Bread making

Modern bread is sometimes wrapped in paper or plastic film or stored in a container such as a breadbox to
reduce drying. Bread that is kept in warm, moist environments is prone to the growth of mold. Bread kept
at low temperatures, in a refrigerator for example, will develop mold growth more slowly than bread kept at
room temperature, but will turn stale quickly due to retrogradation.
Formulation
The proportion of water to flour is the most important measurement in a bread recipe, as it affects texture
and crumb the most. In yeast breads, the higher water percentages result in more CO
2
bubbles and a coarser
bread crumb. One pound (450 g) of flour will yield a standard loaf of bread or two French loaves.
Calcium propionate is commonly added by commercial bakeries to retard the growth of molds.
Flour
Flour is a product made from grain that has been ground to a powdery consistency. Flour provides the
primary structure to the final baked bread. While wheat flour is most commonly used for breads, flours
made from rye, barley, maize, and other grains are also commonly available. Each of these grains provides
the starch and protein needed to form bread.
The protein content of the flour is the best indicator of the quality of the bread dough and the finished bread.
While bread can be made from all-purpose wheat flour, a specialty bread flour, containing more protein
(1214%), is recommended for high-quality bread. If one uses a flour with a lower protein content (911%)
to produce bread, a shorter mixing time will be required to develop gluten strength properly. An extended
mixing time leads to oxidization of the dough, which gives the finished product a whiter crumb, instead of
the cream color preferred by most artisan bakers.
Wheat flour, in addition to its starch, contains three water-soluble protein groups (albumin, globulin,
and proteoses) and two water-insoluble protein groups (glutenin and gliadin). When flour is mixed with
water, the water-soluble proteins dissolve, leaving the glutenin and gliadin to form the structure of the
resulting bread. When relatively dry dough is worked by kneading, or wet dough is allowed to rise for a
long time, the glutenin forms strands of long, thin, chainlike molecules, while the shorter gliadin forms
bridges between the strands of glutenin. The resulting networks of strands produced by these two proteins
are known as gluten. Gluten development improves if the dough is allowed to autolyse.
Liquids
Water, or some other liquid, is used to form the flour into a paste or dough. The weight of liquid required
varies between recipes, but a ratio of 3 parts liquid to 5 parts flour is common for yeast breads.
[15]
Recipes
that use steam as the primary leavening method may have a liquid content in excess of 1 part liquid to 1
part flour. Instead of water, other types of liquids, such as dairy products, fruit juices, or beer, may be used;
they contribute additional sweeteners, fats, or leavening components, as well as water.
Leavening
Leavening is the process of adding gas to a dough before or during baking to produce a lighter, more easily
chewed bread. A leavening agent is any one of a number of substances used in doughs and batters that
causes a foaming action which lightens and softens the finished product. The leavening agent incorporates
gas bubbles into the doughthis may be air incorporated by mechanical means, but usually it is carbon
dioxide produced by biological agents, or by chemical agents reacting with moisture, heat, acidity, or other
triggers. When a dough or batter is mixed, the starch in the flour mixes with the water in the dough to form
a matrix (often supported further by proteins like gluten or other polysaccharides like pentosans or xanthan
gum), then gelatinizes and "sets"; the holes left by the gas bubbles remain.
Yeast
Many breads are leavened by yeast. The yeast most commonly used for leavening bread is Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, the same species used for brewing alcoholic beverages. This yeast ferments some of
the carbohydrates in the flour, including any sugar, producing carbon dioxide. Most bakers in the U.S.
leaven their dough with commercially produced baker's yeast. Baker's yeast has the advantage of producing
uniform, quick, and reliable results, because it is obtained from a pure culture. A pure culture is a method
of multiplying microbial organisms by letting them reproduce in predetermined culture media under
controlled laboratory conditions. Many artisan bakers produce their own yeast by preparing a growth
culture that they then use in the making of bread. When this culture is kept in the right conditions, it will
continue to grow and provide leavening for many years.
Both the baker's yeast and the sourdough methods of baking bread follow the same pattern. Water is mixed
with flour, salt and the leavening agent (baker's yeast or sourdough starter). Other additions (spices, herbs,
fats, seeds, fruit, etc.) are not needed to bake bread, but are often used. The mixed dough is then allowed
to rise one or more times (a longer rising time results in more flavor, so bakers often "punch down" the
dough and let it rise again), then loaves are formed, and (after an optional final rising time) the bread is
baked in an oven.
Many breads are made from a "straight dough", which means that all of the ingredients are combined in one
step, and the dough is baked after the rising time; others are made from a "pre-ferment" in which the
leavening agent is combined with some of the flour and water a day or so ahead of baking and allowed to
ferment overnight. On the day of the baking, the rest of the ingredients are added, and process continues as
with straight dough. This produces a more flavorful bread with better texture.
Many bakers see the starter method as a compromise between the highly reliable results of baker's yeast
and the flavor and complexity of a longer fermentation. It also allows the baker to use only a minimal
amount of baker's yeast, which was scarce and expensive when it first became available. Most yeasted pre-
ferments fall into one of three categories: "poolish" or "pouliche", a loose-textured mixture composed of
roughly equal amounts of flour and water (by weight); "biga", a stiff mixture with a higher proportion of
flour; and "pte fermente", which is simply a portion of dough reserved from a previous batch. Sourdough
takes the pre-ferment method a step further, mixing flour and water to allow naturally occurring yeast and
bacteria to propagate (usually Saccharomyces exiguus, which is more acid-tolerant than S. cerevisiae and
various species of Lactobacillus).



Dough before first
rising.
Dough after first
rising.
Dough after proofing in tin, ready to
bake.
Proofing (baking technique)
Proofing (also called proving), as the term is used by professional bakers, is the final dough-rise step
before baking, and refers to a specific rest period within the more generalized process known
as fermentation. Fermentation rest periods are not often explicitly named, and normally appear in recipes as
"Allow dough to rise."
Proofing, as used in some cookbooks intended for home use, may refer to testing the viability of yeast. Dry
yeast is mixed with a small amount of warm water and sugar, and if the yeast is viable, a layer of foam is
developed by the action of the yeast. Proofing yeast may refer to the process of first dissolving yeast in
warm water.
]
Some believe this is a needed hydration step when using active dry yeast. Other bakers

put
active dry yeast directly into the bread dough undissolved.
Dough processes
The process of making yeast-leavened bread involves a series of alternating work and rest periods. Work
periods occur when the dough is manipulated by the baker. Some work periods are called mixing, kneading,
and folding, as well as division, shaping, and panning. Work periods are typically followed by rest periods,
these occur when dough is allowed to sit undisturbed. Particular rest periods include, but are not limited
to, autolyse, bulk fermentation and proofing. Autolyse is an essential dough process. It refers to a period of
rest after the initial mixing of flour and water, a rest period that occurs sequentially before the addition of
yeast and other ingredients. This rest period allows for better absorption of water and helps the gluten and
starches to align. Breads made with autolysed dough are easier to shape and have more volume and
improved structure.
Fermentation typically begins when viable yeast or a starter culture is added to flour and water.
During fermentation, yeast converts glucose and other carbohydrates to carbon dioxide gas which makes
the dough rise, and alcohol which gives the baked bread flavor.
Overproofing occurs when a fermenting dough has rested too long. Its bubbles have grown so large that
they have popped and tunneled, and dough baked at this point would result in a bread with poor structure.
Length of rest periods, including proofing, can be determined by time at specific temperatures or by
characteristics. Often the "poke method" is used to determine if a dough has risen long enough. If the dough,
when poked, springs back immediately it is underproofed and needs more time.
Retarding may occur at any time during fermentation and is accomplished by placing the dough into a
dough retarder, refrigerator, or other cold environment to slow the activity of the yeast. The retarding stage
is often used in sourdough bread recipes to allow the bread to develop its characteristic flavor. A cold
fermentation stage is sometimes used to develop flavor in other artisan breads, with a part of the dough
("pre-ferment") before the final mixing, with the entire dough during bulk fermentation, or in the final
fermentation stages after shaping.
Proofing equipment
To ensure consistent results, specialized tools are used to manipulate the speed and qualities of
fermentation.
A dough proofer is a chamber used in baking that encourages fermentation of dough by yeast through
warm temperatures and controlled humidity. The warm temperatures increase the activity of the yeast,
resulting in increased carbon dioxide production and a higher, faster rise. Dough is typically allowed to rise
in the proofer before baking.
A dough retarder is a refrigerator used to control the fermentation of yeast when proofing dough.
Lowering the temperature of the dough produces a slower, longer rise with more varied fermentation
products, resulting in more complex flavors. In sourdough bread-making, cold decreases the activity of
wild yeast relative to the Lactobacilli which produce flavoring products such as lactic acid and acetic acid.
Dough that is retarded before baking results in a sourer loaf. To prevent the dough from drying, air flow in
the dough retarder is kept to a minimum. Home bakers may use cloth to cover dough that is kept for a
longer period in the refrigerator.
Sourdough
Sourdough is a type of bread produced by a long fermentation of dough using naturally occurring yeasts
and lactobacilli. In comparison with breads made with cultivated yeast, it usually has a mildly sour taste
because of the lactic acid produced by the lactobacilli.
Sourdough breads are made with a sourdough starter (which differs from starters made with baker's yeast).
The starter cultivates yeast and lactobacilli in a mixture of flour and water, making use of the
microorganisms already present on flour; it does not need any added yeast. A starter may be maintained
indefinitely by regular additions of flour and water. Some bakers have starters several generations old,
which are said to have a special taste or texture. It is possible to obtain existing starter cultures to begin a
new one.
At one time, all yeast-leavened breads were sourdoughs. The leavening process was not understood until
the 19th century, when yeast was first identified. Since then, strains of Saccaromyces cerevisiae have been
bred for their reliability and speed of leavening and sold as "baker's yeast". Baker's yeast was adopted for
the simplicity and flexibility it introduced to bread making, obviating the lengthy cultivation of a
sourdough starter. While sourdough breads survived in some parts of Europe, throughout most of the U.S.,
they were replaced by baker's yeast. Recently there has been a revival of sourdough bread in artisan
bakeries.
Steam
The rapid expansion of steam produced during baking leavens the bread, which is as simple as it is
unpredictable. The best known steam-leavened bread is the popover. Steam-leavening is unpredictable
since the steam is not produced until the bread is baked.
Steam leavening happens regardless of the rising agents (baking soda, yeast, baking powder, sour dough,
beaten egg whites, etc.).
The leavening agent either contains air bubbles or generates carbon dioxide.
The heat vaporises the water from the inner surface of the bubbles within the dough.
The steam expands and makes the bread rise.
This is the main factor in the rise of bread once it has been put in the oven. CO
2
generation, on its own, is
too small to account for the rise. Heat kills bacteria or yeast at an early stage, so the CO
2
generation is
stopped.