system. How- stable in full extension, which is probably the reason
ever, much of normal movement is predicated on that individuals who are asked to perform a power
effective and coordinated interaction between op- grip operation do so with the wrist extended. It
posing muscle groups. Detailed muscle and skeletal should be noted that wrist torque balance is achieved
data on agonist–antagonist pairs are largely lacking. at the expense of maximum moment generation at
However, based on the relatively complete data the wrist, and, therefore, we conclude that this mus-
set regarding wrist muscle34 and joint42 properties culoskeletal system is not designed simply to operate
that we have collected, a few general trends have near maximum force, as is often assumed in muscu-
emerged. Based on the intraoperative sarcomere loskeletal models.
lengths measured,37,38 wrist extensors were pre-
dicted to operate primarily on the plateau and de- PLASTICITY OF MUSCLE ARCHITECTURE
scending limb of their sarcomere length–tension The fact that architecture varies between muscles
curve, with all muscles generating maximal force in within a species and is extremely consistent within a
full extension. Only the ECRB was predicted to op- species implies that regulation of serial sarcomere
erate at sarcomere lengths corresponding to less number in muscles is ongoing. It is easy to demon-
than 80% Po in the normal range of motion. Wrist strate that muscle serial sarcomere number (and
flexors (flexor carpi ulnaris and flexor carpi radialis) thus fiber length) varies rapidly with such treatments
were predicted to operate predominantly on the as immobilization,66 tenotomy,1 moment arm alter-
shallow and steep ascending limbs of their length– ation,29 and even eccentric exercise.45 However, al-
tension curve, with both major flexors generating though muscle adaptation to these conditions is con-
maximal force in full wrist extension. In full flexion, sistent and well described, the mechanical and
it was possible for wrist flexors to generate forces that cellular factors to which a muscle responds under
were less than 50% Po only. these conditions are not yet fully understood.
Such a design presents interesting implications In muscles that are used in stereotypical fashion,
for the design of the wrist as a torque motor. Both muscle architecture and joint kinematics seem to in-
flexor and extensor muscle groups generate maxi- teract such that muscles produce near-maximal
mum force with the wrist fully extended. As the wrist power during normal use, as described above. For
moves from flexion to extension, maximum extensor example, the complex architecture of fish muscle54
force increases due to extensor shortening up the and the spatial segregation of fish red (slow) and
descending limb of the length–tension curve and white (fast) muscle53 enable fish to maintain near-
maximum flexor force increases due to flexor optimal sarcomere lengths and near-optimal power
lengthening up the ascending limb of the length– production at velocities normally seen during loco-
tension curve. This effect is superimposed upon an motion.53 The very large frog semimembranosus
increasing extensor moment arm as the extensor muscle, which powers hopping, appears to have the
muscles elevate off of the wrist under the extensor appropriate architecture such that during the hop,
retinaculum and a decreasing flexor moment arm the muscle generates near-maximal power at near-
as the flexors juxtapose the wrist from the flexor optimal sarcomere lengths.43,44 Optimization of this
retinaculum. Combining muscle and joint effects, relationship is not trivial. Because the moment arm
extensor muscle force is amplified by an increasing transforms the linear muscle motion into angular
extensor moment arm and flexor muscle force is joint rotation, the moment arm influences both the
attenuated by a decreasing flexor moment arm. In- muscle length range and shortening velocity re-
terestingly, because the flexors as muscles develop quired to produce a given joint motion. Thus, the
significantly greater force than do the extensors interaction between muscle architectural properties
(due to their larger PCSA), the net result is a nearly and joint moment arms is critical for producing the
constant ratio of flexor to extensor torque over the correct joint kinematics during locomotion.

Immobilization Studies of Architecture Alteration. Retinaculum Release Studies of Architecture Alter-
66
One of the most simple and straightforward demon- ation. The studies of Williams and Goldspink
strations of architectural change occurs secondary to have been extended in concept by many physiolo-
limb immobilization. In a classic study that has gists and surgeons to indicate that muscles simply
greatly influenced modern thinking on this subject, adjust serial sarcomere number to optimize force
Williams and Goldspink66 immobilized the ankles of production. However, there are a number of reasons
young (8-week-old) mice. Ankles were held in a fixed not to accept this generalization. First, it was dem-
position for 3 weeks by means of a plaster cast, and onstrated that although the soleus muscle may show
the properties of the monoarticular soleus muscle such adaptations, not all muscles adapt in the same
was measured at the end of the immobilization pe- manner.61 Thus, the basic nature of the adaptation
riod. The result was straightforward: regardless of was similar in the medial gastrocnemius as well as the
the position of immobilization, the muscle changed tibialis anterior, but the magnitude of the response
its length–tension properties so that maximum iso- was greatly attenuated (Fig. 13). This study suggests
metric tension was observed at the muscle length that different muscles have different degrees of re-
corresponding to the angle of immobilization. These sponsiveness to sarcomere number change. This
data could indicate that muscles “adapt” to chronic should not be surprising, because different muscle
length changes by resetting sarcomere length to the groups demonstrate large differences in their ten-
optimum or simply that muscles adapt to reset the dency to either atrophy or hypertrophy in response
muscle to a specific sarcomere length. Architectural to an altered mechanical environment.14,35,57
analysis revealed that this change in resting length A difficulty in interpreting results from immobi-
was accompanied by a change in serial sarcomere lization studies is that it is impossible to identify
number within the soleus fibers (Fig. 12). For ex- the particular signal to which sarcomere number
ample, whereas normal soleus muscles had about adapts.24 Sarcomere number may change within a
2200 serial sarcomeres, when the ankle was immobi- muscle fiber so that optimal sarcomere length is de-
lized in dorsiflexion (thus stretching the muscle), termined by resting muscle length, by resting muscle
sarcomere number increased to almost 2600, and tension, by an extreme of muscle length, or even by
when the ankle was immobilized in plantarflexion the length of most frequent or maximal muscle ac-
(thus shortening the muscle), sarcomere number tivation. Chronic length change models cannot dis-
decreased to ∼1800. Thus, the mouse soleus muscle tinguish between these possibilities. In an effort to
had adjusted to its new mechanical environment by extend this body of knowledge, length changes have
adding or deleting the appropriate number of sar- been imposed upon muscles that are not immobi-
comeres such that optimal muscle length coincided
with the length at which the muscle was immobi-
lized.
FIGURE 12. Sarcomere number in mouse soleus muscles of FIGURE 13. Fiber length of rat muscles immobilized in the neu-
8-week-old mice subjected to immobilization. Serial sarcomere tral (filled bars), lengthened (open bars), or shortened (hatched
number was determined after 3 weeks of immobilization with the bars) position. Note that muscles respond to immobilization in the
muscle in the control, shortened, or lengthened position. (Data same direction although with different magnitudes. (Data from
from Williams and Goldspink.66) Spector et al.61)

lized, by transecting the ankle retinaculum and per- which might be expected to lead to increased sarco-
mitting the muscle an increased active excursion mere number, sarcomere number decreased signifi-
during normal movement. This procedure was im- cantly over the 2-week experimental period, from
posed upon rapidly growing rabbits, and it was 3200 ± 200 in control animals to 2900 ± 200 in mice
shown that muscle excursion was dramatically in- 2 weeks after transection. Similar results were ob-
creased, as were whole-muscle length and fiber tained after 2 weeks of swim training following reti-
length, all in proportion to the increased excur- naculum transection (2950 ± 170; n = 4), indicating
sion.12 Unfortunately, the interpretation of these ex- that lack of tibialis anterior activation did not induce
periments is confounded by the rapid growth rate of the results.
these animals, which itself increases fiber length. Video analysis of stepping in normal and reti-
Retinaculum release was performed in a separate naculum-transected mice revealed that 2-week tran-
stud, and the mechanical environment of the muscle sected mice preferentially dorsiflexed at slightly
was studied in vivo in much greater detail.29 Inter- slower and more variable rates. Unoperated mice
estingly, although the serial sarcomere number in- dorsiflexed fairly consistently, at 2200 ± 300°/s,
crease was also documented, the force generated by which was significantly faster than 2-week retinacu-
the released tibialis anterior as well as its PCSA ac- lum-transected mice (1900 ± 400°/s). Despite this
tually decreased. These data may represent simulta- 14% decrease in angular velocity after transection,
neous adaptation of serial and parallel sarcomere the 30% increase in moment arm and significant
number to complex mechanical stimuli. Neither the reductions in dorsiflexion and plantarflexion muscle
torque produced by the released tibialis anterior nor lengths resulted in a calculated increase of approxi-
the ankle flexor moment arm were reported, but it is mately 20% in the velocity of tibialis anterior short-
interesting to speculate that the tibialis anterior de- ening during dorsiflexion, from 2.7 to 3.3 Lo s−1. The
creased its PCSA proportional to the increased mo- effect of altered sarcomere number is also reflected
ment arm to keep dorsiflexion torque constant. in the decreased power production calculated at the
In light of the functional importance of fiber preferred gait speed. Whereas control mice were cal-
length and the general lack of understanding of me- culated to generate 92 ± 2% of peak tibialis anterior
chanical and biological factors that regulate fiber muscle power, 2-week transected mice were calcu-
length, we developed a model in which the demands lated to produce only 74 ± 5% of their peak muscle
placed upon the muscle were altered so that sarco- power in tibialis anterior. These data suggest that not
mere number could adapt to either length or excur- all architectural adaptations that occur in a complex
sion in a way that could be differentiated.9 The ankle mechanical environment result in “reoptimization”
pretibial flexor retinaculum was surgically tran- of muscle properties. In the mouse retinaculum-
sected, and the tibialis anterior muscle was permit- release study, the only parameter that appeared to
ted to move away from the center of rotation of the return to the initial condition was the minimum sar-
ankle joint, increasing the tibialis anterior moment comere length. Taken at face value, these data sug-
arm and decreasing muscle–tendon unit (MTU) gest that the muscle adapted in response to the un-
length as the foot dorsiflexes. The mechanical effect derlying chronic change in length rather than the
on the muscle can be viewed as a chronic shortening altered excursion or velocity. Obviously, the details
as well as an increased excursion and velocity. Prior of the mechanical factors regulating sarcomere num-
to retinaculum transection, the moment arm was ber in muscle remain to be elucidated.
relatively constant throughout the range of motion,
as would be expected, because the tendon of the Architectural Change after Eccentric Contraction.
tibialis anterior passes beneath the flexor retinacu- One of the most extreme mechanical conditions un-
lum. After transection, there was a notable peak dur- der which a muscle may operate is forced lengthen-
ing dorsiflexion due to the altered geometry allowing of an activated muscle, i.e., eccentric contrac-
ing the tibialis anterior to “bowstring” in operated tion, when the muscle is not usually used in that
animals. The major effect of transection was to in- manner. Chronic eccentric training of a muscle re-
crease the moment arm at joint angles of less than sults in a number of changes, most of which are
100°. Based on moment arm measurements, average beyond the scope of this review. However, based on
MTU excursion increased from 1.4 mm in control a theory that suggests that sarcomere length operat-
animals to 1.9 mm in the transected groups over the ing range should remain on the ascending limb and
full range of motion (50–150°). Despite the signifi- plateau of the length–tension curve, Morgan46 pre-
cant increase in maximum muscle length and signifi- dicted that a muscle subjected to eccentric training
cant decrease in minimum muscle length, both of should add sarcomeres in series. This would have the

effect of shifting the muscle operating range to Fournier M, Edgerton VR. Architectural, histochemical, and
contractile characteristics of a unique biarticular muscle: the
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adapt such that they will not be stretched on the erating range of muscles during movement. Submitted.
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Properties of immobilized hind-limb muscles of the galago
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Functional and Clinical Significance of Skeletal Muscle Architecture

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Functional and Clinical Significance of Skeletal Muscle Architecture

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INVITED REVIEW ABSTRACT: Skeletal muscle architecture is the structural property of

FUNCTIONAL AND CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Accepted 5 June 2000

Skeletal Muscle Architecture MUSCLE & NERVE November 2000 1647

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Muscle Fiber Length. Even though it is often stated

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SIGNIFICANCE OF MUSCLE ARCHITECTURE IN

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RANGE OF MOTION (ROM) AS A FUNCTION

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Skeletal Muscle Architecture MUSCLE & NERVE November 2000 1659

Human Wrist Extensors. One fairly detailed ex-

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