THE EFFECTS OF A REMEDIAL SINGING METHOD

ON THE VOCAL PITCH ACCURACY OF

INACCURATE ELEMENTARY SINGERS
Karen A. Miyamoto
University of Hawaii, Manoa

miyamotok001@hawaii.rr.com
INTRODUCTION
Singing is an important skill to be developed in the elementary music classroom. The
National Standards for Music Education developed by The Music Educators National
Conference (1994) specify that all children should be taught to sing (p. 26).
The condition of inaccurate singing has been found to be a detriment. Greenberg
(1970), in discussing the effects of inaccurate singing, concluded that a child that knows
something is wrong with his or her singing withdraws from most phases of the music
program. Yuba (1998) suggested that inaccurate singing may result in embarrassment,
humiliation, and even societal maladjustment.
Statistics indicate that inaccurate singing is an ongoing problem. The National
Assessment of Educational Progress for the years 1971-1972, indicated that 50% of the nine-
year-olds, 45% of the thirteen-year-olds, 35% of the 17-year-olds, and 30% of the adults
were unable to sing the song America with acceptable pitch. According to Roberts and
Davies (1975), approximately 18% of children in grade six and below were unable to sing
simple songs in tune and were considered to be inaccurate singers. Goetze (1985) reported
that 70% of the kindergarten, first- and third-grade subjects in her study were inaccurate
singers. Aaron (1991) reported that 69% of the fourth, fifth, and sixth graders in his study
were inaccurate singers.
Remedial techniques to correct inaccurate singing need to be investigated in order to
diminish the dilemma of inaccurate singing. Gordon (1985) concluded that music educators
used empirically unproven remedial techniques to work with inaccurate singers. He also
found the converse to be truethat empirically proven techniques were not used or known
to music educators. Gordon found that music educators often simply increased the amount of
time spent on singing in an attempt to improve singing accuracy. He saw this as a sign of
frustration by music educators who knew no other empirically corroborated means to
adequately deal with singing inaccuracy.
Extant research indicates that there may be a multitude of causes and conditions for
singing inaccuracy. This suggests that a multitude of vocal remediation strategies may be
necessary in correcting inaccurate singing. Some causes, as indicated by previous research
include piano accompaniment (Clayton, 1986), music aptitude (De Yarman, 1972; J ones,
1993; J affurs, 2000), development and maturation (Wilson, 1970; Levinowitz, Barnes,
Guerrini, Clement, DApril, and Morey, 1998), singing range (Cleall, 1970; Guerrini, 2002),

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singing an entire phrase versus individual melodic items (Petzold, 1966), age
(Mizener, 1993), pitch discrimination (Bentley, 1968; Zwissler, 1972), self concept
(Greenberg, 1970), unison versus individual singing (Goetze 1985; Smale 1987), singing
with text versus singing on a neutral syllable (Goetze, 1985; Flowers and Dunne-Sousa,
1990), home environment and heritage (Eikum, 1963), the vocal model (Yarbrough, Bowers,
and Benson, 1992; Sims, Moore, and Kuhn, 1982; Small and McCachern, 1983;
Montgomery, 1988; Green, 1990; Gratton, 1992), and vocal registration (Brown, 1988).
It is relevant to review the existing research on remedial singing techniques to build
upon extant information. Additional drills and exercises have been employed as remedial
treatment. Roberts and Davies (1975) successfully utilized speech devices to extend the
speaking range and exercises in finding a personal note. They were able to effect some
improvement in pitch production among children rated by their teachers as monotones (p.
236). Richner (1976) found that remedial voice instruction had a significant positive effect
on the ability of inaccurate singers to reproduce pitches. Roberts and Davies (1976)
investigated vocal range extension. The results indicated that the remedial group showed
greater improvements on single note production and interval production. Buckton (1977)
found that a vocal program significantly improved the vocal accuracy scores of the vocal
group over instrumental and control groups. Rooks (1987) investigated the effects of
remedial vocal training on inaccurate singers. Findings indicate that restricted range singers
trained in both the high and low range gained significantly more accuracy than those trained
in only the high range.
Several studies focused on psychological aspects to aid the inaccurate singer. J ones
(1971) investigated the use of a vertically arranged keyboard instrument. The visual
representation of the vertical keyboard as it related to "high" and "low" pitches helped the
inaccurate singer. J arjisian (1981) found that young childrens rote singing achievement was
benefited by pitch pattern instruction, which included both diatonic and pentatonic patterns.
Apfelstadt (1984) investigated the effects of melodic perception instruction. She found
significant differences on vocal pitch-pattern accuracy and in rote singing accuracy. Kramer
(1985)--found that imagery training improved the ability of inaccurate singers to match
pitches vocally. Welch, Howard, and Rush (1989) explored the use of visual feedback using
a microcomputer. Subjects improved over the treatment period, and it was concluded that
verbal feedback on its own appears to be less powerful in promoting learning than real-
time, meaningful visual feedback (p. 156). Matthias (1997) investigated the use of
sequential games. Vocal accuracy was said to have improved after completing a sequential
series of pitch matching games.
Extant physiologically based studies have focused primarily on the area of breath
control management. Phillips (1983) found that breath control management significantly
improved vocal range, vocal intensity, vocal duration, and pitch accuracy. Gackle (1987)
examined the effects of selected vocalizes that employed breath management techniques.
She found that the exercises significantly improved pitch perturbation. Aaron (1991) found
that vocal coordination instruction was more effective in improving vocal pitch accuracy for
boys than for girls and that highly inaccurate boy singers benefited the most from vocal
coordination instruction. Phillips and Aitchison (1995) found that vocal range was improved
through breath control management instruction. Collins (2000) concluded that breath
management may be so interdependent with students' abilities to coordinate the vocal
mechanism that it alone may not produce significant results in vocal performance.
Research in the area of physiological perspectives with regard to singing, includes
that of Yuba (1998), who developed a vocal training method that was intended to
specifically train the cricothyroid muscle, which is used while singing (Yuba 2001, p. 1).
Based upon his theory of cricothyroid muscle function, Yuba (2002) explained that
mechanically, the cricothyroid muscle determines the pitch like a guitar reel or spool. He
said that its main function is to act as tensors, tilting the thyroid cartilage forward and
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downward, lengthening the vocal folds and making them thinner, resulting in raised
pitch. Yuba added that conversely, its relaxation lowers the pitch. He elaborated that the
preponderance of the cricothyroid muscle against the closing muscle group, or arytenoid
muscles, produces a head voice register made up of breathy sounds because it cannot close
the glottis completely. Yuba added that on the other hand, the preponderance of the closing
muscle group, or arytenoid muscles, against the cricothyroid muscle, produces a chest voice
register, or non-breathy sounds (p. 4).
Figure 1 provides a view of the intrinsic muscles of the larynx.
Yuba explained that the quality of vibration of the vocal folds is determined by the
balance of three factors:
1. the action of the cricothyroid muscle stretching the vocal folds which mainly elevates
the pitch;
2. that of the closing muscle group (lateral cricoarytenoid muscle, transverse arytenoid
muscle, and oblique arytenoid muscle), which closes the glottis along with the
pressure of expiration; and
3. the physical movement of articulation (Yuba 2000, p. 2).
Yuba (2000) said that a subsidiary result of the method was to correct inaccurate singing (p.
2). He noted that to date, he has corrected over 900 inaccurate singers (___, 2003).
Yuba (2002) devised a series of musical exercises based on his philosophy.
Following are the Yuba Method basic steps in correcting inaccurate singing:
1. distinguish between the head voice and the chest voice;
2. sing some very simple songs in the head voice and the chest voice;
3. sing from the head voice to the chest voice and then sing from the chest voice to the
head voice (p. 4).
DELIMITATIONS AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The Yuba Method appears to have had some success in correcting inaccurate singers
although there is no existing empirical data to support it. Furthermore, Yuba has not
provided adequate evidence (e.g. via laryngoscopy) that indicates his exercises actually
target training of the cricothyroid muscle in singing. It is not within the scope of this study to
verify cricothyroid muscle functioning while utilizing the Yuba Method exercises. Rather,
the purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of the Yuba Method on the
vocal pitch accuracy of inaccurate elementary school singers in grades four, five, and six.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. Will the remedial singing treatment significantly improve inaccurate singers over that
of a control group?
2. How will the treatment affect high, middle, and low inaccurate singers?
METHOD
This study used a pretest posttest control group design using the Yuba Method with a
treatment group, and no remedial treatment with the control group to determine the effects of
the Yuba Method. The subjects were fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade students (N =320) in
one public urban elementary school in Honolulu, Hawaii. This group comprised the total
enrollment of these grades in the school, and consisted of 165 boys and 155 girls. The fourth
grade was comprised of 51 boys and 53 girls. The fifth grade was comprised of 64 boys and
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49 girls, and the sixth grade was comprised of 50 boys and 53 girls. The population
of fourth, fifth, and sixth graders included all subjects between the ages of 8.5 to 9.4, 9.5 to
10.4, and 10.5 to 11.4 years of age respectively, by September 1, 2002. The ethnic make up
of the school population consisted primarily of students of Asian and Pacific Islander
heritage. The socio-economic status of the school consisted of a population of 40%, on free
or reduced lunch.
Materials and equipment used in the study consisted of a Gateway laptop computer,
an Electro Voice Microphone, a Yamaha PSR-540 Electronic Keyboard, a two foot by four
foot mirror, a Sony CFD-V17 CD Player, and a Sony Hi-8 Video Recorder. The Sona-
Speech Model 3600 software program by Kay Elemetrics was used to analyze the criterion
pitches in the Pretest Singing Stimulus and the Posttest Singing Stimulus utilized in the
study. The Sona-Speech Model 3600 software program was ordered from Kay Elemetrics
Corporation at 2 Bridgewater Lane, Lincoln Park, New J ersey, 07035, USA. The Sona-
Speech Model 3600 software program is the software-only component of the Visi-Pitch
hardware device used in previous research (Goetze, 1985; Clayton, 1986; Smale 1987;
Brown, 1988; Goetze & Horii, 1989; Moore, 1991). The Sona-Speech Model 3600 software
program is a clinical package of speech training and analysis programs. The specific
program utilized in the Sona-Speech was Real Time Pitch, which calculates frequency in
Hertz of recorded pitches. The Yuba Method was obtained from Dream Voice Training:
Muscles For Singing Tokyo, J apan: Victor Entertainment, Inc.
PROCEDURE
The total enrollment of fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade students was taught to sing the
Pretest Singing Stimulus commencing the first week of October 2002. The students were
taught using the typical rote method of teaching in their regular general music class
instructional period, which met once a week for 55 minutes. Twenty minutes of each
subsequent class time was spent teaching the song stimulus. A criterion of 75% was
established as a minimum attendance for participation in the study. No students were
eliminated on this basis.
The Pretest Singing Stimulus was individually administered to the 320 fourth-, fifth-,
and sixth-grade students during the first two weeks of November 2002. The Pretest Singing
Stimulus was designed by the investigator to classify subjects either as accurate or
inaccurate singers. The Pretest Singing Stimulus consisted of the first phrase of the Israeli
folk song Shalom Chaverim in the key of D minor (Figure 2). During the administration of
the Pretest Singing Stimulus, the first two starting pitches of the phrase were played on an
electronic keyboard and subjects were required to sing the entire phrase a cappella. Audio
Examples 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 demonstrate VPA scores on the Pretest Singing Stimulus of 14,
48, 115, 289 and 360 respectively.
The Pretest Singing Stimulus test was analyzed and scored. Selected criterion pitches
(D4, D5, C5, F4) were used to calculate singing accuracy rather than using a subjects
deviation on all of the notes in the test stimulus. This was based on previous research
findings (Goetze, 1985, p. 75), which indicated that an average of selected notes was more
descriptive of a subject's singing accuracy than an average of all of the notes sung in a test
stimulus.
It was desirable for the purposes of the present study to have the singing stimuli
encompass both the chest and head registers since previous research suggests that the vocal
register break is a possible cause of singing inaccuracy. Cooper (1995) found that children
who had not yet learned to use the head voice register had difficulty matching pitches above
the voice break (p. 36), and Guerrini (2002) found that once students were able to sing one
song accurately using notes above the register break, they appeared to be able to sing other
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songs accurately (p. 56).
The vocal register break has been examined in previous research. Cooper (1995)
identified the break between the chest and the head voice to occur around G4 or A4 (p. 36).
Phillips (1996) noted that the pitch F#4 was where there was a balance between the chest
and head voices. The range of the Pretest Singing Stimulus in the present study was thus
from A3 to D5 to encompass both the head and chest registers.
A vocal pitch accuracy score (VPA) was obtained for each student on the basis of the
Pretest Singing Stimulus. The Sona-Speech Model 3600 software program was used to
calculate the score. The vocal pitch accuracy score (VPA) was the average cent deviation of
the four criterion pitches in the singing stimulus. The Sona-Speech software program was
used to calculate in Hertz, the frequency of each selected criterion pitch of the Pretest
Singing Stimulus.
The Sona-Speech sampled the recorded voice and displayed the frequency curve of
the criterion patterns on the computer monitor. The investigator then moved cursors to
outline the segments of the curve representing the pitch to be analyzed, and the Sona-Speech
automatically calculated the frequency, in Hertz of the pitch area between cursors. Because
frequencies in Hertz are not equal-interval data, logarithms were used to calculate the
interval or deviation in cents, where 100 equal cents equaled one semitone between each
response pitch and its corresponding stimulus. Calculation of the size of pitch intervals
followed the Campbell and Greated procedure (1987, p. 77). The total deviation in cents
between each response pitch and its corresponding stimulus was calculated.
Absolute values were used in these calculations to avoid the possibility of both
positive and negative cent deviations. For example, sharp and flat responses, respectively, on
different pitches within the pattern might cancel each other out. Therefore, although VPA
scores represented overall deviation from the model or actual pitches, they did not provide
an indication of the direction of deviation or contour of the response. Because VPA scores
represented divergence from the model, lower scores indicated more accurate performance
and higher scores indicated more inaccurate performance.
The total enrollment of fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade students (N=320) was
classified into two groupsaccurate (N =152) and inaccurate singers (N =168), based on
the Pretest Singing Stimulus vocal pitch accuracy score (VPA). Subjects with a VPA score
of 100 or greater were identified as inaccurate singers. Subjects with a VPA score below 100
were identified as accurate singers. The accurate singers were eliminated from the remainder
of the study. The criteria of using the VPA score of 100 or greater to determine the
inaccurate singer was used by Goetze (1986), Smale (1987), and Cooper (1995).
The formation of three subgroups utilizing the inaccurate singer VPA scores was the
next step. All of the inaccurate singer scores (N =168) were listed in ascending order from
the lowest to the highest scores. The inaccurate singers were divided into three subgroups of
equal size (N =56) to constitute "low," "middle," and "high" VPA scores.
The Komolgorov-Smirnov test for comparing two populations was calculated
between the three subgroups of "low," "middle," and "high" to determine if in fact the
populations were different. Results of the Komolgorov-Smirnov test indicated at the p <.05
confidence level that the three subgroups were from different populations. The three
subgroupings were therefore deemed an appropriate design for the experiment.
Twenty subjects were randomly selected, from each of the three subgroups of "low,"
"middle," and "high" VPA inaccurate singers, to be either in the treatment group (N =30)
(Yuba Method) or control group (N =30). There was no differentiation of gender or grade
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level in this process.
Each subject in the study was assigned a five-digit subject number, which indicated
the following: (a) Digit one represented the subjects grade level; (b) Digit two represented
the group assignment. The group receiving the Yuba Method treatment was assigned the
number 1. The control group was assigned number 2; (c) Digit three represented the
low (1), middle (2), or high (3) groupings within the experimental or control groups;
(d) Digits four and five represented the subject number within the treatment or control
groups. For example, subject number 62101 was a sixth grader, the first subject in the
control low group.
The total duration of the testing and treatment portions of the study was twelve weeks
from the Pretest Singing Stimulus administration to the Posttest Singing Stimulus
administration. The time period to complete the experimental treatment on all 30 treatment
subjects lasted no longer than three weeks.
Each subject in the treatment group received one individual, 45-minute treatment
session using the Yuba Method in addition to their regular music class, which occurred once
a week for 55 minutes. Each subject in the control group received only instruction in their
regular music class, which was the same as that of the treatment group. The regular music
class lessons for that semester included singing with no remedial provisions, note reading,
playing of the recorder, and audiation exercises. The control group received no instruction
other than their regular music class.
All subjects in grades four, five, and six in the school were taught to sing the Posttest
Singing Stimulus commencing one month prior to the testing and for a period of four
consecutive weeks thereafter for a period of 20 minutes at each session. This occurred in
their regular music class, which consisted of a heterogeneous grouping of accurate, control,
and treatment singers.
The researcher chose two different songs for the singing stimuli--Shalom Chaverim,
first phrase, and The Star-Spangled Banner, first phrase (Figure 3). Two different singing
stimuli were chosen due to past research findings that mistakes were often carried over in the
same song regardless of training (Goetze, 1985).
The criterion pitches selected for this study were D4, F4, C5, and D5 for both test
stimuli (where middle C is C4). The criterion pitches were selected by the investigator in an
attempt to span the tones across the vocal register break (D4-D5), a tone below the register
break (D4), and a tone around the register break (F4). A song phrase was used rather than
utilizing the matching of single tones because past research indicated that the matching of
single pitches had no correlation to singing a song in tune (Flowers and Dunne-Sousa, 1990,
p. 111).
The pretest and posttest stimuli for the present study were sung on the neutral
syllable loo. Previous research indicates that students sing more accurately on a neutral
syllable (Gould, 1969; Goetze, 1985), and Edwin Gordon (1984) recommends that students
must echo in solo with a neutral syllable (p. 30). Gordon also added that the use of words
of a song actually inhibits the learning of tonal syntax (p. 143). As well, the neutral syllable,
loo was used for the singing stimulus by Goetze, (1985), Smale (1987), and Cooper
(1995).
The Yuba Method was administered as the remedial singing method (Yuba, 1998).
The exercises were recorded on an audio CD and consisted of a female soprano singer as the
vocal model over a synthesized instrumental accompaniment. Audio Example 6
demonstrates Audio Track 12 as used in the Treatment Script (see Appendix). Subjects were
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to echo the vocal model. Instructions were read from a script by the researcher, who
also served as the treatment instructor. Subjects in the control group took the Posttest
Singing Stimulus at the end of the three-week treatment period of the treatment subjects
following their regular music class session. The subjects in the treatment group took the
Posttest Singing Stimulus immediately following their individualized, 45-minute vocal
training session, which consisted of the Yuba Method exercises.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was employed to determine whether or not the
treatment improved the singing ability of treatment subjects. The design consisted of a two-
way classification, with the sources of variation being (1) the effect of the Yuba Method
training, and (2) the pretest ranking of inaccurate subjects into the low, middle, and
high subgroups. The analysis also provided an assessment of the variation contributed by
the interaction of main effects (1) and (2) defined above.
RESULTS
Results of the Pretest Singing Stimulus are summarized in Table 1 by grade level and
gender. The researcher-designed Posttest Singing Stimulus results yielded the data that
represented the mean number of cents that subjects deviated from all four of the selected
criterion pitches. High scores indicated highly inaccurate singing, and low scores indicated
more accurate singing. The mean scores for each subgroup are provided in Table 2.
Table 1.
Percentage and Number of Accurate and Inaccurate Singers by Grade Level and
Gender Based on Pretest Singing Stimulus VPA Scores.
Grade (N), Gender (N)
Accurate singers
% (N)
Inaccurate singers
% (N)
Grade 4 (104) 40.39 (42) 59.61 (62)
Boys (51) 39.22 (20) 60.78 (31)
Girls (53) 41.51 (22) 58.49 (31)
Grade 5 (113) 47.79 (54) 52.21 (59)
Boys (64) 45.31 (29) 54.68 (35)
Girls (49) 51.02 (25) 48.97 (24)
Grade 6 (103) 54.37 (56) 45.63 (47)
Boys (50) 71.00 (23) 24.27 (27)
Girls (53) 62.26 (33) 19.41 (20)
All (320) 47.50 (152 52.50 (168)
Boys (165) 43.64 (72) 56.36 (93)
Girls (155) 51.61 (80) 48.38 (75)
Table 2.
Mean Posttest Singing Stimulus VPA Scores between Groups and Subgroups
Low Middle High
Treatment 76 109 85
Control 118 185 302
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In order to determine the effects of the Yuba Method, subjects Pretest Singing
Stimulus VPA scores were compared with their corresponding Posttest Singing Stimulus
VPA scores. Gain scores were computed by subtracting a subjects Posttest Singing Stimulus
VPA score from thecorresponding Pretest Singing Stimulus VPA score. Positive gain scores
represented an increase in singing accuracy. Negative gain scores represented a decrease in
singing accuracy. Pretest-posttest gain scores were computed for the treatment and control
groups and a double classification analysis of variance was computed using gain scores to
determine if there was a significant difference in the performance of subjects in the
treatment group versus the control group (p <.05).
Table 3 provides the Mean Posttest Singing Stimulus VPA gain scores between
groups and subgroups.
Three subjects were unable to produce the Posttest Singing Stimulus in a manner that
could be reliably scored and so were dropped from the remainder of the study. Both the
Shapiro-Wilk and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests of normality confirmed this and indicated
that the raw scores, VPA, were non-normally distributed at p <.0001 and p =.01,
respectively. These were subjects 52102, a fifth-grade subject in the "low" control group,
41210, a fourth-grade subject in the "middle" treatment group, and 62308, a sixth-grade
subject in the "high" control group.
In analyzing the gain scores, some of the VPA gain scores turned out to be negative
numbers due to a decrease in singing accuracy on the Posttest Singing Stimulus. To
compensate for this, 300 cents were added to all of the VPA gain scores for the calculations.
Moore and McCabe (2003) explained that converting numerical descriptions of a
distribution from one unit of measurement to another is a linear transformation of the
measurements (p. 51). They explained that linear transformations do not change the shape of
a distribution (p. 53).
In order to determine whether or not to employ parametric or nonparametric
statistical procedures, tests for normality of the sampled population were calculated.
Rainbow and Froehlich (1987) stated that parametric statistics are more powerful than
nonparametric tests. They defined powerful in statistical terms to mean that a test
discriminates between two sets of data in such a way that the null hypothesis may be
rejected even if the differences in scores are relatively small. They further explained that
because researchers are concerned about minimizing the probability that a null hypothesis is
maintained when it is in fact false, the more powerful statistic should be given preference.
Rainbow and Froehlich concluded that when presented with the choice of using parametric
versus nonparametric tests in a research situation, parametric tests should be employed (p.
256).
The tests of normality were important because otherwise the statements about the
probability were not likely to be true. Moore and McCabe (2003) explained that the decision
to describe a distribution by a normal model determines the later steps in the analysis of the
data (78).
Table 3.
Mean Posttest Singing Stimulus VPA Gain Scores for Groups and Subgroups.
Low Middle High
(Most Accurate) (Least Accurate)
Treatment +51.27 +82.91 +312.52
Control +2.30 +7.32 +64.26
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The scores were tested for normality by the SAS Statistical Software Program. The
residuals from the Analysis of Variance of were normal. That is, both the Shapiro-Wilk and
the Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests were non-significant at the p =.08 and p >0.15 levels,
respectively. Based on the aforementioned results, parametric statistics were employed for
the analysis. The ANOVA was calculated by the General Linear Model Procedure (GLM) of
SAS which is able to accommodate unequal numbers in experimental groups without
introducing error in the probabilities.
Table 4 presents the ANOVA General Linear Model Procedure of the log-
transformed scores with 300 cents added to each score and 57 observations.
Table 5 presents the VPA log-transformed gain scores by level of treatment with 300
cents added to each score, and 57 observations.
Table 6 presents the data of the log-transformed VPA gain mean scores by level of
group with 300 cents added to each score and 57 observations.
Table 4.
The General Linear Model ANOVA Results for Log-Transformed VPA Scores
with 300 Cents Added (N =57)
Source df SS
Mean
Square
F p
Treatment 1 1.14 1.14 21.14 <.0001
Group 2 1.29 0.64 11.90 <.0001
Group x Treatment 2 0.43 0.22 4.01 0.0024
Table 5.
VPA Log-Transformed Gain Scores by Group.
Level of
Treatment
N Mean SD
Treatment (1) 29 6.09 0.27
Control (2) 28 5.81 0.30
Table 6.
Log-Transformed VPA Gain Mean Scores by Group Level.
Level of Group N Mean SD
High 19 6.07 0.38
Middle 19 5.84 0.28
Low 19 5.84 0.11
Table 7.
General Linear Model Procedure on Log-Transformed Scores with 300 Cents
Added by Group.
Level of Group N Mean SD
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Table 7 presents the data of the log-transformed general linear model procedure by
level of group and level of treatment with 300 cents added to each individual gain score and
57 observations. The equal values of the middle subgroup mean and the low subgroup
mean produced unequal values for the back-transformed VPA gain scores in Table 8 due to
the unequal SD values.
The log e transformed differences were then back-transformed (Table 9) to make
the data meaningful in terms of comparisons in cents using the formula by Haan (1977, p.
107). Tables 10 through 12 provide the back transformed mean scores for the General Linear
Model log-transformed scores by group with 300 cents added to each score and 57
observations.
High Treatment 10 6.39 0.23
High Control 9 5.92 0.38
Middle Treatment 9 6.01 0.09
Middle Control 10 5.69 0.31
Low Treatment 10 5.86 0.10
Low Control 9 5.82 0.13
Table 8.
Back-Transformed VPA Gain Mean Scores by Level of Treatment Measured in
Cents.
Level of Treatment N Mean
Treatment 29 157.24
Control 28 46.82
Table 9.
Back-Transformed VPA Gain Mean Scores by Level of Group Measured in
Cents.
Level of Treatment N Mean
High 19 212.65
Middle 19 57.95
Low 19 45.61
Table 10.
Back-Transformed VPA Gain Mean Scores by Group Measured in Cents.
Group N Mean
High Treatment 10 309.66
High Control 9 100.45
Middle Treatment 9 109.12
Middle Control 10 10.16
Low Treatment 10 52.31
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Table 10 presents the VPA gain scores by subgroup, log-transformed and back-
transformed as a means for comparison.
Table 11 presents the VPA gain mean scores by group level, log-transformed and
back-transformed as a means for comparison.
Table 12 presents the general linear model procedure on log-transformed scores and
back-transformed scores as a means for comparison by level of group. Table 13 provides the
General Linear Model Procedure of the log-transformed and back-transformed scores by
group and level.
The main effect of treatment was found to be highly significant at the p <.0001
significance level. In addition, some subgroups benefited from the treatment more than
others (p <.0024). The treatment "high" subgroup (the most inaccurate singers) benefited
the most, followed by the treatment "middle" subgroup, and lastly the treatment "low"
subgroup.
DISCUSSION
The results of this study indicate that the treatment, which consisted of the Yuba
Method exercises, was highly effective in improving the vocal pitch accuracy of inaccurate
elementary singers (p <.0001). The treatment was also found to be most effective with
highly inaccurate singers (p <.0024). An example of an improved posttest VPA score by
subject 61310, a subject in the treatment high subgroup, is demonstrated in Audio Examples
7 & 8 (Pretest Singing Stimulus VPA 756, and Posttest Singing Stimulus VPA 25,
respectively). Based on the results, the null hypothesis was rejected at the p <.0001
significance level.
The investigator concedes that certain conditions may have compromised the
interpretation of the results. As a result, some degree of caution should be maintained by the
reader. These conditions follow:
Low Control 9 38.36
Table 11.
VPA Gain Scores by Group, Log-Transformed and Back-Transformed.
Level of
Treatment
N
Log-Transformed
Mean
Back-Transformed
Mean
Treatment (1) 29 6.09 157.24
Control (2) 28 5.81 46.82
Table 12.
VPA Gain Mean Scores by Group Level, Log-Transformed and Back-
Transformed.
Level of
Treatment
N
Log-Transformed
Mean
Back-Transformed
Mean
High 19 6.17 212.65
Middle 19 5.84 57.95
Low 19 5.84 45.61
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1. The school population in this study may be unique and accordingly, the results might
not be generalizable to the general population.
2. The two singing test stimuli were not tested for equitability of difficulty level. The
Pretest Singing Stimulus was in a minor key and the Posttest Singing Stimulus was in
a major key. This might have presented unequal levels of difficulty between the two
test stimuli.
3. The treatment group had the advantage of additional instruction, which was lacking in
the control group. Improvement in singing accuracy might be attributed to additional
instruction and not necessarily to the Yuba Method.
4. The criteria for determining the accurate and inaccurate singer as used in this study,
has not been validated by research. The VPA of 100 cents or greater to define the
inaccurate singer, was arbitrarily selected by Goetze (1985) and needs to be confirmed
through empirical research. Cooper (1995) recommended that a study comparing
subjective ratings of perceived accuracy with objective electronic accuracy
evaluations of the same sample be conducted (p. 230). Implications of these findings
are that this criteria for determining inaccurate singer might thus have been inadequate
and some of the singers in the study might thus have been accurate singers.
5. Most subjects, in both the control and treatment groups performed better on the
Posttest Singing Stimulus than on the Pretest Singing Stimulus. This may have been
due to decreased test anxiety, familiarity with the testing situation, or the possibility
that the Posttest Singing Stimulus was a more familiar song. This song was also in a
major key, which may have made it easier to sing as opposed to a song in a minor key.
Following are recommendations for future research based on the results of this study:
1. Research studies should be conducted to determine more precise differences between
the echo singing of phrases versus free song singing.
2. Repeat the study using a different and larger population to improve generalizability.
3. Repeat the study with a longer treatment period to see if additional treatment results in
improved pitch accuracy.
4. Retest treatment subjects at various intervals after treatment to see if the treatment
effects last.
5. Determine the reliability and validity of the singing stimuli.
6. Determine what the actual vocal pitch accuracy threshold is for the inaccurate singer
by testing the electronic measurement with that of the ear of the music educator.
7. Repeat the study using singing stimuli in various keys to determine if vocal
registration is a factor in singing inaccuracy.
8. Perform a longitudinal study to determine the magnitude of VPA fluctuation from
grade to grade.
9. Conduct a study to determine how the Yuba Method compares with other vocal
treatment methods. This would help to isolate the factor of additional instruction as
the cause of singing improvement.
The implications of this study are that additional exercises such as those employed
by the Yuba Method, can possibly help to correct inaccurate singing. This study
demonstrates the value of working with inaccurate singers to improve vocal pitch accuracy.
APPENDIX
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