African Journal of Food Science Vol. 5(3), pp.

111-124, March 2011

Available online http://www.academicjournals.org/ajfs
ISSN 1996-0794 2011 Academic Journals



Review

Biopotency role of culinary spices and herbs and their
chemical constituents in health and commonly used
spices in Nigerian dishes and snacks

Abdullahi Mann

Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Federal Polytechnic, Bida, P. M. B. 55, Bida, Niger State, Nigeria.
E-mail: abdumann@yahoo.com. Tel: 080342956556.

Accepted 4 October, 2010

This review paper summarizes the current scientific publications of researches concerning the potential
health benefits of herbs and spices; it also highlights some commonly used spices in Nigerian dishes
and snacks, major useful compounds of these herbs and spices and the need for value addition and
product development.

Keyword: Biopotency, culinary spices, snacks.


INTRODUCTION

The Emperor Charlemagne in the 9th century described
an herb as a friend of physicians and the praise of cooks.
Over time, it has come to be understood that biopotency
role is the capacity of a chemical substance such as a
hormone or vitamin to function in a biological system,
while culinary is the art of cooking. The words herb and
spice are often used interchangeably. Generally, the leaf
of a plant used in cooking may be referred to as a
culinary herb, and any other part of the plant, often dried,
as a spice. Spices can be the buds (cloves), bark
(cinnamon), rhizomes or roots (ginger), berries (pepper),
aromatic seeds (cumin) and even the stigma of a flower.
Many of the aromatic seeds called spices are actually
gathered from herbal plants when they have finished
flowering.
A familiar example is coriander; the leaves being
referred to as an herb, however the dried seeds are
always referred to as a spice. The stem and roots of
coriander which are used in cooking, and bulb of onions
and garlic are vegetable materials tended to be classified
along with herbs, as they are often used fresh and
applied in a similar way to cooking. Beginners in the field
of science may be wondering of what relevance is
chemistry to certain professions such as catering pro-
grammes. This is because chemistry is an experimental
or practically oriented science, which deals with nature
and properties of matter and the changes or trans-
formation nature undergoes under different conditions.
Chemistry provides reasonable explanations for various
phenomena in the human environment. Foods
particularly its constituents are made up of chemical
substances. Therefore, the role of phytochemists is to
identify, isolate, and elucidate the structures of the com-
pounds present in these culinary herbs and spices and
also to determine the mechanism of their action in human
systems. The preparation of many Nigerian dishes
involves a lot of herbs and spices. Therefore, the nature
of the chemical constituents in these herbs and spices
need to be known since they are capable of interacting
with a living tissue or system as nutritional supplements.


SOME COMMONLY USED SPICES IN NIGERIAN
DISHES AND SNACKS

Some Nigerian dishes and snacks are jollof rice, miyan-
kuka, miyan-kubewa, kunun-zaki, kunun-tsamiya, kunun-
gyada, fura, gboruagi, nakiya, dakuwa, kulikuli and kudo
(Alabi, 2007). The preparation of these local dishes
(soups) and snacks traditionally required kayan yaji
(culinary spices) which consist of ingredients such as
albasa (onion, bulb); aleyaho (spinach, leaf); Ayoyo
(leaf); kuka (baobab, fruit); bakin ganye (seed); borkono
(chilli, fruit); chitta (ginger, rhizome); dadawa (locust
beans, seed); fasakwari (bark); kabewa (okro, fruit);
kanufari (clove, buds); nutmeg (aril/seed kernel);
tafarnuwa (Garlic, bulb); tsamiya (tamarind, fruit);
tumatir(tomato, fruit); Kimba (fruit); shuwaka (bitter leaf,
leaf); ugu (fluted pumpkin, seed/leaf); Zabibi (turmeric,
rhizome); zoborodo (calyx) and zogale (leaf) (Alabi, 2007).

Afr. J. Food Sci. 112



The traditional healthy
vegetarian diet pyramid
Daily physical activity
Daily beverage
recommendations:
6 glasses of water


Figure 1. The traditional healthy vegetarian diet pyramid.



Some of the herbs include Afromomum danielli; baobab
(Adasonia digitata); basil (Ocimum basilicum); black
pepper (Piper nigrum); celery leaf (Apium graveolens);
clove (Syzygium aromaticum); cumin (Cuminum
cyminum); curry leaf (Murraya koenigii); fluted pumpkin
(Telfaria occidentalis); garlic (Allium sativum); ginger
(Zingiber officinale); nutmeg (Myristica fragans); onion
(Allium cepa); chilli (Capsicum frutescens); red pepper
(Capsicum annum); star anise (Illicium verum); tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum); turmeric (Curcuma longa);
bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina); spinach (Amaranthus
hybridus); Piper guineese; Xylopia aethiopica;
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloxides; Moringa oleifera; Hibiscus
sabdarifa; Okro (Hibiscus esculenta) and (Corchorous
olitorus). These culinary herbs and/or spices show high
potential as functional ingredients in traditional snacks
(Cooking secret. org/herbs-spices/spice- producing- areas).
HERBS AND SPICES AS INTEGRAL PART OF BOTH
CULINARY AND MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS

Herbs and spices have a long history of both culinary and
medicinal uses (Tapsell et al., 2006). Herbs and spices
are integral part of the daily diet. Herbs and spices could
be regarded as one of the first real functional foods but
have largely become forgotten foods in the modern
westernized diet. Herbs and spices can add variety,
flavour, colour and aroma to the everyday diets whilst
contributing a wide range of both nutrients (Murphy et al.,
1978) and bioactives that may contribute to improved
health (Kitts, 1994). Herbs and spices may act syner-
gistically to enhance the health-related properties of other
foods (Thimayamma et al., 1983).
Food and medicine are closely related (Etkin, 1996)
and commonly used vege-tables are considered as foods





(Figure 1) due to their high content of valuable nutrients
(Etkin and Ross, 1982). Herbs and spices are added to
traditional dishes and snacks to beneficially improve the
health status of the consumer without detrimental effect
on the flavour and taste. Flavours and seasonings are
important considerations for snacks (Williams, 1999) and
herbs could be used as both flavouring (Williams, 1999;
Nordmark, 1999) and functional ingredients (Pszczola,
1999) in snack products. Moreover, the pharmacological
properties of traditional herbs have been well
documented (Farnsworth and Bunyapraphatara, 1992;
Primary Health Care, 1998).
Since prehistoric times, herbs have been the basis for
nearly all medicinal therapy until synthetic drugs were
developed in the 19th Century. Today, herbs are still
found in 40% of prescription drugs. Culinary herbs also
have been grown and used for their ability to enhance
and complement the flavours of a wide variety of foods.
The majority of herbs and spices constitute important
bioactive secondary metabolites which possess versatile
pharmacological and medicinal properties.
Herbs and spices, as plant products, can add sub-
stantial variety to the nutrients and bioactives available in
the diet. Herbs have been widely used as culinary herbs
and have been known as medicinal plants in traditional
medicine. Dietary spices influence various systems in the
body such as gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, reproduc-
tive and nervous systems resulting in diverse metabolic
and physiologic actions (Kochhar, 2008). Using the tools
and techniques of contemporary physiology, researchers
are now elucidating mechanisms justifying the traditional
use of dietary spices as appetite enhancers, digestives,
carminatives, antiflatulents, secretagogues, as well as in
both diarrhoea and constipation (Clair, 1961; Farnsworth,
1985; Pruthi, 1976).
Dietary spices may influence gastric emptying, gastro-
intestinal motility, secretion of gastric acid as well as
intestinal bicarbonate, bilopancreatic secretions,
absorptive processes and bacterial microflora (Kang et al.,
1988; Newberne, 1988; Udupihille, 1993). Many of the
commonly consumed foods, herbs, and spices contain
phytoestrogens and phytoprogestins that act as agonists
and antagonists in vivo (Zava et al., 1998). Over 150
herbs traditionally used for treating a variety of heath
problems were extracted and tested for their relative
capacity to compete with estradiol and progesterone
binding to intracellular receptors for progesterone (PR)
and estradiol (ER) in intact human breast cancer cells
(Zava et al., 1998).
The six highest ER-binding herbs that were commonly
consumed were soy, licorice, red clover, thyme, turmeric,
hops and verbena. The six highest PR-binding herbs and
spices commonly consumed were turmeric, thyme and
red clover (Zava et al., 1998). The global spice trade in
2004 consisted of 1.547 million, valued at US$ 2.97
billion (Parthasarthy et al., 2008). Therefore, using herbs
as functional ingredients to improve the health benefits of
snacks is an interesting alternative.
Mann 113



Any good snack should be convenient to consume,
inexpensive, nutritious, low in fat, and have long shelf life.


Culinary benefits of herbs and spices

There are a number of potential culinary benefits of herbs
and spices:

The health promoting effect of vegetables and fruits
(Craig, 1999) is thought to relate not only to the general
nutritional profile of this food group which are high in
dietary fibre, low in fat and salt, low energy density and
high in vitamins A, C and foliate, but in addition, wide
range of non-nutrient bioactives and phytochemicals such
as flavonoids and other phenolics are also found in herbs
and spices. It has been proposed that the additive and
synergistic effects of the complex mixture of phytochemi-
cals in fruits and vegetables, herbs and spices are largely
responsible for their health benefits (Craig, 1999). Wild
vegetables have been reported to contain comparatively
high amounts of Vitamins A and C and other antioxidant
micronutrients (Szeto et al., 2002), promote good health
by assisting in preventing cancer and high blood pressure,
stimulating the immune system, improving drug
metabolism (Vant et al., 2000), and tissue regeneration
(Rayner, 1998).


Pharmacological aspects

Recent advances in our understanding at the cellular and
molecular levels of carcinogenesis have led to the
development of a promising new strategy for cancer
prevention called chemoprevention. It is defined as the
use of specific chemical substances natural or synthetic,
or their mixtures to suppress, retard or reverse the
process of carcinogenesis. It is one of the novel
approaches of controlling cancer alternative to therapy
(Stoner and Mukhtar, 1995; Bush et al., 2001; Jung et al.,
2005). Tamarind is used traditionally as an astringent
antiflammatory and antidiuretic agent, a laxative,
carminative and digestive agent (Sudjaroen et al., 2005;
Siddhuraju, 2007).


Antioxidant capacity

One of the benefits of culinary herbs and spices are
primarily due to their antioxidant properties. Free radical
and related species are generated in the body as a result
of metabolic reactions. Accumulation of free radicals
causes damages in living systems resulting in oxidative
stress. The free-radical scavengers (antioxidants) have
potential to prevent, delay or ameliorate many of human
chronic and ageing diseases such as cancer, diabetes,
heart disease, stroke, malaria and rheumatoid arthritis.
Free radical scavenging is an important mechanism for

Afr. J. Food Sci. 114



the inhibition of lipid peroxidation, and can be a good
marker for antioxidant activity; results indicate that the
addition of some spices and herbs to food products can
prevent their oxidative deterioration in foods (Mariutti et
al., 2008). The multiple roles of traditional vegetables as
both food and medicinal sources have been widely docu-
mented (Lee et al., 2003; Ogle et al., 2003; Adebooye
and Opabode, 2004; Ayodele, 2005). Several studies
have demonstrated that some edible plants or vegetable
diets possess substantial antioxidant properties (Aliyu et
al., 2008; Szeto et al., 2002).
Antioxidant activity studies of Nigerian spices implicate
the total phenolic contents for its activity (Olukemi et al.,
2005). Polyphenols, phenolic compounds, flavonoids,
and terpenes are well known for their antioxidant activity
(Chu et al., 2002; Ninfali et al., 2005; Sun et al., 2002).
Phenolic compounds from edible plants are the main
antioxidants in the human diet (Halvorsen et al., 2002).
There is growing interest in the antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory capacities of these compounds relative to
prevention or treatment of chronic diseases that involve
inflammation (Jensen, 2006). For example, dietary
phenolics have been related to reduced risk of cancer
(Dashwood, 2007), cardiovascular disease (Visioli and
Hagen, 2007) and diabetes (Banini et al., 2006). The anti-
oxidant properties of herbs and spices are of particular
interest in view of the impact of oxidative modification of
low density lipoprotein cholesterol in the development of
atherosclerosis. Consuming a half to one clove of garlic
(or equivalent) daily may have a cholesterol-lowering
effect of up to 9%. The garlic extract has been associated
with anticlotting (in-vivo studies), as well as modest
reductions in blood pressure (an approximate 5.5%
decrease in systolic blood pressure).


Food synergy

There is some evidence of a synergistic effect of the
antioxidant capacity of herbs and spices when added to
other foods (Bijlani, 1974). Substitution of just 3 g of a
mixed salad comprised of a 2:1 mix of tomato (124 g) and
lettuce (76 g) with 3 g of fresh marjoram (1.5%w/w)
raised the antioxidant capacity (ORAC value) of the salad
from about 1400 mol TE/200 g to well over 4000 mol
TE/200 g (285% increase). This compared to an
expected rise to just over 2200 mol TE (157% increase)
based on the antioxidant capacity of the individual
components. When lemon balm was substituted in the
same manner, the antioxidant capacity increased from
about 1400 mol TE/200 g to just over 2000 mol TE/200
g (46% increase) compared to an expected rise to about
1500 mol TE/200 g (7% increase).


Antimicrobial activity

There are many phytochemicals such as carotenoids,




phenolics and organosulphur compounds, which possess
bioactivity beyond antioxidation. For example, diallyl
sulphides in garlic are associated with reductions in total
cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, while
geraniol, and other monoterpenes, exhibit antiproliferative
properties in human colon cancer cell lines (Willett, 1994).
Clove bud oil has various biological activities, such as
antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant and insecticidal
properties.
The high level of eugenol present in the essential oil
impacts strong biological and antimicrobial activity
(Raghavenra et al., 2006). Curry leaves have been
studied for their antifungal activity (Dwivedi et al., 2002;
Ray and Strivastava, 2006).
A range of bioactive substances in herbs and spices
have been studied (Kitts, 1994), but the challenge lies in
integrating this knowledge to ascertain whether any
effects can be observed in humans, and within defined
cuisines.


Flavour enhancer

One of the major barriers to increasing the consumption
of vegetables is taste (Cox et al., 1998). The addition of
herbs and spices to other vegetables, salads or even
fruits, can help overcome this obstacle. Herbs and spices
can be used with other vegetables and fruits or with other
foods, to replace other less desirable taste promoters
such as salt, sugar and fat.


Visual and olfactory stimulation

Herbs and spices can add to the visual and olfactory
attractiveness of a range of foods adding both colour and
an attractive aroma to a range of otherwise brand foods.
Certain phytochemicals give fruits and vegetables, herbs
and spices their colours and also indicate their unique
physiological roles. Colours have been used to promote
food choices and contrasting colours have been shown to
be one of the key factors in food selection (Drewnowski,
1996). A method for selecting fruits and vegetables
based on colours keyed to the content of phytochemicals
is a way of translating the science of phytochemical
nutrition into dietary guidelines for the public (Heber and
Bowerman, 2001).


Convenience

Herbs and spices are convenient to use in everyday
cooking, available all year round in either fresh or dried
forms; inexpensive, varied and highly palatable. Herbs
and spices not only provide variety, flavour, colour and
aroma to the everyday diet but can reduce the need to
use other less healthy flavourings such as salt, fat or
sugar.








Figure 2. Active compounds in basil.






Figure 3. Volatile oils constituents present in celery leaves.



Bioenhancer

Piperine (1-piperoyl piperidine) in black pepper is shown
to possess bioavailabilityenhancing activity with various
structural and therapeutically diverse drugs. This property
of piperine may be attributed to increased absorption,
which may be due to alteration in membrane lipid
dynamics and a change in the conformation of enzymes
in the intestine (Khajuria et al., 2002).
Mann 115



Remedy for bird flu

Star anise is the industrial source of shikimic acid, a
primary ingredient used to create the anti flu drug, Tami
flu, which is regarded as the most promising drug to
mitigate the severity of the bird flu H
5
N
1
strain of virus
(Goodman, 2005). Tami flu is the only drug available
which may reduce the severity of bird flu (also known as
avian flu).


MAJOR COMPOUNDS IN CULINARY HERBS AND
SPICES

Many culinary spices (for example, clove, garlic, ginger,
onion, mustard, pepper and turmeric) have their bioactive
constituents characterized (Achinewhu et al., 1995).
Bioactive compounds confer protection against cardio-
vascular and cancer diseases. Spices impact aroma,
colour and taste to food preparations and sometimes
mask undesirable odours. Volatile oils give the aroma,
and oleoresins impact the taste. Aromatic compounds
play significant role in the production of flavourants,
which are used in the food industry to flavour, improve
and increase the appeal of their products. These com-
pounds are classified by functional groups, for example
alcohols, aldehydes, amines, esters, ethers, ketones,
thiols, etc. In spices, the volatile oils constituent these
components (Zachariah, 1995; Menon, 2000). Several
active ingredients of spices including capsaicin (red
pepper) piperine (black pepper), curcumin (turmeric),
eugenic acid (clove), ferulic acid (turmeric) and myristic
acid (mace, amla) have been reported to influence lipid
metabolism predominantly by mobilization of fatty acids
(Srinivasan and Satyanarayana, 1987).


Basil (Ocimum basilicum)

Preliminary studies on basil have shown that its leaf and
seed may help people with type 2 diabetes to control their
blood sugar levels (Agrawal et al., 1996; Rai et al., 1997).
Active compounds in holy basil are terpenoids,
particularly eugenol, thymol, and estragole (Figure 2) (de
Vasconcelos et al., 1999).


Celery leaf (Apium graveolens)

The effect of polyacetylenes in celery leaves towards
human cancer cells and their human bioavailability to
reduce tumour formation in a mammalian in vivo model
indicates that they may also provide benefits for health
(Christensen and Brandt, 2006). Limonene (40.5%),
selinene (16.3%), cis-ocimene (12.5%) and
caryophyllene (10.5%) (Figure 3) are some of the volatile
oils constituents present in celery leaves found in Nigeria
(Ehiabhi et al., 2003).

116 Afr. J. Food Sci.






Figure 4. Constituent of clove oil.






Figure 5. Constituent of cumum.



Clove (Syzygium aromaticum)

Cloves (Syn. Eugenia aromaticus) are actually the dried
buds of the clove tree. The minor constituents like methyl
amyl ketone, methyl salicylate, etc. are responsible for
the characteristic pleasant odour of cloves. There are
three constituents of clove oil namely eugenol (70 to
80%), -caryophyllene (5 to 12%) and eugenyl acetate
(15%), which together make up 99% of the oil. Cloves
also contain flavonoids, galloyltannins, phenolic acids
and triterpenes (Figure 4).


Cumin (Cuminum cyminum)

Among the seeds spices, cumin fruits have a distinctive
bitter flavour and strong, warm aroma due to their
abundant essential oil content. Of this, cuminaldehyde




(40 to 65%) is the major constituent and important aroma
compound and its bitterness is ascribed to it. The
characteristic flavour of cumin is due to the presence of
monoterpenes such as -pinene and cis--farnesene
(Figure 5).


Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii)

The curry leaf plant is highly valued for its characteristic
aroma and medicinal value (Philip, 1981). A number of
leaf essential oil constituents and carbazole, murrayacine
and koenigine alkaloids have been extracted from this
plant (Mallavarapu et al., 1999). There are a large
number of oxygenated mono and sesquiterpenes present,
for example, cis-ocimene (34.1%), -caryophyllene
(9.5%), -pinene (19.1%), -terpenene (6.7%) and -
phellandrene (Figure 6) which appear to be responsible
for the intense odour associated with the stalk and flower
parts of curry leaves (Onayade and Adebayo, 2000).
Both Murraya koenigii and Brassica juncea showed
significant hypoglycemic action in experimental rats
(Khan et al., 1996).


Garlic (Allium sativum)

The therapeutic effects of garlic as hypolipidemic, anti-
thrombotic, anti-hypertensive, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-
hypercholesterolemic and immuno-modulatory have been
reported (Krishnaraj, 1997; Block, 1998). The bioactive
components responsible for the health benefits of garlic
are assumed to be allylic sulfur compounds. The use of
herbs and spices to displace fats and salt in the diet may
reduce cardiovascular risk but the most convincing
studies is that of a specific herb or spice and cardio-
vascular disease related to garlic. Garlic is commonly
used for the reduction of cholesterol and cardiovascular
risk. Consumption of garlic or garlic oil has been
associated with a reduction in total cholesterol, low-
density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and triglyceride
levels. An intake of between one-half and one clove of
garlic per day may reduce the total cholesterol by 9%.
Garlic extracts have been shown to have anti-clotting
properties (Gottlieb, 1982), and to cause modest
reductions in blood pressure (approximately 5.5%
decrease in systolic pressure) (Balentine et al., 1999).
The effectiveness is associated with the active
substances in garlic such as Allicin and other breakdown
products (Koch and Lawson, 1996). Allicin (Figure 7) has
also been isolated and identified as the component
responsible for the remarkable antibacterial activity of
garlic (Block, 1985; Lawson, 1996).
Therapeutic application of allicin as antifungal agent
(Yamada and Azuma, 1997), antiparasitic (Mirelman et
al., 1987), antiviral agents (Tsai et al., 1985) and other
antibiotic effects (Chowdhury et al., 1991) have been








Figure 6. Constituents of curry leaf.






Figure 7. Constituents of garlic.



shown. Inhibition of certain thiol-containing enzymes in
the microorganisms by the rapid reaction of
thiosulphinates with thiol groups was assumed to be the
main mechanism involved in the antibiotic effect
(Cavallito et al., 1944). Allicin and ajoene (Figure 7), the
major sulfur components of garlic were shown to inhibit
inducible nitric oxide syntheses by reducing the protein
and mRNA and thus to promote vasodialation. The
diallyl-trisulfide rich oil prevents blood coagulation even in
diabetes (Chan et al., 2007; Milner, 2001; Ohaeri and
Adoga, 2006). In vitro and rodent cancer models have
shown that diallyl sulphide, a compound in garlic, is
effective in the detoxification of carcinogens (Surh and
Lee, 1995) through its effects on phase I and phase II
enzymes.
Mann 117



Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

Ginger (family: Zingiberaceae) has many therapeutic
attributes such as antimicrobial, antithrombotic,
antiinflammatory and anticancer activity. Ginger has also
demonstrated to be antimutagenic, inducers of detoxifica-
tion, and preventers of DNA damage in vitro (Ackermann
et al., 2001; Ohaeri and Adoga, 2006). Ginger has been
shown to reduce nausea and vomiting during pregnancy
(Southgate, 1993). Ginger is a mixture of over several
hundred known constituents, including gingerols,
shagaols, -carotene, caffeic acid, curcumin, salicylate
and capsaicin (Schulick, 1996). Ginger owes its
characteristic organoleptic properties to two classes of
constituents.
The aroma of ginger are due to the constituents of its
steam-volatile oil which are mainly sesquiterpene hydro-
carbons, monoterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated
monoterpenes (Purseglove et al., 1981) while its
pungency is due to the non-steam-volatile components
also known as the gingerols. The major sesquiterpene
hydrocarbon constituent of ginger oil is zingiberene.
Certain ginger oil has a reputation for possessing a
particular lemony aroma, due to its high content of the
isomers, neral, and geranial often collectively referred to
as citral (Figure 8) (Wohlmuth et al., 2006).
Ginger is a major tranquilizer, carminative, and an
antihypertensive agent due to its gingerol. It is used as a
spice as well as an important medicinal product. Ginger is
also produced in Nigeria. Ginger has been suggested for
potential utility in treating peptic ulceration due to its
action as a thromboxane synthetic inhibitor (Schulick,
1996). Synergy is implicated in the antiulcer effect as a
result of an experiment where the extract was
fractionated and assayed, and particularly, the high
activity (97.7% inhibition at 125 ppm) found to occur in a
fraction that contained -zingiberene, p
sesquiphellandrene, bisabolene and ar-curcumene
(Beckstrom-Sternberg and Duke, 1994). Several con-
trolled clinical trials suggest that ginger root can relieve
symptoms of motion sickness by a mechanism of action
that differs from that of antihistamines. The responsible
constituents are believed to be gingerols and shagaols
(Phillips et al., 1993).
Ginger root is a putative agent for preventing ageing
dependent penile vascular changes and impotence
(Tajuddin et al., 2003).


Nutmeg (Myristica fragans)

Nutmeg is used to treat complaints of the digestive tract,
such as stomach cramps and diarrhea, as well as catarrh
of the respiratory tract. The extracts of nutmeg were
found to stimulate the mounting behaviour of male mice,
and also to significantly increase their mating
performance devoid of any conspicuous general short

118 Afr. J. Food Sci.






Figure 8. Constituents of ginger.



term toxicity (Tajuddin et al., 2003). Nutmeg oil
possesses strong antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflam-
matory and insecticidal properties due to the presence of
sabinen, - and -pinenes (Figures 6 and 7), eugenol,
isoeugenol, methyl engenol, safrol, neolignan, myristicin,
elemicin, and linalool (Figure 9). Myristicin isolated from
the nut impacts hallucinogenic properties and it is
reported to be an effective insecticide, while the lignin
types of the constituents are anticarcinogenic
(Narasimhan and Dhake, 2006).


Onion (Allium cepa)

Onion and its juice may be used to treat appetite loss,
prevention of age-related changes in blood vessels
(arteriosclerosis), minor digestive disturbances and other
traditional uses such as colds, cough, asthmas and
diabetes (van Wyk and Wink, 2005). Onions undergo
enzymatic breakdown of sulphur-containing substances
due to damages of tissue to give pungent volatiles that
cause weeping (van Wyk, 2005). The pharmacological
activity as well as the pungent smell are due to several
sulphur-containing compounds mainly sulphoxides
such as trans-5-(1-propenyl)-L-(+)-cysteine sulphoxide)
and cepaenes (-sulphinyl-disulphides) (Figure 10) (van
Wyk and Wink, 2005)).


Pepper

Black pepper (Piper nigrum)

Black pepper oil contains and -pinenes, -Iimonene

Mann 119






Figure 9. Constituents of nutmeg.






Figure 10. Constituents of onion.



and -caryophyllene as major components.
Caryophyllene is the substance with sweet floral odours,
whereas oils with high pinene content give turpentine like
off-odours (Lewis et al., 1969). The major compounds in
the fresh pepper are trans linalool oxide and -terpineol.
Pepper has long been recognized as a carminative, (a
substance that helps prevent the formation of intestinal
gas), a property likely due to its beneficial effect of
stimulating gastric acid secretion by piperine (Figure 11) ,
an alkaloid found in pepper (Ononiwu et al., 2002). Other
researchers have shown that pepper demonstrated
impressive antioxidant (Karthikeyan and Rani, 2003;

120 Afr. J. Food Sci.






Figure 11. Constituents of pepper.



Vijayakumar et al., 2004; D'Souza et al., 2004) and anti-
inflammatory effects (Mujumdar et al., 1990; Pratibha et
al., 2004). Chilli causes dyspepsia in patients with or
without ulcer, and patients with ulcer are often advised to
avoid its use (Desai et al., 1977). Clinical data suggest
that chilli ingestion may have a beneficial effect on
human peptic ulcer disease (Desai et al., 1977).
The protective effect of capsicum could involve vanilloid
receptors because resiniferatoxin an ultrapotent analogue
of capsaicin also displays antiulcer activity and both
capsaicin (Figure 11) and resiniferatoxin act on vanilloid
(capsaicin) receptors. Piperine, piperyline and
piperamine; the pungent alkaloid present in Piper nigrum
Linn, and P. longum Linn enhanced the bioavailability of
various structurally and therapeutically diverse drugs
(Khajuria et al., 1998). The sharp smell is due to the
essential oil, which contains mainly sabinen, piperine,
phellandrene, linalool and limonene.


Chilli pepper (Capsicum frutescens)

Chilli pepper hot spices may interact with epithelial cells
of the gastrointestinal tract to modulate their transport
properties (Jensen-Jarolim et al., 1998). It contains
piperine and capsaicin (Figure 11). Several pharmaco-
logical effects of capsaicin transiently reduced resistance
and piperine increased resistance, making them
candidates for causing the effects seen with crude spice
extract (Khajuria et al., 1998). Both black and red pepper
may induce epigastric pain by removing the stomachs
hydrophobic lining and activating intramucosal pain
receptors (Bhatia, 2000). Chilli being rich in phenolic




compounds would be expected to bind iron in the
intestine and inhibit its absorption in humans. Capsaicin
affected carbohydrate absorptive ability of duodenal
epithelial cells but lipid absorption was not affected
(Kawada et al., 1986; Srinivasan and Satyanarayana,
1987). Capsaicin in skin creams is effective in the
treatment of various kinds of pain.


Red pepper (Capsicum annuum)

Red pepper (Capsicum annuum) Linn (family:
Solanaceae) produces capsain and capsaicin, used as
spice and medicine (Columbus, 1987). Capsaicin, the
pungent active principle of red chilli has been shown to
cause gastric mucosal oedema and hyperemia and
decrease in the gastric acid output (Desai et al., 1977;
Nopanitaya, 1973). Capsaicin helps the metabolism of
epoxide aromatic hydrocarbons, which interferes with
their ability of bind to DNA (causing mutations) (Suzuki
and Iwai, 1984).


Star anise (Illicium verum)

In star anise, the presence of a prenyl moiety in the
phenylpropanoids plays an important role in antitumour
promoting activity. Hence, the prenylated
phenylpropanoids might be valuable as a potential cancer
chemopreventative agent (Padmashree et al., 2007).


Tamarind (Tamarindus indica)

It has numerous traditional uses such as the treatment of
liver and bile disorders. The fruit pulp is used as drinks
and it is rich in pectin, monosaccharides and organic
acids.


Turmeric (Curcuma longa)

Turmeric is the dried rhizome of plant Curcuma longa and
apart from its culinary appeal and common use as a
spice, it is well known for its medicinal properties in
Egyptian and Indian culture for more than 6000 year. It is
used for the healing of peptic ulcer and for its carminative
effects (van Wyk and Wink, 2005). Curcumin (1, 7-bis (4-
hydroxy-3-methoxy phenyl)-1-6-hepatadine-3-5-dione),
demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin (Figure
12) are members of curcuminoid family; represents one
of the yellow pigments isolated from turmeric. Other com-
pounds are bisabolane, guaiane, - and turmerone,
curlone and zingiberene. Its immunomodulatory
properties including anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and
anti-tumor properties are well documented (Govindrajan,
1980). The curcumin reduces nitric oxide(NO) and exerts
beneficial effects in experimental colitis, therefore

Mann 121






Figure 12. Constituents of star anise.



inflammatory bowl diseases (IBD) due to the oxidative
and nitrosative stresses are treated by this yellow
pigment (Platel and Srinivasan, 1996). The immuno-
nutritional ability of curcumin has demonstrated its active
role in the treatment of the allergic (Govindrajan, 1980).
The powder form is used in various dishes.
Turmeric contains essential oils, fatty oils and 2 to 5%
curcuminoids. Certain varieties contain up to 9%
curcuminoids. It has all proximate principles such as
carbohydrates, proteins and fats and provides all
nutrients in small quantities. Turmeric is fairly rich in
omega-3 fatty acids. Curcuminoids are polyphenolic
compounds with a -diketone moiety. The 3 types of
curcuminoids, namely Curcumin I, II and III, differ with
regard to their hydroxyl and methyl groups. Current
efforts in research are focused on evidence-based
science to determine the functional benefits of their
bioactive compounds. Whole turmeric or the extracted
curcuminoids appear to be active in many disease
processes with specific reference to chronic ailments
such as cardiovascular, degenerative, infective and
inflammatory disorders as well as cancers. Embelic acid
and turmeric are potential hypolipidemic and
hypocholesterolemic agents (Dixit et al., 1988). The
chemopreventive and bioprotectant property of curcumin
in turmeric increases cancer cells sensitivity to certain
drugs commonly used to combat cancer, rendering
chemotherapy more effective. It also possesses strong
antimicrobial and antioxidant activity (Lim et al., 2001)
and inhibits HIV-1 integrase (Li et al., 1993).
Curcumin and capsaicin altered bile salt secretion to
make it less lithogenic and also lowered cholesterol
levels, without any significant effect on fat absorption
(Dixit et al., 1988). Capsaicin acted as a lipotrope,
preventing triglyceride accumulation and increasing
preferential utilization of fats (Dixit et al., 1988). It also
stimulated lipid mobilization and lowered perirenal
adipose tissue weight and serum triglycerides in fat fed
rats (Dixit et al., 1988). Curcumin, eugenol and ferulic
acid reduced fatty acid biosynthesis in rat liver and
increased skeletal muscle lipoprotein lipase activity
(Srinivasan and Satyanarayana, 1987).


VALUE ADDITION AND NEW PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT

Basic qualities such as aroma flavour, pungency, colour,
etc must be conserved for a value added product and this
has to start at the farm level. The first spice oil and
oleoresin industry was started in 1930 in India at Calicut
by a private entrepreneur. Extracts of ginger were
manufactured during 2nd world war. The major oils were
from black pepper, chilli seed, capsicum, clove, nutmeg,
mace, cassia, galagal, juniper and peppermint (Guenther,

122 Afr. J. Food Sci.



1950). Pepper oil, ginger oil, celery seed oil, and
peppermint were the major oils exported from India.
Oleoresins exported are black pepper, chillies, capsicum,
ginger, turmeric, white pepper, coriander, cumin, celery,
fennel, mustard seed, garlic, clove, nutmeg, tamarind,
rosemary and curry powder oleoresins. Green tea extract
(Camellia sinensis) was given a qualified licence by FDA
for cancer prevention due to (-)-epigallocatechin gallate
presence.


CONCLUSION

Spices produce vast and diverse assortment of organic
compounds, the great majority of which do not appear to
participate directly in growth and development. These
substances, traditionally referred to as secondary
metabolites, assume great significance. Even though
these chemical structures are perceived generally as
biologically insignificant, several researches have shown
their usefulness in human health concerns. Secondary
metabolites in spices and herbs have been a fertile
ground for chemical investigation for decades, driving the
frontiers of chemical knowledge forward. In recent years,
there has been an emphasis on secondary metabolites in
relation to dietary components, which may have a
considerable impact on human health. Reports from
studies on animals models and in vitro system, leads us
to direct future research perspectives in this area. The
action of spices on reproductive functions as well as their
potential role as regulators of fertility and/or conception
also is an area holding great future promise. Synergy is
an important concept in spice physiology and has a
pharmacokinetic basis. Components of whole spices
which are not active themselves can act to improve the
stability, solubility, bioavailability or half life of the active
components. Hence, a particular chemical might in pure
form have only a fraction of the pharmacological activity
that it has in its plant matrix thus suggesting that
measuring an individuals food intake and assessing
individual variation in disposition, bioavailability, and
metabolism of micronutrients might allow for more
accurate and individualized nutritional approaches for
dietary prescription.
Dietary modifications will only work if they are in
consonance with individual preferences, culture values
and philosophical orientations toward health and disease.
This presentation will be useful to plant breeders,
nutritionists, other researchers, and the general public
who are interested in the antioxidant potentials of various
herbs and spices as culinary supplements.


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