Chapter 2

Vestibulocochlear Organ
Functionally, the vestibulocochlear organ 前庭蜗器 (or the ear) includes two parts. The first part is
the auditory apparatus 听器 that receives and converts the stimuli of sound waves. These signals are
then conducted by the cochlear nerve 蜗神经 to the brain to create hearing sensations. The second part
is called the vestibular apparatus 前庭器 that detects the motions and postures of the head ⎯ very
important information in maintaining of the body balance.

Vestibulocochlear Organ (Ear) 前庭蜗器(耳)

Function
Auditory apparatus 听器 ← Stimuli of sound wave
Vestibular apparatus 前庭器 ← Motions & positions

Structure Body balance

External ear 外耳
Middle ear 中耳 Collect & conduct sound waves
Inner ear 内耳 ⎯ Housing the receptors

I. External Ear 外耳
Auricle：External acoustic pore 外耳门 Auricular lobule 耳垂
耳 廓
External acoustic meatus Lateral 1/3 Cartilaginous part 软骨部
Medial 2/3 ⎯⎯ Bony part 骨部
外 耳 道
Tympanic membrane 鼓膜:a thin, oval, & semitransparent mem-
brane sealing the internal end the of external acoustic meatus
Upper 1/4: pink, loose − Flaccid part 松弛部
Umbo 鼓膜脐
Lower 3/4: tightly stretched ⎯Tense part Cone of light 光锥
紧张部

Structurally, the vestibulocochlear organ is divided into three parts: the external ear 外耳, the middle
ear 中耳 and the inner ear 内耳. The external and the middle ears function to collect and conduct
sound waves, and the inner ear is the place housing the hearing and balance receptors.
I. External ear
The external ear consists of three parts, the auricle 耳廓, the external acoustic meatus 外耳道 and the
tympanic membrane 鼓膜.

Auricle
The auricle is a skin structure reinforced by elastic cartilage. It is located on each side of the head and
has a funnel-like shape. In its deep central fossa, there is a foramen called the external acoustic pore
外耳门, which is the opening of the external acoustic meatus. The lowest part of the auricle is called
the auricular lobule 耳垂, which is devoid of cartilage and consists of fatty tissue in rich of capillaries.
Clinically, it is pierced for taking small blood samples.

External acoustic meatusThe external acoustic meatus is a canal extending from the auricle to the
tympanic membrane. It is S-shaped, with its lateral 1 / 3 supported by cartilage and the remainder, by
bone. Thus the lateral 1 / 3 of the canal is called the cartilaginous part 软骨部 and the medial 2 / 3,
the bony part 骨部. The canal is lined by the skin that contains numerous ceruminous glands. These
glands produce cerumen (ear wax).
Tympanic membrane
The tympanic membrane is a thin, oval shaped and semitransparent membrane that forms the partition
between the external and middle ears. It seals the internal end of external acoustic meatus obliquely,
facing the floor of the canal at an angle of 45°. Externally, the tympanic membrane is covered by the
epithelium from the skin of the external acoustic meatus and internally by the mucous membrane. The
upper 1 / 4 of the membrane is slightly pink in color, called the flaccid part 松弛部. It is thin, loose
and devoid of fibers. The lower major part of the membrane is tightly stretched, and contains radially
and circularly arranged fibers. This part is called the tense part 紧张部. The tense part of the tympanic
membrane shows a concavity facing the external acoustic meatus. This is due to the traction of the
handle of the malleus 锤骨 which attaches firmly to the internal surface of the membrane. In the center
of the concavity, there is a small depression called the umbo 鼓膜脐. When the tympanic membrane is
examined through an otoscope in a living body, a triangular light-reflective area can be seen anterior
and inferior to the umbo. This area is called the cone of light 光锥. The cone of light is clinically
important because the changes in its shape usually indicate a deformation of the tympanic membrane
in some ear diseases. Functionally, the tympanic membrane vibrates in response to arriving sound
waves, thus regenerating the vibrations of the sound source.
II. Middle ear
The middle ear is a set of air chambers, cells and tubes inside the temporal bone. It includes the
tympanic cavity 鼓室, the auditory tube 咽鼓管, the mastoid antrum 乳突窦 and the mastoid cells
乳突小房.

1. Tympanic cavity
The tympanic cavity is an irregular air chamber between the external and the inner ears. It has six
walls. The superior wall is called the tegmen tympani 鼓室盖. It is formed by a thin plate of bone that
separates the cavity from the middle cranial fossa. The inferior wall of the tympanic cavity is called
the jugular wall 颈静脉壁. It is a layer of bone that separates the cavity from the superior bulb of the
internal jugular vein 颈内静脉. The anterior wall, also called the carotid wall 颈动脉壁, separates
the cavity from the carotid canal 颈动脉管. In its superior part, the carotid wall has two openings, one
for the auditory tube and another for the canal of tensor tympani 鼓膜张肌(半)管. The posterior wall
of the tympanic cavity is called the mastoid wall 乳突壁. It has an opening in its superior part that is
the aditus of the mastoid antrum. Below the opening, there is a small elevation called the pyramidal
eminence 锥隆起. The lateral wall of the tympanic cavity is formed mainly by the tympanic membrane,
so it is called the membranous wall 鼓膜壁. The medial wall is called the labyrinthine wall 迷路壁
that separates the cavity from the inner ear. The central part of the wall has an obvious elevation called
the promontory 岬; and posterior to it, there are two foramens. The upper one has an oval shape and is
called the fenestra vestibuli 前庭窗 or the oval window 卵圆窗; and the lower one is smaller and
nearly round, called the fenestra cochleae 蜗窗 or the round window 圆窗. In living bodies, the round
window is covered by a thin and flexible membrane, called the second tympanic membrane 第二鼓
膜.

II. Middle Ear 中耳

— Tympanic cavity, Auditory tube, Mastoid antrum & cells
鼓室 咽鼓管 乳突窦和乳突小房

1. Tympanic cavity 鼓室
The Walls of the tympanic cavity
Superior wall ：Tegmen tympani 鼓室盖
Inferior wall：Jugular wall 颈静脉壁
Anterior wall：Carotid wall 颈动脉壁
Canal of tensor tympani 鼓膜张肌(半)管
Auditory tube 咽鼓管 Pyramidal
Posterior wall: Mastoid wall 乳突壁 eminence
Mastoid antrum 乳突窦 锥隆起

Lateral wall: Membranous wall 鼓膜壁

Medial wall: Labyrinthine wall 迷路壁
Promontory 岬
Oval window 卵圆窗
2nd tympanic membrane
Round window 圆窗 第 二 鼓 膜

The main contents of the tympanic cavity are the auditory ossicles 听小骨 and two small auditory
ossicle muscles 听小骨肌. The auditory ossicles include three small bones: the malleus 锤骨 that has
head and a handle, the incus 砧骨 that features a body, a short and a long limbs, and the stapes 镫骨
that has a neck and a base. The thee small bones articulate one by one to form a bended bony chain,
called the ossicular chain 听骨链. The handle of the malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane,
and the base of the stapes closes the oval window; thus the ossicular chain works as a lever system that
delivers the vibrations of the tympanic membrane to the oval window, where, the vibration of the base
of the stapes initiates waves of liquid (perilymph 外淋巴) in the inner ear. Because the base of stapes
is considerably smaller in area than the tympanic membrane, it can create a higher intensity of
vibration pressure against the liquid in the inner ear.

The two small auditory ossicle muscles are the tensor tympani 鼓膜张肌 and the stapedius 镫骨肌.
The tensor tympani originates from its canal (the canal tensor tympani) and inserts to the handle of the
malleus. It pulls the tympanic membrane inwards to limit its vibration. The stapedius lies inside the
pyramidal eminence. The tendon of the muscle attaches to the neck of the stapes and pulls its base
outwards to reduce its vibrations. Thus the two muscles function to inhibit the extreme vibrations of
the tympanic membrane and the ossicles. A noisy environment can induce contractions of the two
muscles to prevent the hearing receptors from being over-stimulated. This is called the tympanic reflex
鼓反射(强音反射). However, the reaction time for the reflex is 40-160 ms, so it cannot protect against a
sudden and intense noise such as a gunshot.

II. Middle Ear 中耳

Contents of the tympanic cavity
⎯ Auditory ossicles 听小骨 & auditory ossicle muscles
Tympanic Malleus + Incus + Stapes Oval
Incus Membrane 锤骨 砧骨 镫骨 Window
鼓膜 前庭窗
Ossicular chain
Stapes Tensor tympani Stapedius
听骨链
鼓膜张肌 镫骨肌
Malleus Ossicular chain works as a lever system that
delivers the vibrations of the tympanic membrane
Ossicular chain to the oval window
The base of stapes is much smaller than the
tympanic membrane in area; it can creates much
Tensor tympani
higher intensity of the vibration pressure against
liquid in the inner ear.
The two muscles of auditory ossicles protect the
hearing receptor from being over-stimulated
Stapedius
Pyramidal A noisy 40-160 ms Tympanic reflex
eminence environment 鼓反射（强音反射）

听小骨、肌

2. Auditory (pharyngotympanic) tube move

The auditory tube is a canal connecting the tympanic cavity to the nasopharynx 鼻咽部. It allows air
to enter and leave the tympantic cavity to balance the pressures on both sides of the tympanic
membrane. The lateral 1 / 3 of the tube is supported by bone, and is therefore called the bony part 骨
部. The remainder is supported by cartilage and is called cartilaginous part 软骨部. The auditory tube
is lined by the mucous membrane that is continuous with those of the tympanic cavity and the
nasopharynx. Thus an infection of the nasopharynx is easy to invade the tympanic cavity through the
auditory tube, leading to an inflammation of the middle ear (otitis media 中耳炎 ). In a child, the
auditory tube is shorter and relatively wider. That is why the otitis media is a more common disease in
children.

3. Mastoid antrum and cells The mastoid antrum is an air chamber behind the tympanic
cavity. Around it posteriorly and inferiorly are numerous small and intercommunicating air cells,
called the mastoid cells. The mastoid antrum opens to the tympanic cavity through an aditus, and
communicates with the mastoid cells through numerous foramens in its posterior and inferior walls.
All of these cavities are lined by a continuous mucous membrane. Therefore, an untreated otitis media
may extend to the mastoid antrum and cells.
 2. Auditory (Pharyngotympanic) Tube 咽鼓管
— A channel connecting the tympanic cavity to the nasopharynx,
which balances the pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane.
Lateral 1/3 — Bony part 骨部
Medial 2/3 — Cartilaginous part 软骨部
Auditory
Pharynx tube Tympanic Otitis Media
infection cavity 中耳炎

The auditory tube in child is shorter &

relatively wider 小儿咽鼓管较短且相对较粗

3. Mastoid antrum & cells 乳突窦和乳突小房

Tympanic cavity Mastoid antrum Mastoid cells

鼓室 乳突窦 乳突小房

III. Inner Ear

The inner ear is buried in the petrous part of temporal bone 颞骨岩部, medial to the tympanic cavity.
It consists of a series of complex bony cavity and canals with the corresponding membranous sacs and
ducts. The bony cavity and canals are called the bony labyrinth 骨迷路 that is filled by a liquid called
the perilymph 外淋巴. The membranous sacs and ducts are called the membranous labyrinth 膜迷路
that is suspended in the perilymph in the bony labyrinth and contains the endolymph 内淋巴. Because
the bony and the membranous labyrinths do not communicate with each other, the components of the
perilymph and the endolymph are a little different.

1. Bony labyrinth
The bony labyrinth is composed of three parts, the semicircular canals 骨半规管, the vestibule 前庭
and the cochlea 耳蜗. These three parts are arranged along the axis of the petrous part of temporal
bone.

Semicircular canals
There are three semicircular canals, the anterior, posterior and lateral. They occupy three planes in
space that are nearly perpendicular to each other. Each canal forms about two thirds of a circle, with
one of its two ends slightly swelling up. This swelling part, or bulge, is called the bony ampulla 骨壶
腹. The three semicircular canals communicate anteriorly and medially with the vestibule through 5
openings. This is because the anterior and posterior canals share a common end (called the common
limb 总骨脚).
Vestibule
The vestibule is the middle part of the bony labyrinth. It is an oval shaped cavity between the end of
the internal acoustic meatus 内耳道 and the tympanic cavity. Thus its medial wall forms the fundus
of the internal acoustic meatus, and its lateral wall separates it from the tympanic cavity. In other
words, the vestibule and the tympanic cavity share a common wall. You have just learned that this
wall has two important openings, the oval and the round windows. Anteriorly the vestibule continues
with the cochlea.

III. Internal Ear 内耳

1. Bony labyrinth 骨迷路
Semicircular canals 骨半规管 (Anterior, Posterior, Lateral) Bony ampulla 骨壶腹

Vestibule Medial wall 内侧壁 — fundus of internal acoustic meatus 内耳道底

前 庭 Lateral wall 外侧壁 : Oval Window Round window
Cochlea Spiral canal 骨螺旋管 — 2.5 turns around the modiolus 蜗轴
耳 蜗
Oval window 卵圆窗 Scala vestibuli 前庭阶

Bony spiral lamin 骨螺旋板 Cochlea duct 蜗管

Helicotrema
蜗 孔

Round window 圆窗 Scala tympani 鼓阶

Oval window

Round window

Cochlea
The cochlea is the shell shaped anterior part of the bony labyrinth. It has an apex protruding
anterolaterally and a base facing posteromedially. The cochlea is formed by a bony canal called the
spiral canal 骨螺旋管, that extends from the vestibule and makes two and a half turns around a bony
core. The bony core is called the modiolus 蜗轴. It has a screw-like shape with a bony spiral lamina
骨螺旋板 running around it from the base of the cochlea to the apex. Between the free edge of the
spiral lamina and the external wall of the spiral canal, there is a membranous tube with a triangular
shape in its cross-section. This tube called the cochlear duct 蜗管 and it also spirals from the base of
the cochlea to the apex. The cochlear duct, together with the spiral lamina divides the spiral canal into
two channels. The upper one is called the scala vestibuli 前庭阶 and the lower one, the scala tympani
前庭阶. Thus, the cochlea contains three spiral and parallel channels. The scala vestibuli, the scala
tympani and the cochlear duct. The scala vestibuli and the scala tympani are filled by the perilymph
and they communicate with each other in the apex of the cochlea through a foramen called the
helicotrema 蜗 孔 . The cochlear duct is a blind membranous tube that contains the endolymph.
Because the cochlea is the continuation of the vestibule, the scala vestibuli begins at the oval window,
and spirals upwards from the base of the cochlea to the apex, where it communicates with the scala
tympani through the helicotrema. The scala tympani then spirals backwards to the base of the cochlea
and finally ends at the round window of the vestibule.

2. Membranous labyrinth
The membranous labyrinth is a closed system of intercommunicating sacs and ducts that are
suspended in the perilymph inside the bony labyrinth. It is divided into three parts: the semicircular
ducts 膜半规管 in the semicircular canals, the utricle 椭圆囊 and the saccule 球囊 in the vestibule, and
the cochlear duct in the cochlea.

III. Internal Ear 内耳

2. Membranous labyrinth 膜迷路
Semicircular ducts : Membranous ampulla 膜壶腹 Receptor for
膜半规管 Ampullary crest 壶腹嵴 angular acceleration
角加速度感受器
Utricle 椭圆囊: Macula utriculi 椭圆囊斑
Receptors for nonuniform
Utriculosaccular duct 椭圆囊球囊管
straight-line motion
Saccule 球囊: Macula sacculi 球 囊 斑 直线变速运动感受器
Ductus reuniens
Auditory receptor
连合管 Vestibular membrane 前庭膜 听觉感受器
Cochlear duct Vascular stria 血管纹
蜗管
Basilar membrane 基底膜：Spiral organ 螺旋器
Semicircular
ducts Cochlear duct
Membranous Ampullary crest
ampulla Macula utriculi
Macula sacculi
Utricle
Saccule

Ductus
Utriculosaccular duct reuniens

Semicircular ducts
Like the surrounding semicircular canal, each semicircular duct forms about two thirds of a circle,
with a swelling at its one end, called the membranous ampulla 膜壶腹. On the inner surface of each
membranous ampulla, there is a thickened sensory area called the ampullary crest 壶腹嵴 . The
ampullary crest is a sensor that detects the movement of endolymph flowing in each semicircular duct.
Because the three ducts are almost perpendicular to each other, the three ampullary crests work
together as a set of the receptors that detect the changes in angular acceleration 角加速度 produced by
the angular movements of the head, such as circumduction, rotation, flexion, extension or lateral
flexion of the head. Similarly to the semicircular canals, the three semicircular ducts open to the utricle
through 5 openings.
Utricle and the saccule
The utricle and the saccule are two membranous sacs in the vestibule. The utricle is bigger with an
oval shape, and the saccule is smaller and nearly round. Each of the two sacs has a sensory area on its
inner surface, called the macula utriculi 椭圆囊斑 or the macula sacculi 球囊斑, respectively. They
are the receptors for nonuniform straight-line movement 直 线 变 速 运 动 感 受 器 . The utricle
communicates with the saccule through the utriculosaccular duct 椭圆囊球囊管, and the saccule is
connected to the cochlear duct by the ductus reuniens 连合管.

Cochlear duct
The cochlear duct is a spiral and blind membranous tube inside the cochlea. It has a triangular shape in
the cross-section. Its roof is formed by a thin layer of connective tissue, called the vestibular
membrane 前庭膜 that separates it from the scala vestibuli. Its external wall is formed by the locally
thickened endosteum on the inner surface of the spiral canal. This thickened endosteum contains
numerous blood vessels and is therefore called the vascular stria 血管纹. The floor of the cochlear
duct is formed by the basilar membrane 基底膜 and the outer edge of the bony spiral lamina, which
separates the duct from the scala tympani. The auditory receptor ⎯ called the spiral organ 螺旋器 or
the organ of Corti rests on the basilar membrane. Here, you should note that the basilar membrane is
narrow in the first turn of the spiral canal, and gradually widens when it runs towards the apex of the
cochlea.

IV. Pathways of sound conduction

Sound waves from external environment are collected by the auricle and conducted by the external
acoustic meatus to the tympanic membrane. In response to the arriving sounds, the tympanic
membrane vibrates. The vibrations are delivered by the ossicular chain to the oval window, where the
base of the stapes initiates traveling waves of the perilymph in the scala vestibuli. After passing
through the helicotrema, the waves move along the scala tympani to the round window to initiate
vibrations of the second tympanic membrane in the opposite phase. Thus the function of the second
tympanic membrane is to relax the wave pressure in the inner ear. The traveling waves of the
perilymph cause deformation of the cochlear duct, which stimulates the spiral organ on the basilar
membrane to generate impulses in the cochlear nerve; and the impulses are finally conducted by the
nerve to the auditory center in the brain to create the hearing sensations.
Delivering of sounds into the inner ear via the tympanic membrane and the ossicular chain is called the
ossicular conduction 听骨链传导. It is the natural and the major pathway for sound conduction. If a
vibration body, for example a tuning fork*, directly acts on the skull, the vibration can be transmitted
also the inner ear. This course is called the bony conduction 骨传导. If the tympanic membrane is
broken due to some ear diseases, for example, the otitis media, sound waves can reach the tympanic
cavity and directly initiate the vibrations of the second tympanic membrane. This process is called the
air conduction 气传导, which is much less effective.

*
The tuning fork is a metal instrument roughly like a fork. When struck, its prongs vibrate to produce a sound of
pure tone. It is used by doctors to test the patient’s hearing sensation.
 IV. Pathways of Sound Conduction 声的传导途径
Ossicular
chain
Skull 颅 骨
Sound Tympanic 听骨链
Oval
waves → membrane window → Scala vestibuli 前庭阶
声波 鼓膜 卵圆窗
（Ossicular conduction 听骨链传导） Helicotrema 蜗孔 Cochlea duct 窝管

A sound source directly acts on skull Scala tympani 鼓阶 Spiral organ 螺旋器
声源直接作用颅骨 on basilar membrane
（Bony conduction 骨传导） 基底膜
Round window 圆窗 Cochlear n.
Sound source directly acts on Secondary tympanic
（Air conduction 气传导） membrane Auditory center
第二鼓膜 听觉中枢

Cochlear
Cochlearnerve
nerve

Spiral
Organ Tuning
Fork
螺旋器 音叉

(Song Jian 宋 健)