1

A syllogism (Greek: syllogismos "conclusion,"

"inference") is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive
reasoning to arrive at a conclusionbased on two or
more propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true.
In its earliest form, defined by Aristotle, from the combination of a
general statement (the major premise) and a specific statement (the
minor premise), a conclusion is deduced. For example, knowing that all
men are mortal (major premise) and that Socrates is a man (minor
premise), we may validly conclude that Socrates is mortal. Syllogistic
arguments are usually represented in a three-line form (without
sentence-terminating periods):
All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
The word "therefore" is usually either omitted or replaced by the symbol
""
Aristotle defines the syllogism as, "...a discourse in which certain
(specific) things having been supposed, something different from the
things supposed results of necessity because these things are so." [1]
1. Aristotle, "Prior Analytics", 24b1820

In logic, a categorical proposition, or categorical statement, is
a proposition that asserts or denies that all or some of the members of
one category (the subject term) are included in another (the predicate
term). The study of arguments using categorical statements
(i.e., syllogisms) forms an important branch of deductive reasoning that
began with the Ancient Greeks.
2

The Ancient Greeks such as Aristotle identified four primary distinct
types of categorical proposition and gave them standard forms (now
often called A, E, I, and O). If, abstractly, the subject category is
named S and the predicate category is named P, the four standard
forms are:
All S are P. (A form)
All S are not P. (E form)
Some S are P. (I form)
Some S are not P. (O form)
Name Statement Quantity Quality
A All S are P. universal affirmative
E No S are P. universal negative
I Some S are P. particular affirmative
O Some S are not P. particular negative

In predicate logic, an existential quantification is a type of quantifier,
a logical constant which is interpreted as "there exists," "there is at least
one," or "for some." existential quantifier ("x" or "(x)")
It expresses that a propositional function can be satisfied by at least
one member of a domain of discourse. In other terms, it is
the predication of a property orrelation to at least one member of the
3

domain. It asserts that a predicate within the scope of an existential
quantifier is true of at least one value of a predicate variable.

Universal quantification is a type of quantifier, a logical constant which
is interpreted as "given any" or "for all". It expresses that a propositional
function can be satisfied by every member of a domain of discourse.
In other terms, it is the predication of a property or relation to every
member of the domain. It asserts that a predicate within the scope of a
universal quantifier is true of every value of a predicate variable.
universal quantifier ("x", "(x)")

A propositional function in logic, is a statement expressed in a way
that would assume the value of true or false, except that within the
statement is a variable (x) that is not defined or specified, which leaves
the statement undetermined.

A truth-bearer is an entity that is said to be either true or false and
nothing else. Truth-bearer candidates
include propositions, sentences, statements, concepts, beliefs, thoughts,
intuitions, utterances, and judgements but different authors exclude one
or more of these, deny their existence, argue that they are true only in a
derivative sense, assert or assume that the terms are synonymous,
[1]
or
seek to avoid addressing their distinction or do not clarify it.

the typetoken distinction is a distinction that separates
a concept from the objects which are particular instances of the concept.
For example, the particular bicycle in your garage is a token of the type
of thing known as "The bicycle". Whereas the bicycle in your garage is in
a particular place at a particular time, that is not true of "the bicycle" as
used in the sentence: "The bicycle has become more popular recently".

In mathematical logic, a propositional calculus or logic (also
called sentential calculus or sentential logic) is a formal system in
which formulas of a formal language may be interpreted to
represent propositions.

4

An interpretation is an assignment of meaning to the symbols of
a formal language. Many formal languages used in mathematics, logic,
and theoretical computer science are defined in solely syntactic terms,
and as such do not have any meaning until they are given some
interpretation. The general study of interpretations of formal languages is
called formal semantics.

In propositional logic, modus ponendo ponens (Latin for "the way that
affirms by affirming"; and also affirming the antecedent, often
abbreviated to MP or modus ponens is a valid, simple argument
form and rule of inference

It can be summarized as "P implies Q; P is asserted to be true, so
therefore Q must be true."
Modus ponens can be stated formally as:


In propositional logic, modus tollens
[1][2][3][4]
(or modus tollendo
tollens and also denying the consequent)
[5]
(Latinfor "the way that
denies by denying")
[6]
is a valid argument form and a rule of inference.

The inference rule modus tollens, also known as the law of
contrapositive, validates the inference from implies and the
contradictory of , to the contradictory of .
The modus tollens rule can be stated formally as:


The logical form of a sentence
(or proposition or statement or truthbearer) or set of sentences is the
form obtained by abstracting from the subject matter of its content terms
or by regarding the content terms as mere placeholders or blanks on a
5

form. In an ideal logical language, the logical form can be determined
from syntax alone; formal languages used in formal sciences are
examples of such languages.


Logical conjunction
Logical conjunction is an operation on two logical values, typically the
values of two propositions, that produces a value of true if both of its
operands are true.
The truth table for p AND q (also written as p q, Kpq, p & q, or p q)
is as follows:
Logical Conjunction
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
In ordinary language terms, if both p and q are true, then the
conjunction p q is true. For all other assignments of logical values
to p and to q the conjunction p q is false.
6






Logical disjunction
Logical disjunction is an operation on two logical values, typically the
values of two propositions, that produces a value of true if at least one of
its operands is true.
The truth table for p OR q (also written as p q, Apq, p || q, or p + q) is
as follows:
Logical Disjunction
p q p q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F




7






Logical implication
Logical implication or the material conditional are both associated with
an operation on two logical values, typically the values of
two propositions, that produces a value of false just in the singular case
the first operand is true and the second operand is false.
The truth table associated with the material conditional if p then
q (symbolized as p q) and the logical implication p implies
q (symbolized as p q, or Cpq) is as follows:
Logical Implication
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T



8






Logical equality
Logical equality (also known as biconditional) is an operation on
two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, that produces
a value of true if both operands are false or both operands are true.
The truth table for p XNOR q (also written as p q, Epq, p = q, or p
q) is as follows:
Logical Equality
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
So p EQ q is true if p and q have the same truth value (both true or both
false), and false if they have different truth values.

9






Exclusive disjunction
Exclusive disjunction is an operation on two logical values, typically the
values of two propositions, that produces a value of true if one but not
both of its operands is true.
The truth table for p XOR q (also written as p q, Jpq, or p q) is as
follows:
Exclusive Disjunction
p q p q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Source: Wikipedia