Module

4
Programmable Logic
Control Systems
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 Lesson
18
Introduction to
Sequence/Logic Control
and Programmable Logic
Controllers
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Instructional Objectives
After learning the lesson students should be able to

A. Define Sequence and Logic Control

B. State three major differences between Logic Control and Analog Control
C. Define a Programmable Logic Controller and name its major structural components
D. Name the major functions performed by a PLC

What is Sequence and Logic Control?

Many control applications do not involve analog process variables, that is, the ones which can
assume a continuous range of values, but instead variables that are set valued, that is they only
assume values belonging to a finite set. The simplest examples of such variables are binary
variables, that can have either of two possible values, (such as 1 or 0, on or off, open or closed
etc.). These control systems operate by turning on and off switches, motors, valves, and other
devices in response to operating conditions and as a function of time. Such systems are referred
to as sequence/logic control systems. For example, in the operation of transfer lines and
automated assembly machines, sequence control is used to coordinate the various actions of the
production system (e.g., transfer of parts, changing of the tool, feeding of the metal cutting tool,
etc.).

Typically the control problem is to cause/ prevent occurrence of

♦ particular values of outputs process variables
♦ particular values of outputs obeying timing restrictions
♦ given sequences of discrete outputs
♦ given orders between various discrete outputs

Note that some of these can also be operated using analog control methods. However, in specific
applications they may be viewed as discrete control or sensing devices for two reasons, namely,

A. The inputs to these devices only belong to two specific sets. For example in the control of
a reciprocating conveyor system, analog motor control is not applied. Simple on-off
control is adequate. Therefore for this application, the motor-starter actuation system may
be considered as discrete.
B. Often the control problem considered is supervisory in nature, where the problem is
provide different types of supervisory commands to automatic control systems, which in
turn carry out analog control tasks, such that over all system operating modes can be
maintained and coordinated to achieve system objectives.

Examples of some such devices is given below.

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Industrial Example of Discrete Sensors and Actuators
There are many industrial sensors which provide discrete outputs which may be interpreted as
the presence/absence of an object in close proximity, passing of parts on a conveyor, For
example, tables x.y and a.b below show a set of typical sensors which provide a discrete set of
output corresponding to process variables.

Type Signal Remark

Switch Binary External

Command Input Device

Limit switch Position Feedback Sensor

Device
Thumbwheel switch Set valued External
Command Input Device
Thermostat Temperature Feedback Sensor
Level Device
Photo cell Position of Feedback Sensor
objects Device
Proximity detector Position of Feedback Sensor
objects Device
Push button Command External
(unlatched) Input Device
Table 3.1 Discrete Sensors

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 Fig. 18.1 Example Industrial Discrete Input and Sensing Devices:

Type Output Quantity Energy Source

Relay, Contactor voltage electrical

Motor Starter motion electrical
Lamp indication electrical
Solenoid motion electrical
On-off Flow Control valve Flow pneumatic,
hydraulic
Directional Valves Hydraulic pneumatic,
Pressure hydraulic
Table 18.2 Example Industrial Discrete Output and Actuation Devices

Below we provide an industrial example of Industrial Sequence Control

Point to Ponder: 1
A. Categorise the following sensor systems as Discrete or Continuous
a) thermostat b)clinical thermometer c) the infrared sensor in TV sets
B. Categorise the following actuator systems as Discrete or Continuous
a)the trigger of a gun b) the steering wheel of the car c) a step motor

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Industrial Example

Piston

Upper
limit
switch
Up
Sole-
noid
Down Die Lower
Solenoid limit
switch

Fig. 18.2 An Industrial Logic Control Example

The die stamping process is shown in figure below. This process consists of a metal stamping die
fixed to the end of a piston. The piston is extended to stamp a work piece and retracted to allow
the work piece to be removed. The process has 2 actuators: an up solenoid and a down solenoid,
which respectively control the hydraulics for the extension and retraction of the stamping piston
and die. The process also has 2 sensors: an upper limit switch that indicates when the piston is
fully retracted and a lower limit switch that indicates when the piston is fully extended. Lastly,
the process has a master switch which is used to start the process and to shut it down.
The control computer for the process has 3 inputs (2 from the limit sensors and 1 from the master
switch) and controls 2 outputs (1 to each actuator solenoid).
The desired control algorithm for the process is simply as follows. When the master switch is
turned on the die-stamping piston is to reciprocate between the extended and retracted positions,
stamping parts that have been placed in the machine. When the master switch is switched off, the
piston is to return to a shutdown configuration with the actuators off and the piston fully
retracted.

Point to Ponder: 2
A. Define what is Logic Control system in your own language. Give an example
B. In the context of your example show typical objectives in Logic Control

Comparing Logic and Sequence Control with Analog Control

The salient points of difference between Analog Control and Logic/Sequence control are
presented in the table below.

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 Issue Logic/Sequence Control Analog Control
Model Logical Numerical
State-Transition Different ial/Difference Eqn
Simple Model/Easy to build Complex Model/Hard to build
Infrequent Liable to change
Signal Signal range/status Signal value
Temporal (Timed) sequence (Timed)Function/Trajectory
Property
Control On-off/logical linear/non linear analog
Redesign/Tuning Supervisory automatic
Open/Closed Loop Open/Closed Loop
Infrequent Tuning needed
Table 18.3 A Comparison of Continuous Variable (Analog) and Discrete Event
(Logic/Sequence) Control

Point to Ponder: 3
C. Of Logic Control and Analog Control which one appears simpler and why ?
D. Can you cite an example system which requires both Analog and Logic Control?

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

A modern controller device used extensively for sequence control today in transfer lines,
robotics, process control, and many other automated systems is the Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC). In essence, a PLC is a special purpose industrial microprocessor based real-
time computing system, which performs the following functions in the context of industrial
operations
• Monitor Input/Sensors
• Execute logic, sequencing, timing, counting functions for Control/Diagnostics
• Drives Actuators/Indicators
• Communicates with other computers
Some of the following are advantages of PLCs due to standardized hardware technology,
modular design of the PLCs, communication capabilities and improved development program
development environment:
• Easy to use to simple modular assembly and connection;
• Modular expansion capacity of the input, outputs and memory;
• Simple programming environments and the use of standardized task libraries and
debugging aids;
• Communication capability with other programmable controllers and computers

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Evolution of the PLC
Before the advent of microprocessors, industrial logic and sequence control used to be performed
using elaborate control panels containing electromechanical or solid-state relays, contactors and
switches, indicator lamps, mechanical or electronic timers and counters etc., all hardwired by
complex and elaborate wiring. In fact, for many applications such control panels are used even
today. However, the development of microprocessors in the early 1980’s quickly led to the
development of the PLCs, which had significant advantages over conventional control panels.
Some of these are:
• Programming the PLC is easier than wiring physical components; the only wiring
required is that of connecting the I/O terminals.
• The PLC can be reprogrammed using user-friendly programming devices. Controls must
be physically rewired.
• PLCs take up much less space.
• Installation and maintenance of PLCs is easier, and with present day solid-state
technology, reliability is grater.
• The PLC can be connected to a distributed plant automation system, supervised and
monitored.
• Beyond a certain size and complexity of the process, a PLC-based system compare
favorably with control panels.
• Ability of PLCs to accept digital data in serial, parallel and network modes imply a
drastic reduction in plant sensor and actuator wirings, since single cable runs to remote
terminal I/O units can be made. Wiring only need to be made locally from that point.
• Special diagnostic and maintenance modes for quick troubleshooting and servicing,
without disrupting plant operations.

However, since it evolved out of relay control panels the PLCs adopted legacy concepts, which
were applicable to such panels. To facilitate maintenance and modification of the physically
wired control logic, the control panel was systematically organized so that each control formed a
rung much like a rung on a ladder. The development of PLCs retained the ladder logic concept
where control circuits are defined like rungs on a ladder where each rung begins with one or
more inputs and each rung usually ends with only one output. A typical PLC ladder structure is
shown below in Fig. 3.2

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 Relays and Contactors
+ve -ve
Power Solenoid
busbars Lamp
Motor
coil
Relay logic
A logical function
Realized with relays

Fig. 18.3 The structure of Relay Logic Circuits

Relay Ladder
Rung Logic

] Rung

• Relay coil
(Virtual)
•
Power
•
Rails

Fig. 18.4 The structure of Relay Ladder Logic Programs for PLCs

Point to Ponder: 4
E. Name three of the most prominent advantages of the PLCs over hardwired Relay
Contactor Logic
F. Can you name a single disadvantage in any situation?
G. Do you think the idea of developing programs that look like Relay Ladders is very
efficient? If so, why? If not, why was it pursued?

Application Areas
Programmable Logic Controllers are suitable for a variety of automation tasks. They provide a
simple and economic solution to many automation tasks such as
• Logic/Sequence control
• PID control and computing
• Coordination and communication

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 • Operator control and monitoring
• Plant start-up, shut-down

Any manufacturing application that involves controlling repetitive, discrete operations is a

potential candidate for PLC usage, e.g. machine tools, automatic assembly equipment, molding
and extrusion machinery, textile machinery and automatic test equipment. Some typical
industrial areas that widely deploy PLC controls are named in Table x.y. The list is only
illustrative and by no means exhaustive.

Chemical/ Petrochemical Metals Manufacturing/Machining

Batch process Blast Furnace Material Conveyors, Cranes
Pipeline Control Continuous Casting Assembly
Weighing, Mixing Rolling Mills Milling, Grinding, Boring
Finished Product Handling Soaking Pit Plating, Welding, Painting
Water/ Waste Treatment Steel Melting Shop Molding/ casting/forming

Table 18.4 Some Industrial Areas for Programmable Controller Applications

Architecture of PLCs
The PLC is essentially a microprocessor-based real-time computing system that often has to
handle significant I/O and Communication activities, bit oriented computing, as well as normal
floating point arithmetic. A typical set of components that make a PLC System is shown in Fig.
3.5 below.

MMI Remote I/O

Analog I/O
Memory Digital I/O

Communication
Backplane
Processor CPU

Function Power
Modules

Network Printer
communication Programmer unit

Fig. 18.5 Conventional PLC Architecture

The components of the PLC subsystem shown in Fig. 3.5 are described below.

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Central controller
The central controller (CC) contains the modules necessary for the main computing operation of
the Programmable controller (PC). The central controller can be equipped with the following:
♦ Memory modules with RAM or EPROM (in the memory sub modules) for the program
(main memory);
♦ Interface modules for programmers, expansion units, standard peripherals etc;
♦ Communications processors for operator communication and visualization,
communication with other systems and configuring of local area networks.
A bus connects the CPUs with the other modules.

Central Processing units

The CPUs are generally microprogrammed processors sometimes capable of handling multiple
data width of either 8, 16 or 24 bits. In addition some times additional circuitry, such as for bit
processing is provided, since much of the computing involves logical operations involving
digital inputs and auxiliary quantities. Memory with battery backup is also provided for the
following:
♦ Flags ( internal relays), timers and counters;
♦ Operating system data
♦ Process image for the signal states of binary inputs and outputs.
The user program is stored in memory modules. During each program scan, the processor reads
the statement in the program memory, executes the corresponding operations. The bit processor,
if it exists, executes binary operations. Often multiple central controllers can be configured in hot
standby mode, such that if one processor fails the other can immediately pick up the computing
tasks without any failure in plant operations.

Communications processors
Communications processors autonomously handle data communication with the following:
♦ Standard peripherals such as printers, keyboards and CRTs,
♦ Supervisory Computer Systems,
♦ Other Programmable controllers,
The data required for each communications processors is stored in a RAM or EPROM sub
module so that they do not load the processor memories. A local area network can also be
configured using communications processors. This enables the connection of various PLCs over
a wide distance in various configurations. The network protocols are often proprietary. However,
over the last decade, interoperable network protocol standards are also supported in modern
PLCs.

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Program and Data memory
The program and data needed for execution are stored in RAM or EPROM sub modules. These
sub modules are plugged into the processors. Additional RAM memory modules can also be
connected.

Expansion units
Modules for the input and output of signals are plugged into expansion units. The latter are
connected to the central controller via interface modules. Expansion units can be connected in
two configurations.
A. Centralized configuration
The expansion units (EU) are located in the same cabinet as the central controllers or in
an adjacent cabinet in the centralized configuration, several expansion units can be
connected to one central controller. The length of the cable from the central controller to
the most distant expansion unit is often limited based on data transfer speeds.
B. Distributed configuration
The expansion units can be located at a distance of up to 1000 m from the central
controller. In the distributed configuration, up to 16 expansion units can be connected to
one central controller. Four additional expansion units can be connected in the centralized
configuration to each distributed expansion unit and to the central controller.

Input/Output Units
A host of input and output modules are connected to the PLC bus to exchange data with the
processor unit. These can be broadly categorized into Digital Input Modules, Digital Output
Modules, Analog Input Modules, Analog Output Modules and Special Purpose Modules.
Digital Input Modules
The digital inputs modules convert the external binary signals from the process to the internal
digital signal level of programmable controllers.
Digital Output Modules
The digital output modules convert the internal signal levels of the programmable controllers
into the binary signal levels required externally by the process.
Analog Input Modules
The analog input modules convert the analog signals from the process into digital values which
are then processed by the programmable controller.
Analog Output Modules
The analog output modules convert digital values from the programmable controller into the
analog signals required by the process.
Special Purpose Modules
These may include special units for:

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 • High speed counting
• High accuracy positioning
• On-line self-optimizing control
• Multi axis synchronisation, interpolation

These modules contain additional processors, and are used to relieve the main CPU from the
high computational loads involved in the corresponding tasks. These are discussed in detail in
Lesson 22

Programmers
External programming units can be used to download programs into the program memory of the
CPU. The external field programmers provide several software features that facilitate program
entry in graphical form. The programmers also provide comprehensive aids for debugging and
execution monitoring support logic and sequence control systems. Printer can be connected to
the programmers for the purpose of documenting the program. In some cases, special
programming packages that run on Personal Computers, can also be used as programming units.
There are two ways of entering the program:
A. Direct program entry to the program memory (RAM) plugged into the central controller.
For this purpose, the programmer is connected to the processor or to the programmer
interface modules.
B. Programming the EPROM sub modules in the programmer without connecting it to the
PC (off-line). The memory sub modules are then plugged into the central controller.

Other Miscellaneous Units

Other units such as Power Supply Units, Bus Units etc. can also be connected to the PLC system.

Point to Ponder: 5
A. Name three major elements of a PLC System
B. What is the need for special purpose I/O modules? Explain with an example
C. What is a communication Processor?

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Answers, Remarks and Hints to Points to Ponder

Point to Ponder: 1
A. Categorise the following sensor systems as Discrete or Continuous
a) thermostat : Discrete b) clinical thermometer : Continuous c) the infrared sensor in TV
sets : Discrete
B. Categorise the following actuator systems as Discrete or Continuous
A) the trigger of a gun: Discrete b) the steering wheel of the car: Continuous c) a step
motor: May be considered Discrete or Continuous depending on the mode it is used. If it
is used in the incremental mode it may be thought to be discrete
(clockwise/anticlockwise). If it is used in the slewing mode, it may be considered
continuous

Point to Ponder: 2
A. Define what is Logic Control system in your own language. Give an example

Ans: A detailed definition provided in the lesson. The example of a die press is also
provided. However, try to give your own example.

B. In the context of your example show typical objectives in Logic Control

Ans: The following are valid control objectives for the die press example.
1. When MCS is off Up_lamp should never be 1
2. Every transition of the Up_lamp signal from 0 to 1 should be immediately followed
by a transition of Dn_lamp from 0 to 1
3. Up_lamp and Dn_lamp can never simultaneously be 1, although they can
simultaneously be 0.
Such statements are specifications in the sense that the logic controller must ensure that
they are satisfied in the controlled system.

Point to Ponder: 3
A. Of Logic Control and Analog Control which one appears simpler and why ?
Ans: Analog Control is more complex than logic control. This is because of the fact that
logic control models are captured by simple state transition systems containing only a few
states. The state space of an analog control system is in infinite. The dynamics can be far
more complex than simple state transition systems. Factors such as disturbances must be
considered, unlike in logic control

B. Can you cite an example system, which requires both Analog and Logic Control?
Ans: There are many examples. In a variable air volume air conditioning system, the cooling
water temperature is controlled by on-off control of the chiller, while volume of air is

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 controlled by analog speed control of the fan. In a CNC machine the speed of the spindle is
controlled by analog means, while auxiliaries, such as coolant flow are controlled by PLCs.

Point to Ponder: 4
A. Name three of the most prominent advantages of the PLCs over hardwired Relay
Contactor Logic

Ans: 1. Programmability 2. Ability to incorporate complex control 3. Expandability, among

many others.

B. Can you name a single disadvantage in any situation?

Ans: For very simple and small systems such as power distribution control a relay based
control panel may be a cheaper solution.

C. Do you think the idea of developing programs that look like Relay Ladders is very
efficient? If so, why? If not, why was it pursued?

Ans: It is not efficient. It was pursued, because when PLCs were developed Plant Engineers
were more conversant with Relay Logic. So the language was introduced for ease of
understanding of Plant Engineers.

Point to Ponder: 5
A. Name three major elements of a PLC System

Ans: CPU, I/O Modules, Communication Processor

B. What is the need for special purpose I/O modules? Explain with an example

Ans: Some i/o operations like high speed counting of shaft encoder pulses to measure speed
is very computationally intensive. Therefore to free the CPU from this load, so that other
control logics can be computed, special i/o modules with dedicated processors for the task
are used.

C. What is a communication Processor?

Ans: It is a special processor that handles all communication related tasks with other
supervisory systems.

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