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DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
LAB ON COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Copyright 2013 Lal Bihari Barik
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SYLLABUS
Lab on Computer Graphics
Objectives: l To enable the student to understand various technicalities of hardware devices used in computer graphics.
l To enable the student to learn various techniques used to draw images.
l To enable the student to understand two dimensional and three dimensional operations on objects.
l To enable the student to understand technicalities to draw polygons.
l To enable the student to learn graphics programming.
Sr. No. Topics
1. Fundamentals of Computer Graphics: Applications of computer graphics in various felds, evolution of
computer graphics.
2. Graphics Systems: Video Display Unit, Random Scan Displays, raster scan displays, Displaying Colours, Frame
Buffer, Digitization, Persistence, Resolution
3. Implementing Line Algorithm
4. Implementing Circle Algorithm
5. Implementing Ellipse Algorithm
6. Implementing polygon flling algorithm
7. Implementation of Hidden Surface in 2D
8. Implementing of Scaling in 2D Transformation
9. Translation
10. Shearing, Rotation, Refection
CONTENTS
Unit 1: Fundamentals of Computer Graphics 1
Unit 2: Graphics Systems 12
Unit 3: Implementing Line Algorithm 25
Unit 4: Implementing Circle Algorithm 38
Unit 5: Implementing Ellipse Algorithm 47
Unit 6: Implementing Polygon Filling Algorithm 59
Unit 7: Implementation of Hidden Surface in 2D 83
Unit 8: Implementing of Scaling in 2D Transformation 93
Unit 9: Translation 107
Unit 10: Shearing 115
Unit 1: Fundamentals of Computer Graphics
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Unit 1: Fundamentals of Computer Graphics
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
1.1 Concept of Computer Graphics
1.1.1 Types of Computer Graphics
1.1.2 Basic Components of Interactive Computer Graphics
1.2 Application of Computer Graphics
1.2.1 Computer Aided Design (CAD)
1.2.2 Image Processing
1.2.3 Graphical User Interface
1.2.4 Presentation Graphics
1.2.5 Computer Art
1.2.6 Entertainment
1.2.7 Education and Training
1.3 The Evolution of Computer Graphics
1.3.1 From Blinking Lights to Plotters
1.4 Summary
1.5 Keywords
1.6 Review Questions
1.7 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
l Explain the concept of computer graphics
l Discuss the types of computer graphics
l Elaborate applications of computer graphics in different felds
l Explain the evolution of computer graphics over the time
Introduction
Computer graphics is a wonderful invention in the feld of Computers. As per William A.
Fetter Perhaps the best way to defne Computer graphics is to fnd out what it is not. It is not
a group of computer programs. It is not the know-how of a graphic designer, a programmer, a
writer, a motion picture specialist, or a reproduction specialist. Computer graphics is all these a
consciously managed and documented technology directed toward communicating information
accurately and descriptively. Computer graphics fnd its use in diverse areas such as producing
television commercials and feature flms, simulation and analysis of real world problems,
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computer aided design, graphical user interfaces that increases the communication bandwidth
between humans and machines, etc. The purpose of this Unit is to introduce the fundamentals
of Computer graphics to the students. In this Unit, you will learn about concept of computer
graphics, its applications and evolution of computer graphics over the time.
1.1 Concept of Computer Graphics
Computer graphics is concerned with all aspects of producing images using a computer. It
comprises frst creating simple graphical elements and then representing them.
The most common use of computer graphics is in the creation of an image which looks like a
photograph but portrays something which we cannot really capture in a picture. This type of
computer graphics is known as photo-realistic.
Example: An animation movie showing an alien is photo-realistic approach to computer
graphics.
Another common use of computer graphics is in the form of real-time or interactive process.
Example: Computer games which require real-time action by the user and based on that
interaction different action takes place in the game. Generally, a user can grab images the rate
of 24 images per second. This means for portraying a real-time action by images one need to
generally pass on 24 images (or frames) per second.
Pixel
A computer image is usually represented as a discrete grid of picture elements a.k.a. pixels. The
number of pixels determines the resolution of the image. Typical resolutions range from 320*200
to 2000*1500. For a black and white image, a number describes the intensity of each pixel. It can
be expressed between 0.0 (black) and 1.0 (white).
For a color image, each pixel is described by a triple of numbers representing the intensity of red,
green and blue.
Example: Pure red is (255, 0, 0) and purple is (255, 0, 255).
Because the image is represented by a discrete array of pixels, aliasing problems may occur. The
most classical form of aliasing is the jaggy aspect of lines.
Figure: 1.1: Alias and Anti-alias Problem in Images
Source: http://i.stack.imgur.com/pA7uy.png
Anti-aliased
Aliased
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1.1.1 Types of Computer Graphics
Based on our discussion above with examples we can divide Computer graphics into two types:
1. Non-interactive Computer Graphics: It refers to the computer graphics where the observer
has no control over the image and their movements. Familiar example of this type is
cartoons shown on TV.
2. Interactive Computer Graphics: It refers to a two way communication between computer
and user. Here, the user is given some control over the image and its movement which he
does with an input device like a computer mouse. Using the input device, the user sends
signal to the system based on which the images change their action.
Example: In shooting the hen game when the user press the mouse button at the hen it
appears to him that he has killed the hen.
Notes Though non-interactive and interactive computer graphics both have their own
merits but it is interactive computer graphics that fnds its much usage these days and is
expected to increase in near future.
1.1.2 Basic Components of Interactive Computer Graphics
An interactive Computer Graphic System consists of three components:
l Input Device: This refers to the devices used to input data or give signal to the system.
Example: mouse, scanner, jockey, etc.
l Processing and Storage: This refers to the components that does processing work as well
as stores the data.
Example: Processor and memory.
l Display/Output: This refers to the component on which the output is displayed after the
processing.
Example: Monitor/Screen, Printer, etc.
Did u know? Sketchpad, frst truly interactive graphics system was developed by Ivan
Sutherland at MIT for his 1963 Ph.D. thesis.
Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
1. Computer graphics is concerned with all aspects of producing images using a computer.
2. The most common use of computer graphics is in the creation of a song.
3. Computer video game is a type of non-interactive computer graphics.
4. Monitor is an example of display component of a computer graphic system.
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1.2 Application of Computer Graphics
Computer Graphics fnd their use in various felds which are given below:
l Computer Aided Design (CAD)
l Image Processing
l Graphical User Interface (GUI)
l Presentation Graphics
l Computer Art
l Entertainment
l Education and training
1.2.1 Computer Aided Design (CAD)
Computer graphics are majorly used in design processes, particularly for engineering and
architectural system. For some of the design applications, objects are frst displayed in a Wireframe
(outline) form. Wireframe (outline) form shows the overall shape and internal features of objects.
Software package for CAD applications like JustCad generally provide the designer with a multi-
window environment as shown in Figure 1.2. Circuits are designed by placing the components
into the layout and then the graphics package automatically provides the connections between
components.
Figure 1.2: Multi-window Environment of JustCad
Source: http://www.solidswiki.com/images/e/e9/Cad_software.jpg
CAD methods are used in the design of Building, Automobiles, Aircraft, and Textiles etc.
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1.2.2 Image Processing
Image processing refers to the techniques used to modify existing pictures. Interpreting an
existing image is also a type of image processing. Image processing can be any of the following:
l Image enhancement: It deals with sharpening of image features such as boundaries or
contrast to make a graphic display much better than the original one.
l Image restoration: It deals with minimizing the effect of degradations from the existing
image.
l Image compression: It deals with minimizing the number of bits required to represent an
image without degrading the quality of the image to an unacceptable level.
1.2.3 Graphical User Interface
A Graphical User Interface (GUI) usually allows users to interact with electronic devices using
images rather than text commands. It also displays menus and icons for fast processing. Common
example of GUI is your Windows Operating System.
Figure 1.3: Windows Graphical User Interface
1.2.4 Presentation Graphics
Presentation graphics are used to generate 35-mm slides or transparent sheets for use with
projectors. In presentation graphics we generally use Bar Graphs, Line Graphs and Pie Charts.
Figure 1.4 shows a pie chart.
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Figure 1.4: A Pie Chart Example
Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/ks3/maths/images/pie_chart1.gif
1.2.5 Computer Art
Computer graphics are widely used in fne art and commercial art applications. In fne art, using
paintbrush an artist paints pictures on the screen of a video monitor. Commercial art refers to
activities like creation of logos, page layout, morphing, etc.
Example: The frst movie to employ detailed morphing was Willow, in 1988. A similar
process was used a year later in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade to create Walter Donovans
gruesome demise. Both effects were created by Industrial Light & Magic using grid warping
techniques developed by Tom Brigham and Doug Smythe (AMPAS).
1.2.6 Entertainment
Computer graphics are commonly used in making motion pictures, games and television shows.
Figure 1.5 shows a screenshot of a video game which depicts use of computer graphics.
Figure 1.5: Screenshot of a Video Game
Source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_OzwVAnut5gA/SejmPlVuaUI/AAAAAAAAAMU/k1T0H jNxLY8/s400/Foto
CounterStrikeSource.jpg
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1.2.7 Education and Training
Certain systems are used to help trainees understand the operation of the system. Simulators are
a kind of special system which is used for training of professionals like pilot, ship captains, etc.
Figure 1.6 shows a Flight Simulator.
Figure 1.6: Flight Simulator
Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Sarah_Palin_Flight_Simulator.jpg
Task
Make a list of at least three important applications of computer graphics.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
5. For some of the design applications, objects are frst displayed in a ................................. form.
6. Image processing refers to the techniques used to ................................. existing pictures.
7. A Graphical User Interface (GUI) usually allows users to interact with electronic devices
using ................................. rather than ................................. commands.
8. ................................. are used to generate 35-mm slides or transparent sheets for use with
projectors.
1.3 The Evolution of Computer Graphics
Computer graphics is a wonderful invention in the feld of Computers. As we saw earlier in the
unit it is used in diverse areas. For example, we no longer need to depend on the time consuming
punching cards or the diffcult commands.
!
Caution Computer graphics might be taken for granted today but to be at this stage it
has been a long and painful struggle because hardware rarely was keeping up with the
demand for better images.
Computer graphics is application oriented. First application was Sketchpad by Ivan Sutherland.
It allowed user to draw on the screen. Then came the concept of paint systems which made
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the basic communication between human and computer more pictorial. This lead to peoples
attention towards Word processing, Desktop publishing, Computer-aided design and simulation
of real world problems over the time. Computer games got more popular later on with use of
extensive graphics in them.
1.3.1 From Blinking Lights to Plotters
In the early days of computing, there were existing devices which could translate a simple binary
pattern into text. Thus, getting the computer to type was not that much diffcult task.
Example: The military used teletype machines for many years. Earlier computers mostly
used fashing lights with punched cards for input and output. Generally, when there is scope of
only a few hundred instructions, you take input and output in its simplest form.
But sometimes, with time and the need to do something new becomes an inventor of new
technology. Same happened when the need to produce a picture was raised. Then need increased
from simple image to an image through which a user could interact with system.
IBM offered an output printer on its 701 model in 1952. It also offered a primitive graphics solution
(the model 740 Cathode Ray Tube Output Recorder) in 1954. Figure 1.7 shows IBM model 740.
Figure 1.7: IBM Model 740
Source: http://cdn.arstechnica.net/01-19-2011/ibm_model_740.jpg
The Figure 1.7 shows how big the demand for graphics was that time. The IBM Model 740 was a
cathode ray tube to which a camera could be attached. Digital-to-analog converters used to drive
the cathode ray tube to slowly draw the lines based on the digital outputs of the computer. This
method was later called as vector graphics.
Line plotting takes place one point at a time. IBM had bragged that points were plotted at a rate of
8,000 per second, with a display accuracy of a given point of only 3%, but with good repeatability.
Typically, the camera shutter was opened when the drawing started, and closed when it fnished.
At that time, the flm could be developed, and the image could be viewed later the same day.
From the above description we can realize that this technology was not suitable for playing video
games.
The IBM Model 740 also had another similar model 780, which had a comparatively long-
persistence phosphor (20 seconds). Though it was not as precise as 740, but it allowed the operator
to verify the image desirability. Importance of this can be analyzed when one has to wait several
hours for the flm image to be developed.
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Gene Seid and Robert Morton, two of the founders of CalComp, developed an idea in 1953, that
there is another way to get an image with a slow computer and that is using a plotter. But lack of
funding kept the device off the market until 1959.
The idea of plotter is simple: drive a pen on two axes. That takes a pair of stepping motors,
and something to put the pen down at the start of a line, and lift it again at the end. Software
can calculate when the pen should be stepped in either axis to draw straight lines between two
points, curved lines, or whatever.
With time, a better software packages was developed which allowed users to describe the image
in more human-friendly terms such as a=1, plot y=ax+b for x=1 to 5, and so on. If the plotter
was used to draw a shape, it could be flled with solid, dashed, or dotted lines to simulate black or
grayscale. With time, plotters had additional pens added to do drawings in color. But the number
of colors was limited, and the drawings were still vectors.
Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
9. IBM bragged that points were plotted at a rate of 5,000 per second.
10. Computer graphics is object oriented.
11. Earlier computers mostly used fashing lights with punched cards for input and output.
12. Line plotting was not suitable for playing video games.
13. IBM Model 780 produce more desirable image than IBM Mode 740.
14. Idea of plotter was developed by Gene Seid and Robert Morton.
15. Plotter works on a very complex principle.
1.4 Summary
l Computer graphics is concerned with all aspects of producing images using a computer. It
comprises frst creating simple graphical elements and then representing them.
l The most common use of computer graphics is in the creation of an image which looks like
a photograph but portrays something which we cannot really capture in a picture. This
type of computer graphics is known as photo-realistic.
l Computer graphics are divided into two types: Non-interactive Computer Graphics
refer to the computer graphics where the observer has no control over the image and
their movements, and Interactive Computer Graphics refer to a two way communication
between computer and user.
l Computer Graphics fnd their use in various felds which are given below:
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
Image Processing
Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Presentation Graphics
Computer Art
Entertainment
Education and training
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l Computer graphics is application oriented. First application Sketchpad allowed user
to draw on the screen. Then came the concept of paint systems which made the basic
communication between human and computer more pictorial.
l Earlier computers mostly used fashing lights with punched cards for input and output.
IBM offered an output printer on its 701 model in 1952.
l Gene Seid and Robert Morton, two of the founders of CalComp, developed idea of plotter
in 1953, but lack of funding kept the device off the market until 1959. With time, a better
software packages was developed which allowed users to describe the image in more
human-friendly terms such as a=1, plot y=ax+b for x=1 to 5, and so on. Later on, plotters
had additional pens added to do drawings in color. But the number of colors was limited,
and the drawings were still vectors.
1.5 Keywords
Graphical User Interface: A system which usually allows users to interact with electronic devices
using images rather than text commands.
Image Compression: It deals with minimizing the number of bits required to represent an image
without degrading the quality of the image to an unacceptable level.
Image Enhancement: It deals with sharpening of image features such as boundaries or contrast to
make a graphic display much better than the original one.
Image Restoration: It deals with minimizing the effect of degradations from the existing image.
Interactive Computer Graphics: It refers to a two way communication between computer and
user.
Non-interactive Computer Graphics: It refers to the computer graphics where the observer has
no control over the image and their movements.
Photo-realistic: It refers to portray something which we cannot really capture in a picture.
1.6 Review Questions
1. What are two types of computer graphics?
2. What are basic components of Interactive Computer Graphics?
3. Explain use of computer graphics in image processing feld.
4. Discuss the role computer graphic plays in computer-aided design.
5. Why was line plotting not suitable for playing video games?
6. Write short note on evolution of computer graphics over the years.
Answers: Self Assessment
1. True 2. False
3. False 4. True
5. Wireframe (outline) 6. Modify
7. Images, text 8. Presentation graphics
9. False 10. False
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11. True 12. True
13. True 14. True
15. False
1.7 Further Readings
Books
Hearn, Donald & Baker, M. Pauline. Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Shirley, Peter & Marschner, Stephen Robert. Fundamentals of Computer Graphics
A K Peters Limited.
Angel, Edward. Interactive Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Krishnamurthy, N. Introduction to Computer Graphics Tata McGraw Hill.
Online links
http://cs.lmu.edu/~ray/notes/graphicsintro/
http://ecomputernotes.com/computer-graphics/basic-of-computer-graphics/
introduction-to-computer-graphics
https://users.cs.jmu.edu/bernstdh/web/common/lectures/slides_graphics-
basics.php
http://graphicssoft.about.com/od/aboutgraphics/Learn_About_Computer_
Graphics.htm
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Unit 2: Graphics Systems
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
2.1 Computer Graphics System
2.2 Video Display Devices
2.2.1 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
2.3 Vector Scan/Random Scan Display
2.4 Raster-Scan Displays
2.5 Resolution
2.6 Color Display
2.7 Frame Buffer
2.8 Summary
2.9 Keywords
2.10 Review Questions
2.11 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
l Discuss computer graphics system
l Explain video display devices
l Describe vector scan/random scan display
l Explain raster scan systems
l Defne resolution
l Discuss about the colour displays
l Explain frame buffer
Introduction
Computers have become a powerful tool for the rapid and economical production of pictures
and models. Computer graphics is a wonderful invention in the feld of Computers. It is used
in diverse areas such as displaying the results of engineering and scientifc computations and
visualization, producing television commercials and feature flms, simulation and analysis
of real world problems, computer aided design, graphical user interfaces that increases the
communication bandwidth between humans and machines, etc. The art of creating pictures with
a computer has got numerous applications, that it is of great importance to explore the intrinsic
of the world of computer graphics. The advent of CRTs brought about a major change in the
world of computers. No longer do we have to depend upon the awkward and time consuming
punching cards or the cryptic commands. There is no area in which graphics displays cannot be
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used to some advantage. In this unit, you will learn about computer graphics systems. As the unit
progress, different video display devices will be discussed. Lastly, the topics like resolution, color
display and frame buffer will be introduced.
2.1 Computer Graphics System
Computer graphics are graphics created using computers and the representation of image data
by a computer specifcally with help from specialized graphic hardware and software. Interactive
computer graphics involves some capability for user interaction. Although there are graphic
applications in which user interaction is minimal or unnecessary, such as fnal rendering of an
animation.
Did u know? Many programming languages provide libraries for creating GUIs. When
combined with a display window, these devices can be an effective way to interact with a
graphical system.
Though the term computer graphics generally is used in a broad sense to describe almost
everything on computers that is not text or sound but it actually refers to:
l representation and manipulation of image by a computer
l a feld of computer science that studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating
visual content
Computer generated images can be categorized into three different types:
l 2D (two dimensional) computer graphics is the computer-bottomed generation of digital
images mostly from two-dimensional models (such as 2D geometric models) and by
techniques specifc to them.
l 3D (three dimensional) computer graphics are graphics that use a three-dimensional
representation of geometric data (often Cartesian) that is stored in the computer for the
purposes of performing calculations and rendering 2D images. With time, 3D computer
graphics have become more common, but 2D computer graphics have not vanished.
l Computer animation refers to the art of creating moving images with the use of computers.
If we talk about Interactive Systems, a picture may take the form of a static image or that of an
animated image. In any case there needs to be an interaction between the user and the system.
!
Caution For interaction to take place, the system needs to arrange tools to facilitate input
and output devices.
Example: Computer Graphics Devices:
l CRT, VGA/SVGA monitors
l Flat panel devices, video digitizers, LCD panels
l Plotters, laser printers
l Keyboard, joystick, mouse, scanners
l Touch screen, track ball, etc.
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Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. ....................................... computer graphics is the computer-bottomed generation of digital
images mostly from two-dimensional models and by techniques specifc to them.
2. ....................................... computer graphics are graphics that use a three-dimensional
representation of geometric data that is stored in the computer for the purposes of
performing calculations and rendering 2D images.
3. ....................................... refers to the art of creating moving images with the use of computers.
2.2 Video Display Devices
We mentioned different examples of Computer Graphic device above. Different types of display
devices are:
l Raster (or Refresh) Scan Displays
l Random Scan or Calligraphic Displays
l Color CRT Monitors
l Direct View Storage Tube (DVST).
l Flat panel Displays
l Three Dimensional Viewing Devices
l Stereoscopic and Virtual Reality System
l Computer Graphics Display Devices
Did u know? The display systems are often referred to as Video Monitor Unit (VMU) or
Video Display Unit (VDU).
2.2.1 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing an electron gun (a source of electrons)
and a fuorescent screen used to view images. It has a means to accelerate and defect the electron
beam(s) to the fuorescent screen to create the images. It is a vacuum tube made up of evacuated
glass which is large, deep and heavy. Schematic representation of CRT is shown in Figure 2.1.
The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode (negative
electrode) and accelerated toward the fuorescent screen. Combination of cathode, intensity
grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode is called an electron gun. Purpose of electron gun is to
generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus. There are two defection plates
between the electron gun and the fuorescent screen. One is to provide horizontal defection of
the beam and one to give vertical defection to the beam.
Various components of CRT (Figure 2.2) are:
1. Electron gun
2. Electron beam
3. Focusing Coils
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Figure 2.1: Cathode Ray Tube (a) Schematic (b) Detail of Defection Plate
4. Defection Coils
5. Anode Connection
6. Shadow mask
7. Phosphor layer
8. Close-up of the phosphor coated inner side of the screen
Figure: 2.2: A Rendered CRT
Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/CRT_color enhanced. png/250px-CRT_color_
enhanced.png
There are two techniques used for producing image on the CRT screen: Vector scan/random
scan and Raster scan. We will cover them one by one later in this unit.
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Notes The frst commercially made electronic television sets with cathode ray tubes were
manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
4. The display systems are often referred to as ..............................
5. The .............................. is a vacuum tube containing an electron gun (a source of electrons)
and a fuorescent screen used to view images.
6. There are two techniques used for producing image on the CRT screen: Vector scan/
random scan and .............................. scan.
2.3 Vector Scan/Random Scan Display
Vector scan display directly traces out only the desired lines on the CRT tube i.e. a CRT has the
electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where a picture is to be drawn. Random
scan monitors draw a picture with one line at a time and for this reason it is also called Vector
Scan Displays. Thus, in a vector display, the image is composed of drawn lines rather than a grid
of glowing pixels as in raster graphics. An arbitrary path is followed by the electron beam to trace
the connected sloped lines, rather than following the same horizontal raster path for all images.
Dark areas of images are skipped by the beam.
Did u know? Figure 2.3 shows fve line segments, the right and left roof slopes, the right and
left walls and the foor line. Effectiveness can be achieved by minimizing wasted motion.
Hence, it would be better to trace the path like ABCDE, than as CB, CD, BA, DE, and AE.
Figure 2.3: Vector Scan Display
Source: http://www.expertsmind.com/CMSImages/808_Line%20Drawing%20Display%20-%20Random%20Scan%20
Display%20Device%202.png
When functioned as a random-scan display unit, a CRT has the electron beam directed only to
the components of the computer display where a picture is to be drawn. The constituent lines of
an image can be drawn and refreshed by a random-scan.
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Figure 2.4: Random-Scan Display Unit
Source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_hlVhUoVqhz8/TVUsQwHetRI/AAAAAAAAATA/wtxx9cZWVjI/s400/Interlacing+s
can+lines+on+a+raster-scan+display.png
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
7. Random scan monitors draw a picture with one line at a time and for this reason it is also
called .......................................
8. When functioned as a ......................................., a CRT has the electron beam directed only to
the components of the computer display where a picture is to be drawn.
2.4 Raster-Scan Displays
The most common kind of graphics using a CRT is the raster-scan display. It is bottomed on TV
technology. In a raster-scan system, the electron beam is cleared over the screen, one row at a time
from top to bottom. As the electron beam moves over each row, the beam intensity is turned on
and off to create a pattern of illuminated locations. Picture defnition is stored in a memory area
called the refresh buffer or frame buffer. This memory area holds the set of intensity values for all
the screen points. Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and displayed
on the screen one row (scan line) at a time. Each computer display screen point is referred to as
a pixel. The capability of a raster-scan system to store intensity for each computer display point
makes it well matched for the realistic display of scenes including subtle shadowing and color
patterns. Home television groups and printers are examples of other systems using raster-scan
methods.
Figure 2.5: A Raster-scan System Displays an Object as a Set of Discrete Points across Each Scan Line
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_hlVhUoVqhz8/TVUsRKnGqaI/AAAAAAAAATM/ioYKjIRx2As/s1600/raster-scan+s
ystem+displays+an+object+as+a+set+of+discrete+points+across+each+scan+line.png
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On some raster-scan systems (and in TV sets), each frame is displayed in two passes using
an interlaced refresh procedure. In the frst pass, the beam sweeps over every other scan line
from top to bottom. Then after the vertical retrace, the beam clears out the residual scan lines.
Interlacing of the scan lines in this way permits us to see the entire computer display displayed
in one-half the time it would have taken to clear over all the lines at one time from top to bottom.
Interlacing is mainly used with slower refreshing rates. On an older, 30 frames-per-second, non-
interlaced display, for example, some ficker is obvious. But with interlacing, each of the two
passes can be carried out in 1/60th of a second, which brings the refresh rate nearer to 60 frames
per second. This is a productive technique for avoiding ficker, supplying that adjacent scan lines
comprise similar display information.
Task
Make a difference between raster scan and random scan technique.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
9. In a .................................., the electron beam is cleared over the screen, one row at a time
from top to bottom.
10. Picture defnition is stored in a memory area called the ...................................
2.5 Resolution
The resolution of a digital television or computer monitor display device is the number of distinct
pixels in each dimension that can be displayed. It can be an ambiguous term particularly as the
displayed resolution is controlled by different components in cathode ray tube (CRT), Flat panel
display which includes liquid crystal displays, or projection displays using fxed pixel arrays.
It is usually given as width height, with the units in pixels: for example, 1024 768 means the
width is 1024 pixels and the height is 768 pixels. This example would commonly be called as ten
twenty-four by seven sixty-eight or ten twenty-four by seven six eight.
Notes Printers, monitors, scanners etc. are frequently known as high resolution, medium
resolution, or low resolution.
Televisions are of the following resolutions:
1. Standard defnition television (SDTV):
(a) 480i (NTSC standard uses an analog system of 486i split into two interlaced felds of
243 lines)
(b) 576i (PAL, 720 576 split into two interlaced felds of 288 lines)
2. Enhanced defnition television (EDTV):
(a) 480p (720 480 progressive scan)
(b) 576p (720 576 progressive scan)
3. High defnition television (HDTV):
(a) 720p (1280 720 progressive scan)
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(b) 1080i (1920 1080 split into two interlaced elds of 540 lines)
(c) 1080p (1920 1080 progressive scan)
4. Ultra-high denition television (UHDTV)
(a) 2160p (3840 2160 progressive scan)
(b) 4320p (7680 4320 progressive scan)
(c) 8640p (15360 8640 progressive scan)
Following Table 2.1 shows some common display resolutions for computer monitor display.
Table 2.1: Some Common Display Resolutions for Computer Monitor Display
Most common display resolutions in rst half of 2012
Acronym Aspect ratio Width (px) Height (px) % of Steam users % of web users
VGA 4:3 640 480 00.02 n/a
SVGA 4:3 800 600 00.17 01.03
WSVGA ~17:10 1024 600 00.31 02.25
XGA 4:3 1024 768 05.53 18.69
XGA+ 4:3 1152 864 00.87 01.55
WXGA 16:9 1280 720 01.51 01.54
WXGA 5:3 1280 768 n/a 01.54
WXGA 16:10 1280 800 04.25 12.97
SXGA(UVGA) 4:3 1280 960 00.72 00.72
SXGA 5:4 1280 1024 10.66 07.49
HD ~16:9 1360 768 02.36 02.28
HD ~16:9 1366 768 17.19 19.14
SXGA+ 4:3 1400 1050 00.18 n/a
WXGA+ 16:10 1440 900 07.60 06.61
HD+ 16:9 1600 900 06.82 03.82
UXGA 4:3 1600 1200 00.53 n/a
WSXGA+ 16:10 1680 1050 10.26 03.66
FHD 16:9 1920 1080 25.04 05.09
WUXGA 16:10 1920 1200 03.65 01.11
QWXGA 16:9 2048 1152 00.13 n/a
WQHD 16:9 2560 1440 00.72 00.36
WQXGA 16:10 2560 1600 00.19 n/a
3:4 768 1024 n/a 01.93
16:9 1093 614 n/a 00.63
~16:9 1311 737 n/a 00.35
Other 01.29 07.25
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Display_resolution
Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
11. The resolution of a digital television or computer monitor display device is the number of
distinct pixels in each dimension.
12. Printers, monitors, scanners etc. are frequently known as high resolution, medium
resolution, or low resolution.
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2.6 Color Display
Computers typically display color in three components red, green, and blue. When combined,
these three colors make the full-color image as seen in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6 Color Image
Source: http://www.graphics.cornell.edu/online/tutorial/color/heidirgb.jpg
The RGB color model is color model in which red, green, and blue light are added together in
various ways to reproduce a broad array of colors. The main purpose of the RGB color model is
for the sensing, representation, and display of images in electronic systems, such as televisions
and computers.
Did u know? RGB is a device-dependent color model which means different devices detect
or reproduce a given RGB value differently.
Display technologies infuence how colors are represented and thus can depend on:
l Physical differences between inks
l Dot gain ink can tend to spread slightly depending on how it lays on or is absorbed by
the paper being used
l LCD versus RGB displays both are different technologies so have different color sets
l NTSC versus RGB displays depends on resolution, interlacing, color encoding
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
13. Computers typically display color in three components red, ................................, and ......
...........................
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14. The ................................ is color model in which red, green, and blue light are added together
in various ways to reproduce a broad array of colors.
2.7 Frame Buffer
A Framebuffer (or occasionally called Framestore) is a video output device that drives a video
display from a memory buffer containing an entire frame of data.
The data in the memory buffer normally comprises of color values for every pixel (point that can
be displayed) on the computer display. Color standards are commonly retained in 1-bit binary
(monochrome), 4-bit palettized, 8-bit palettized, 16-bit highcolor and 24-bit truecolor formats. An
additional alpha channel is occasionally used to retain data about pixel transparency. The total
allowance of the memory required to propel the framebuffer depends on the resolution of the
output signal, and on the color deepness and palette size.
Figure 2.7: Overhead Photo of a Sun TGX Framebuffer
Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sun_sbus_cgsix_framebuffer.jpg
Framebuffers used in personal and home computing often had sets of dened modes under
which the framebuffer could operate. They would automatically recongure the hardware to
output different resolutions, color depths, memory layouts and refresh rate timings.
An indexed frame buffer contains only one display color table index for each pixel on the display
surface as shown in the Figure 2.8, as opposed to the three color indexes provided by a component
buffer.
Figure 2.8: Indexed Frame Buffer
Source: http://pic.dhe.ibm.com/infocenter/aix/v7r1/topic/com.ibm.aix.graPHIGS/doc/phigsund/gures/AFM24rac.jpg
Indexed Display Color Tables
8 Bit Frame Buffer
R G B
0
1
2
253
254
255
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Component frame buffers provide millions more simultaneously displayable colors than do
indexed frame buffers due to the separate indexing of the red, green, and blue components. For
example, a workstation with a display color table of 512 entries and a component frame buffer
with a bit depth of 24 bits (8 bits for each color component) will be capable of displaying from
a palette of 16.7 million colors simultaneously. The same workstation would only be able to
display 512 colors simultaneously using an index frame buffer.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
15. A ................................. is a video output device that drives a video display from a memory
buffer containing an entire frame of data.
16. An ................................. frame buffer contains only one display color table index for each
pixel on the display surface.
2.8 Summary
l Many programming languages provide libraries for creating GUIs. When combined with
a display window, these devices can be an effective way to interact with a graphical system.
l The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing an electron gun (a source of
electrons) and a fuorescent screen used to view images.
l Vector scan display directly traces out only the desired lines on the CRT tube i.e. a CRT has
the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where a picture is to be drawn.
l The most common kind of graphics using a CRT is the raster-scan display. It is bottomed
on TV technology. In a raster-scan system, the electron beam is cleared over the screen, one
row at a time from top to bottom.
l On some raster-scan systems (and in TV sets), each frame is displayed in two passes using
an interlaced refresh procedure. In the frst pass, the beam sweeps over every other scan
line from top to bottom.
l The resolution of a digital television or computer monitor display device is the number of
distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed.
l Computers typically display color in three components red, green, and blue. When
combined, these three colors make the full-color image
l A Framebuffer (or occasionally called Framestore) is a video output device that drives a
video display from a memory buffer containing an entire frame of data.
2.9 Keywords
2D (two dimensional): 2D computer graphics is the computer-bottomed generation of digital
images mostly from two-dimensional models (such as 2D geometric models) and by techniques
specifc to them.
3D (three dimensional): 3D computer graphics are graphics that use a three-dimensional
representation of geometric data (often Cartesian) that is stored in the computer for the purposes
of performing calculations and rendering 2D images.
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): The CRT is a vacuum tube containing an electron gun (a source of
electrons) and a fuorescent screen used to view images.
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Cathode Ray: The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode
(negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fuorescent screen.
Computer Animation: Computer animation refers to the art of creating moving images with the
use of computers.
Computer Graphics: Computer graphics are graphics created using computers and the
representation of image data by a computer specifcally with help from specialized graphic
hardware and software.
Framebuffer: A Framebuffer (or occasionally called Framestore) is a video output device that
drives a video display from a memory buffer containing an entire frame of data.
Raster-scan System: In a raster-scan system, the electron beam is cleared over the screen, one
row at a time from top to bottom.
RGB color Model: The RGB color model is color model in which red, green, and blue light are
added together in various ways to reproduce a broad array of colors.
Vector Scan Displays: Random scan monitors draw a picture with one line at a time and for this
reason it is also called Vector Scan Displays.
2.10 Review Questions
1. What is the computer graphics system?
2. Write down the different types of computer generated images. Also give examples.
3. Discuss the video display devices.
4. What is Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)?
5. Make a list of various components of CRT.
6. Explain the vector scan/random scan display.
7. A raster-scan system displays an object as a set of discrete points across each scan line.
Elaborate.
8. Explain the resolution. Give examples.
9. Explain the colour displays. How do we see colour display?
10. Write down the meaning of framebuffer.
Answers: Self Assessment
1. 2D (two dimensional) 2. 3D (three dimensional)
3. Computer animation
4. Video Monitor Unit (VMU) or Video Display Unit (VDU).
5. Cathode ray tube (CRT) 6. Raster
7. Vector Scan Displays 8. Random-scan display unit
9. Raster-scan system 10. Refresh buffer or frame buffer
11. True 12. True
13. Green and blue 14. RGB color model
15. Framebuffer 16. indexed
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2.11 Further Readings
Books
Hearn, Donald & Baker, M. Pauline. Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Shirley, Peter & Marschner, Stephen Robert. Fundamentals of Computer Graphics
A K Peters Limited.
Angel, Edward. Interactive Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Krishnamurthy, N. Introduction to Computer Graphics Tata McGraw Hill.
Online links
http://www.dgp.toronto.edu/~hertzman/418notes.pdf
http://www.eazynotes.com/notes/computer-graphics/notes/short-answer-
type-questions.pdf
http://www.inf.ed.ac.uk/teaching/courses/cg/Web/intro_graphics.pdf
Unit 3: Implementing Line Algorithm
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Unit 3: Implementing Line Algorithm
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
3.1 Concept of Implementing Line Algorithm
3.2 Concept of Bresenhams Algorithm
3.2.1 Algorithm
3.2.2 Optimization
3.2.3 Simplifcation
3.2.4 Derivation of Bresenhams Algorithm
3.3 DDA Line Algorithm
3.4 Summary
3.5 Keywords
3.6 Review Questions
3.7 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
l Explain the concept of Implementing Line Algorithm
l Discuss the concept of Bresenhams Algorithm
l Defne DDA Line Algorithm
Introduction
The Bresenham algorithm is probably the most effcient of all line drawing algorithms. It greatly
simplifes line drawing by using only integer variables, and importantly removing that costly
division operation for slope. Before we begin implementing the algorithm, it is advisable to
revise the method for drawing line in an ineffcient way. This can help lay out the fundamentals
of line algorithm, and is very useful since Bresenham algorithm itself is an extension of the
ineffcient one anyway. In this unit, you will learn about implementing line algorithm. Concept
of Bresenham algorithm will be discussed later in this unit. Finally, you will learn about DDA
line algorithm.
3.1 Concept of Implementing Line Algorithm
A line drawing algorithm is a graphical algorithm for approximating a line segment on discrete
graphical media. On discrete media, such as pixel-based displays and printers, line drawing
needs such an approximation. On continuous media, by contrast, no algorithm is essential to
draw a line.
Example: Oscilloscopes use natural phenomena to draw lines and curves.
The Cartesian slope-intercept equation for a straight line is Y = mx + a. Here m represents the
slope of the line and a represent y intercept. If it is given that the two endpoints of the line
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segment at positions (x
1
,y
1
) and (x
2
,y
2
), we can fnd values for the slope m and y intercept b with
the following calculations,
m = (y
2
y
1
)/(x
2
x
1
)
so, a = y
1
m.x
1
A nave line-drawing algorithm
dx = x
2
x
1
dy = y
2
y
1
for x from x
1
to x
2
{
y = y
1
+ (dy) * (x x
1
)/(dx)
plot(x, y)
}
It is assumed here that the points have already been ordered so that x
2
> x
1
. This algorithm works
just fne when dx > = dy

(i.e., slope is less than or equal to 1), but if dx < dy (i.e., slope is greater
than 1), the line get lots of gaps, and in the case of dx = 0, only a single point is plotted.
Notes The nave line drawing algorithm is ineffcient and thus, works slow on a digital
computer. Line drawing algorithms such as Bresenhams is preferred instead.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. A ............................... algorithm is a graphical algorithm for approximating a line segment
on discrete graphical media.
2. On ..............................., no algorithm is essential to draw a line.
3. The Cartesian slope-intercept equation for a straight line is Y = ................................
4. The ............................... drawing algorithm is ineffcient and thus, works slow on a digital
computer.
3.2 Concept of Bresenhams Algorithm
The Bresenham line algorithm is an algorithm which determines which order to form a close
approximation to a straight line between two given points. It is routinely used to draw lines on a
computer screen, as it benefts only integer addition, subtraction and bit shifting operations, all
of which are very cheap procedures.
Did u know? It is one of the earliest algorithms evolved in the area of computer graphics.
3.2.1 Algorithm
The common conventions will be used:
l the top-left is (0,0) such that pixel coordinates increase in the right and down directions
[e.g. that the pixel at (7,4) is directly above the pixel at (7,5)], and
l that the pixel centers have integer coordinates.
Unit 3: Implementing Line Algorithm
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The endpoints of the line are the pixels at (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
), where the frst coordinate of the pair
is the column and the second is the row.
Figure 3.1: Illustration of the Result of Bresenhams Line Algorithm
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bresenham.svg
Bresenhams algorithm chooses the integer y corresponding to the pixel center that is closest to
the ideal (fractional) y for the same x; on successive columns y can remain the same or increase by
1. The general equation of the line through the endpoints is given by:
0 0
1 0 1 0
.
y y x x
y y x x

=

Since we know the column, x, the pixels row, y, is given by rounding this quantity to the nearest
integer:
( )
1 0
0 0
1 0
.
y y
y x x y
x x

= +

The slope (y
1
y
0
)/ (x
1
x
0
) depends on the endpoint coordinates only and can be precomputed,
and the ideal y for successive integer values of x can be computed starting from y
0
and repeatedly
adding the slope.
We will use variables x
1
, x
2
, y
1
, y
2
here in our algorithm.
In the following pseudocode sample plot(x,y) plots a point and abs returns absolute value:
function line(x
1
, x
2
, y
1
, y
2
)
intdeltax := x
2
x
1
intdeltay := y
2
y
1
real error := 0
realdeltaerr := abs (deltay/deltax) // Assume deltax != 0 (line is not vertical),
//note that this division needs to be done in a way that preserves the fractional part
int y : = y
1
for x from x
1
to x
2
plot(x, y)
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error := error + deltaerr
if error 0.5 then
y := y + 1
error := error - 1.0
3.2.2 Optimization
Problem with this approach is that computers operate relatively slowly numbers which are in
fraction like error and deltaerr. Working with integers is faster and more accurate. Here we use
a trick to multiply all the fractional numbers (including the constant 0.5) in the code above by
deltax, by which we can express them in form on integers. To make it work accordingly we
modify the code as:
function line(x
1
, y
1
, x
2
, y
2
)
boolean steep := abs(y
2
y
1
) > abs(x
2
x
1
)
if steep then
swap(x
1
, y
1
)
swap(x
2
, y
2
)
if x
1
> x
2
then
swap(x
1
, x
2
)
swap(y
1
, y
2
)
intdeltax: = x
2
x
1
intdeltay:= abs(y
2
y
1
)
int error := deltax/2
intystep
int y := y
1
if y
1
< y
2
thenystep := 1 elseystep := 1
for x from x
1
to x
2
if steep then plot(y,x) else plot(x,y)
error := error deltay
if error < 0 then
y := y + y
step
error := error + deltax
Now, if you want to control the points in order of appearance (for example to print several
consecutive dashed lines) you will have to again modify the code (actually skip the second swap):
function line(x
1
, y
1
, x
2
, y
2
)
boolean steep := abs(y
2
y
1
) > abs(x
2
x
1
)
if steep then
swap(x
1
, y
1
)
Unit 3: Implementing Line Algorithm
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swap(x
2
, y
2
)
intdeltax := abs(x
2
x
1
)
intdeltay := abs(y
2
y
1
)
int error := deltax/2
intystep
int y : = y
1
intinc REM added
if x
1
< x
2
theninc: = 1 elseinc := 1 REM added
if y
1
< y
2
thenystep: = 1 elseystep := 1
for x from x
1
to x
2
with incrementinc REM changed
if steep then plot(y,x) else plot(x,y)
REM increment here a variable to control the progress of the line drawing
error := error deltay
if error < 0 then
y := y + ystep
error := error + deltax
3.2.3 Simplifcation
It is further possible to eliminate the swaps in the initial stage by considering the error calculation
for both directions simultaneously:
function line (x
1
, y
1
, x
2
, y
2
)
dx := abs(x
2
x
1
)
dy : = abs(y
2
y
1
)
if x
1
< x
2
thensx := 1 elsesx := 1
if y
1
< y
2
thensy := 1 elsesy := 1
err := dx dy
loop
plot(x
1
,y
1
)
if x
1
= x
2
and y
1
= y
2
exit loop
e
2
:= 2*err
if e
2
> dy then
err := err dy
x
1
:= x
1
+ sx
end if
if x
1
= x
2
and y
1
= y
2
then
plot(x
1
, y
1
)
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exit loop
end if
if e
2
< dx then
err := err + dx
y
1
:= y
1
+ sy
end if
end loop
3.2.4 Derivation of Bresenhams Algorithm
To derive Bresenhams algorithm, two steps are required. The frst step is transforming the
equation of a line from the typical slope-intercept form into something different second step is
using this new equation for a line to draw a line based on the idea of accumulation of error.
Line Equation
The slope-intercept form of a line can be written as:
y = f(x) = mx + b
where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. This is a function of only x and it would be useful to
make this equation written as a function of both x and y.
Using algebraic manipulation and recognition that the slope is the y/x then
y = mx + b
y =
( )
( )
y
x b
x

(x)y = (y)x + (x)b

0 = (y)x (x)y + (x)b.
Let the last equation be a function of x and y then it can be written as:
f(x, y) = 0 = Ax + By + C
where the constants are:
A = y
B = x
C = (x)b
The line is then defned for some constants A, B, and C and anywhere f(x, y) = 0.
Notes For any (x, y) not on the line then (x, y) 0 it should be noted that everything about
this form involves only integers if x and y are integers as the constants are necessarily
integers.
For an example, the line
1
1
2
y x = + could be written as f(x, y) = x 2y + 2 .
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The point (2,2) is on the line
f(2, 2) = x 2y + 2 = (2) 2(2) + 2 = 2 4 + 2 = 0
and the point (2,3) is not on the line
f(2, 3) = (2) 2(3) + 2 = 2 6 + 2 = 2
and neither is the point (2,1)
f(2, 1) = (2) 2(1) + 2 = 2 2 + 2 = 2
Also note that the points (2,1) and (2,3) are on opposite sides of the line and f(x,y) evaluates to
positive or negative.
Figure 3.2: Positive and Negative Half-planes
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Line_1.5x%2B1_--_planes.svg
As you can see line splits a plane into halves and the half-plane that has a negative f(x,y) can be
called the negative half-plane, and the other half can called the positive half-plane.
Algorithm
Clearly, the starting point is on the line
f(x
0
, y
0
) = 0
only because the line is defned to start and end on integer coordinates.
!
Caution Keeping in mind that the slope is less-than-or-equal-to 1, the problem now presents
itself as to whether the next point should be at (x
0
+ 1, y
0
) or (x
0
+ 1, y
0
+ 1).
The point should be chosen based upon which is closer to the line at x
0
+ 1. If it is closer to the
former then include the former point on the line, if the latter then the latter.
To answer this, let us evaluate the line function at the midpoint between these two points:
f(x
0
+ 1, y
0
+ 1/2)
If the value of this is positive then the ideal line is below the midpoint and closer to the candidate
point (x
0
+ 1, y
0
+ 1). Otherwise, the ideal line passes through or above the midpoint, and in this
case chooses the point (x
0
+ 1, y
0
).
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The Figure 3.3 shows the blue point (2,2) chosen to be on the line with two candidate points in
green (3,2) and (3,3). The black point (3, 2.5) is the midpoint between the two candidate points.
Figure 3.3: Candidate Point (2,2) in Blue and Two Candidate Points in Green (3,2) and (3,3)
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Line_1.5x%2B1_--_candidates.svg
Algorithm with Integer Arithmetic
Alternatively, the difference between points can be used instead of evaluating f(x,y) at midpoints.
This alternative method allows for integer-only arithmetic, which is generally considered faster
than using foating-point arithmetic.
To derive the alternative method, defne the difference to be as follows:
D = f(x
0
+1, y
0
+ 1/2 ) f(x
0
, y
0
).
Simplifying this expression yields:
D = | |
0 0 0 0
[A( 1) B( 1/2) C] A B C x y x y + + + + + +
=
| |
0 0 0 0
1
A B C A B A B C
2
x y x y
(
+ + + + + +
(

=
1
A B
2
+
Now, if D is positive, then choose (x
0
+ 1, y
0
+ 1), otherwise choose (x
0
+ 1, y
0
).
The decision for the second point can be written as
0 0 0 0
( 2, 1/2) ( 1, 1/2) A f x y f x y y + + + + = =
0 0 0 0
( 2, 3/2) ( 1, 1/2) A B f x y f x y y x + + + + = + =
If the difference is positive then (x
0
+ 2, y
0
+ 1) is chosen, otherwise (x
0
+ 2, y
0
).
So, all of the derivation for the algorithm is done.
plotLine (x
1
, y
1
, x
2
, y
2
)
dx = x
2
x
1
dy = y
2
y
1
Unit 3: Implementing Line Algorithm
Notes
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 33
D = 2 * dy dx
plot(x
1
,y
1
)
y = y
1
for x from x
1
+ 1 to x
2
if D > 0
y = y + 1
plot(x, y)
D = D + (2 * dy 2 * dx)
else
plot(x, y)
D = D + (2* dy)
Now, let us take an example for this. Running this algorithm for f(x, y) = x 2y + 2 from (0,1) to
(6,4) yields the following differences with dx = 6 and dy = 3:
l D = 2*3-6=0
l plot(0,1)
l Loop from 1 to 6
x = 1: D 0: plot(1,1), D = 6
x = 2: D > 0: y = 2, plot(2,2), D = 6 + (612) = 0
x = 3: D 0: plot(3,2), D = 6
x = 4: D > 0: y = 3, plot(4,3), D = 6 + (6 12) = 0
x = 5: D 0: plot(5,3), D = 6
x = 6: D > 0: y = 4, plot(6, 4), D = 6 + (6 12) = 0
The result of this plot is shown in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: Plotting the Line from (0,1) to (6,4) Showing a Plot of Grid Lines and Pixels
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Line_1.5x%2B1_--_points.svg
Lab on Computer Graphics
Notes
34 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
The plotting can be viewed by plotting at the intersection of lines (blue circles) or flling in pixel
boxes (yellow squares).
Bresenhams Line Drawing Algorithm in C
Following example shows how to draw a line with 0 <= slope <= 1, using the Bresenhams
algorithm:
voiddraw_line(foat x
1
,foat y
1
,foat x
2
,foat y
2
)
{
foatdy,dx;
foatx,y;
foat p, p
0
, dp
1
, dp
2
;
dy = y
2
y
1
;
dx = x
2
x
1
;
p
0
= 2 * (dy dx);
dp
1
= 2 * dy;
dp
2
= 2 * (dy dx);
putpixel(x
1
, y
1
, EGA_WHITE);
p = p
0
;
for (x = x
1
+ 1, y = y
1
; x < x
2
; x++)
{
if(p < 0)
{
p = p + dp
1
;
putpixel (x, y,EGA_WHITE);
}
else
{
p = p + dp
2
;
y++;
putpixel (x, y,EGA_WHITE);
}
}
}
The Bresenham algorithm can be interpreted as slightly modifed DDA.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
5. The ............................. algorithm is an algorithm which determines which order to form a
close approximation to a straight line between two given points.
Unit 3: Implementing Line Algorithm
Notes
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 35
6. Working with ............................. is faster and more accurate.
7. A plane into halves and the half-plane that has a negative f(x,y) can be called the
.............................
8. This alternative method allows for integer-only arithmetic, which is generally considered
faster than using ............................. arithmetic.
9. The Bresenham algorithm can be interpreted as slightly modifed ..............................
3.3 DDA Line Algorithm
In computer graphics, a hardware or software implementation of a digital differential analyzer
(DDA) is used for linear interpolation of variables over an interval between start and end point.
DDAs are used for creation of lines, triangles and polygons. In its simplest implementation the
DDA algorithm interpolates values in interval [(x
start
, y
start
), (x
end
, y
end
)] by computing for each x
i
the
equations x
i
= x
i 1
+ 1/m, y
i
= y
i1
+ m, where x = x
end
x
start
and y = y
end
y
start
and m = y/x.
This method can be implemented using foating-point or integer arithmetic. The native foating-
point implementation requires one addition and one rounding operation per interpolated value
and output result.
Notes This process is only effcient when a Floating point unit with fast add and rounding
operation is available.
The fxed-point integer operation requires two additions per output cycle. In case of fractional
value, one additional increment and subtraction is required. The probability of fractional part
overfows is proportional to the ratio m of the interpolated start/end values.
Did u know? DDAs are well suited for hardware implementation and can be pipelined for
maximized throughput.
3.3.1 Algorithm
DDA is a scan conversion line algorithm based on calculating either dy or dx. A line is sampled
at unit intervals in one coordinate and corresponding integer values nearest the line path are
determined for other coordinates.
Considering a line with positive slope, if the slope is less than or equal to 1, we sample at unit x
intervals (dx = 1) and compute successive y values as
y
k+1
= y
k
+ m.
Subscript k takes integer values starting from 0, for the 1st point and increases by 1 until endpoint
is reached. y value is rounded off to nearest integer to correspond to a screen pixel.
For lines with slope greater than 1, we reverse the role of x and y i.e. we sample at dy = 1 and
calculate consecutive x values as
1
1
k k
x x
m
+
= +
.
Similar calculations are carried out to determine pixel positions along a line with negative slope.
Thus, if the absolute value of the slope is less than 1, we set dx = 1 if x
start
< x
end
i.e. the starting
extreme point is at the left.
Lab on Computer Graphics
Notes
36 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
10. A hardware or software implementation of a digital differential analyzer (DDA) is used for
linear interpolation of variables over an interval between start and end point.
11. DDAs are not used for creation of lines, triangles and polygons.
12. The xed-point integer operation requires one addition per output cycle.
3.4 Summary
A line drawing algorithm is a graphical algorithm for approximating a line segment on
discrete graphical media.
The Cartesian slope-intercept equation for a straight line is Y = mx + a. Here m represents
the slope of the line and a represent y intercept.
The Bresenham line algorithm is an algorithm which determines which order to form a
close approximation to a straight line between two given points.
Bresenhams algorithm chooses the integer y corresponding to the pixel center that is
closest to the ideal (fractional) y for the same x; on successive columns y can remain the
same or increase by 1.
Problem with this approach is that computers operate relatively slowly numbers which are
in fraction like error and deltaerr.
To derive Bresenhams algorithm, two steps are required. The rst step is transforming the
equation of a line from the typical slope-intercept form into something different second
step is using this new equation for a line to draw a line based on the idea of accumulation
of error.
In computer graphics, a hardware or software implementation of a digital differential
analyzer (DDA) is used for linear interpolation of variables over an interval between start
and end point.
DDA is a scan conversion line algorithm based on calculating either dy or dx. A line is
sampled at unit intervals in one coordinate and corresponding integer values nearest the
line path are determined for other coordinates.
3.5 Keywords
Bresenhams Algorithm: The Bresenham line algorithm is an algorithm which determines which
order to form a close approximation to a straight line between two given points.
Cartesian Slope-intercept: The Cartesian slope-intercept equation for a straight line is Y= mx + a.
Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA): In computer graphics, a hardware or software
implementation of a digital differential analyzer (DDA) is used for linear interpolation of
variables over an interval between start and end point.
Line Drawing Algorithm: A line drawing algorithm is a graphical algorithm for approximating a
line segment on discrete graphical media.
Negative Half-plane: Line splits a plane into halves and the half-plane that has a negative f(x,y)
can be called the negative half-plane.
Unit 3: Implementing Line Algorithm
Notes
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 37
3.6 Review Questions
1. Briey explain the concept of implementing line algorithm.
2. What is Bresenhams Algorithm?
3. Explain the algorithm for Bresenham. Also illustrate the result of Bresenhams line
algorithm.
4. Explain the optimization for Bresenham.
5. How it is possible to eliminate the swaps in the initial stage?
6. What are the steps required for deriving Bresenhams algorithm?
7. Discuss the algorithm with integer arithmetic.
8. Explain the Bresenhams line drawing algorithm in C.
9. What is DDA line algorithm?
10. DDA is a scan conversion line algorithm based on calculating either dy or dx. Discuss.
Answers: Self Assessment
1. Line drawing 2. Continuous media
3. mx + a 4. Nave line
5. Bresenham line 6. Integers
7. Negative half-plane 8. Floating-point
9. DDA 10. True
11. False 12. False
3.7 Further Readings
Books
Hearn, Donald & Baker, M. Pauline. Computer GraphicsPearson Education.
Shirley, Peter & Marschner, Stephen Robert. Fundamentals of Computer Graphics
A K Peters Limited.
Angel, Edward. Interactive Computer GraphicsPearson Education.
Krishnamurthy, N. Introduction to Computer Graphics Tata McGraw Hill.
Online links
www.cs.helsinki./group/goa/mallinnus/lines/bresenh.html
www.cs.princeton.edu/~rs/AlgsDS07/17GeometricSearch.pdf
tech-algorithm.com/articles/drawing-line-using-bresenham-algorithm/
Lab on Computer Graphics
Notes
38 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
Unit 4: Implementing Circle Algorithm
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
4.1 Concept of Circle Algorithm
4.1.1 The Symmetry of a Circle
4.2 Midpoint Circle Algorithm
4.2.1 Algorithm
4.2.2 Variant with Integer-based Arithmetic
4.3 Bresenhams Circle Drawing Algorithm Using C
4.3.1 Optimization
4.4 Summary
4.5 Keywords
4.6 Review Questions
4.7 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
l Discuss the concept of circle algorithm
l State the midpoint circle drawing algorithm
l Explain the Bresenhams circle drawing algorithm
Introduction
A circle is a round plane fgure whose boundary (the circumference) consists of points equidistant
from a fxed center. The diameter of a circle is the length of the line through the center and
touching two points on its edge. In this unit, you will learn about implementing circle algorithm.
After discussing concept of circle algorithm midpoint circle algorithm will be covered. Finally,
Bresenham circle drawing algorithm will be covered in the unit.
4.1 Concept of Circle Algorithm
A circle is a simple shape of geometry that is the set of all points in a plane that are at a given
distance from a given point, the centre. The distance between any of the points and the centre is
called the radius.
The general equation of a circle is:
x
2
+ y
2
+ Dx + Ey + F = 0
The centre-radius form of the equation is:
(x h)
2
+ (y k)
2
= r
2
Unit 4: Implementing Circle Algorithm
Notes
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 39
4.1.1 The Symmetry of a Circle
l Due to the eight way symmetry of a circle, it is necessary to calculate the positions of the
pixels of only one octant.
l Up to eight points can thus be plotted simultaneously.
Figure 4.1: The 8-way Symmetry of a Circle
Source: staff.um.edu.mt/kurt//documents/grafx.pdf
Procedure PlotCirclePoints (x, y: Integer);
Begin
PlotPixel (xc + x, yc + y);
PlotPixel (xc + x, yc y);
If x <> 0 then
begin
PlotPixel (xc x, yc + y);
PlotPixel (xc x, yc y)
end;
If x <> y then
begin
PlotPixel (xc + y, yc + x);
PlotPixel (xc y, yc + x);
If x <> 0 then
begin
PlotPixel (xc + y, yc x);
PlotPixel (xc y, yc x)
end
end
End;
Lab on Computer Graphics
Notes
40 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. The distance between any of the points and the centre is called the ............................
2. A circle is a simple shape of geometry that is the set of all points in a plane that are at a
given distance from a given point, the center ............................
3. Due to the ............................ way symmetry of a circle, it is necessary to calculate the
positions of the pixels of only one octant.
4.2 Midpoint Circle Algorithm
In computer graphics, the midpoint circle algorithm is an algorithm used to determine the points
needed for drawing a circle. This algorithm is a variant of Bresenhams line algorithm, and is
thus sometimes known as Bresenhams circle algorithm, although not actually invented by Jack
E. Bresenham.
Did u know? In the mid-point circle algorithm we use eight-way symmetry so only ever
calculate the points for the top right eighth of a circle, and then use symmetry to get the
rest of the points.
4.2.1 Algorithm
The algorithm starts with the circle equation x
2
+ y
2
= r
2
. For simplicity, assume the center of the
circle is at (0, 0). First we will consider only the frst octant and draw a curve which starts at point
(r, 0) and proceeds counterclockwise, reaching the angle of 45.
The fast direction here is the y direction. The algorithm always takes a step in the positive direction
(upwards), and occasionally takes a step in the slow direction (the negative direction).
From the circle equation we obtain the transformed equation x
2
+ y
2
r
2
= 0, where r
2
is computed
only a single time during initialization.
Let the points on the circle be a sequence of coordinates of the vector to the point. Points are
numbered according to the order in which they are drawn, with n = 1 assigned to the frst point.
For each point, the following holds:
2 2 2
n n
x y r + =
We can also write this as:
2 2 2
n n
x r y =
Also in similar way for next point we can write:
2 2 2
1 1 n n
x r y
+ +
=
In general, it is true that:
2 2
1
2
2 2 2
1
( 1)
2 1
2 1
n n
n n
n n n
y y
y y
x r y y
+
+
= +
= + +
=
Unit 4: Implementing Circle Algorithm
Notes
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 41
So we rewrite our next-point-equation into a recursive one by substituting
2 2 2
2 2
1
:
2 1
n n
n n n
x r y
x x y
+
=
=
!
Caution As the continuity of a circle and the maxima along both axes is the same, we will
not be skipping x points as we advance in the sequence.
The frequent computations of squares in the circle equation, trigonometric expressions and
square roots can be avoided by dissolving everything into single steps. Then we can use recursive
computation of the quadratic terms from the preceding iterations.
4.2.2 Variant with Integer-based Arithmetic
In the same way like Bresenhams line algorithm, this algorithm can be optimized for integer-
based math.
We will start by defning the radius error as the difference between the exact representation of
the circle and the center point of each pixel. For any pixel with a center at (x
i
, y
i
), we defne the
radius error to be:
2 2 2
( , )
i i i i
RE x y x y r = +
.
For simplicity, we derive this formula for a circle at the origin, but the algorithm can be modifed
for any other location as well. We will start with the point (r, 0) on the positive X-axis. Because the
radius will be a whole number of pixels, we can see that the radius error will be zero:
2 2 2
( , ) 0 0
i i
RE x y r r = + = .
We will step in the direction with the greatest travel, the Y direction, so we can say that y
i+1
=
y
i
+ 1. We can also create a decision variable that determines if the following is true:
RE (x
i
1, y
i
+ 1) < RE(x
i
, y
i
+ 1).
If this inequality holds, we will plot (x
i
1, y
i
+ 1); if not, then we plot (x
i
, y
i
+ 1). So how to
determine if this inequality holds?
We can start this with our defnition of radius error:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
( 1, 1) ( , 1)
1 1 1
2 1 2 1 2 1
i i i i
i i i i
i i i i i i i
RE x y RE x y
x y r x y r
x x y y r x y y r
+ < +
+ + < + +
+ + + + < + + +
The absolute value function is of not much use, so lets square both sides, since the square is
always positive:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
2 2 2
2 1 2 1 2 , 1
2 1 1 2 2 1
2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
2 1 2 2 1 1 2 0
i i i i i
i i i i i i i
i i i i i i i i i i
i i i i i
x x y y r x y y r
x y r y x x y r y
x y r y x x y r y x x y r y
r x y r y x
( ( + + + + < + + +

( ( + + + + < + + +

( + + + + + + + + < + + +

+ + + + <
Lab on Computer Graphics
Notes
42 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
Since x > 0, the term (1 2x
i
) < 0, so dividing we get:
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2
2 2 1 1 2 0
2 , 0
i i i i
i i
x y r y x
RE x y YChange XChange
( + + + + >

( + + >

So, now we change our decision criterion from using foating-point operations to simple integer
addition, subtraction, and bit shifting.
If 2(RE+YChange)+XChange > 0, then we decrement our X value. If 2(RE+YChange)+XChange <=
0, then we keep the same X value.
Thus, by refecting these points in all the octants, we will get the full circle.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
4. The ........................ is an algorithm used to determine the points needed for drawing a circle.
5. Because the radius will be a whole number of pixels, we can see that the radius error will
be ........................
4.3 Bresenhams Circle Drawing Algorithm Using C
Here is a C++/C# implementation of the integer-only variant that follows the logic very closely:
public static void DrawCircle(int x0, int y0, int radius)
{
int x = radius, y = 0;
int radiusError = 1x;
while(x >= y)
{
DrawPixel(x + x
0
, y + y
0
);
DrawPixel(y + x
0
, x + y
0
);
DrawPixel( x + x
0
, y + y
0
);
DrawPixel( y + x
0
, x + y
0
);
DrawPixel( x + x
0
, y + y
0
);
DrawPixel( y + x
0
, x + y
0
);
DrawPixel(x + x
0
, y + y
0
);
DrawPixel(y + x
0
, x + y
0
);
y++;
if(radiusError<0)
radiusError+=2*y+1;
else
{
Unit 4: Implementing Circle Algorithm
Notes
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 43
x;
radiusError+=2*(y x + 1);
}
}
}
Let us see an implementation of the Bresenham Algorithm for a full circle in C. Here another
variable for recursive computation of the quadratic terms 2n + 1 is used, which corresponds with
the term. It just has to be increased by 2 from one step to the next:
void rasterCircle(int x0, int y0, int radius)
{
int f = 1 radius;
int ddF_x = 1;
int ddF_y = -2 * radius;
int x = 0;
int y = radius;
setPixel(x
0
, y
0
+ radius);
setPixel(x
0
, y
0
radius);
setPixel(x
0
+ radius, y
0
);
setPixel(x
0
radius, y
0
);
while(x < y)
{
// ddF_x == 2 * x + 1;
// ddF_y == 2 * y;
// f == x*x + y*y radius*radius + 2*x y + 1;
if(f >= 0)
{
y;
ddF_y += 2;
f += ddF_y;
}
x++;
ddF_x += 2;
f += ddF_x;
setPixel(x
0
+ x, y
0
+ y);
setPixel(x
0
x, y
0
+ y);
setPixel(x
0
+ x, y
0
y);
setPixel(x
0
x, y
0
y);
setPixel(x
0
+ y, y
0
+ x);
Lab on Computer Graphics
Notes
44 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
setPixel(x
0
y, y
0
+ x);
setPixel(x
0
+ y, y
0
x);
setPixel(x
0
y, y
0
x);
}
}
Notes It should be noted that there is correlation between this algorithm and the sum of frst
odd numbers, which this one basically does. That is,
( )
1
2
0
1 3 5 7 9 2 1 .
N
n
n N

=
+ + + + + = + =

4.3.1 Optimization
The following optimized circle algorithm is useful for machines where registers are scarce. Only
three variables are needed in the main loop to perform the calculation.
// cx and cy denote the offset of the circle center from the origin.
void circle(int cx, int cy, int radius)
{
int error = -radius;
int x = radius;
int y = 0;
// The following while loop may be altered to while (x > y) for a
// performance beneft, as long as a call to plot4points follows
// the body of the loop. This allows for the elimination of the
// (x != y) test in plot8points, providing a further beneft.
//
// For the sake of clarity, this is not shown here.
while (x >= y)
{
plot8points(cx, cy, x, y);
error += y;
++y;
error += y;
// The following test may be implemented in assembly language in
// most machines by testing the carry fag after adding y to
// the value of error in the previous step, since error
// nominally has a negative value.
if (error >= 0)
Unit 4: Implementing Circle Algorithm
Notes
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 45
{
error -= x;
x;
error -= x;
}
}
}
void plot8points(int cx, int cy, int x, int y)
{
plot4points(cx, cy, x, y);
if (x != y) plot4points(cx, cy, y, x);
}
// The (x != 0 && y != 0) test in the last line of this function
// may be omitted for a performance beneft if the radius of the
// circle is known to be non-zero.
void plot4points(int cx, int cy, int x, int y)
{
setPixel(cx + x, cy + y);
if (x != 0) setPixel(cx - x, cy + y);
if (y != 0) setPixel(cx + x, cy - y);
if (x != 0 && y != 0) setPixel(cx - x, cy - y);
}
Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
6. There is correlation between optimized circle algorithm and the sum of frst odd numbers,
which this one basically does.
7. Only two variables are needed in the main loop to perform the optimized circle algorithm
calculation.
4.4 Summary
l The general equation of a circle is: x
2
+ y
2
+ Dx + Ey + F = 0
l In computer graphics, the midpoint circle algorithm is an algorithm used to determine the
points needed for drawing a circle.
l The algorithm starts with the circle equation x
2
+y
2
= r
2
.
l Eight-way symmetry can hugely reduce the work in drawing a circle.
l Moving in unit steps along the x axis at each point along the circles edge we need to choose
between two possible y coordinates.
Lab on Computer Graphics
Notes
46 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
l The midpoint circle drawing algorithm works on the same midpoint concept as the
Bresenhams line algorithm.
4.5 Keywords
Circle: A circle is a simple shape of geometry that is the set of all points in a plane that are at a
given distance from a given point, the centre.
Midpoint circle algorithm: The midpoint circle algorithm is an algorithm used to determine the
points needed for drawing a circle.
Pixel: A pixel is a physical point in a raster image, or the smallest, addressable element in a
display device; so it is the smallest, controllable element of a picture represented on the screen.
Radius: The distance between any of the points and the centre is called the radius.
4.6 Review Questions
1. Defne circle. What is the circle algorithm?
2. Discuss about symmetry of a circle.
3. What is midpoint circle algorithm?
4. Write an algorithm implement midpoint circle drawing.
5. Discuss the variant with integer-based arithmetic.
6. Briefy explain the Bresenhams circle drawing algorithm.
Answers: Self Assessment
1. Radius 2. Center
3. Eight 4. Midpoint circle algorithm
5. Zero 6. True
7. False
4.7 Further Readings
Books
Hearn, Donald & Baker, M. Pauline. Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Shirley, Peter & Marschner, Stephen Robert. Fundamentals of Computer Graphics
A K Peters Limited.
Angel, Edward. Interactive Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Krishnamurthy, N. Introduction to Computer Graphics Tata McGraw Hill.
Online links
www.cecs.csulb.edu/~pnguyen/cecs449/lectures/midpointcircle.pdf
www.eazynotes.com/notes/.../algorithms/bresenham-circle-algorithm.pdf
www.slideshare.net/tahersb/bresenham-circle
ezekiel.vancouver.wsu.edu/~cs442/lectures/raster/circrect/circrect.ppt
Unit 5: Implementing Ellipse Algorithm
Notes
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 47
Unit 5: Implementing Ellipse Algorithm
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
5.1 Bresenhams Ellipse Drawing Algorithm
5.2 Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm
5.2.1 Implementation of the Algorithm
5.2.2 C Code to Draw an Ellipse
5.3 Ellipse Area, Sector Area and Segment Area
5.3.1 Ellipse Area
5.3.2 Ellipse Sector Areas
5.3.3 Ellipse Segment Area
5.4 Summary
5.5 Keywords
5.6 Review Questions
5.7 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
l Explain Bresenhams ellipse drawing algorithm
l Discuss the midpoint ellipse algorithm
l Identify ellipse area, sector area and segment area
Introduction
Ellipse is a regular oval shape, traced by a point moving in a plane so that the sum of its distances
from two other points (the foci) is constant. This unit focuses on implementation of Ellipse
algorithms. You will learn about Bresenham ellipse drawing algorithm. Later on in the unit,
midpoint ellipse algorithm will be covered. Lastly, the key topics like identifying ellipse area,
sector area and segment area will be covered.
5.1 Bresenhams Ellipse Drawing Algorithm
When looking at the circle representation on a graphics device, which distance between the rows
of pixels is different from the distance between the columns, it is obvious that the circle on the
screen looks like an ellipse. The construction of a centered ellipse can be done by the Bresenhams
algorithm, similarly as at the circle, while we have to compute the values as a quadrant of a circle.
Notes Ellipse selects corner point (right mouse button) for new ellipse.
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Notes
48 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
Example: We will take an example to plots an ellipse inside a specifed rectangle.
Figure 5.1: Example of an Ellipse Inside a Specifed Rectangle
Source: http://members.chello.at/easyflter/ellipse.png
Code
void plotEllipseRect(int x
0
, int y
0
, int x
1
, int y
1
)
{
int a = abs(x
1
x
0
), b = abs(y
1
y
0
), b
1
= b & 1; /* values of diameter */
long dx = 4*(1 a)*b*b, dy = 4*(b
1
+1)*a*a; /* error increment */
long err = dx + dy + b
1
*a*a, e
2
; /* error of 1.step */
if (x
0
> x
1
) { x
0
= x
1
; x
1
+= a; } /* if called with swapped points */
if (y
0
> y
1
) y
0
= y
1
; /* .. exchange them */
y
0
+ = (b + 1)/2; y
1
= y
0
b
1
; /* starting pixel */
a *= 8*a; b
1
= 8*b*b;
do {
setPixel(x
1
, y
0
); /* I. Quadrant */
setPixel(x
0
, y
0
); /* II. Quadrant */
setPixel(x
0
, y
1
); /* III. Quadrant */
setPixel(x
1
, y
1
); /* IV. Quadrant */
e
2
= 2*err;
if (e
2
<= dy) {y
0
++; y
1
--; err += dy += a; } /* y step */
if (e
2
>= dx || 2*err > dy) { x
0
++; x
1
--; err += dx += b
1
; } /* x step */
} while (x
0
<= x
1
);
while (y
0
y
1
< b) { /* too early stop of fat ellipses a = 1 */
Unit 5: Implementing Ellipse Algorithm
Notes
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 49
setPixel (x
0
1, y
0
); /* > fnish tip of ellipse */
setPixel(x
1
+1, y
0
++);
setPixel(x
0
1, y
1
);
setPixel(x
1
+ 1, y
1
--);
}
}
Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
1. At the circle representation on a graphics device, the distance between the rows of pixels is
similar with the distance between the columns.
2. The construction of a centered ellipse can be done by the Bresenhams algorithm.
5.2 Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm
Midpoint ellipse algorithm is a method for drawing ellipses in computer graphics. This method is
derived from Bresenhams algorithm. The advantage of this derived method is that only addition
operations are required in the program loops.
Did u know? This leads to simple and fast implementation in all processors.
Let us consider one quarter of an ellipse. The curve is divided into two regions. In region I, the
slope on the curve is greater than 1 while in region II less than 1.
Figure 5.2: Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm Example
y
b
x a
Region I
dy/dx = 1
m = 1
Region II
Source: http://winnyefanho.net/research/MEA.pdf
General equation of an ellipse:
b
2
x
2
+ a
2
y
2
a
2
b
2
= 0
Here, a is the horizontal radius and b is the vertical radius, we can defne a function f(x,y) which
can be used to obtain prediction coordinate (x,y). To form an ellipse the appropriate pixels can be
selected according to the error.
!
Caution The error can be confned within half a pixel.
Set f(x,y) = b
2
x
2
+ a
2
y
2
a
2
b
2
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Notes
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In region I (dy/dx > 1), x is always incremented in each step, i.e. x
k+1
= x
k
+ 1.
(x
k
, y
k
)
E
SE
Region I
Prediction
(x
k
+ 1, y
k

1/2
)
Figure 5.3: Region I Prediction
Source: http://winnyefanho.net/research/MEA.pdf
y
k+1
= y
k
if E is selected, or y
k+1
= y
k 1
if SE is selected.
To decide between S and SE, a prediction (x
k+1
, y
k
) is set at the middle between the two candidate
pixels. A prediction function P
k
can be defned as follows:
P
k
= f(x
k
+ 1, y
k


)
= b
2
(x
k
+ 1)
2
+ a
2
(y
k

)2 a
2
b
2
= b
2
(x
k
2
+2x
k
+1) + a
2
(y
k
2

y
k
+

).
If P
K
< 0, select E:

E
k+1 k k
2 2 2 2 2 2
k k
1 2 2 2 2 2
4
k k k
P = f(x + 2, y )

= b (x + 2) + a (y ) a b
= b(x +4x +4)+a (y + ) a b
Change of
E E E 2
k k k+1 k k
P is: P = P P b (2x 3) = +
If P
K
> 0, select SE:
Unit 5: Implementing Ellipse Algorithm
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 67
Notes
= b (x + 2x + 1) + a (y y + ) a b
2
k
2
k
2
k
2
k
1
4
2 2
- -
If P
k
< 0, select E:
P
k+1
E
= f(x
k
+ 2, y
k
)
= b
2
(x
k
+ 2)
2
+ a
2
(y
k
)
2
a
2
b
2
= b (x + 4x + 4) + a (y y + ) a b
2
k
2
k
2
k
2
k
1
4
2 2
- -
Change of P
k
E
is : DP
k
E
= P P = b (2x + 3)
k+1
E
k
2
k
-
If P
k
> 0, select SE:
P
k+1
SE
= f(x
k
+ 2, y
k
3/2)
= b
2
(x
k
+ 2)
2
+ a
2
(y
k
3/2)
2
a
2
b
2
= b (x + 4x + 4) a (y 3y + 9/4) a b
2
k
2
k
2
k
2
k
2 2
- - .
Change of P
k
SE
is: DP
k
SE
= P
k+1
SE
P
k
= b
2
(2x
k
+ 3) 2a
2
(y
k
1).
Calculate the changes of Pk:
If E is selected,
DP
k+1
E
= b
2
(2x
k
+ 5)
D
2
P
k
E
= D D P P = 2b
k+1
E
k
E 2
-
DP
k+1
SE
= b
2
(2x
k
+ 5) 2a
2
(y
k
1)
D
2
P
k
SE
= D D P b
k+1
SE
k
SE
- = 2
2
If SE is selected,
DP
k+1
E
= b
2
(2x
k
+ 5)
D
2
P
k
E
= D D P P = 2b
k+1
E
k
E 2
-
DP
k+1
SE
= b
2
(2x
k
+ 5) 2a
2
(y
k
2)

D
2
P
k
SE
=
D D P P = 2(a + b )
k+1
SE
k
SE 2 2
-

Initial values:
x
0
= 0, y
0
= b, P
0
= b
2
+ a
2
(1 - 4b)
DP
0
E
= 3b , P = 3b 2a (b 1).
2
0
SE 2 2
D - -
In region II (dy/dx < 1), all calculations are similar to that in region we except that y is
decremented in each step.
.
k
:
Unit 5: Implementing Ellipse Algorithm
Notes
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 51
DP
k+1
SE
= b
2
(2x
k
+ 5) 2a
2
(y
k
2)

D
2
P
k
SE
=
D D P P = 2(a + b )
k+1
SE
k
SE 2 2
-

Initial values:
x
0
= 0, y
0
= b, P
0
= b
2
+ a
2
(1 - 4b)
DP
0
E
= 3b , P = 3b 2a (b 1).
2
0
SE 2 2
D - -
In region II (dy/dx < 1), all calculations are similar to that in region we except that y is
decremented in each step.
(x
k
, y
k
)
S
SE
Region II
Prediction
(x
k
+
1/2
, y
k
1)
Figure 5.4: Region II Prediction
Source: http://winnyefanho.net/research/MEA.pdf
y is always decremented in each step, i.e. y
k+1
= y
k
1.
x
k+1
= x
k
if S is selected, or x
k+1
= x
k
+ 1 if SE is selected.
P
k
= f(x
k
+ , y
k
1)
= b
2
(x
k
+ )
2
+ a
2
(y
k
1)
2
a
2
b
2
= b (x + x + ) +a (y 2y +1) a b .
2
k
2
k
1
4
2
k
2
k
2 2
- -
If P
k
> 0, select S:
P
k+1
S
= f(x
k
+ , y
k
2)
= b
2
(x
k
+ )
2
+ a
2
(y
k
2)
2
a
2
b
2
= b (x + x + ) + a (y 4y + 4) a b .
2
x
2
k
1
4
2
k
2
k
2 2
- -
Change of P
k
S
is: DP
k
S
= P P = a (3 2y ).
k+1
S
k
2
k
- -
If P
k
< 0, select SE:
P
k+1
SE
= f(x
k
+ 3/2, y
k
2)
= b
2
(x
k
+ 3/2)
2
+ a
2
(y
k
2)
2
a
2
b
2
= b (x + 3x +9/4) +a (y 4y + 4) a b .
2
k
2
k
2
k
2
k
2 2
- -
Change of P
k
SE
is: DP
k
SE
= P
k+1
SE
P
k
= 2b
2
(x
k
+ 1) + a
2
(3 2y
k
).
Calculate the changes of DP
k
:
If S is selected,
DP
k+1
S
= a
2
(5 2y
k
)
D
2
P
k
S
= D D P P = 2a
k+1
S
k
S 2
-
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Notes
52 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
y is always decremented in each step, i.e. y
k+1
= y
k
1.
x
k+1
= x
k
if S is selected, or x
k+1
= x
k
+ 1 if SE is selected.
P
k
= f(x
k
+ , y
k
1)
= b
2
(x
k
+ )
2
+ a
2
(y
k
1)
2
a
2
b
2
= b (x + x + ) +a (y 2y +1) a b .
2
k
2
k
1
4
2
k
2
k
2 2
- -
If P
k
> 0, select S:
P
k+1
S
= f(x
k
+ , y
k
2)
= b
2
(x
k
+ )
2
+ a
2
(y
k
2)
2
a
2
b
2
= b (x + x + ) + a (y 4y + 4) a b .
2
x
2
k
1
4
2
k
2
k
2 2
- -
Change of P
k
S
is: DP
k
S
= P P = a (3 2y ).
k+1
S
k
2
k
- -
If P
k
< 0, select SE:
P
k+1
SE
= f(x
k
+ 3/2, y
k
2)
= b
2
(x
k
+ 3/2)
2
+ a
2
(y
k
2)
2
a
2
b
2
= b (x + 3x +9/4) +a (y 4y + 4) a b .
2
k
2
k
2
k
2
k
2 2
- -
Change of P
k
SE
is: DP
k
SE
= P
k+1
SE
P
k
= 2b
2
(x
k
+ 1) + a
2
(3 2y
k
).
Calculate the changes of DP
k
:
If S is selected,
DP
k+1
S
= a
2
(5 2y
k
)
D
2
P
k
S
= D D P P = 2a
k+1
S
k
S 2
-
DP
k+1
SE
= 2b
2
(x
k
+ 1) + a
2
(5 2y
k
)
D
2
k
SE
P = D D P P = 2a
k+1
SE
k
SE 2
. -
If SE is selected,
DP
k+1
S
= a
2
(5 2y
k
)
D
2
k
S
P = D D P P = 2a
k+1
S
k
S 2
-
DP
k+1
SE
= 2b
2
(2x
k
+ 2) a
2
(5 2y
k
)
D
2
k
SE
P = D D P P = 2(a + b ).
k+1
SE
k
SE 2 2
-
Determine the boundary between region I and II:
Set f(x, y) = 0,
dy
dx
=
bx
a 1 x /a
2 2 2
-
-
when dy/dx = 1, x = x =
a
a + b
and y =
b
a + b
2
2 2
2
2 2
.
At region I, dy/dx > 1, x <
a
a + b
2
2 2
and y >
b
a + b
2
2 2
, therefore,

DP < b
2a
a + b
+ 3 2a
b
a + b
1
k
SE 2
2
2 2
2
2
2 2

- -

= 2a
2
+ 3b
2
.
Initial values at region II:
x
0
=
a
a + b
and y =
b
a + b
2
2 2
0
2
2 2
P
0
E
= b
2
(2x
0
+ 3)
P
0
SE
= 2a
2
+ 3b
2
5.2.1 Implementation of the Algorithm
The algorithm described above shows how to obtain the pixel coordinates in the frst quarter
only. The ellipse centre is assumed to be at the origin. So, in reality, the pixel coordinates in other
quarters can be simply obtained by use of the symmetric characteristics of an ellipse.
For a pixel (x, y) in the frst quarter, the corresponding pixels in other three quarters are (x, y),
(x, y) and (x, y) respectively. If the centre is at (x
C
, y
C
), all calculated coordinate (x, y) should
be adjusted by adding the offset (x
C
, y
C
).
A function PlotEllipse() is defned as follows:
PlotEllipse (x
C
, y
C
, x, y)
putpixel(x
C
+x, y
C
+y)
putpixel(x
C
+x, y
C
y)
putpixel(x
C
x, y
C
+y)
putpixel(x
C
x, y
C
y)
end PlotEllipse
Unit 5: Implementing Ellipse Algorithm
Notes
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 53
5.2.2 C Code to Draw an Ellipse
//A basic algorithm to draw an N segments ellipse on a window
// hWnd +> Handle to the window where the ellipse will be drawn
// hDC +> Device context to the window where the ellipse will be drawn
// nSeg +> A global variable contains the number of segments or points linked each other to
form the ellipse
void MyDrawEllipse(HWND hWnd, HDC hDC)
{
double x, y, _x, _y, __x, __y, dx, dy, z, wx, hy;
RECT rc;
//Prepare objects and data
Graphics g(hDC);
Pen p(Color(0xff, 0, 0), 1.0); //Red
GetClientRect(hWnd, &rc);
z = 0.99; //Point coordinate affnity
dx = double(rc.right) / 2.0 - 1.0; //Half window height
dy = double(rc.bottom) / 2.0 - 1.0; //Half window width
wx = double(rc.right) / 2.0; //Ellipse center
hy = double(rc.bottom) / 2.0; //Ellipse center
for(int i = 0; i < int(nSeg); i++) {
x = wx * sin((double(i) / double(nSeg)) * (pi*2.0));
y = hy * cos((double(i) / double(nSeg)) * (pi*2.0));
if(i > 0) {
//Draw a line connecting the last point to the one being calculated now
g.DrawLine(&p, int(dx+_x+z), int(dy+-_y+z), int(dx+x+z), int(dy+-y+z));
} else {
//Save the frst point coordinate to link it with the last one
__x = x;
__y = y;
}
//Save the actual point coordinate to link it with the next one
_x = x;
_y = y;
}
//Draw a line between the last point and the frst one
g.DrawLine(&p, int(dx+x+z), int(dy+-y+z), int(dx+__x+z), int(dy+-__y+z));
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/*
//I use the GDI+ DrawEllipse function to compare my algorithm with
//the one used by GDI+. Only the visual result is important for me now!
p.SetColor(Color(0, 0xff, 0));
g.DrawEllipse(&p, 0, 0, rc.right-1, rc.bottom-1);
*/
}
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
3. ................................ is a method for drawing ellipses in computer graphics.
4. The advantage of midpoint ellipse algorithm method is that only ................................
operations are required in the program loops.
5. The ellipse centre is assumed to be at the ................................ in implementation of the
algorithm.
6. The ................................ coordinates in other quarters can be simply obtained by use of the
symmetric characteristics of an ellipse.
5.3 Ellipse Area, Sector Area and Segment Area
5.3.1 Ellipse Area
Consider an ellipse that is centered at the origin, with its axes aligned to the coordinate axes. If
the semi-axis length along the x-axis is A, and the semi-axis length along the y-axis is B, then the
ellipse is defned by a locus of points that satisfy the implicit polynomial equation.
2 2
2 2
1
y x
A B
+ =
The same ellipse can be defned parametrically by:
cos( )
0 2
sin( )
x A t
t
y B t
=

t
`
=
)
.
The area of such an ellipse can be found using the parameterized form with the Gauss-Green
formula:
Area = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
2
B
A
x t y t y t x t dt (

= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
0
1
cos cos sin . sin
2
A t B t B t A t dt
t
(

= ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
0 0
cos sin
2 2
A B A B
t t dt dt
t t

( + =

= A B t
Unit 5: Implementing Ellipse Algorithm
Notes
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 55
5.3.2 Ellipse Sector Areas
Ellipse sector between two points (x
1
,y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
) on the ellipse is defned as the area that is
swept out by a vector from the origin to the ellipse, beginning at (x
1
, y
1
), as the vector travels
along the ellipse in a counter-clockwise direction from (x
1
, y
1
) to (x
2
, y
2
). An example is shown in
Figure 5.5. The Gauss-Green formula can also be used to determine the area of such an ellipse
sector.
Sector Area
2
1
2
A B
dt
u
u

=


( )
2 1
2
A B u u
=
.
Figure 5.5: Ellipse Sector Areas Example
Source: http://arxiv.org/pdf/1106.3787.pdf
The area of an ellipse sector can be determined with the Gauss-Green formula, using the
parametric angles u
1
and u
2
.
The parametric angle u
1
that is formed between the x-axis and a point (x, y) on the ellipse is found
from the ellipse parameterizations:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1
1
cos cos /
sin sin /
x A x A
y A y B

= u u =
= u u =
.
The implicit polynomial form is
2 2
2 2
1
4 2
y x
+ =
.
Suppose the point (x
1
, y
1
) is at ( )
4/ 5, 4/ 5 . The point is on the ellipse, since
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
4/ 5 4/ 5
4 /5 4 /5 1 4
1
4 2 4 2 5 5
+ = + = + =
A line segment from the origin to ( )
4/ 5, 4/ 5 forms an angle with the x-axis
of ( ) /4 0.7485398 t . However, the ellipse parametric angle to the same point is:
1 2
4/ 5 1
cos cos 1.10715
4 5

| |
| |
u = =
| |
\ .
\ .
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Notes
56 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
The same angle can also be found from the parametric equation for y:
1 2
4/ 5 2
sin sin 1.10715
2 5

| |
| |
u = =
| |
\ .
\ .
As we can see the angle found by using the parametric equations does not match the geometric
angle to the point that defnes the angle.
Relations for fnding the parametric angle that corresponds to a given point (x, y) on the ellipse
2 2 2 2
/ / 1 x A y B + = is shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Relations for Finding the Parametric Angle that Corresponds to a Given Point (x, y) on
the Ellipse
2 2 2 2
/ / 1 x A y B + =
Quadrant II (x < 0 and y 0)
u = arccos(x/A)
= t arcsin(y/B)
Quadrant I (x 0 and y 0)
u = arccos(x/A)
= arcsin(y/B)
Quadrant III (x < 0 and y < 0)
u = 2t arccos(x/A)
= t arcsin(y/B)
Quadrant IV (x 0 y < 0)
u = 2t arccos(x/A)
= 2t + arcsin(y/B)
Source: http://arxiv.org/pdf/1106.3787.pdf
5.3.3 Ellipse Segment Area
The ELLIPSE_SEGMENT algorithm is given as:
1.
( )
( )
1 1
1
1 1
arccos / 0
2 arccos / , 0
x A y
x A y

u =

t <

( )
( )
2 2
2
1 2
arccos / 0
2 arccos / , 0
x A y
x A y

u =

t <

2.
1 2
1
1 1 2
,
2 ,
u u < u

u =

u t u > u

3.
( ) ( )
2 1 2 1
1 2 2 1
sin
Area
2 2
A B
x y x y
u u u u t
= +
Where the ellipse implicit polynomial equation is
2 2
2 2
1
y x
A B
+ =
A > 0 is the semi-axis length along the x-axis
B > 0 is the semi-axis length along the y-axis
(x
1
, y
1
) is the frst given point on the ellipse
(x
2
, y
2
) is the second given point on the ellipse
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
7. The area of ellipse can be found using the parameterized form with the .........................
8. The Gauss-Green formula can also be used to determine the area of a .........................
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9. The area of an ellipse sector can be determined with the Gauss-Green formula, using the
parametric angles ......................... and .........................
5.4 Summary
l It is possible to generalize the algorithm to handle ellipses (of which circles are a special
case).
l These algorithms involve calculating a full quadrant of the ellipse, as opposed to an octant
as explained above, since non-circular ellipses lack the x-y symmetry of a circle.
l Midpoint ellipse algorithm is a method for drawing ellipses in computer graphics. This
method is modifed from Bresenhams algorithm.
l An elliptic sector is a region bounded by an arc and line segments connecting the center of
the ellipse and the endpoints of the arc.
5.5 Keywords
Algorithm: In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for
calculations.
Ellipse: In mathematics, an ellipse is a plane curve that results from the intersection of a cone by
a plane in a way that produces a closed curve.
Midpoint ellipse algorithm: Midpoint ellipse algorithm is a method for drawing ellipses in
computer graphics.
Tangent: In geometry, the tangent line (or simply the tangent) to a plane curve at a given point is
the straight line that just touches the curve at that point.
5.6 Review Questions
1. What is ellipse?
2. Briefy explain the Bresenhams ellipse drawing algorithm.
3. Discuss ellipse inside a specifed rectangle with an example.
4. What is midpoint ellipse algorithm?
5. Elucidate the implementation of the midpoint ellipse algorithm.
6. How C code is use to draw an ellipse?
7. Defne ellipse area.
8. Discuss about area intersecting ellipses.
9. Discuss the Gauss-Green formula to determine the area of an ellipse sector.
10. What is the ellipse segment area?
Answers: Self Assessment
1. False 2. True
3. Midpoint ellipse algorithm 4. Addition
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5. Origin 6. Pixel
7. Gauss-Green formula 8. Ellipse sector
9.
1 2
, u u
5.7 Further Readings
Books
Hearn, Donald & Baker, M. Pauline. Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Shirley, Peter & Marschner, Stephen Robert. Fundamentals of Computer Graphics
A K Peters Limited.
Angel, Edward. Interactive Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Krishnamurthy, N. Introduction to Computer Graphics Tata McGraw Hill.
Online links
www.ddegjust.ac.in/studymaterial/mca-3/ms-13.pdf
citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.31.6985...pdf
gyan.frcrce.ac.in/lm/sem6/cg.pdf
wscg.zcu.cz/wscg2001/Papers_2001/R18.pdf
Unit 6: Implementing Polygon Filling Algorithm
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Unit 6: Implementing Polygon Filling Algorithm
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
6.1 Scan-line Fill Algorithm
6.1.1 Basic Scan-line Fill Algorithm
6.1.2 Basic Algorithm
6.2 Boundary Fill Algorithm
6.3 Flood Fill Algorithm
6.3.1 Stack-based Recursive Implementation (Four-way)
6.3.2 Alternative Implementations
6.4 Summary
6.5 Keywords
6.6 Review Questions
6.7 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Dene scan-line ll algorithm
Discuss about the boundary-ll algorithm
Explain the ood ll algorithm
Introduction
Polygon is a plane gure which is a closed contour of straight lines. A basic primitive in the
graphical representation of objects. Polygon ll is a series of ordered planar vertices connected to
form an enclosed area. This area is then completely rendered using a specied color or texture.
In this unit, you will learn about implementing polygon lling algorithms. First, will be covered
scan-line algorithm for polygon lling. Later on in the chapter boundary ll algorithm will be
discussed and nally you will learn about ood ll algorithm.
6.1 Scan-line Fill Algorithm
Polygon lling means given the edges dening a polygon, and a color for the polygon, we need
to ll all the pixels inside the polygon. There are three different algorithms for this:
1. Scan-line ll
2. Boundary ll
3. Flood ll
6.1.1 Basic Scan-line Fill Algorithm
The scanline ll algorithm is an ingenious way of lling in irregular polygons. For each scan-line:
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l Locate the intersection of the scan-line with the edges (y=ys)
l Sort the intersection points from left to right.
l Draw the interiors intersection points pairwise. (a-b), (c-d)
Figure 6.1: Basic Scan-line Polygon Fill
Source: http://www.cecs.csulb.edu/~pnguyen/cecs449/lectures/fllalgorithm.pdf
Notes So you will notice the problem with corners. a, b, c and d are intersected by 2 line
segments each. Count b, c twice but a and d once.
Figure 6.2: Problem in Scan-fll
Source: http://www.cecs.csulb.edu/~pnguyen/cecs449/lectures/fllalgorithm.pdf
Solution
Make a clockwise or counter-clockwise traversal on edges. Check if y is monotonically increasing
or decreasing. If direction changes, double intersection, otherwise single intersection.
Figure 6.3: Clockwise Traversal on Edges
Source: http://www.cecs.csulb.edu/~pnguyen/cecs449/lectures/fllalgorithm.pdf
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6.1.2 Basic Algorithm
Assume scan line start from the left and is outside the polygon.
When intersect an edge of polygon, start to color each pixel (because now were inside the
polygon), when intersect another edge, stop coloring.
Odd number of edges: inside
Even number of edges: outside
Figure 6.4: Using Basic Scan Fill
Source: http://www.cecs.csulb.edu/~pnguyen/cecs449/lectures/llalgorithm.pdf
A scan-line is a line of constant y value, i.e., y=c, where c lies within our drawing region, e.g., the
window on our computer screen.
!
Caution When lling a polygon, you will most likely have a set of vertices, indicating the x
and y Cartesian coordinates of each vertex of the polygon.
The following steps should be taken to turn your set of vertices into a lled polygon.
Initializing All of the Edges
The rst thing that needs to be done is determine how the polygons vertices are related. The
all_edges table will hold this information. Each adjacent set of vertices (the rst and second,
second and third, ..., last and rst) denes an edge. For each edge, the following information
needs to be kept in a table:
1. The minimum y value of the two vertices.
2. The maximum y value of the two vertices.
3. The x value associated with the minimum y value.
4. The slope of the edge.
The slope of the edge can be calculated from the formula for a line:
y = mx + b;
where m = slope, b = y-intercept,
y
0
= maximum y value,
y
1
= minimum y value,
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x
0
= maximum x value,
x
1
= minimum x value
The formula for the slope is as follows:
m = (y
0
y
1
) / (x
0
x
1
).
For example, the edge values can be kept as give below. Here, N is equal to the total number of
edges 1 and each index is kept into the all_edges array which contains a pointer to the array of
edge values.
Figure 6.5: Edge Values
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/how1.gif
Initializing the Global Edge Table
The global edge table will be used to keep track of the edges that are still needed to complete the
polygon. Edges with the same minimum y values are sorted on minimum x values as follows:
1. Place the frst edge with a slope that is not equal to zero in the global edge table.
2. If the slope of the edge is zero, do not add that edge to the global edge table.
3. For every other edge, start at index 0 and increase the index to the global edge table once
each time the current edges y value is greater than the edge value at the current index in
the global edge table.
4. Next, increase the index to the global edge table once each time the current edges x value
is greater than and the y value is less than or equal to the edge value at the current index
in the global edge table.
If the index, at any time, is equal to the number of edges currently in the global edge table, do not
increase the index. Place the edge information for minimum y value, maximum y value, x value,
and 1/m in the global edge table at the index.
Initializing Parity
The initial parity is even since no edges have been crossed yet.
Initializing the Scan-Line
The initial scan-line is equal to the lowest y value for all of the global edges.
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Initializing the Active Edge Table
The active edge table will be used to keep track of the edges that are intersected by the current
scan-line. This should also contain ordered edges. This is initially set up as follows:
l Since the global edge table is ordered on minimum y and x values, search, in order, through
the global edge table and, for each edge found having a minimum y value equal to the
current scan-line, append the edge information for the maximum y value, x value, and 1/m
to the active edge table. Do this until an edge is found with a minimum y value greater than
the scan line value.
l The active edge table will now contain ordered edges of those edges that are being flled
as such:
Figure 6.6: Active Edge Values
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/how2.gif
Filling the Polygon
Filling the polygon involves deciding whether or not to draw pixels, adding to and removing
edges from the active edge table, and updating x values for the next scan-line. Starting with the
initial scan-line, until the active edge table is empty, do the following:
1. Draw all pixels from the x value of odd to the x value of even parity edge pairs.
2. Increase the scan line by 1.
3. Remove any edges from the active edge table for which the maximum y value is equal to
the scan line.
4. Update the x value for for each edge in the active edge table using the formula x
1
= x
0
+
1/m.
5. Remove any edges from the global edge table for which the minimum y value is equal to
the scan line and place them in the active edge table.
6. Reorder the edges in the active edge table according to increasing x value. This is done in
case edges have crossed.
Example: The following example of scan-line polygon flling will be helpful to better
understand the algorithm. Initially, each vertice of the polygon is given in the form of (x,y) and
is in an ordered array as such:
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Figure 6.7: Ordered Vertices
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/ordered_verts.gif
Unflled, the polygon would look like this to the human eye:
Figure 6.8: Simple Polygon
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/simple1.gif
Now, we will walk through the steps of the algorithm to fll in the polygon.
Initializing All of the Edges
We want to determine the minimum y value, maximum y value, x value, and 1/m for each edge
and keep them in the all_edges table. We determine these values for the frst edge as follows:
Y-min:
Since the frst edge consists of the frst and second vertex in the array, we use the y values of those
vertices to choose the lesser y value. In this case it is 10.
Y-max:
In the frst edge, the greatest y value is 16.
X-val:
Since the x value associated with the vertex with the highest y value is 10, 10 is the x value for
this edge.
1/m:
Using the given formula, we get (10-10)/(16-10) for 1/m.
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The edge value results are in the form of Y-min, Y-max, X-val, Slope for each edge array pointed
to in the all_edges table. As a result of calculating all edge values, we get the following in the
all_edges table.
Figure 6.9: All Edges
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/all_edges.gif
Initializing the Global Edge Table
We want to place all the edges in the global edge table in increasing y and x values, as long as
slope is not equal to zero. For the frst edge, the slope is not zero so it is placed in the global edge
table at index=0.
Figure 6.10: Global Edge 1
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/global2.gif
For the second edge, the slope is not zero and the minimum y value is greater than that at zero,
so it is placed in the global edge table at index=1.
Figure 6.11: Global Edge 2
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/global3.gif
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For the third edge, the slope is not zero and the minimum y value is equal the edges at index
zero and the x value is greater than that at index 0, so the index is increased to 1. Since the third
edge has a lesser minimum y value than the edge at index 2 of the global edge table, the index for
the third edge is not increased again. The third edge is placed in the global edge table at index=1.
Figure 6.12: Global Edge 3
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/global4.gif
We continue this process until we have the following:
Figure 6.13: Global Edge Final Table
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/global1.gif
Notice that the global edge table has only fve edges and the all_edges table has six. This is due to
the fact that the last edge has a slope of zero and, therefore, is not placed in the global edge table.
Initializing Parity
Parity is initially set to even.
Initializing the Scan-Line
Since the lowest y value in the global edge table is 10, we can choose 10 as our initial scan-line.
Initializing the Active Edge Table
Since our scan-line value is 10, we choose all edges which have a minimum y value of 10 to move
to our active edge table. This results in the following.
Unit 6: Implementing Polygon Filling Algorithm
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Figure 6.14: Active Edge Table
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active1.gif
Filling the Polygon
Starting at the point (0,10), which is on our scan-line and outside of the polygon, will want to
decide which points to draw for each scan-line.
Scan-line = 10:
Once the frst edge is encountered at x = 10, parity = odd. All points are drawn from this point
until the next edge is encountered at x = 22. Parity is then changed to even. The next edge is
reached at x = 28, and the point is drawn once on this scan-line due to the special parity case. We
are now done with this scan-line.
First, we update the x values in the active edge table using the formula x1 = x0 + 1/m to get the
following:
Figure 6.15: Active Edge Table Scan line 10
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active2.gif
The edges then need to be reordered since the edge at index 3 of the active edge table has a lesser
x value than that of the edge at index 2. Upon reordering, we get:
Figure 6.16: Reordered
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active3.gif
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The polygon is now flled as follows:
Figure 6.17: Current Polygon
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/simple3.gif
Scan-line = 11:
Once the frst edge is encountered at x = 10, parity = odd. All points are drawn from this point
until the next edge is encountered at x = 23. Parity is then changed to even. The next edge is
reached at x = 27 and parity is changed to odd. The points are then drawn until the next edge is
reached at x = 28. We are now done with this scan-line. Upon updating the x values, the edge
tables are as follows:
Figure 6.18: Active Table for Scan Line 11
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active4.gif
It can be seen that no reordering of edges is needed at this time. The polygon is now flled as
follows:
Figure 6.19: Current Polygon
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/simple4.gif
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Scan-line = 12:
Once the frst edge is encountered at x = 10, parity = odd. All points are drawn from this point
until the next edge is encountered at x = 24. Parity is then changed to even. The next edge is
reached at x = 26 and parity is changed to odd. The points are then drawn until the next edge is
reached at x = 28. We are now done with this scan-line. Updating the x values in the active edge
table gives us:
Figure 6.20: Active Edge Table at Scan Line 12
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active5.gif
We can see that the active edges need to be reordered since the x value of 24.4 at index 2 is less
than the x value of 25 at index 1. Reording produces the following:
Figure 6.21: Reordered
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active6.gif
The polygon is now flled as follows:
Figure 6.22: Current Polygon
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/simple5.gif
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Scan-line = 13:
Once the frst edge is encountered at x = 10, parity = odd. All points are drawn from this point
until the next edge is encountered at x = 25 Parity is then changed to even. The next edge is
reached at x = 25 and parity is changed to odd. The points are then drawn until the next edge is
reached at x = 28. We are now done with this scan-line. Upon updating the x values for the active
edge table, we can see that the edges do not need to be reordered.
Figure 6.23: Active Edge Table at Scan Line 13
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active7.gif
The polygon is now flled as follows:
Figure 6.24: Current Polygon
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/simple6.gif
Scan-line = 14:
Once the frst edge is encountered at x = 10, parity = odd. All points are drawn from this point
until the next edge is encountered at x = 24. Parity is then changed to even. The next edge is
reached at x = 26 and parity is changed to odd. The points are then drawn until the next edge is
reached at x = 28. We are now done with this scan-line. Upon updating the x values for the active
edge table, we can see that the edges still do not need to be reordered.
Figure 6.25: Active Edge Table at Scan Line 14
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active8.gif
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The polygon is now flled as follows:
Figure 6.26: Active Edge Table at Scan Line 14
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/simple7.gif
Scan-line = 15:
Once the frst edge is encountered at x = 10, parity = odd. All points are drawn from this point
until the next edge is encountered at x = 22. Parity is then changed to even. The next edge is
reached at x = 27 and parity is changed to odd. The points are then drawn until the next edge is
reached at x = 28. We are now done with this scan-line. Since the maximum y value is equal to
the next scan-line for the edges at indices 0, 2, and 3, we remove them from the active edge table.
This leaves us with the following:
Figure 6.27: Active Edge Table at Scan-line 15
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active9.gif
We then need to update the x values for all remaining edges.
Figure 6.28: Updated Table
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active10.gif
Now we can add the last edge from the global edge table to the active edge table since its
minimum y value is equal to the next scan-line. The active edge table now look as follows (the
global edge table is now empty):
Figure 6.29: Updated Table
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active11.gif
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These edges obviously need to be reordered. After reordering, the active edge table contains the
following:
Figure 6.30: Reordered Table
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active12.gif
The polygon is now flled as follows:
Figure 6.31: Current Polygon
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/simple8.gif
Scan-line = 16:
Once the frst edge is encountered at x = 10, parity = odd. All points are drawn from this point
until the next edge is reached at x = 21. We are now done with this scan-line. The x values are
updated and the following is obtained:
Figure 6.32: Active Edge Table at Scan Line 16
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active13.gif
Unit 6: Implementing Polygon Filling Algorithm
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The polygon is now flled as follows:
Figure 6.33: Current Polygon
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/simple9.gif
Scan-line = 17:
Once the frst edge is encountered at x = 12, parity = odd. All points are drawn from this point
until the next edge is reached at x = 20. We are now done with this scan-line. We update the x
values and obtain:
Figure 6.34: Active Edge Table at Scan Line 17
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active14.gif
The polygon is now flled as follows:
Figure 6.35: Current Polygon
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/simple10.gif
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Scan-line = 18:
Once the frst edge is encountered at x = 13, parity = odd. All points are drawn from this point
until the next edge is reached at x = 19. We are now done with this scan-line. Upon updating the
x values we get:
Figure 6.36: Active Edge Table at Scan line 18
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/active15.gif
The polygon is now flled as follows:
Figure 6.37: Current Polygon
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/simple11.gif
Scan-line = 19:
Once the frst edge is encountered at x = 15, parity = odd. All points are drawn from this point
until the next edge is reached at x = 18. We are now done with this scan-line. Since the maximum
y value for both edges in the active edge table is equal to the next scan-line, we remove them.
The active edge table is now empty and we are now done. The polygon is now flled as follows:
Figure 6.38: Changed Polygon
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/simple12.gif
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Now that we have flled the polygon, lets see what it looks like to the naked eye:
Figure 6.39: Final Polygon
Source: http://www.cs.rit.edu/~icss571/flling/simple2.gif
C program for Scan Line Polygon Filling Algorithm
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#include <graphics.h>
main()
{
int n,i,j,k,gd,gm,dy,dx;
int x,y,temp;
int a[20][2],xi[20];
foat slope[20];
clrscr();
printf(\n\n\tEnter the no. of edges of polygon : );
scanf(%d,&n);
printf(\n\n\tEnter the cordinates of polygon :\n\n\n );
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf(\tX%d Y%d : ,i,i);
scanf(%d %d,&a[i][0],&a[i][1]);
}
a[n][0]=a[0][0];
a[n][1]=a[0][1];
detectgraph(&gd,&gm);
initgraph(&gd,&gm,c:\\tc\\bgi);
/*- draw polygon -*/
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
line(a[i][0],a[i][1],a[i+1][0],a[i+1][1]);
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}
getch();
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
dy=a[i+1][1]-a[i][1];
dx=a[i+1][0]-a[i][0];
if(dy==0) slope[i]=1.0;
if(dx==0) slope[i]=0.0;
if((dy!=0)&&(dx!=0)) /*- calculate inverse slope -*/
{
slope[i]=(foat) dx/dy;
}
}
for(y=0;y< 480;y++)
{
k=0;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if( ((a[i][1]<=y)&&(a[i+1][1]>y))||
((a[i][1]>y)&&(a[i+1][1]<=y)))
{
xi[k]=(int)(a[i][0]+slope[i]*(y-a[i][1]));
k++;
}
}
for(j=0;j<k-1;j++) /*- Arrange x-intersections in order -*/
for(i=0;i<k-1;i++)
{
if(xi[i]>xi[i+1])
{
temp=xi[i];
xi[i]=xi[i+1];
xi[i+1]=temp;
}
}
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setcolor(35);
for(i=0;i<k;i+=2)
{
line(xi[i],y,xi[i+1]+1,y);
getch();
}
}
}
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. ....................................... is a plane fgure which is a closed contour of straight lines.
2. Polygon fll is a series of ordered planar vertices connected to form an ...................................
3. ....................................... means given the edges defning a polygon, and a color for the
polygon, we need to fll all the pixels inside the polygon.
4. The ....................................... algorithm is an ingenious way of flling in irregular polygons.
6.2 Boundary Fill Algorithm
It refers to expansion and flling of region until you reach boundary color. Here suppose that the
edges of the polygon have already been colored and suppose that the interior of the polygon is to
be colored a different color from the edge. Suppose we start with a pixel inside the polygon, then
we color that pixel and all surrounding pixels until we meet a pixel that is already.
C Program to implement Boundary Fill Algorithm
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<graphics.h>
#include<dos.h>
void fll_right(x,y)
int x , y ;
{
if((getpixel(x,y) != WHITE)&&(getpixel(x,y) != RED))
{
putpixel(x,y,RED);
fll_right(++x,y);
x = x - 1 ;
fll_right(x,y-1);
fll_right(x,y+1);
Lab on Computer Graphics
Notes
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}
delay(1);
}
void fll_left(x,y)
int x , y ;
{
if((getpixel(x,y) != WHITE)&&(getpixel(x,y) != RED))
{
putpixel(x,y,RED);
fll_left(--x,y);
x = x + 1 ;
fll_left(x,y-1);
fll_left(x,y+1);
}
delay(1);
}
void main()
{
int x,y,n,i;
int gd=DETECT,gm;
clrscr();
initgraph(&gd,&gm,c:\\tc\\bgi);
/*- draw object -*/
line (50,50,200,50);
line (200,50,200,300);
line (200,300,50,300);
line (50,300,50,50);
/*- set seed point -*/
x = 100; y = 100;
fll_right(x,y);
fll_left(x-1,y);
getch();
}
Unit 6: Implementing Polygon Filling Algorithm
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Self Assessment
State whether the following statement are true or false:
5. Boundary Fill Algorithm refers to expansion and flling of region until you reach boundary
color.
6.3 Flood Fill Algorithm
Flood-flling of a region on raster devices is one of the most widely used techniques in the
interactive graphical systems. Existing flling algorithms, in general, require signifcant amount of
memory and/or are limited to the specifc types of regions or fll styles. It is proved, in particular,
that necessary size of work memory for this particular algorithm is proportional to the horizontal
dimension of the box containing region to be flled.
Notes The algorithm may be used to fll 4-step and 8-step connected regions both border-
and interior-defned.
Did u know? The purpose of Flood Fill is to color an entire area of connected pixels with the
same color. Its the Bucket Tool in many painting programs.
Example: The original image is on the left. Then a foodfll was started inside the large
shape, and the algorithm gave all pixels inside the shape the new color, leaving its borders and
the pixels outside intact.
Figure 6.40: Flood Fill Algorithm
Source: http://lodev.org/cgtutor/images/foodfll.gif
Depending on whether we consider nodes touching at the corners connected or not, we have two
variations, Eight-way and Four-way, respectively.
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6.3.1 Stack-based Recursive Implementation (Four-way)
One implicitly stack-based (recursive) food-fll implementation (for a two-dimensional array)
goes as follows:
Flood-fll (node, target-color, replacement-color):
1. If the color of node is not equal to target-color, return.
2. Set the color of node to replacement-color.
3. Perform Flood-fll (one step to the west of node, target-color, replacement-color).
Perform Flood-fll (one step to the east of node, target-color, replacement-color).
Perform Flood-fll (one step to the north of node, target-color, replacement-color).
Perform Flood-fll (one step to the south of node, target-color, replacement-color).
4. Return.
Though easy to understand, the implementation of the algorithm used above is impractical in
languages and environments where stack space is severely constrained.
6.3.2 Alternative Implementations
An explicitly queue-based implementation is shown in pseudo-code below. It is similar to the
simple recursive solution, except that instead of making recursive calls, it pushes the nodes into
a LIFO queue acting as a stack for consumption:
Flood-fll (node, target-color, replacement-color):
1. Set Q to the empty queue.
2. Add node to the end of Q.
3. While Q is not empty:
4. Set n equal to the last element of Q.
5. Remove last element from Q.
6. If the color of n is equal to target-color:
7. Set the color of n to replacement-color.
8. Add west node to end of Q.
9. Add east node to end of Q.
10. Add north node to end of Q.
11. Add south node to end of Q.
12. Return.
Most practical implementations use a loop for the west and east directions as an optimization to
avoid the overhead of stack or queue management:
Flood-fll (node, target-color, replacement-color):
1. Set Q to the empty queue.
2. If the color of node is not equal to target-color, return.
3. Add node to Q.
Unit 6: Implementing Polygon Filling Algorithm
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4. For each element N of Q:
5. If the color of N is equal to target-color:
6. Set w and e equal to N.
7. Move w to the west until the color of the node to the west of w no longer matches target-
color.
8. Move e to the east until the color of the node to the east of e no longer matches target-color.
9. For each node n between w and e:
10. Set the color of n to replacement-color.
11. If the color of the node to the north of n is target-color, add that node to Q.
12. If the color of the node to the south of n is target-color, add that node to Q.
13. Continue looping until Q is exhausted.
14. Return.
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
6. .................................of a region on raster devices is one of the most widely used techniques
in the interactive graphical systems.
7. The algorithm may be used to fll ................................. and 8-step connected regions both
border- and interior-defned.
6.4 Summary
l Polygon flling means given the edges defning a polygon, and a color for the polygon, we
need to fll all the pixels inside the polygon.
l Boundary Fill Algorithm refers to expansion and flling of region until you reach boundary
color.
l The purpose of Flood Fill is to color an entire area of connected pixels with the same color.
Its the Bucket Tool in many painting programs.
l Flood-flling of a region on raster devices is one of the most widely used techniques in the
interactive graphical systems.
l The purpose of Flood Fill is to color an entire area of connected pixels with the same color.
6.5 Keywords
Boundary Fill Algorithm: It refers to expansion and flling of region until you reach boundary
color.
Flood Fill: Flood fll, also called seed fll, is an algorithm that determines the area connected to a
given node in a multi-dimensional array.
Polygon Filling: Polygon flling means given the edges defning a polygon, and a color for the
polygon, we need to fll all the pixels inside the polygon.
Polygon: A plane fgure with at least three straight sides and angles, and typically fve or more.
Scan Line Fill Algorithm: The scanline fll algorithm is an ingenious way of flling in irregular
polygons. The algorithm begins with a set of points.
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6.6 Review Questions
1. What is polygon?
2. Write down the meaning of polygon flling.
3. What are the three different algorithms for polygon flling?
4. What is scan line algorithm?
5. What steps should be taken to turn set of vertices into a flled polygon?
6. Write short note on flling the polygon.
7. What are the steps of the algorithm to fll in the polygon?
8. What is boundary-fll algorithm? Explain in detail.
9. Write a C program to implementing the boundary-fll algorithm.
10. What is food fll algorithm? Discuss the stack-based recursive implementation.
Answers: Self Assessment
1. Polygon 2. Enclosed area
3. Polygon flling 4. Scanline fll
5. True 6. Flood-flling
7. 4-step
6.7 Further Readings
Books
Hearn, Donald & Baker, M. Pauline. Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Shirley, Peter & Marschner, Stephen Robert. Fundamentals of Computer Graphics
A K Peters Limited.
Angel, Edward. Interactive Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Krishnamurthy, N. Introduction to Computer Graphics Tata McGraw Hill.
Online links
www2.tku.edu.tw/~tkjse/2-4/2-4-1.pdf
go4coding.blogspot.com/2012/12/polygon-flling-algorithms.html
cs.brown.edu/stc/summer/2ViewRender/2ViewRender_23.html
eng.harran.edu.tr/~msuzer/fles/cg/slides/lec6-AreaFill.pdf
Unit 7: Implementation of Hidden Surface in 2D
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Unit 7: Implementation of Hidden Surface in 2D
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
7.1 Visibility Algorithm Categorization
7.1.1 Robertson Algorithm
7.1.2 Apple Algorithm
7.2 Hidden Surface Removal Algorithms
7.2.1 The z-Buffer Algorithm
7.2.2 Painters Algorithm
7.2.3 Binary Space Partitioning (BSP)
7.2.4 Ray Tracing
7.2.5 The Warnock Algorithm
7.3 Summary
7.4 Keywords
7.5 Review Questions
7.6 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
l Explain visibility algorithm categorization
l Discuss the hidden surface removal algorithms
Introduction
In displaying things, there often occurs overlapping, meaning that the objects which are closer
are evident, and those behind them are non-visible, because they emerge as hidden behind them.
There have been created many, rather complex algorithms for sorting this issue. Their aim is
to fnd out objects whose parts are evident only from the observer location. Occasionally it is
necessary to draw edges of overlapped objects, most often by dash lines. The visibility algorithms
habitually count on the detail of how the objects are represented in an area. The optimal variant
is to have objects recounted using their limits, best by surfaces. Most of these algorithms too are
prepared for this sort of representation of objects. In this unit, you will learn about implementation
of hidden surface in 2D. Visibility algorithm will be categorized. Later, in the unit Hidden surface
removal algorithms will be covered.
7.1 Visibility Algorithm Categorization
Visibility computation is crucial for computer graphics from its very beginning. The frst visibility
algorithms in computer graphics aimed to determine visible surfaces in a synthesized image
of a 3D scene. Nowadays there are many different visibility algorithms for various visibility
problems.
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Sutherland, Sproull and Schumacker termed the visibility algorithms according to their
approaches and principles used. They are either image area or object area types. The visibility
algorithms can be split depending on the form of output data:
1. Line algorithm (Hidden line eliminator): On the output we receive a set of abscissas
representing visible edges. The benet of this solution is the fact that we have a set of
vectors, and we are not restricted due to resolution issues. In this case, we can scale the
scene without any decrease in quality.
2. Raster algorithm (Hidden surface eliminator): On the output, we get a set of pixels
representing the exact points of the scene in the xed given resolution, without any choice
to scale the scene. Here it is, although, possible to draw surfaces with shadowing and
lighting.
As it is time consuming to assess all algorithms, at the starting it is necessary to analyze the
object in the view. This is called data pre-processing. First, all objects outside visible angle,
are excluded and all polygons of which the scalar vector product is positive, and the given
polygon is then reversed
Did u know? Visibility is a phenomenon that can be dened by means of mutually
unoccluded points: two points are mutually visible if the line segment connecting them is
unoccluded.
7.1.1 Robertson Algorithm
One of the rst algorithms is the Robertson algorithm; originally intended for the solution of
visibility of a group of convex polyhedrons. This algorithm subsequently processes individual
edges of the body. It tests every edge and checks if it is overlapped by another body or not. If it
is hidden only partially, then this edge is split into two parts (one hidden, the other unhidden).
Notes Every unhidden part becomes a new tested edge.
7.1.2 Apple Algorithm
This algorithm works in the area of objects and is based on the fact that every edge is a conjunction
of two polygons. The rst step is to remove invisible polygons. First, we split polygons into two
groups: near (potentially visible) and reverse (invisible).
The visible polygons have an obtuse angle with the projection direction; and the invisible ones
have an acute angle with the projection direction.
In the following step, we split the edges into three types, according to which polygons they cross:
1. First type: A conjunction of two reverse polygons, called the invisible edge
2. Second type: A conjunction of the near polygon and the reverse polygon, called the visible
contour edge.
3. Third type: A conjunction between two near polygons, called the potential visible edge.
Unit 7: Implementation of Hidden Surface in 2D
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Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. One of the frst algorithms is the ...................................... algorithm; originally intended for
the solution of visibility of a group of convex polyhedrons.
2. ...................................... algorithm works in the area of objects and is based on the fact that
every edge is a conjunction of two polygons.
7.2 Hidden Surface Removal Algorithms
When you draw a scene composed of 3D objects, some of them might obscure all or parts of
others. Changing your point of view you can change the obscuring relationship.
Example: If you view the scene from the opposite direction, any object that was previously
in front of another is now behind it.
The elimination of parts of solid objects that are obscured by others is called hidden-surface
removal. Methods can be categorized as:
l Object Space Methods: These methods examine objects, faces, edges, etc., to decide which
are visible. The complexity depends upon the number of faces, edges, etc., in all the objects.
l Image Space Methods: These methods examine each pixel in the image to decide which
face of which object should be displayed at that pixel.
!
Caution The complexity depends upon the number of faces and the number of pixels to be
considered.
7.2.1 The z-Buffer Algorithm
The z-Buffer algorithm is one of the most commonly used routines. It is simple, easy to implement,
and is often found in hardware implementation. The Z-buffer algorithm is a convenient algorithm
for rendering images properly according to depth. To begin with, a buffer containing the closest
depth at each pixel location is created parallel to the image buffer. Each location in this depth
buffer is initialized to negative infnity. Now, the z Intersect and dz Per Scanline felds are added
to each edge record in the polyfll algorithm. For each point that is to be rendered, the depth of
the point against the depth of the point at the desired pixel location. If the point depth is greater
than the depth at the current pixel, the pixel is colored with the new color and the depth buffer is
updated. Otherwise, the point is not rendered because it is behind another object.
The idea behind it is uncomplicated: Assign a z-value to each polygon and then display the one
(pixel by pixel) that has the smallest value.
When an object is rendered, the depth of a generated pixel (z coordinate) is stored in a buffer
(the z-buffer or depth buffer). A 24-bit or 32-bit z-buffer behaves much better than an 8-bit
z-buffer (which is hardly used) as it has more precision. Although the problem cannot be entirely
eliminated without additional algorithms.
Algorithm
Given: A list of polygons {P1,P2,.....Pn}
Output: A COLOR array, which displays the intensity of the visible polygon surfaces.
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Initialize:
note : z-depth and z-buffer(x,y) is positive........
z-buffer(x,y)=max depth; and
COLOR(x,y)=background color.
Begin:
for(each polygon P in the polygon list)
do{
for(each pixel(x,y) that intersects P)
do{
Calculate z-depth of P at (x,y)
If (z-depth < z-buffer[x,y])
then{
z-buffer[x,y]=z-depth;
COLOR(x,y)=Intensity of P at(x,y);
}
}
}
display COLOR array.
There are some advantages and disadvantages to Z-buffer algorithm.
Advantages:
l It is simple to use
l It can be implemented easily in object or image space
l It can be executed quickly, even with many polygons
Disadvantages:
l It takes up a lot of memory
l It cant do transparent surfaces without additional code
7.2.2 Painters Algorithm
The painters algorithm (also known as a priority flls) is one of the simplest solutions to the
visibility problem in 3D computer graphics. When a 3D scene is projected onto a 2D plane, it is
necessary at one point to decide which polygons are visible, and which are hidden.
Painters Algorithm (in plain English)
l Sort polygons by farthest depth.
l Check if polygon is in front of any other.
l If no, render it.
l If yes, has its order already changed backward?
If no, render it.
If yes, break it apart.
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Advantages of Painters Algorithm
l It is quite simple
l It has an easy transparency
Disadvantages of Painters Algorithm
l It is required to do sorting frst
l Its needed to split polygons to solve cyclic and intersecting objects
7.2.3 Binary Space Partitioning (BSP)
Binary space partitioning (BSP) is a method for recursively subdividing a space into convex sets
by hyperplanes. By doing this subdivision we can do a representation of the scene by means of a
tree data structure known as a BSP tree.
Did u know? Probably the earliest game to use a BSP data structure was Doom.
Algorithm
The recursive algorithm for construction of a BSP tree from that list of polygons is:
1. Choose a polygon P from the list.
2. Make a node N in the BSP tree, and add P to the list of polygons at that node.
3. For each other polygon in the list:
(a) If that polygon is wholly in front of the plane containing P, move that polygon to the
list of nodes in front of P.
(b) If that polygon is wholly behind the plane containing P, move that polygon to the list
of nodes behind P.
(c) If that polygon is intersected by the plane containing P, split it into two polygons and
move them to the respective lists of polygons behind and in front of P.
(d) If that polygon lies in the plane containing P, add it to the list of polygons at node N.
4. Apply this algorithm to the list of polygons in front of P.
5. Apply this algorithm to the list of polygons behind P.
7.2.4 Ray Tracing
In computer graphics, ray tracing is a technique for generating an image by tracing the path of
light through pixels in an image plane. The effects of its encounter are then simulated with virtual
objects.
The Main Program
The procedure RayTrace is recursive, that is, it calls itself. The following code depicts ray tracing
algorithm:
Procedure RenderPicture()
For each pixel on the screen,
Generate a ray R from the viewing position through the point on the view
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plane corresponding to this pixel.
Call the procedure RayTrace() with the arguments R and 0
Plot the pixel in the colour value returned by RayTrace()
Next pixel
End Procedure
Procedure RayTrace(ray R, integer Depth) returns colour
Set the numerical variable Dis to a maximum value
Set the object pointer Obj to null
For each object in the scene
Calculate the distance (from the starting point of R) of the nearest
intersection of R with the object in the forward direction
If this distance is less than Dis
Update Dis to this distance
Set Obj to point to this object
End if
Next object
If Obj is not null
Set the position variable Pt to the nearest intersection point of R and Obj
Set the total colour C to black
For each light source in the scene
For each object in the scene
If this object blocks the light coming from the light source to Pt
Attenuate the intensity of the received light by the transmittivity
of the object
End if
Next object
Calculate the perceived colour of Obj at Pt due to this light source
using the value of the attenuated light intensity
Add this colour value to C
Next light source
If Depth is less than a maximum value
Generate two rays Ref and Refr in the refected and refracted directions,
starting from Pt
Call RayTrace with arguments Ref and Depth + 1
Add (the return value * refectivity of Obj) to C
Call RayTrace with arguments Refr and Depth + 1
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Add (the return value * transmittivity of Obj) to C
End if
Else
Set the total colour C to the background colour
End if
Return C
End Procedure
Advantage
It is relatively simple to implement yet yield impressive visual results.
The computational independence of each ray makes ray tracing follow parallelization.
Disadvantage
A serious disadvantage of ray tracing is performance metrics. Scanline and other algorithms
use data coherence to share computations between pixels, while ray tracing normally starts the
process fresh, treating each eye ray separately.
7.2.5 The Warnock Algorithm
The Warnock algorithm is a hidden surface algorithm invented by John Warnock that is used
in the feld of computer graphics. It solves the problem of rendering a complicated image by
recursive subdivision of a scene until areas are obtained that is trivial to compute. In simple
words, if the scene is simple enough to compute effciently then it is rendered; otherwise it is
divided into smaller parts which are likewise tested for simplicity.
This is a divide and conquer algorithm. Its run-time is O(np), where n is the number of polygons
and p is the number of pixels in the viewport.
Algorithm
1. Initialize the area.
2. Create list of polygons by sorting them with their z values of vertices. Eliminate disjoint
polygons (polygons which are outside the area).
3. Find relationship of each polygon.
4. Perform visibility decision test:
(a) If all polygons are disjoint, fll area with background color.
(b) If there is only one contained polygon, fll entire area with background color and fll
part of polygon contained in area with color of polygon.
(c) If there is a single surrounding polygon but not contained then fll area with color of
surrounding polygon.
(d) If area of the pixel (x,y) and if neither of a to d applies compute z coordinate at pixel
(x,y) of polygons. Set pixel to the color of polygon which is closer to view.
5. If none of above is true, then subdivide the area and Go to Step 2.
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Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
3. ..................................... methods examine objects, faces, edges etc. to decide which are
visible.
4. ..................................... methods examine each pixel in the image to decide which face of
which object should be displayed at that pixel.
5. The ..................................... algorithm is a convenient algorithm for rendering images
properly according to depth.
6. The ..................................... is one of the simplest solutions to the visibility problem in 3D
computer graphics.
7. ..................................... is a method for recursively subdividing a space into convex sets by
hyper planes.
8. In computer graphics, ..................................... is a technique for generating an image by
tracing the path of light through pixels in an image plane.
9. A serious disadvantage of ray tracing is .....................................
10. The ..................................... algorithm is a hidden surface algorithm invented by John
Warnock that is used in the feld of computer graphics.
7.3 Summary
l The frst visibility algorithms in computer graphics aimed to determine visible surfaces in
a synthesized image of a 3D scene.
l The visibility algorithms can be split depending on the form of output data: Line algorithm
and Raster algorithm.
l One of the frst algorithms is the Robertson algorithm; originally intended for the solution
of visibility of a group of convex polyhedrons.
l Apple algorithm works in the area of objects and is based on the fact that every edge is a
conjunction of two polygons.
l When you draw a scene composed of 3D objects, some of them might obscure all or parts of
others. Changing your point of view you can change the obscuring relationship.
l The z-Buffer algorithm is one of the most commonly used routines.
l When an object is rendered, the depth of a generated pixel (z coordinate) is stored in a
buffer (the z-buffer or depth buffer).
l The Painters algorithm (also known as a priority flls) is one of the simplest solutions to the
visibility problem in 3D computer graphics.
l Binary space partitioning (BSP) is a method for recursively subdividing a space into convex
sets by hyperplanes.
l In computer graphics, ray tracing is a technique for generating an image by tracing the
path of light through pixels in an image plane.
l The Warnock algorithm is a hidden surface algorithm invented by John Warnock that is
used in the feld of computer graphics.
Unit 7: Implementation of Hidden Surface in 2D
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7.4 Keywords
Apple Algorithm: This algorithm works in the area of objects and is based on the fact that every
edge is a conjunction of two polygons.
Binary Space Partitioning (BSP): Binary space partitioning (BSP) is a method for recursively
subdividing a space into convex sets by hyperplanes.
Hidden-surface removal: The elimination of parts of solid objects that are obscured by others is
called hidden-surface removal.
Image Space Methods: These methods examine each pixel in the image to decide which face of
which object should be displayed at that pixel.
Object Space Methods: These methods examine objects, faces, edges etc. to decide which are
visible.
Painters Algorithm: The painters algorithm (also known as a priority flls) is one of the simplest
solutions to the visibility problem in 3D computer graphics.
Ray Tracing: In computer graphics, ray tracing is a technique for generating an image by tracing
the path of light through pixels in an image plane.
Visibility: Visibility is a measure of the distance at which an object or light can be clearly
discerned.
Warnock Algorithm: The Warnock algorithm is a hidden surface algorithm invented by John
Warnock that is used in the feld of computer graphics.
Z-Buffer Algorithm: The Z-buffer algorithm is a convenient algorithm for rendering images
properly according to depth.
7.5 Review Questions
1. What is visibility algorithm?
2. Write a short note on line algorithm and raster algorithm.
3. Defne Robertson algorithm.
4. What is apple algorithm?
5. Discuss about the hidden surface removal algorithms.
6. What is z-Buffer Algorithm? Also solve the problem of hidden surface removal using
Z-buffering algorithm.
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages to Z-buffer algorithm?
8. What is the Painters algorithm?
9. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of Painters algorithm.
10. Explain the Binary Space Partitioning (BSP) with algorithm.
11. Defne ray tracing. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages.
12. What is Warnocks Algorithm? Explain with algorithm.
Answers: Self Assessment
1. Robertson 2. Apple
3. Object Space 4. Image Space
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5. Z-buffer 6. Painters algorithm
7. Binary space partitioning (BSP) 8. Ray tracing
9. Performance metrics 10. Warnock
7.6 Further Readings
Books
Hearn, Donald & Baker, M. Pauline. Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Shirley, Peter & Marschner, Stephen Robert. Fundamentals of Computer Graphics
A K Peters Limited.
Angel, Edward. Interactive Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Krishnamurthy, N. Introduction to Computer Graphics Tata McGraw Hill.
Online links
cs.ft.edu/~wds/classes/graphics/Hidden/hidden/hidden.html
www.slideshare.net/HiteshJain007/hidden-surfaces
www.cs.bath.ac.uk/~pjw/NOTES/75-ACG/ch3-surf-rend.pdf
Unit 8: Implementing of Scaling in 2D Transformation
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Unit 8: Implementing of Scaling in 2D Transformation
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
8.1 2D Transformation
8.1.1 Translations
8.1.2 Scaling
8.1.3 Rotation
8.1.4 Shear
8.2 Concept of Implementing of Scaling in 2D Transformation
8.3 Summary
8.4 Keywords
8.5 Review Questions
8.6 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
l Defne 2D Transformation
l Discuss the concept of Implementing of Scaling in 2D Transformation
Introduction
Transformations are a fundamental part of computer graphics. Transformations are used
to position objects, to shape objects, to change viewing positions, and even to change how
something is viewed. They are central in computer graphics. They are used to map from one
space to another along the graphics pipeline. In this unit, you will learn about implementation
of scaling in 2D transformation. 4 types of transformation will be covered. Later on in the unit,
concept of Implementing of Scaling in 2D transformation will be discussed followed by a C
program to implement scaling in 2D.
8.1 2D Transformation
There are 4 main types of transformations that one can perform in 2 dimensions:
l translations
l scaling
l rotation
l shearing
These basic transformations can be combined to get more complex transformations. In order to
make the representation of these complex transformations simpler to realise and more effcient,
we introduce the concept of homogeneous coordinates.
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Representation of Points/Objects
A point p in 2D is represented as a pair of numbers: p= (x, y) where x is the x-coordinate of the
point p and y is the y-coordinate of p.
Did u know? 2D objects are often represented as a set of points (vertices), {p
1
,p
2
,...,p
n
}, and
an associated set of edges {e
1
,e
2
,...,e
m
}. An edge is defned as a pair of points e = {p
i
,p
j
}.
Points and edges of triangle shown below:
Figure 8.1: Sample Triangle
Source: http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/GeneralGraphics/Transforms/transforms2d.htm
We can also write points in vector/matrix notation as

x
p
y
(
=
(

8.1.1 Translations
Assume you are given a point at (x,y)=(2,1).
Where will the point be if you move it 3 units to the right and 1 unit up?
Ans: (x,y) = (5,2).
So you must be thinking how was this obtained?
(x,y) = (x+3,y+1).
That is, to move a point by some amount dx to the right and dy up, you must add dx to the
x-coordinate and add dy to the y-coordinate.
What was the required transformation to move the green triangle to the red triangle?
Here the green triangle is represented by 3 points
triangle = { p1=(1,0), p2=(2,0), p3=(1.5,2) }
Unit 8: Implementing of Scaling in 2D Transformation
Notes
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Figure 8.2: Sample Green and Red Triangle
Source: http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/GeneralGraphics/Transforms/transforms2d.htm
What are the points and edges in this picture of a house? What is the transformation is required to
move this house so that the peak of the roof is at the origin? What is required to move the house
as shown in animation?
Figure 8.3: Sample House Picture
Source: http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/GeneralGraphics/Transforms/transforms2d.htm
Matrix/Vector Representation of Translations
A translation can also be represented by a pair of numbers, t=(t
x
,t
y
) where t
x
is the change in the
x-coordinate and t
y
is the change in y coordinate. To translate the point p by t, we simply add to
obtain the new (translated) point q = p + t.

x tx x tx
q p t
y ty y ty
+
( ( (
= + = + =
( ( (
+

8.1.2 Scaling
Suppose we want to double the size of a 2-D object. When we talk about scaling we usually mean
some amount of scaling along each dimension. That is, we must specify how much to change the
size along each dimension. Below we see a triangle and a house that have been doubled in both
width and height.
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Figure 8.4: Scaling Triangle Example
Source: http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/GeneralGraphics/Transforms/transforms2d.htm
Figure 8.5: Scaling House Example
Source: http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/GeneralGraphics/Transforms/transforms2d.htm
8.1.3 Rotation
Below, we see objects that have been rotate by 25 degrees.
Figure 8.6: Rotation Triangle Example
Source: http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/GeneralGraphics/Transforms/transforms2d.htm
Unit 8: Implementing of Scaling in 2D Transformation
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Figure 8.7: Rotation House Example
Source: http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/GeneralGraphics/Transforms/transforms2d.htm
Matrix/Vector Representation of Translations
Counterclockwise rotation of a degrees =
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
cos sin
sin cos
(
(



8.1.4 Shear
A shear is a transformation that distorts the shape of an object along either or both of the axis.
Figure 8.8 shows shearing view.
Figure 8.8: Shearing View
Source: http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/GeneralGraphics/Transforms/transforms2d.htm
Matrix/Vector Representation of Translations
shear along x axis =
1 shear
0 1
x (
(

shear along y axis =
1 0
shear 1 y
(
(

Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. There are 4 main types of transformations that one can perform in 2 dimensions:
........................, scaling, rotation and .........................
2. 2D objects are often represented as a set of points (vertices) and an associated set of
.........................
3. A translation can also be represented by a ........................
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4. A ........................ is a transformation that distorts the shape of an object along either or both
of the axis.
8.2 Concept of Implementing of Scaling in 2D Transformation
Let ,
x y
S S s = be the scale in the positie x and y directions respectively. Then the scaled vertex is
given by

' .
x
x x S =
(1)

' .
y
y y S =
(2)
If ,
x y
S S s = , then it is said to be homogenous or uniform scaling transformation that maintains
relative proportions of the scaled objects.
The magnifcation factor is |s|. All points move s times away from the origin. If |s| < 1, all the
points move towards the origin, or demagnifed.
Notes If s is negative, refections occur.
!
Caution Pure refections occur only when both the scaling factors have the value +1 or -1.
Example: If 1, 2
x y
S S = = , the image is fipped about the y-axis, replacing each point on
x to -x and scaled by 2 in the y direction.
Figure 8.9: Example of Scaling
Source: http://cs.ft.edu/~wds/classes/cse5255/thesis/images/scale/scale.gif
If
x y
S S , then the scaling is called differential scaling. When either
x
S or y
S
equals one, simplest
differential caling called strain occurs.
2-Dimensional scaling in the matrix form is given by

| | | |
0 0
' ' 1 1 0 0
0 0 1
x
y
S
x y x y S
(
(
=
(
(

(3)
Lengths and distances from the origin are scaled by multiplying the coordinates of each endpoint
by the scaling factors.
Unit 8: Implementing of Scaling in 2D Transformation
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Inverse of 2D Scale

[ ]
1 1
1
0 0
1
1 1 0 0
0 0 1
x
y
S
x y x y
S




=





(4)
Th e scaling discussed so far has the origin (0,0) as the xed point and scaling is about the origin.
When an object is scaled, it is moved
,
x y
S S
times away from the origin. It is also possible to have
any arbitrary point as a xed point, and scale about that point.
2D Scaling about an Arbitra ry Fixed Point
Usually the origin (0,0) is xed under scaling. However, any arbitrary xed point (xF, yF) can be
selected for scaling. To scale around the arbitrary point:
Translate (xF, yF) to (0,0)
Scale by ( )
,
x y
S S

Translate (0,0) to (xF, yF)
The result is:

( )
( )
'
'
F F x
F F y
x x x x S
y y y y S
= +
= +
C Program to Implement 2D Transformations
/*TITLE: WRITE A PROGRAM TO IMPLEMENT 2D TRANSFORMATIONS.
*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<graphics.h>
#include<math.h>
void li(oat [][3],int x);
void mul(oat [][3],oat [][3],oat [][3],int);
void print(oat [][3],oat [][3],int);
void main()
{
oat p[10][3],tx,ty;
int gd=DETECT,gm=DETECT;
int op,x,i;
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void scal(foat [][3],int);
void trans(foat [][3],foat,foat,int);
void rot(foat [][3],int);
void ref(foat [][3],int);
void shea(foat [][3],int);
clrscr();
initgraph(&gd,&gm,c:\\tc\\bgi);
printf(\nEnter the no of sides of polygon:);
scanf(%d,&x);
printf(\nEnter the co-ordinates of polygon:);
for(i=0;i<x;i++)
{
scanf(%f %f,&p[i][0],&p[i][1]);
p[i][2]=1;
}
do
{
printf(\n*****MENU******);
printf(\n1.Translation\n2. Rotation\n3. Refection\n4. Shearing\n5. Scaling\n6. Exit\nEnter
the choice:);
scanf(%d,&op);
initgraph(&gd,&gm,c:\\tc\\bgi);
switch(op)
{
case 1: printf(\nTRANSLATION);
printf(\nEnter the tx and ty: );
scanf(%f %f,&tx,&ty);
trans(p,tx,ty,x);
break;
case 2: rot(p,x);
break;
case 3: ref(p,x);
break;
case 4: shea(p,x);
break;
case 5: scal(p,x);
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break;
case 6: printf(\nCOMING OUT!!!);
break;
default: printf(\nWrong choice);
break;
}
getch();
capture(c:\\tc\\2d.bmp);
closegraph();
}while(op!=6);
}
void rot(foat p[][3],int x)
{
foat c[3][3]={0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1},d[10][3],ange;
int i;
printf(\nROTATION);
printf(\nEnter the angle for rotation:);
scanf(%d,&i);
ange=3.14/180*i;
c[0][0]=c[1][1]=cos(ange);
c[0][1]=sin(ange);
c[1][0]=-sin(ange);
mul(p,c,d,x);
print(p,d,x);
capture(gh.jpg);
}
void print(foat p[][3],foat d[][3],int x)
{
line(300,0,300,1000);
line(0,250,1000,250);
li(p,x);
li(d,x);
}
void li(foat p[][3],int x)
{
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int i;
for(i=0;i<x;i++)
{
if(i==x-1)
line(p[i][0]+300,p[i][1]+250,p[0][0]+300,p[0][1]+250);
else
line(p[i][0]+300,p[i][1]+250,p[i+1][0]+300,p[i+1][1]+250);
}
}
void trans(foat p[][3],foat tx,foat ty,int x)
{
foat c[3][3]={1,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,1},d[10][3];
c[2][0]=tx;
c[2][1]=ty;
mul(p,c,d,x);
if(tx!=-300&&tx!=300)
print(p,d,x);
capture(fg.jpg);
}
void scal(foat p[][3],int x)
{
foat c[3][3]={1,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,1},d[10][3];
printf(\nSCALING);
printf(\nEnter the sx and sy: );
scanf(%f %f,&c[0][0],&c[1][1]);
mul(p,c,d,x);
print(p,d,x) ;
capture(cd.jpg);
}
void mul(foat p[][3],foat c[][3],foat d[][3],int x)
{
int i,j,k;
for(i=0;i<x;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
Unit 8: Implementing of Scaling in 2D Transformation
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{
d[i][j]=0;
for(k=0;k<3;k++)
{
d[i][j]=d[i][j]+(p[i][k]*c[k][j]);
}
}
}
}
void shea(foat p[][3],int x)
{
int op,i,j,k;
foat c[3][3]={1,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,1},d[10][3];
printf(\n1. X-Shear\n2. Y-Shear\nEnter the choice:);
scanf(%d,&op);
switch(op)
{
case 1: printf(\nEnter the X-Shear:);
scanf(%f,&c[1][0]);
c[0][1]=0;
break;
case 2: printf(\nEnter the Y-Shear:);
scanf(%f,&c[0][1]);
c[1][0]=0;
break;
}
trans(p,-300,-250,x);
mul(p,c,d,x);
trans(p,300,250,x);
print(p,d,x);
capture(pl.jpg);
}
void ref(foat p[][3],int x)
{
int ch;
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foat c[3][3]={1,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,1},d[10][3];
printf(\n\t\tREFLECTION);
printf(\n1. Refection about Y-axis\n2. Refection about X-axis\n3. Refection about Origin\
n4. Refection about line Y=X\n5. Refection about line Y=-X\nEnter the choice:);
scanf(%d,&ch);
switch(ch)
{
case 1: c[0][0]=-1;
break;
case 2: c[1][1]=-1;
break;
case 3: c[0][0]=-1;
c[1][1]=-1;
break;
case 4: c[0][0]=c[1][1]=0;
c[0][1]=c[1][0]=1;
break;
case 5: c[0][0]=c[1][1]=0;
c[0][1]=c[1][0]=-1;
break;
}
mul(p,c,d,x);
print(p,d,x);
capture(po.jpg);
}
Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
5. If x y
S S
, then it is said to be homogenous or uniform scaling transformation that maintains
relative proportions of the scaled objects.
6. If
,
x y
S S s =
, then the scaling is called differential scaling.
8.3 Summary
l There are 4 main types of transformations that one can perform in 2 dimensions: translations,
scaling, rotation and shearing.
l When we talk about scaling we usually mean some amount of scaling along each dimension.
That is, we must specify how much to change the size along each dimension.
Unit 8: Implementing of Scaling in 2D Transformation
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l A shear is a transformation that distorts the shape of an object along either or both of the
axis.
l The magnifcation factor is |s|. All points move s times away from the origin. If |s| < 1,
all the points move towards the origin, or demagnifed.
l 2D transformations are used by the application for modelling transformations.
8.4 Keywords
Rotation: Rotation means turning around a center. The distance from the center to any point on
the shape stays the same.
Scaling: It does not preserve angles between parts of objects (except when scaling is uniform
x=sy).
Shear: A shear is a transformation that distorts the shape of an object along either or both of the
axis.
Transformations: Transformations are used to position objects, to shape objects, to change
viewing positions, and even to change how something is viewed (e.g. the type of perspective
that is used).
8.5 Review Questions
1. What is 2D transformation?
2. What are the different functions of transformation?
3. What are the 4 main types of transformations?
4. Discuss about the matrix/vector representation of translations.
5. Write a C program to implement 2D transformations.
6. Describe the transformation between translation and scale.
7. Discuss the 2D scaling from the origin.
8. Write down the properties of scaling.
9. Elucidate the concept of implementing of scaling in 2d transformation.
10. What is 2D scaling about an arbitrary fxed point? Discuss the C program to implement 2D
transformations.
Answers: Self Assessment
1. Translations, shearing 2. Edges
3. Pair of numbers 4. Shear
5. False 6. False
8.6 Further Readings
Books
Angel, Edward. Interactive Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Hearn, Donald & Baker, M. Pauline. Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
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Krishnamurthy, N. Introduction to Computer Graphics Tata McGraw Hill.
Shirley, Peter & Marschner, Stephen Robert. Fundamentals of Computer Graphics
A K Peters Limited.
Online links
web.iitd.ac.in/~hegde/cad/lecture/L5_2dtrans.pdf
gmm.fsksm.utm.my/~suriati/graphics/2D_TRANSFORMATIONS.ppt
www.cs.uic.edu/~jbell/CourseNotes/.../2DTransforms.html
Unit 9: Translation
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Unit 9: Translation
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
9.1 2Dimensional Translation in C program
9.2 3Dimensional Translation in C program
9.3 Translating With Matrices
9.4 The Inverse of a Translation
9.5 Summary
9.6 Keywords
9.7 Review Questions
9.8 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
l Explain visibility algorithm categorization
l Discuss the hidden surface removal algorithms
Introduction
In geometry, an affne transformation or affne map or an affnity is a transformation of an affne
space which preserves straight lines and ratios of distances between points lying on a straight
line. Examples of affne transformations include translation, refection, rotation, shear mapping
etc. Since a translation is an affne transformation but not a linear transformation, homogeneous
coordinates are normally used to represent the translation operator by a matrix and thus to
make it linear. Thus we write the 3-dimensional vector w = (wx, wy, wz) using 4 homogeneous
coordinates as w = (wx, wy, wz, 1). In this unit, you will learn about translation. Translation
of 2-D and 3-D will be covered in this unit. Lastly, inverse of translation is explained with an
example.
9.1 2Dimensional Translation in C program
To translate an object by a vector v, each homogeneous vector p (written in homogeneous
coordinates) would need to be multiplied by this translation matrix:
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0 1
x
y
V
z
v
v
T
v
(
(
(
=
(
(

As shown below, the multiplication will give the expected result:
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1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 1
x x x x
y y y y
V
z z z z
v p p v
v p p v
T p p v
v p p v
+
( ( (
( ( (
+
( ( (
= = = +
( ( ( +
( ( (

Notes The inverse of a translation matrix can be obtained by reversing the direction of the
vector:
1
v v
T T

=
Similarly, the product of translation matrices is given by adding the vectors:
.
u v u v
T T T
+
=
C Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<graphics.h>
#include<process.h>
#include<math.h>
int x
1
,y
1
,x
2
,y
2
,x
3
,y
3
,m
x
,m
y
;
void draw();
void tri();
void main()
{
int gd=DETECT,gm;
int c;
initgraph(&gd,&gm,d:\\tc\\bgi );
printf(Enter the 1st point for the triangle:);
scanf(%d%d,&x1,&y1);
printf(Enter the 2nd point for the triangle:);
scanf(%d%d,&x2,&y2);
printf(Enter the 3rd point for the triangle:);
scanf(%d%d,&x3,&y3);
cleardevice();
draw();
getch();
tri();
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Notes
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getch();
}
void draw()
{
line(x
1
,y
1
,x
2
,y
2
);
line(x
2
,y
2
,x
3
,y
3
);
line(x
3
,y
3
,x
1
,y
1
);
}
void tri()
{
int x,y,a
1
,a
2
,a
3
,b
1
,b
2
,b
3
;
printf(Enter the Transaction coordinates);
scanf(%d%d,&x,&y);
cleardevice();
a
1
=x
1
+x;
b
1
=y
1
+y;
a
2
=x
2
+x;
b
2
=y
2
+y;
a
3
=x
3
+x;
b3=y
3
+y;
line(a
1
,b
1
,a
2
,b
2
);
line(a
2
,b
2
,a
3
,b
3
);
line(a
3
,b
3
,a
1
,b
1
);
}
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. The ............................. of a translation matrix can be obtained by reversing the direction of
the vector.
2. In geometry, an affne transformation is a transformation of an affne space which preserves
............................. of distances between points lying on a straight line.
9.2 3Dimensional Translation in C Program
3-dimensional transformation has three axis x,y,z. Depending upon there coordinate it will
perform there translation, rotation and scaling.
Did u know? The translation can be performed by changing the sign of the translation
components T
x
, T
y
, and T
z
.
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Source code
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include<graphics.h>
#include<conio.h>
void draw3d(int fs,int x[20],int y[20],int tx,int ty,int d);
void draw3d(int fs,int x[20],int y[20],int tx,int ty,int d)
{
int i,j,k=0;
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
for(i=0;i<fs;i++)
{
if(i!=fs-1)
line(x[i]+tx+k,y[i]+ty-k,x[i+1]+tx+k,y[i+1]+ty-k);
else
line(x[i]+tx+k,y[i]+ty-k,x[0]+tx+k,y[0]+ty-k);
}
k=d;
}
for(i=0;i<fs;i++)
{
line(x[i]+tx,y[i]+ty,x[i]+tx+d,y[i]+ty-d);
}
}
void main()
{
int gd=DETECT,gm;
int x[20],y[20],tx=0,ty=0,i,fs,d;
initgraph(&gd,&gm,);
printf(no of sides (front view only) : );
scanf(%d,&fs);
printf(co-ordinates : );
for(i=0;i<fs;i++)
{
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printf((x%d,y%d),i,i);
scanf(%d%d,&x[i],&y[i]);
}
printf(Depth :);
scanf(%d,&d);
draw3d(fs,x,y,tx,ty,d);
printf(translation (x,y));
scanf(%d%d,&tx,&ty);
draw3d(fs,x,y,tx,ty,d);
getch();
}
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
3. .................................... dimensional transformation has three axis x,y,z.
4. The translation can be performed by changing the .................................... of the translation
components T
x
, T
y
, and T
z
.
9.3 Translating with Matrices
A translation is an affne transformation with no fxed points.
!
Caution Matrix multiplications always have the origin as a fxed point.
We can write the 3-dimensional vector w = (w
x
, w
y
, w
z
) using 4 homogeneous coordinates as w
= (w
x
, w
y
, w
z
, 1).
We can express the translation as a single matrix equation by using column vectors to represent
coordinate positions and the translation vector:
, , .
x
y
t x x
P P T
t y y
( ( (
= =
( ( (

This allows us to write the two-dimensional translation equations in the matrix form:
P P T

= +
9.4 The Inverse of a Translation
The inverse of a translation matrix can be obtained by reversing the direction of the vector:
1
v v
T T

=
As long as we do not scale by zero, a scale can always be inverted (undone) by the matrix
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1
1 1
1
0 0
0 0 .
0 0
x
y
z
S
S
S
s

(
(
= (
(
(

The product SS
1
= S
1
S = I, the 3 3 identity matrix.
Now, let us take an example, to undo a translation by t
x
, t
y
, t
z
use the matrix
1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1
x y z
T
t t t

(
(
(
=
(
(

(

We can now complete scaling about an arbitrary fxed point and rotation about an arbitrary
pivot. To scale about F = [x
f
y
f
z
f
] use the composition of matrices
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1
x
y
z
f f f f f f
S
S
S
x y z x y z
( ( (
( ( (
( ( (
( ( (
( ( (

( (
which when multiplied out yields
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) 1
x
y
z
f x f y f z
S
S
S
x S y S z S
(
(
(
(
(

(

So a scaled point [x y z 1] becomes
| | | |
( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 1
0 0 0
(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) 1
8 1 8 8 1 8 1 8 1
x
y
z
f x f y f z
x f x y f y z f z
S
S
x y z x y z
S
x S y S z S
x x y y s z z
(
(
(
=
(
(

(

(
= + + +

In a similar manner you can determine that rotation about a pivot R = [x
r
y
r
] results in
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
cos sin
cos sin
r r r
r r r
x x x x y y
y y y y x x
= + u u
= + u + u
Notes As addition of vectors is commutative, multiplication of translation matrices is
therefore also commutative.
Unit 9: Translation
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Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
5. A translation is an afne transformation with no ................................. points.
6. As addition of vectors is commutative, multiplication of translation matrices is therefore
also .................................
9.5 Summary
A translation is applied to an object to reposition it along a straight-line path from one
coordinate location to another.
A translation is an afne transformation with no xed points. Matrix multiplications
always have the origin as a xed point.
Translation transformation is used to position the origin point of the initial space relative
to the destination space.
Since all of the coordinates in a space are relative to the origin point of that space, all a
translation needs to do is add a vector to all of the coordinates in that space.
The vector added to these values is the location of where the user wants the origin point
relative to the destination coordinate system.
3 dimensional transformation has three axis x,y,z. Depending upon there coordinate it will
perform there translation, rotation and scaling.
A translation is an afne transformation with no xed points.
9.6 Keywords
Translation: A translation is applied to an object to reposition it along a straight-line path from
one coordinate location to another.
Translation Matrix: This function takes as parameters a reference to the matrix that holds the
current state of the transformation and the X and Y translation values.
Translation Vector: The translation distance pair (tx; ty) is called a translation vector.
9.7 Review Questions
1. Discuss the C program in 2-Dimensional of the translation.
2. Explain the C program in 3-Dimensional of the translation with the help of source code.
3. A translation is an afne transformation with no xed points. Elucidate.
4. What is the process of inversing the translation?
Answers: Self Assessment
1. Inverse 2. Straight lines and ratios
3. 3 4. Sign
5. Fixed 6. Commutative
Lab on Computer Graphics
Notes
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9.8 Further Readings
Books
Hearn, Donald & Baker, M. Pauline. Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Shirley, Peter & Marschner, Stephen Robert. Fundamentals of Computer Graphics
A K Peters Limited.
Angel, Edward. Interactive Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Krishnamurthy, N. Introduction to Computer Graphics Tata McGraw Hill.
Online links
http://www.studentcpu.com/2009/03/3d-transformation-in-c-program-
computer.html
www.c.happycodings.com/Games_and_Graphics/code36.html
cprogramtutorials.blogspot.com/.../3d-transformation-program-in-c.html
Unit 10: Shearing
Notes
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Unit 10: Shearing
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
10.1 Shearing
10.1.1 2D Shear along X-direction
10.1.2 2D Shear along Y Direction
10.2 Rotation
10.2.1 2D Rotation Program Using C Programming
10.2.2 3D Rotation Program Using C Programming
10.3 Refection
10.4 Summary
10.5 Keywords
10.6 Review Questions
10.7 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
l Explain shearing with C programming
l Discuss rotation with C programming
l Identify refection with C programming
Introduction
In plane geometry, a shear mapping is a linear map that displaces each point in a fxed direction,
by an amount proportional to its signed distance from a line that is parallel to that direction.
This type of mapping is also known as shear transformation or just shearing. In this unit, we will
discuss different types of shearing. Later on in this unit, rotation and refection will be covered.
10.1 Shearing
Shear is the translation along an axis (say, X axis) by an amount that increases linearly with
another axis (Y). It leads to the production of shape distortions as if objects were composed of
layers that are caused to slide over each other.
Did u know? Shear transformations are very useful in creating italic letters and slanted
letters from regular letters.
10.1.1 2D Shear along X-direction
Shear in X direction is represented by the following set of equations.
Contents
Objectives
Introduction
10.1 Shearing
10.1.1 2D Shear along X-direction
10.1.2 2D Shear along Y Direction
Self-Assessment
10.2 Rotation
10.2.1 2D Rotation Program Using C Programming
10.2.2 3D Rotation Program Using C Programming
Self-Assessment
10.3 Refection
10.4 Summary
10.5 Keywords
10.6 Review Questions
Answers: Self-Assessment
10.7 Further Readings
Lab on Computer Graphics
Notes
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x x y
y y
Sh P hP
Sh P
= +
=
where h is the negative or positive fraction of Y coordinate of P to be added to the X coordinate.
Sh
x
can be any real number.
The matrix of form of shear in x-direction is given by:
1 0 0
1 0
0 0 1
r
Sh
(
(
(
(

10.1.2 2D Shear along Y Direction
Similarly, shear along y-direction is given by
1 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
y
Sh (
(
(
(

Combining the shear in X and Y directions,
x x y
y y y
Sh P hP
Sh gP P
= +
= +
where g is a non-zero fraction of P
x
to be added to the Y coordinate.
General Matrix Form of Shear
The general matrix form of shear is
1
1
g
h
(
(

Notes Shear will reduce to a pure shear in the y-direction, when h = 0.
The inverse of Shear is given by
1
1
11
1
g
Sh frac gh
h

(
=
(

Horizontal and vertical shear of the plane.
In the plane
2
, = a horizontal shear (or shear parallel to the x axis) is a function that takes
a generic point with coordinates (x, y) to the point (x+ my, y); where m is a fxed parameter, called
the shear factor.
If the coordinates of a point are written as a column vector (a 2 1 matrix), the shear mapping can
be written as multiplication by a 2 2 matrix:
1
.
0 1
x x my m x
y y y
+
| | | | | || |
= =
| | | |

\ . \ . \ .\ .
Unit 10: Shearing
Notes
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A vertical shear (or shear parallel to the y-axis) of lines is similar, except that the roles of x and y
are swapped. It corresponds to multiplying the coordinate vector by the transposed matrix:
1
.
0 1
x y m x
y mx y y

| | | | | || |
= =
| | | |
+
\ . \ . \ .\ .
Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. ................................ leads to the production of shape distortions as if objects were composed
of layers that are caused to slide over each other.
2. Shear transformations are very useful in creating italic letters and slanted letters from ......
.......................... letters.
3. Shear will reduce to a pure shear in the y-direction, when h = ................................
10.2 Rotation
In linear algebra, a rotation matrix is a matrix that is used to perform a rotation in Euclidean
space.
Example: For example the matrix
cos sin
sin cos
R
u u
(
=
(
u u

rotates points in the xy-Cartesian plane counterclockwise through an angle about the origin of
the Cartesian coordinate system.
!
Caution To perform the rotation using a rotation matrix R, the position of each point must
be represented by a column vector v, containing the coordinates of the point.
A rotated vector is obtained by using the matrix multiplication Rv.
10.2.1 2D Rotation Program Using C Programming
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<graphics.h>
#include<process.h>
#include<math.h>
void TriAngle(int x1,int y1,int x2,int y2,int x3,int y3);
void Rotate(int x1,int y1,int x2,int y2,int x3,int y3);
void main()
{
int gd=DETECT,gm;
Lab on Computer Graphics
Notes
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int x1,y1,x2,y2,x3,y3;
initgraph(&gd,&gm, );
printf(Enter the 1st point for the triangle:);
scanf(%d%d,&x1,&y1);
printf(Enter the 2nd point for the triangle:);
scanf(%d%d,&x2,&y2);
printf(Enter the 3rd point for the triangle:);
scanf(%d%d,&x3,&y3);
TriAngle(x1,y1,x2,y2,x3,y3);
getch();
cleardevice();
Rotate(x1,y1,x2,y2,x3,y3);
setcolor(1);
TriAngle(x1,y1,x2,y2,x3,y3);
getch();
}
void TriAngle(int x1,int y1,int x2,int y2,int x3,int y3)
{
line(x1,y1,x2,y2);
line(x2,y2,x3,y3);
line(x3,y3,x1,y1);
}
void Rotate(int x1,int y1,int x2,int y2,int x3,int y3)
{
int x,y,a1,b1,a2,b2,a3,b3,p=x2,q=y2;
foat Angle;
printf(Enter the angle for rotation:);
scanf(%f,&Angle);
cleardevice();
Angle=(Angle*3.14)/180;
a1=p+(x1-p)*cos(Angle)-(y1-q)*sin(Angle);
b1=q+(x1-p)*sin(Angle)+(y1-q)*cos(Angle);
a2=p+(x2-p)*cos(Angle)-(y2-q)*sin(Angle);
b2=q+(x2-p)*sin(Angle)+(y2-q)*cos(Angle);
a3=p+(x3-p)*cos(Angle)-(y3-q)*sin(Angle);
b3=q+(x3-p)*sin(Angle)+(y3-q)*cos(Angle);
Unit 10: Shearing
Notes
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printf(Rotate);
TriAngle(a1,b1,a2,b2,a3,b3);
}
10.2.2 3D Rotation Program Using C Programming
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<process.h>
#include<graphics.h>
int x1,x2,y1,y2,mx,my,depth;
void draw();
void rotate();
void main()
{
int gd=DETECT,gm,c;
initgraph(&gd,&gm,d:\\tc\\bgi);
printf(\n3D Transformation Rotating\n\n);
printf(\nEnter 1st top value(x1,y1):);
scanf(%d%d,&x1,&y1);
printf(Enter right bottom value(x2,y2):);
scanf(%d%d,&x2,&y2);
depth=(x2-x1)/4;
mx=(x1+x2)/2;
my=(y1+y2)/2;
draw();
getch();
cleardevice();
rotate();
getch();
}
void draw()
{
bar3d(x1,y1,x2,y2,depth,1);
}
void rotate()
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{
foat t;
int a1,b1,a2,b2,dep;
printf(Enter the angle to rotate=);
scanf(%f,&t);
t=t*(3.14/180);
a1=mx+(x1-mx)*cos(t)-(y1-my)*sin(t);
a2=mx+(x2-mx)*cos(t)-(y2-my)*sin(t);
b1=my+(x1-mx)*sin(t)-(y1-my)*cos(t);
b2=my+(x2-mx)*sin(t)-(y2-my)*cos(t);
if(a2>a1)
dep=(a2-a1)/4;
else
dep=(a1-a2)/4;
bar3d(a1,b1,a2,b2,dep,1);
setcolor(5);
//draw();
}
Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
4. In linear algebra, a rotation matrix is a matrix that is used to perform a rotation in Euclidean
space.
5. To perform the rotation using a rotation matrix R, the position of each point must be
represented by a column vector v.
10.3 Refection
Refection in computer graphics is used to emulate refective objects like mirrors and shiny
surfaces. There are four types of refection:
Polished or Mirror refection: Mirrors are usually almost 100% refective.
Metallic Refection: Metallic objects refect lights and colors altered by the color of the metallic
object itself.
Blurry: A Blurry Refection means that tiny random bumps on the surface of the material cause
the refection to be blurry.
Glossy Refection: Fully glossy refection, shows highlights from light sources, but does not show
a clear refection from objects.
Unit 10: Shearing
Notes
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Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
6. ............................. in computer graphics is used to emulate refective objects like mirrors and
shiny surfaces.
7. Mirrors are usually almost ............................. refective.
8. A ............................. Refection means that tiny random bumps on the surface of the material
cause the refection to be blurry.
10.4 Summary
l Shear is the translation along an axis (say, X axis) by an amount that increases linearly with
another axis (Y).
l In linear algebra, a rotation matrix is a matrix that is used to perform a rotation in Euclidean
space.
l Refection in computer graphics is used to emulate refective objects like mirrors and shiny
surfaces. There are four types of refection:
Mirrors are usually almost 100% refective.
Metallic objects refect lights and colors altered by the color of the metallic object
itself.
A Blurry Refection means that tiny random bumps on the surface of the material
cause the refection to be blurry.
Fully glossy refection, shows highlights from light sources, but does not show a
clear refection from objects.
10.5 Keywords
Blurry: A Blurry Refection refers to the small random bumps on the surface of the material
which causes the blurred refection.
Metallic Refection: It is a kind of refection in which metallic objects refect lights and colors
which are changed by the color of the metallic object itself.
10.6 Review Questions
1. What do you mean by shearing?
2. Discuss different types of refection.
3. Defne Y-shear shearing.
4. Write the C code for 2D Rotation Program.
5. Explain shearing along x-axis.
Answers: Self Assessment
1. Shear 2. Regular
3. 0 4. True
Lab on Computer Graphics
Notes
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5. True 6. Refection
7. 100% 8. Blurry
10.7 Further Readings
Books
Hearn, Donald & Baker, M. Pauline. Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Shirley, Peter & Marschner, Stephen Robert. Fundamentals of Computer Graphics
A K Peters Limited.
Angel, Edward. Interactive Computer Graphics Pearson Education.
Krishnamurthy, N. Introduction to Computer Graphics Tata McGraw Hill.
Online links
www.gomezconsultants.com/CSE5280/Transformations/2DTrans.html
ltcconline.net/greenl/courses/203/Vectors/computerGraphics.htm
dpancaroglu.etu.edu.tr/bil421/Lecture%2006.ppt