International Symposium on Water, Poverty and Productive uses of Water at the Household Level,

21-23 January 2003, Muldersdrift, South Africa

4 WASTEWATER IRRIGATION: HUBLI-DHARWAD, INDIA

Andrew Bradford1, Robert Brook2 and Chandra Hunshal3

1
Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, UK (A.M.Bradford@rhul.ac.uk)
2
School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor, UK
3
Agronomy Department, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, India.

Summary

Within the twin city of Hubli-Dharwad approximately 60 million l of wastewater is generated every day: this
flows, untreated, from sewers and wastewater nallas (open drains) into the natural watercourses that flow
into the city’s hinterland (Hunshal et al. 1997). In the semi-arid climate, where the summer temperatures
exceed 35 degrees centigrade and the monsoon rains are erratic and unreliable, the wastewater is an
extremely valuable resource for urban and peri-urban farmers and many extract it from the nallas and
underground sewer pipes to irrigate their crops. This is considerably cheaper than constructing a
borehole, which makes the practice more accessible and attractive to farmers with fewer financial
resources. The wastewater also provides an irrigation source during the dry season, which enables
farmers to sell their produce for three to five times the kharif (monsoon) season prices (Hunshal et al.
1997), while its high nutrient load increases crop yields and also reduces the need for costly fertilizer
inputs.

While this farming practice alleviates poverty for many urban and peri-urban farmers, it simultaneously
places them, the consumers of their products and the environment at risk. The farmers have repeated
close contact with the untreated wastewater, which is a major source of pathogens, and the high levels of
anaemia found amongst them can be attributed to water-borne parasitic diseases and worm infestation.
The wastewater also contains potentially injurious bio-medical waste (including disposable needles and
syringes), which after tilling operations becomes half buried in the soils creating hazardous conditions for
farmers that work in the fields. Unregulated and continuous irrigation with wastewater also leads to
environmental problems such as salinisation, phytotoxicity (plant poisoning) and soil structure
deterioration (soil clogging), which in India is commonly referred to as ‘sewage sickness’.

Further examination of wastewater irrigation practices reveals a range of associated problems that
threaten to outweigh the benefits. In particular, the improved crop yields are offset against a problematic
increase in the incidence of pests, which are then controlled by the habitual blanket spraying of organo-
phosphate pesticides. In addition to the pest problem, the high nutrient content of wastewater greatly
increases the incidence of weeds. Weed control accounts for the high labour inputs that are associated
with wastewater irrigated farming, as the main method of weeding is hand tillage. Within the household,
women carry out these tasks; likewise when farm labourers are hired they are more likely to be women
due to their cheaper labour costs. As well as perpetuating their positions as the poorest social group, this
practice repeatedly exposes the women to the hazards of wastewater: pathogens and organophosphate
pesticides.

The situation in Hubli-Dharwad highlights the failures of political policies rather than those of farming
practices. The Ministry of Agriculture does not provide agricultural extension services to urban and peri-
urban farmers and the Hubli-Dharwad Municipal Corporation fails in their legal requirement to treat the
discharged wastewater and they are unlikely to implement such a programme in the near future on the
grounds of cost. In this context farmers using wastewater should be encouraged and supported to adopt
safer and more sustainable farming practices. This requires long-term support through participatory
approaches, such as the use of farmer field schools, which empower farmers through education and
training in sustainable agricultural practices, in addition, the benefits of this approach could be enhanced
through public health education.

4.1 Introduction

In May 2001, a six-week study of wastewater-irrigated agriculture in the peri-urban areas of Hubli-
Dharwad was undertaken (Bradford, 2002). The principle aim of this short study was to address some of
Brook and Dávila’s (2000) research recommendations by conducting a preliminary survey addressing the
scope for integrated pest management (IPM) in the wastewater irrigated crop production systems that are
located in the peri-urban areas of Hubli-Dharwad. The information gained from the study has now been

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used in the planning of IPM interventions for marginalised farmers on DFID Project No. R8084 ‘Enhancing
livelihoods of the poor around Hubli-Dharwad’. During this study, additional information was gathered on
the use of wastewater for agricultural irrigation. This not only provided greater understanding of the wide
variations in cropping practices, but also highlighted several potential interventions that could mitigate the
health and environmental risks associated with wastewater irrigation while contributing to poverty
reduction.
4.1.1 Hubli-Dharwad
Hubli-Dharwad, in southwest India, is the second largest urban agglomeration in Karnataka after
Bangalore, the state capital. The twin city was formed in 1962, when Hubli and Dharwad were brought
together under the Hubli-Dharwad Municipal Corporation. Today, the bustling university city is a pivotal
transport hub and home to 800,000 people. Hubli, the larger of the two is a regional centre for commerce,
trade and industry, while Dharwad, located twenty-two kilometres away is the administrative centre and
host to several prestigious educational institutions. The city has a rapidly expanding information
technology sector alongside well-established commerce and service sectors, but despite this the
traditional practice of agriculture in and around the city remains strong and continues to play an important
social and economic role.

The climate of Hubli-Dharwad is semi-arid and the rainfall across the peri-urban area varies, exceeding
1000 mm to the west of Dharwad and less than 700 mm to the east; the mean annual rainfall is 740 mm
(Brook and Dávila, 2000). In 1993, the percentage share of households connected to water, sewerage,
electricity and telephone, were 38%, 37%, 74% and 8% respectively (Brook and Dávila, 2000).
Households that are not connected to the piped water mains are dependent on either communal water
taps or privately owned boreholes. Within the twin city approximately 60 million l of wastewater is
generated per day: this flows, untreated, via sewers and wastewater nallas (open drains) into natural
watercourses that flow into the hinterlands (Hunshal et al. 1997). In Dharwad, the main wastewater nalla
flows to Madihal, once an outlying village but now incorporated as a suburb due to the expansion of the
city. From Madihal the nalla generally flows east passing on peripheries of Govankoppa, Gongadikoppa
and Maradagi villages. In Hubli, the main wastewater nalla flows to Bidnal, which is also now incorporated
as a suburb. From Bidnal the nalla generally flows south passing on the village peripheries of Gabbur,
Budarsingi and Katnur. In both Dharwad and Hubli smaller pockets of wastewater irrigation can also be
observed in other areas of the city, however, the main areas of wastewater-irrigated agriculture are to be
found along the two main nallas.

4.2 Methodology

A farming systems survey was conducted in May 2001 using semi-structured interviews and participatory
rural appraisal (PRA) techniques. The first phase consisted of an orientation and familiarisation survey of
the farming systems located along the main Dharwad and Hubli wastewater nallas. This provided an
opportunity to make initial contact with the farmers thereby introducing the research project and
identifying some of their main concerns, issues and constraints, in addition, the geographical extent to
which wastewater is used for irrigation was also gauged. The results of the preliminary survey were used
to select the peri-urban villages that would be targeted during the main survey; consideration was given to
ensuring that a wide geographical area was covered in an attempt to identify spatial patterns and trends.

The second phase consisted of the main survey and incorporated semi-structured interviews; cropping
calendars and on-farm transect walks. During the main survey a total of 25 farmers were interviewed,
consisting primarily of smallholders with plot sizes below one hectare. In the peri-urban areas of Hubli-
Dharwad, land ownership and occupations are the principle criteria used by the villages to describe
characteristics of the poor (Brook, 2002). Indeed, many of the villagers themselves classify smallholders
with plot sizes below two hectares as ‘poor’, while the landless – often employed as agricultural labourers
– are classified as the ‘very poor’ (Hillyer et al. 2002). The interviews were supported with cropping
calendars and transect walks with the farmers through the areas that were irrigated with wastewater;
most of the interviews took place in the farmers’ fields.

4.3 Wastewater irrigated agriculture

4.3.1 Main cropping patterns

Along the main Dharwad and Hubli wastewater nallas three distinct cropping systems are apparent:
vegetable production; field crops with vegetables; and agroforestry. The spatial variation of the cropping
systems results from a combination of factors which include labour availability, farm size, market access,

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village conformity and soil types, with the overriding aspect being the availability of wastewater itself. In
the city and suburbs, where the wastewater supply is guaranteed, intensive vegetable production occurs.
In locations where the supply is erratic and unreliable field crops and agroforestry predominate (see Table
1).

Table 1 Spatial variation of wastewater irrigated cropping systems

Main nalla Village Distance (km) Cropping system
Madihal 2.0 Vegetable production
Dharwad Govankoppa 5.4 Field crops & vegetables
Gongadikoppa 9.2 Field crops & vegetables
Maradagi 11.85 Field crops & vegetables
Bidnal 2.5 Vegetable production
Hubli Gabbur 8.9 Field crops & vegetables
Budarsingi 10.7 Agroforestry
Katnur 13.5 Agroforestry
Note: Distance = length of the wastewater nalla from city source to village including any meander

4.3.2 Irrigation methods

Regardless of the cropping systems used, the wastewater irrigation method utilized along the Dharwad
and Hubli wastewater nallas remains the same; consisting of an overland flow and furrow irrigation
system using centrifugal pumps powered by either diesel motor or grid electricity. The irrigation pump and
diesel motor together constitute the highest investment cost; therefore they are often housed in small
brick buildings adjacent to the wastewater nallas for security and protection against the elements.
Wastewater is lifted from the nallas by means of the pump and delivered under pressure to the highest
field elevation; the distance from the wastewater off-take to the actual outlet may reach up to 500 m.
From the outlet point the wastewater flows under gravity along the furrows irrigating the crops. The
opening and closing of the furrows is a precisely timed operation to ensure soils are not left waterlogged
and ridges are not inundated. However, the use of ridge and furrow irrigation rather than flood irrigation
does not reduce the risk of crop contamination or reduce farmer exposure to wastewater. The results of
an exploratory crop test at the University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, showed that crop samples
taken from a ridge were still bacterially contaminated by the wastewater flowing in the furrow (Alagawadi,
2001; Bradford, 2002).

Furthermore, farmer exposure to wastewater was increased as farmers stand in the flowing wastewater in
the furrow rather than damaging the ridges during transplanting and weeding operations, thus increasing
their contact and exposure to untreated wastewater. Indeed, in a study carried out by Hunshal and
Sindhe (1997) on the effects of wastewater on the health of 40 farmers from Madihal and Gabbur villages,
anaemia was identified as the “commonest finding and was related to nutritional deficiency and to worm
infestation”. Despite this study being inconclusive due to the small sample size and the lack of a control it
did highlight some of the health implications of wastewater irrigation. The frequency of irrigation is
dependent on the crop type, soil type and rainfall amount, with irrigation increasing in the dry season and
during erratic rainfall conditions. During the dry season, vegetable crops are irrigated every two days and
tree crops are irrigated every ten days. The only other water sources are shallow wells and these are
used for drinking purposes only.

Despite using a common irrigation method, one aspect, which remains heterogeneous, is that of
wastewater filtration. Most farmers have adopted some method of filtering the wastewater as it is pumped
from the nalla. The filtration serves two purposes: it prevents debris entering the pump thereby reducing
wear and tear and it prevents the fouling of soils with any debris and solid wastes present in the
wastewater. The various forms of filtration include: improvised gauze filters round the inlet pipe;
positioning of the inlet pipe inside pierced plastic barrels that act as large sieves and the use of sieve
baskets woven from natural fibres. The gauze filter prevents debris larger than 10 mm from entering the
inlet pipe, while the plastic barrel sieve only prevents debris larger than 20 mm; regardless of the filtration,
used suspended solids and sediments enter the inlet pipe. If the filters become blocked they are simply
rinsed with wastewater in the nalla, however, the steady flow of the nalla generally prevents debris from
accumulating. In Maradagi village, one farmer has constructed a settling tank, which also serves as a
wastewater storage tank, to ensure a sufficient irrigation supply when the wastewater flow is low. If the
wastewater is not filtered, any solid waste flowing in the wastewater that can pass through the inlet is
pumped onto the fields. As the wastewater infiltrates into the soil the solids remain on the surface,
clogging the topsoil with plastics and other debris. After tilling operations, such waste becomes half buried
resulting in potentially hazardous conditions for the farmers that are working in the fields.

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21-23 January 2003, Muldersdrift, South Africa

4.3.3 Discussion of main cropping systems

4.3.3.1 Vegetable production

A distinct feature of the intensive vegetable production systems is the continuous all year production of
vegetables and the absence of a fallow. The proximity to the urban areas – i.e. the source of wastewater
– ensures a reliable irrigation supply during the dry season (February – May). These production systems
are predominantly found at Madihal in Dharwad and at Bidanal on the outskirts of Hubli. The ease of
access to local urban markets and high urban demand ensure a secure market for vegetable produce,
particularly during the dry season when vegetable market prices increase three to five fold. The intensive
vegetable production systems require considerably higher labour inputs than field crop and agroforestry-
based systems. Household members normally meet these labour inputs but during peak periods
additional farm labourers may be hired.

Further examination of wastewater irrigation practices reveals a range of associated problems that
threaten to outweigh the benefits. In addition to the health hazards already discussed, the improved crop
yields are also offset by a problematic increase in the incidence of weeds and pests. The increased
incidence of pests associated with wastewater irrigated vegetable production systems results from a
combination of factors. Pests are habitually controlled by blanket spraying with organophosphate
pesticides; however, the hot and semi-arid climate provides opportunistic breeding conditions by
quickening the reproduction cycle, which then enables pests to build pesticide resistance faster. The
planting of vegetable crops in monoculture blocks also facilitates their proliferation, while the continuous
cycle of crop production during the dry season when land is normally barren, ensures that insect
populations can thrive when they would typically encounter a seasonal decline. Furthermore, Alagawadi
(2001) has raised a further concern and has suggested that boring pests (e.g. Helicoverpa armigera) that
invade crop fruits (e.g. aubergine) on wastewater irrigated fields are likely to increase bacterial
contamination of the crop by providing additional entry routes.

Due to the lack of an effective control, the prolific multiplication of pests such as the Plutella xylostella and
Helicoverpa armigera has resulted in complete crop failures and high economic losses; consequently,
farmers in some areas have stopped growing what were once highly profitable crops, such as cabbage1.
Plutella xylostella affects aubergine and most Brassica species, while Helicoverpa armigera affects most
vegetable crops. During interviews, farmers on both wastewater nallas identified Helicoverpa armigera as
a major pest currently affecting aubergine, chilli, okra, onion and tomato crops. However, despite the
failure of organophosphate pesticides to provide effective crop protection, many farmers increase the
frequency of pesticide application – with some farmers spraying twice weekly – and many also mix
pesticides, creating potentially hazardous combinations. These practices are advocated by pesticide
dealers who remain the chief source of agricultural advice for farmers. The net result is an increased risk
of crop contamination and of farmers’ exposure to pesticide poisoning. In India, farmers are well aware of
the immediate toxic nature of organophosphate pesticides: the 1984 Bhopal disaster and the oft-reported
cases of farmers committing suicide through pesticide consumption serve as vivid reminders. Conversely,
there is less general awareness of the accumulative effect of organophosphate pesticide poisoning, which
often manifests itself in the gradual failure of the immune system, making it less detectable for health
workers and epidemiologists. In a recent study in north Karnataka, it was found that 20% of drinking water
supplies were contaminated with Endosulphan (Cratchley et al. 2002), a pesticide that is also commonly
used in wastewater-irrigated vegetable production.

To address pest problems in wastewater-irrigated vegetable cropping systems an integrated pest

management (IPM) trial was conducted over two seasons using light traps and the soil bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) (Tippannavar, 2001). The bacterium is a pathogen that can be used as a biological pest
control against lepidopteran larvae such as Plutella xylostella and Helicoverpa armigera. The bacterium is
mass-produced and with the use of a knapsack sprayer it is applied directly onto the pest or onto the crop
for ingestion by the pest (CAB International, 2000). While there was some crop loss due to delayed
treatments the results proved an overall success. In terms of extension success and the uptake of
technologies the research work has had mixed results (bearing in mind that the trial was research- rather
than extension-based). Once the trial was concluded, the farmer who had participated stopped using Bt
spray and reverted back to applying organophosphate pesticides. The farmer’s decision to revert back
may have resulted from a lack of confidence to continue using biological pesticides without the regular
attendance of the researcher and the fact that Bt is not widely retailed and hence inconvenient to
purchase. Conversely, the farmers at Madihal have been keen to duplicate the light traps used in the trial

1
Names of vegetables and crops are listed in Appendix 1.

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21-23 January 2003, Muldersdrift, South Africa

and now use light bulbs (to attract moths at night) underneath which are located tubs of kerosene, which
kills any moths that land in the fuel.
4.3.3.2 Field crop and vegetable systems
Once beyond Madihal village on the Dharwad nalla the remaining cropping systems are predominantly
field crops with vegetables; these cropping systems are found at Govankoppa, Gongadikoppa and
Maradagi villages and can also be found on the Hubli nalla at Gabbur village. The larger the farm size the
more land put over to field crops, as vegetable production generally requires greater labour inputs.
Beyond Maradagi village wastewater irrigation ceases and the cropping systems are rainfed, as during
the dry season the quantity of wastewater flowing in the Dharwad nalla at this point is insufficient as a
reliable irrigation source. For field crops, such as cotton and wheat, wastewater irrigation is simply used
to start the field crop season earlier and when rainfall is erratic during the rainy season (see Table 2).
This brings added advantages over rainfed agriculture as the crops that are harvested earlier bring higher
market prices as, once the market is inundated with produce from rainfed systems, the market price
tumbles.

During the kharif the choice of vegetables grown is not just based on market demands but also on what is
consumed within the household, whereas during the dry season the market demands prevail and
vegetables with high off-season prices are preferred, such as chilli. If cotton is to be grown, planting
occurs during the dry season in April, the sewage irrigation being used to start the crop before the kharif
season. If the wastewater levels are particularly low, check dams are built in the nalla to ensure sufficient
wastewater for irrigating the field crop seedlings. The advantage of an early start to the crop is the earlier
harvest than that of rainfed systems, which ensures crop sales before market inundation of cotton from
rainfed agriculture. Many of the farms located in Maradagi - the last village on the Dharwad nalla that
irrigates with wastewater - adopt a fallow during the dry season, as the wastewater flows are no longer a
reliable irrigation source.

The greatly increased incidence of weeds and pests found in the intensive vegetable production systems
equally applies to the field crop and vegetable systems. However, the nature of the cropping patterns and
the increased distance these systems are located from Dharwad results in different priorities for the
farmers. The control of weeds on seasonal vegetable plots is identical to that of the intensive vegetable
production systems and is based on hand tillage, although there is a notable shortage of labour to
conduct such weeding. Farmers in the outlying villages do not have the convenience of being able to
draw on the urban unemployed (as and when required) during peak periods like their counterparts in
Madihal. The shortage of labour is a constraint that is frequently expressed by farmers in Govankoppa,
Gongadikoppa and Maradagi and it influences the decision by some farmers not to grow vegetables in
the dry season when lucrative prices can be fetched for such produce. The weed control of field crops is
more conveniently achieved with draught animals. Fields are prepared prior to planting with the use of
mouldboard ploughs and then inter-row cultivations are used as the main weed control.

The main pests and diseases that affect intensive vegetable cropping systems are also present in the
field crop and vegetable cropping systems, indeed many of the pests will target, defoliate and destroy
both vegetable and field crops together. The infamous Helicoverpa armigera that is reported by farmers
the length of both nallas can devastate cotton crops and is seen as the main pest problem by the farmers
growing field crops irrigated with sewage. The fact that cotton does not enter the food chain brings little
respite as farmers in an attempt to protect the crop blanket spray systematically, placing themselves at an
extremely high risk of pesticide poisoning. Dent (2000: 322) highlights: the crop ‘consumes 50% of the
insecticides used annually in India even though it occupies only 5% of the cultivated area [and] 80% of
synthetic pyrethroid consumption is confined to cotton alone’. The pest Helicoverpa armigera was also
reported as a problem with aubergine, chilli, chickpea, and okra. Aphids and whitefly were also identified
as pests affecting both cotton and vegetable crops. Rusts were reported on wheat crops in the kharif
season, however farmers commented that it was not a serious problem.

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Table 2 Dharwad nalla: random sample of field and vegetable cropping calendars

June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May
1 1 1
Village/Farm Kharif (monsoon rains) Rabi (light rains) Dry season (summer)

Govankoppa
Hulligeri Aubergine, chilli, cluster bean, coriander, okra, ridge gourd (0.8 ha) (continuous cropping)
Totad Aubergine, chilli, ridge gourd (0.8 ha) Wheat (0.8 ha) Aubergine, chilli, ridge gourd (0.8 ha)
Basavaraj Chilli, cucumber, ridge gourd, aubergine (0.8 ha) Wheat (0.8 ha) Aubergine, chilli, cucumber, ridge gourd (0.8 ha)

Gongadikoppa
Karikatti Onion (0.4 ha), banana (0.4 ha) Banana (0.4 ha), wheat (0.4 ha) Banana (0.4 ha), fallow (0.4 ha)
Annigeri Okra, green gram (1.2 ha) Chickpea, wheat (1.2 ha) Cucumber, okra, ridge gourd (1.2 ha)
Gangappa Green gram, onion, (1.6 ha) Chickpea, wheat, (1.6 ha) Fallow
2 2
Patil Ground nut (4 ha) & cotton , green gram (2.4 ha) Chickpea (5.3 ha), wheat (1.2 ha) Fallow, cotton
Sab Ground nut, green gram, onion (0.4 ha) Chickpea, sorghum, wheat (0.4 ha) Chilli, okra, (0.4 ha)
Walmiki Green gram, onion (0.8 ha) Chickpea, wheat (0.8 ha) Aubergine, okra, tomato (0.8 ha)

Maradagi
2 2
Hampannavar Cotton (1.6 ha) & green gram, ground nut, onion (1.6 Wheat (3.2 ha) Chilli, tomato (0.8 ha), fallow (2.4 ha), cotton (1.6 ha)
ha)
2 2
Bellar Cotton , green gram, ground nut, onion, maize, ridge Chickpea, safflower, wheat (1.6 ha) Chilli (0.4 ha), fallow (1.2 ha), cotton
gourd (1.6 ha)
Dewatagi Chilli (1.6 ha) Chickpea, sorghum, wheat (1.6 ha) Fallow
2 2
Hamipannavar Cotton , onion, green gram (2.4 ha) Wheat (2.4 ha) Fallow Cotton , onion…
Note: Names of crops and vegetables are listed in appendix 1.

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4.3.3.3 Agroforestry systems

In India, wastewater irrigated agroforestry has long been recognised as a strategy to dispose of urban
wastewater, while also rehabilitating and greening wastelands (see Das and Kaul, 1992). In the peri-
urban villages of Budarsingi and Katnur on the main Hubli nalla, all farmers bordering the nalla engage in
some kind of wastewater irrigated agroforestry practice. In other locations, only sporadic planting of trees
on farm boundaries and the occasional agroforestry practice can be observed. The benefits from
agroforestry include reduced irrigation requirements and therefore reduced exposure of farmers to
wastewater, as during the dry season, vegetable crops are irrigated every two days while tree crops are
irrigated every ten days. Furthermore, farmers that have adopted agroforestry systems have reported a
substantial increase in income from the produce as a result.

In the villages of Budarsingi and Katnur, the main wastewater irrigated agroforestry practices are ‘tree
predominant’ orchard systems and agrosilviculture, consisting of spatially mixed perennial-crop
combinations (Young, 1997). The two most important tree species are sapota Achras zapota and guava
Psidium guajava; other common species are coconut Cocos nucifera, mango Mangifera indica, arecanut
Areca catechu and teak Tectona grandis. Species found on farm boundaries include neem Azadirachta
indica, tamarind Tamarindus indica, coconut and teak. Other less common species are banana Musa
paridasiaca, ramphal Annona reticulata, curry leaf Murraya koenigii, pomegranate Punica granatum,
lemon tree Citrus limon, galimara Casuarina equisitifolia and mulberry Morus indica.

Tree-predominant orchard systems are planted as a single crop of either sapota or guava or a mixture of
the two, with tree spacing of 6-7 m. Next to the orchards many farmers plant small vegetable plots, which
are also irrigated with wastewater. Farmers with larger landholdings also plant additional field crops
adopting similar cropping patterns to the field crop systems found on the Dharwad transect. The
agrosilviculture systems consist of tree rows containing a mixture of sapota and guava. The trees are
spaced along the rows at intervals of 6-7 m and each row is planted approximately 9 m apart. The land
between each row is used for field crops. Examples of some of the field crops grown include groundnut in
the dry season and sorghum in the kharif. Many adaptations of these agrosilviculture systems were
observed; examples included the planting of a teak row amongst the sapota and guava rows and the
growing of vegetables between tree rows rather than field crops. Other practices observed included a
wastewater-irrigated mulberry field for silk production with widely spaced sapota and guava trees planted
amongst the mulberry and plots of wastewater irrigated coconut trees intercropped with arecanut. Two
plots of wastewater-irrigated bananas were also visited.

Farmers in Budarsingi and Katnur villages identified rigorous weed growth as the main constraint to
agroforestry. Even though fruit pests and disease were evident, the low incidence meant that many
farmers took no control measures and as such pesticides were not used on the agroforestry plots. Weeds
were identified as problematic, particularly Parthenium hysterophorus. Farmers attribute the wide spread
of the weed to seeds that are carried in the wastewater and then pumped onto the fields. Farmers
reported that even though the Zygogramma beetle was established, the beetle (an introduced bio-control
agent) could not multiply fast enough to control the increasing weed problem (the beetle feeds on the
Parthenium hysterophorus weed). As a result, removal by hand was the main weed control measure and
consequently most farmers reported labour shortages. Additional crop problems reported by farmers
included the early dropping of fruit from trees and the softening of fruit while still growing; farmers
identified wastewater-irrigation as the causal factor for both of these problems. Indeed, a similar problem
was reported with apples irrigated with wastewater, which resulted in ‘detrimental effects on fruit quality
by decreasing flesh firmness and increasing incidence of core flush’ (Meheriuk and Neilsen, 1991: 1269).
4.3.3.4 Fodder production
An additional wastewater irrigation system can be found just outside Maradagi village on the Dharwad
nalla. Since 1995, a small-scale dairy farmer has been irrigating a 0.4-ha plot of Napier grass1
Pennisetum purpureum with wastewater and borewell water on an alternating daily basis. The grass is
grown throughout the year and used as fodder for eight dairy cows and two bullocks stalled nearby. An
additional supplementary feed made from a rice by-product is also fed to the livestock. Changing from dry
feed to the Napier grass fodder, the farmer reports a milk yield improvement from 3-4 l per day to 8 l per
day, an enterprising two-fold increase. The farmer has an additional 5 ha of rainfed land; nevertheless he
chooses not to use wastewater irrigation on this land and leaves it fallow during the dry season. His

1
Napier grass is sometimes used as an alternative to vetiver grass Vetiveria zizanioides as a vegetative
barrier for soil and water conservation, as the latter can not be used for livestock fodder (Morgan, 1995).

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reasons are labour shortages and time and organisational constraints, but considering the farmer is over
70 years old his reluctance to work intensely all year round is understandable, and in any case the vastly
improved milk yields ensure a secure regular income.

4.4 Key issues

4.4.1 Risks presented by bio-medical waste

As discussed before, most farmers have adopted some method for filtering the wastewater as it is
pumped from the wastewater nallas. The rudimentary filtration is used to prevent soils becoming clogged
with plastics, disposable syringes and other debris. Several farmers along both the nallas reported the
presence of disposable needles and syringes in the wastewater, with one farmer having seen an
intravenous giving-set in the nalla. In Govankoppa, a farmer complained of standing on needles buried in
the soil up to 20 times in a single day. The foremost concern for these farmers is the cost of any medical
treatment that is required if infection does occur. In Katnur, a farmer displayed a disposable syringe and
needle that had been recovered from the filter fitted to the wastewater inlet pipe. He then recounted an
‘experiment’ he had conducted two years previously with the disposable syringe, when he had
‘successfully’ grown ten tomato plants after injecting each plant with 0.5 - 1 ml of undiluted pesticide.
Despite the ‘experiment’ working he no longer uses the highly hazardous technique although he still has
the needle and syringe. In addition to raising regulatory issues regarding bio-medical waste control, these
examples highlight the importance of farmers taking action themselves. The fitting of rudimentary filters to
the wastewater inlets is crucial to mitigate the spread of disposable needles, debris, and plastics onto
farmers’ fields.
4.4.2 Gender implications of wastewater irrigation
Regardless of the cropping system being used, the high nutrient loading from wastewater greatly
increases the incidence of weeds; as already mentioned, farmers also attribute this to seeds that are
carried in the wastewater and then pumped onto the fields. Consequently, as the main weed control
method is hand tillage, the weeding accounts for the high labour inputs associated with wastewater
irrigated cropping systems. Household members meet these labour inputs and within the household
women normally carry out these tasks, likewise, when farm labourers are hired they are more likely to be
women due to the cheaper labour costs. Census data also confirms that a higher proportion of women
are engaged in urban agriculture. Budds and Allen (1999) reported that the male population mainly seized
the non-farm opportunities, as the wages are higher than in the agricultural sector (building labourers
earn 70 rupees per day as opposed to farm labourers earning 50 rupees). As well as perpetuating their
positions as the poorest social group, their exposure to the hazards of wastewater – pathogens and
organophosphate pesticide residues - is also increased as they spend full days working on the fields.
Furthermore, once the day’s work is finished the women return to their households and carry out evening
chores, including food preparation and cooking, thereby increasing the risk of pathogen transfer to other
family members if basic hygienic standards are not maintained.
4.4.3 Risk reduction in livelihood strategies
There are wide variations in how plants and animals absorb, retain and transmit pathogens and heavy
metals. With careful crop selection food chains can be designed to reduce the transmission of pathogens
and other pollutants. The adoption of agroforestry systems reduces farmers’ direct contact with and
exposure to wastewater, due to the reduced irrigating requirements of tree crops in comparison to
vegetables and field crops; tree crops also absorb and accumulate fewer pathogens and heavy metals
than vegetable crops. In addition, the use of organophosphate pesticides is greatly reduced, as the
diverse agroecosystems become more stable and less vulnerable to pest populations. However, there are
several reasons why farmers do not diversify and adopt more sustainable cropping systems, such as the
use of wastewater-irrigated agroforestry. Poor farmers dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods will
always mitigate what they potentially perceive as risks, and changing cropping systems is perceived as a
high-risk strategy.

The livelihood strategies of poor farmers are often dependent on quick returns, which are gained from
intensive vegetable production, whereas the initial returns from agroforestry are much slower. However,
during the period of establishing an agroforestry plot, additional crops, such as vegetables or field crops
can be intercropped with the tree seedlings, thereby preventing serious losses in earnings. The farmers
who have adopted agroforestry practices have done so because they have either additional income
generating opportunities or larger landholdings (see Table 3). This reduces their dependency on a single
livelihood or small agricultural plot. Furthermore, farmers with larger landholdings are more likely to

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experiment with small plots of agroforestry and expand such experiments as they reap the benefits and
gain confidence in the new practices.

This process is clearly occurring in Budarsingi and Katnur, where wastewater-irrigated agroforestry
systems have spread as a direct result of farmers observing the practices, then adopting them once they
are confident they work; in this case ‘change’ is no longer perceived as a risk and thus agroforestry
practices are freely adopted. This process could be enhanced through the extension of appropriate IPM
strategies using participatory approaches such as farmer field schools. These empower farmers through
education and training which are designed to meet the needs of smallholders and marginalised farmers
and incorporate traditional pest control methods. Therefore, the development of micro technologies at the
farm level to reduce risk is a crucial component within this process and examples of this process are
clearly evident in Hubli-Dharwad, where some innovative farmers have diversified their agroecosystems
by incorporating agroforestry practices.

Table 3 Livelihood diversification strategies of innovative farmers

Farm (village) Innovation Livelihoods Remarks
F.G. Patil Agroforestry Sewage irrigated: 5.3 ha; rainfed: 8.1 ha Certificate in
(Govankoppa) Horticulture
F. Yattinagadad Agroforestry Sewage irrigated: 2.4 ha Neighbours the
(Govankoppa) above farm
N.F. Gauder Agroforestry Sewage irrigated: 1.2 ha; family members Assets: 4x4
(Govankoppa) are carpenters vehicle
B. Doddamani Fodder Sewage irrigated: 0.4 ha; rainfed: 4.9 ha; 1
(Maradagi) production family member employed as university
lecturer
R. Mudhol Agroforestry Sewage irrigated: 2.2 ha; family own 24.3 ha
(Gabbur) of guava plantation

4.4.4 Policy implications

The situation in Hubli-Dharwad highlights the failures of political policies rather than that of bad farming
practices. Diverse actors mould the wastewater irrigated farming systems that are located in the peri-
urban areas, illustrating the contested political nature of urban and peri-urban agriculture. Firstly, the
Hubli-Dharwad Municipal Corporation fails in its legal requirement to treat the discharged wastewater and
are unlikely to implement such a programme in the near future on the grounds of cost. Wastewater
treatment plants would certainly mitigate the public health and environmental risks that are associated
with the wastewater nallas. However, even when the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board attempted
to bring charges against the Municipal Corporation for its obligational failures, the National Government
intervened and the charges were later thrown out. As Cratchley et al. (2002) highlight the “environmental
legislation is very good, however implementation is never easy and seems to be compromised”; indeed,
compromised to such a degree that, when it suits, political decisions can override national environmental
legislation.

Secondly, the actual moulding of wastewater irrigated agriculture has been hugely influenced by pesticide
dealers; this has resulted in farmers becoming completely dependent on local pesticide dealers for their
biased agricultural advice, which is inevitably linked to pesticide sales rather than that of good farming
practices. The lack of institutional support in the form of extension services for urban and peri-urban
farmers has only compounded the situation and strengthened the position of the pesticide dealer.
Extension services are not provided to urban and peri-urban farmers because their farms are located
within the official city boundary. Furthermore, with the announcement of the loss of 7,000 out of the total
17,000 posts in the state agriculture department (Deccan Herald, 2001); the department’s extension focus
will no doubt continue to be the cash cropping progressive farmers rather than the marginalised
wastewater irrigating smallholder.

The outright banning of wastewater irrigation would be both unpractical and infeasible, in addition, for
urban and peri-urban farmers the poverty implications of such a measure would be vast. Anyway, as
noted in section 1.2 of the Hyderabad Declaration on wastewater use in irrigated agriculture: “with proper
management, wastewater use contributes significantly to sustaining livelihoods, food security and the
quality of the environment” (IWMI and IDRC, 2002:4). Therefore, the attainment of a ‘proper
management’ approach is vital if the public health and environmental risks are to be mitigated without
threatening the livelihoods of marginalised farmers; the key to such an approach lies in education. In
Hubli-Dharwad, centralised or decentralised wastewater treatment plants are unlikely to be implemented
in the near future; therefore, farmers irrigating with wastewater should be encouraged and supported to
adopt safer and more sustainable farming practices. The farmers along the wastewater nallas have
clearly demonstrated a readiness to adopt alternative pest control strategies with some informal farmer-

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to-farmer networks already contributing to that process. However, the change from the current reliance on
organophosphate pesticides to IPM strategies, and the conversion to agroforestry practices will require
long-term support through participatory approaches such as the use of farmer field schools that empower
farmers through education and training in sustainable agricultural practices. The particular nature of the
farming systems along the Dharwad and Hubli nallas and the complex nature of IPM suggest a village-
based extension approach is likely to be the most suitable. The public health benefits of such an
approach could also be enhanced through public education, aimed at raising awareness in disease
prevention through better food handling, preparation and cooking practices.

4.5 Acknowledgements

Andrew Bradford would like to thank the UK Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) for financial
contributing towards his attendance at the symposium.

4.6 References

Alagawadi, A.R. (2001). Professor of Agricultural Microbiology, University of Agricultural Sciences,

Dharwad. Personal communication 19th May; 31st May; 6th June.
Bradford, A.M. (2002). ‘Sewage Irrigated Agriculture: Annex F’ In Brook, R.M. (ed.) Filling gaps in
knowledge about the peri-urban interface around Hubli-Dharwad. Department for International
Development Project No. R7867. Final Technical Report. University of Wales, Bangor, UK
(Natural Resources Systems Programme, Department for International Development, p. F1-F22.).
Brook, R.M. (ed.) (2002) Filling gaps in knowledge about the peri-urban interface around Hubli-Dharwad.
Department for International Development Project No. R7867. Final Technical Report. University
of Wales, Bangor, UK (Natural Resources Systems Programme, Department for International
Development, p. F1-F22.).
Brook, R. and Dávila, J. (eds.) (2000) The Peri-Urban Interface: a tale of two cities. Bangor, UK, School of
Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Wales and Loondon, UK, Development Planning
Unit, University College London.
Budds, J. and Allen, A. (1999). Peri-Urban Profiles: Hubli-Dharwad, India. London, UK, (Research Paper.
Development Planning Unit, University College London).
CAB International. (2000) Crop Protection Compendium: 2nd Edition. Wallingford, UK, CAB International,.
Cratchley, R. Hollingham, M. and Joshi, S.G. (2002) ‘Water resources around Hubli and Dharwad: Annex
E’. In Brook, R.M. (ed.) Filling gaps in knowledge about the peri-urban interface around Hubli-
Dharwad. Department for International Development Project No. R7867. Final Technical Report.
Bangor,UK Natural Resources Systems Programme, Department for International Development,
University of Wales. (p. E1-E101).
Das, D.C. and Kaul, R.N. (1992). Greening Wastelands Through Wastewater., New Delhi, India,.
Deccan Herald (2001) 24th June. 7,000 posts in farm dept to go. Bangalore, India, National Wastelands
Development Board, Ministry of Environment and Forests.
Dent, D. (2000). Insect Pest Management. 2nd Edition. Wallingford, UK, CABI Publishing.
Hillyer, K.J. Paril, A. and Hunshal, C.S. (2002). ‘A study of the livelihood strategies of the poor and very
poor in peri-urban areas of Hubli-Dharwad, and the impact of urbanisation upon them: Annex B’.
In Brook, R.M. (ed.) Filling gaps in knowledge about the peri-urban interface around Hubli-
Dharwad. Department for International Development Project No. R7867. Final Technical Report.
University of Wales, Bangor, UK (Natural Resources Systems Programme, Department for
International Development, (p. B1-F66).
Hunshal, C.S. and Sindhe, K. (1997). ‘Wastewater: Problems and Opportunities: Paper 10’. In University
of Agricultural Sciences, Karnataka University, SDM Engineering College, Dharwad, India and
University of Birmingham, University of Nottingham and University of Wales, Bangor (eds.)
Baseline Study for Hubli-Dharwad City Region, Karnataka, India. Introductory Workshop Peri-
Urban Production System Research Programme, July 1997, Natural Resources International, p.
5.
Hunshal, C.S. Salakinkop, S.R. and Brook, R.M. (1997). ‘Sewage irrigated vegetable production systems
around Hubli-Dharwad, Karnataka, India’ In Kasetsart Journal (Natural Sciences), vol. 32, no. 5 p.
1-8.
IWMI and IDRC (2002). International Water Management Institute and International Development
Research Centre The Hyderabad Declaration In Urban Agriculture Magazine, vol. 8, no. 4.
Meheriuk, M. and Neilsen, G.H. (1991). Fruit quality of McIntosh apples irrigated with well or municipal
waste water In Canadian Journal of Plant Science, vol. 71, p. 1267-1269.
Morgan, R.P.C. (1995). Soil Erosion and Conservation: 2nd Edition. Hazrlow, UK, Longman.

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21-23 January 2003, Muldersdrift, South Africa

Tippannavar, P. (2001). Agricultural Researcher, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad. Personal

th th
communication 19 May, 27 May.
Young, A. (1997). Agroforestry for Soil Management: 2nd edition. Nairobi, Kenya, ICRAF,.

4.7 Bibliography

Allison, M., Harris, P.J.C., Hofny-Collins, A.H., and Stevens, W. (1998). A Review of the Use of Urban
Waste in Peri-Urban Interface Production Systems. Coventry, UK., Henry Doubleday Research
Association, (addresses some technical wastewater irrigation issues and includes a useful bibliography).

Bakker, N.; Dubbeling M.; Gündel, S.; Sabel-Koschella; U. and de Zeeuw, H. (eds.) (2000) Growing
Cities, Growing Food: Urban Agriculture on the Policy Agenda. Food and Agriculture Development Centre
(ZEL), German Foundation for International Development (DSE) (addresses urban and peri-urban
agricultural policies and includes a case study on waste recycling through urban farming in Hubli-
Dharwad).

Birley, M.H. and Lock, K. (1999). The Health Impacts of Peri-urban Natural Resource Development..
Trowbridge, UK, Cromwell Press (Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine: addresses the health impacts of
wastewater irrigation and includes case study material from Hubli-Dharwad).

Das, D.C. and Kaul, R.N. (1992) Greening Wastelands through Wastewater. India, New Delhi, National
Wastelands Development Board, Ministry of Environment and Forests (useful technical manual on land
rehabilitation through wastewater irrigated tree plantations).

Hussain, I. et al. (2002). Wastewater Use in Agriculture: Review of Impacts and Methodological Issues in
Valuing Impacts., Sri Lanka, Colombo. (Working Paper 37. International Water Management Institute,
Colombo: useful review of wastewater irrigation which contains an excellent extended list of
bibliographical references on wastewater irrigation).

Urban Agriculture Magazine (regularly features articles on wastewater irrigated agriculture, and can be
viewed and downloaded from the Resource Centre for Urban Agriculture (RUAF) Internet site at
www.ruaf.org).

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4.8 Appendix 1: Plant names

Common name Scientific binomial Indian vernacular

Arecanut Areca catechu
Aubergine (eggplant) Solanum melongena Brinjal
Banana Musa paridasiaca
Cauliflower Brassica oleracea var. botrytis
Cabbage Brassica oleracea var. capitata
Chickpea (gram) Cicer arietinum
Chilli Capsicum annuum var. longum
Coconut Cocos nucifera
Cotton Gossypium herbaceum
Cucumber Cucumbar sativus
Curry leaf Murraya koenigii
Galimara Casuarina equisitifolia
Green gram Vigna radiata
Ground nut Arachis hypogaea
Guava Psidium guajava
Lemon tree Citrus limon Nimbu
Mango Mangifera indica
Maize Zea mays
Mulberry Morus indica
Napier grass Pennisetum purpureum
Neem Azadirachta indica
Okra (ladies finger) Abelmoschus esculentis Bhendi
Onion Allium cepa
Pomegranate Punica granatum
Ramphal Annona reticulata
Ridge gourd Luffa acutangula
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius
Sapota (sapodilla) Achras zapota
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor Jowar
Tamarind Tamarindus indica
Teak Tectona grandis
Tomato Lycopersicon lycopersicum
Wheat Triticum aestivum

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