Communism

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Communism
For the Western term for a state that is governed by a self-professed Communist party, see Communist state. For the
ideology upheld in multiple Communist states, see MarxismLeninism.
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[1]
Communism (from Latin communis common, universal)
[2]
is a socioeconomic system structured upon common
ownership of the means of production and characterized by the absence of social classes, money,
[3][4]
and the state;
as well as a social, political and economic ideology and movement that aims to establish this social order. The
movement to develop communism, in its MarxistLeninist interpretations, significantly influenced the history of the
20th century, which saw intense rivalry between the states which claimed to follow this ideology and their enemies.
Communism is most associated with Marxism, which considers itself the embodiment of scientific socialism.
According to Marxism, capitalism is a historically necessary stage of society, which has led to the concentration of
social classes into two major groups: proletariat - who must work to survive, and who make up a majority of society
- and bourgeoisie - a minority who derive profit from employing the proletariat, through private ownership of the
means of production. The political, social, and economical conflict between both groups (class struggle), each
attempting to push their interests to their logical extreme, will lead into the capture of political power by the
proletariat. Public ownership and management of the means of production by society will be established - this is
known as socialism. As the development of the productive forces end scarcity, goods and services are made available
on the basis of free access. This results in the disappearance of social classes and money. Eventually, as the class
struggle ends, the state ceases to be relevant and fades from recognition, as the social institutions for the collective
self-management of the human community continue without it.
[5]
The result is communism: a stateless, classless and
moneyless society, structured upon common ownership of the means of production.
The October Revolution, led by Lenin and Trotsky, set the conditions for the rise to power of a Marxist party in
Russia, eventually resulting in the creation of the Soviet Union, with the aim of developing socialism and eventually
communism. Lenin never claimed that the Soviet Union had achieved socialism; in fact, Lenin openly admitted that
state capitalism was in place, but also stated that socialism was eventually going to be developed.
[6][7]
Lenin, in his
last days, asked for Stalin to be removed from his position.
[8]
Lenin's death led to a struggle for power between opposed factions, eventually resulting in the victory of Stalin,
whose rule saw the elimination of any opposition. Stalin invented the term "Marxism-Leninism",
[9]
a promotional
term designed to emphasize a professed adhererence to Marxism and Leninism (which is controversial) and a more
accurate interpretation of these than other tendencies, which describes the political ideology Stalin implemented in
Communism
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the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and, in a global scale, in the Comintern. Marxism-Leninism sets deviations
from both Marxism and Leninism (such as the acceptance of "socialism in one country"
[10][11][12]
). There is no
definite agreement between historians of about whether Stalin actually followed the principles of Marx and Lenin.
Marxism-Leninism is based on the creation of a single-party state
[13]
which has full control of the economy.
According to Marxism-Leninism, the Soviet Union had achieved socialism and was on the way to communism; other
communist tendencies disagree, some (of which some are Marxist, some others not) claiming that it had in fact
established state capitalism,
[14]
and that socialism was not being developed but rather that its development was
halted since the come to power of Stalin. To these tendencies, Marxism-Leninism is neither Marxism, Leninism, nor
the union of both; but rather an artificial term created to justify Stalin's ideological distortion, forced upon the CPSU
and Comintern. In the Soviet Union, the struggle against Marxism-Leninism was led by the Left Opposition (with
Trotsky as de facto leader). Trotskyism describes itself as a Marxist and Leninist tendency.
Marxism-Leninism was made into the official ideology of the Comintern, and exported to other countries. This body
of thought formed the basis for the most clearly visible communist movement in the 20th century and, as such, in the
Western world, the term "communism" came to refer to social movements and states associated with the Comintern.
However, the degree to which these states had achieved socialism is debated.
Etymology and terminology
In the schema of historical materialism and dialectical materialism (the application of Hegelian dialectic to historical
materialism), communism is the idea of a free society with no division or alienation, where the people are free from
oppression and scarcity. A communist society would have no governments or class divisions. In Marxist theory, the
dictatorship of the proletariat is the intermediate system between capitalism and communism, when the government
is in the process of changing the means of ownership from privatism to collective ownership.
The hammer and sickle has its
origin in the Russian Revolution,
symbolizing the union of
industrial workers with peasants.
The red star is a symbol often
used by the political left as well as
communism.
In modern usage, the word "communism" is still often used to refer to the policies
of past and present self-declared socialist governments typically comprising
single-party states wherein the country's vanguard party is governing the state
exclusively, operating centrally planned economies and a state ownership of the
means of production. A significant sector of the modern communist movement
alleges that these states never made an attempt to transition to a communist society,
while others even argue that they never achieved a legitimate socialism, often
arguing that they established instead state capitalism. Most of these governments
claimed to base their ideology on Marxism-Leninism (though some of these states
have been accused of revisionism), but they did not call the system they had set up
"communism", nor did they even necessarily claim at all times that the ideology
was the sole driving force behind their policies: Mao Zedong, for example, pursued
New Democracy, and Vladimir Lenin in the Russian Civil War enacted war
communism; later, the Vietnamese enacted doi moi, and the Chinese switched to
socialism with Chinese characteristics. The governments labeled by other
governments as "communist" generally claimed that they had set up a transitional socialist system. This system is
sometimes referred to as state socialism or by other similar names.
"Higher-phase communism" is a term sometimes used to refer to the stage in history after socialism (or lower-phase
communism), although just as many communists use simply the term "communism" to refer to that stage. The
classless, stateless society that characterizes this communism is one in which decisions on what to produce and what
policies to pursue are made by a free association of equal individuals. In such a higher-phase communism the
interests of every member of society is given equal weight in the practical decision-making process in both the
political and economic spheres of life.
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History
Main article: History of communism
Early communism
Further information: Primitive communism, Religious communism and Utopian socialism
The origins of communism are debatable, and there are various historical groups, as well as theorists, whose beliefs
have been subsequently described as communist. German philosopher Karl Marx saw primitive communism as the
original, hunter-gatherer state of humankind from which it arose. For Marx, only after humanity was capable of
producing surplus, did private property develop. The idea of a classless society first emerged in Ancient Greece.
[15]
Plato in his The Republic described it as a state where people shared all their property, wives, and children: "The
private and individual is altogether banished from life and things which are by nature private, such as eyes and ears
and hands, have become common, and in some way see and hear and act in common, and all men express praise and
feel joy and sorrow on the same occasions."
In the history of Western thought, certain elements of the idea of a society based on common ownership of property
can be traced back to ancient times. Examples include the Spartacus slave revolt in Rome. The 5th-century Mazdak
movement in Persia (Iran) has been described as "communistic" for challenging the enormous privileges of the noble
classes and the clergy, criticizing the institution of private property and for striving for an egalitarian society.
[16]
At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, generally under the inspiration of Scripture.
In the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land
and other property (see Religious and Christian communism).
Communist thought has also been traced back to the work of 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his
treatise Utopia (1516), More portrayed a society based on common ownership of property, whose rulers
administered it through the application of reason. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England,
where a Puritan religious group known as the "Diggers" advocated the abolition of private ownership of land. Eduard
Bernstein, in his 1895 Cromwell and Communism argued that several groupings in the English Civil War, especially
the Diggers espoused clear communistic, agrarian ideals, and that Oliver Cromwell's attitude to these groups was at
best ambivalent and often hostile.
[17]
Criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of
Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the
upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine.
[18]
Various social reformers in the early 19th century founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike
many previous communist communities, they replaced the religious emphasis with a rational and philanthropic
basis.
[19]
Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana (1825), and Charles
Fourier, whose followers organized other settlements in the United States such as Brook Farm (184147). Later in
the 19th century, Karl Marx described these social reformers as "utopian socialists" to contrast them with his
program of "scientific socialism" (a term coined by Friedrich Engels). Other writers described by Marx as "utopian
socialists" included Saint-Simon.
In its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement of 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial
Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the proletariata new class of urban
factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his
associate Friedrich Engels. In 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the
term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto.
Communism
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Modern communism
Countries of the world now (red) or previously
(orange) having nominally Marxist-Leninist
governments.
The 1917 October Revolution in Russia was the first time any
avowedly communist party, in this case the Bolsheviks, seized
power.
[20]
The event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical
debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism
and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most
advanced capitalist development. Russia, however, was one of the
poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate
peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly
stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule.
[21]
Other socialists also believed that a Russian revolution could be the
precursor of workers' revolutions in the West.
The moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenin's Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully
developed. The Bolsheviks' successful rise to power was based upon the slogans such as "Peace, bread, and land"
which tapped the massive public desire for an end to Russian involvement in the First World War, the peasants'
demand for land reform, and popular support for the Soviets.
[22]
Vladimir Lenin after his return to
Petrograd.
The Second International had dissolved in 1916 over national divisions, as the
separate national parties that composed it did not maintain a unified front against
the war, instead generally supporting their respective nation's role. Lenin thus
created the Third International (Comintern) in 1919 and sent the Twenty-one
Conditions, which included democratic centralism, to all European socialist
parties willing to adhere. In France, for example, the majority of the French
Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) party split in 1921 to form the
French Section of the Communist International (SFIC). Henceforth, the term
"Communism" was applied to the objective of the parties founded under the
umbrella of the Comintern. Their program called for the uniting of workers of the
world for revolution, which would be followed by the establishment of a
dictatorship of the proletariat as well as the development of a socialist economy.
During the Russian Civil War (19181922), the Bolsheviks nationalized all
productive property and imposed a policy named war communism, which put
factories and railroads under strict government control, collected and rationed food, and introduced some bourgeois
management of industry. After three years of war and the 1921 Kronstadt rebellion, Lenin declared the New
Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, which was to give a "limited place for a limited time to capitalism." The NEP
lasted until 1928, when Joseph Stalin achieved party leadership, and the introduction of the Five Year Plans spelled
the end of it. Following the Russian Civil War, the Bolsheviks, in 1922, formed the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR), or Soviet Union, from the former Russian Empire.
Communism
5
Vladimir Lenin giving a speech.
Following Lenin's democratic centralism, the Leninist parties were
organized on a hierarchical basis, with active cells of members as the
broad base; they were made up only of elite cadres approved by higher
members of the party as being reliable and completely subject to party
discipline.
[23]
The Great Purge of 19371938 was Stalin's attempt to
destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party. In the
Moscow Trials many old Bolsheviks who had played prominent roles
during the Russian Revolution of 1917, or in Lenin's Soviet government
afterwards, including Kamenev, Zinoviev, Rykov, and Bukharin, were
accused, pleaded guilty, and executed.
[24]
Following World War II, Marxist-Leninists consolidated power in Central and Eastern Europe, and in 1949, the
Communist Party of China (CPC), led by Mao Zedong, established the People's Republic of China, which would
follow its own ideological path of development following the Sino-Soviet split. Cuba, North Korea, Vietnam, Laos,
Cambodia, Angola, and Mozambique were among the other countries in the Third World that adopted or imposed a
government ran by a Marxist-Leninist party at some point. By the early 1980s almost one-third of the world's
population lived in states ruled by a self-proclaimed Marxist-Leninist party, including the former Soviet Union and
PRC.Wikipedia:Citation needed
States such as the Soviet Union and PRC succeeded in becoming industrial and technological powers, challenging
the capitalists' powers in the arms race and space race.
Cold War
Main article: Cold War
USSR postage stamp depicting the states ruled by
self-proclaimed communist parties, launching the
first artificial satellite Sputnik 1.
Its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the
Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern
Europe and parts of Asia. At the same time the existing European
empires were shattered and Communist parties played a leading role in
many independence movements.
Marxist-Leninist governments modeled on the Soviet Union took
power with Soviet assistance in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East
Germany, Poland, Hungary and Romania. A Marxist-Leninist
government was also created under Marshal Tito in Yugoslavia, but
Tito's independent policies led to the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the
Cominform, which had replaced the Comintern. Titoism, a new branch
in the Marxist-Leninist movement, was labelled
"deviationist"Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch#Unsupported
attributions. Albania also became an independent Marxist-Leninist
state after World War II.
By 1950, the Chinese Marxist-Leninists had taken over all of mainland
China. In the Korean War and Vietnam War, Communists fought for
power in their countries against the United States and its allies. With
varying degrees of success, Communists attempted to unite with
nationalist and socialist forces against perceived Western imperialism in these poor countries.
Communism was seen as a rival of and a threat to western capitalism for most of the 20th century. This rivalry
peaked during the Cold War, as the world's two remaining superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union,
polarized most of the world into two camps of nations. It supported the spread of their respective economic and
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political systems. As a result, the camps expanded their military capacity, stockpiled nuclear weapons, and competed
in space exploration.
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
Further information: List of communist parties, List of communist and anti-capitalist parties with parliamentary
representation and Dissolution of the Soviet Union
A demonstration of the Communist Party of the
Russian Federation, Moscow, December 2011.
In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union and
relaxed central control, in accordance with reform policies of glasnost
(openness) and perestroika (restructuring). The Soviet Union did not
intervene as Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria,
Romania, and Hungary all abandoned Marxist-Leninist rule by 1990.
In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved.
At present, states controlled by Marxist-Leninist parties under a
single-party system include the People's Republic of China, Cuba,
Laos, and Vietnam. North Korea currently refers to its leading
ideology as Juche, which is portrayed as a development of Marxism-Leninism. Communist parties, or their
descendant parties, remain politically important in a number of other countries. The South African Communist Party
is a partner in the African National Congress-led government. In India, communists lead the governments of three
states, with a combined population of more than 115 million. In Nepal, communists hold a majority in the
parliament. The Communist Party of Brazil is a part of the parliamentary coalition led by the ruling democratic
socialist Workers' Party and is represented in the executive cabinet of Dilma Rousseff.
The People's Republic of China has reassessed many aspects of the Maoist legacy; it, along with Laos, Vietnam, and,
to a lesser degree Cuba, has reduced state control of the economy in order to stimulate growth. Chinese economic
reforms started in 1978 under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping; since then, China has managed to bring down the
poverty rate from 53% in the Mao era to just 6% in 2001. The People's Republic of China runs Special Economic
Zones dedicated to market-oriented enterprise, free from central government control. Several other states ran by
self-proclaimed Marxist-Leninist parties have also attempted to implement market-based reforms, including
Vietnam.
Theories within Marxism as to why communism in Central and Eastern Europe was not achieved after revolutions
pointed to such elements as the pressure of external capitalist states, the relative backwardness of the societies in
which the revolutions occurred, and the emergence of a bureaucratic stratum or class that arrested or diverted the
transition process in its own interests. Marxist critics of the Soviet Union, most notably Trotsky, referred to the
Soviet system, along with other states ran by Marxist-Leninist parties, as "degenerated" or "deformed workers'
states", arguing that the Soviet system fell far short of Marx's communist ideal and he claimed the working class was
politically dispossessed. The ruling stratum of the Soviet Union was, by Trotskyism, held to be a bureaucratic caste,
but not a new ruling class, despite their political control.
Marxist communism
Marxism
Main article: Marxism
Communism
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[25]
Like other socialists, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels sought an end to capitalism and the systems which they
perceived to be responsible for the exploitation of workers.
According to the Marxist argument for communism, the main characteristic of human life in class society is
alienation; and communism is desirable because it entails the full realization of human freedom.
[26]
Marx here
follows Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel in conceiving freedom not merely as an absence of restraints but as action
with content.
[27]
According to Marx, communism's outlook on freedom was based on an agent, obstacle, and goal.
The agent is the common/working people; the obstacles are class divisions, economic inequalities, unequal
life-chances, and false consciousness; and the goal is the fulfilment of human needs including satisfying work, and
fair share of the product.
[28][29]
They believed that communism allowed people to do what they want, but also put humans in such conditions and
such relations with one another that they would not wish to exploit, or have any need to. Whereas for Hegel the
unfolding of this ethical life in history is mainly driven by the realm of ideas, for Marx, communism emerged from
material forces, particularly the development of the means of production.
The Communist Manifesto.
Marxism holds that a process of class conflict and revolutionary struggle will result in
victory for the proletariat and the establishment of a communist society in which
private property and ownership is abolished over time and the means of production
and subsistence belong to the community. (Private property and ownership, in this
context, means ownerships of the means of production, not private possessions). Marx
himself wrote little about life under communism, giving only the most general
indication as to what constituted a communist society. In the popular slogan that was
adopted by the communist movement, communism was a world in which each gave
according to their abilities, and received according to their needs. The German
Ideology (1845) was one of Marx's few writings to elaborate on the communist future:
In communist society, where nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity
but each can become accomplished in any branch he wishes, society
regulates the general production and thus makes it possible for me to do
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one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the
evening, criticize after dinner, just as I have a mind, without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, herdsman
or critic.
[30]
Marx's lasting vision was to add this vision to a theory of how society was moving in a law-governed way towards
communism, and, with some tension, a political theory that explained why revolutionary activity was required to
bring it about.
In the late 19th century, the terms "socialism" and "communism" were often used interchangeably. However, Marx
and Engels argued that communism would not emerge from capitalism in a fully developed state, but would pass
through a "first phase" in which most productive property was owned in common, but with some class differences
remaining. The "first phase" would eventually evolve into a "higher phase" in which class differences were
eliminated, and a state was no longer needed. Lenin frequently used the term "socialism" to refer to Marx and
Engels' supposed "first phase" of communism and used the term "communism" interchangeably with Marx and
Engels' "higher phase" of communism.
[31]
These later aspects, particularly as developed by Vladimir Lenin, provided the underpinning for the mobilizing
features of 20th century communist parties.
Leninism
Main article: Leninism
Vladimir Lenin, 1920.
"We want to achieve a new and better order of society: in this
new and better society there must be neither rich nor poor; all
will have to work. Not a handful of rich people, but all the
working people must enjoy the fruits of their common labour.
Machines and other improvements must serve to ease the work of
all and not to enable a few to grow rich at the expense of
millions and tens of millions of people. This new and better
society is called socialist society. The teachings about this
society are called 'socialism'."
-Vladimir Lenin, "To the Rural Poor" (1903)
[32]
; Collected Works, Vol 6, p.
366
Leninism is the revolutionary theories developed by Vladimir Lenin,
including the organizational principles of democratic centralism,
Vanguardism and the political theory of imperialism. Leninist theory
postulates that, with the strongly determined will of the Bourgeoisie to
establish Imperialism, socialism will not arise spontaneously through
the natural decay of capitalism, and that workers by themselves, who
may be more or less sedated by reactionary propaganda, are unable to
effectively organize and develop socialist consciousness, therefore requiring the leadership of a revolutionary
vanguard organized on the basis of democratic centralism. As a result, Leninism promotes a Vanguard party in order
to lead the working-class and peasants in a revolution. Because this revolution takes place in underdeveloped, largely
pre-capitalist countries such as Russia, Leninism establishes a single-party, authoritarian state, justifying single-party
control over the state and economy as a means to safeguard the revolution against counter-revolutionary insurrection
and foreign invasion.
Although the creation of a vanguard party was outlined by Marx and Engels in Chapter II: "Proletarians and
Communists" of The Communist Manifesto, Lenin modified this position by changing the role of the vanguards to
professional revolutionaries, who were to hold power post-revolution and direct the national economy and society in
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9
developing world socialism.
After disposing of the Bourgeois dictatorship through socialist revolution, Leninists seek to create a socialist state in
which the working class would be in power, which they see as being essential for laying the foundations for a
transitional withering of the state towards communism (Stateless society). In this state, the vanguard party would act
as a central nucleus in the organization of socialist society, presiding over a single-party political system. Leninism
rejects political pluralism, seeing it as divisive and destructive. Instead, Leninism advocates the concept of
democratic centralism as a process to ensure the voicing of concern and disagreement and to refine policy.
Generally, the purpose of democratic centralism is "diversity in ideas, unity in action."
After Lenin's death in 1924, Leninism branched into multiple (sometimes opposing) interpretations, including
Trotskyism and Marxism-Leninism.
Marxism-Leninism, Stalinism and Trotskyism
Marxism-Leninism and Stalinism
Main articles: Marxism-Leninism and Stalinism
Joseph Stalin
MarxismLeninism is a political ideology developed by Stalin,
[33]
which according to its proponents is based in Marxism and Leninism.
It is a promotional term, designed to emphasize a professed
relationship to Marxism and Leninism, which is controversial. The
term describes the specific political ideology which Stalin
implemented in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and, in a
global scale, in the Comintern. There is no definite agreement between
historians of about whether Stalin actually followed the principles of
Marx and Lenin.
[]
It also contains deviations from both Marxism and
Leninism, such as "socialism in one country". MarxismLeninism was
the ideology of the most clearly visible communist movement. As
such, it is the most prominent ideology associated with communism.
Marxism-Leninism refers to the socioeconomic system and political
ideology implemented by Stalin in the Soviet Union and later copied
by other states based on the Soviet model (central planning,
single-party state, etc.), whereas Stalinism refers to Stalin's style of
governance (political repression, cult of personality, etc.);
Marxism-Leninism stayed after de-Stalinization, Stalinism did not. However, the term "Stalinism" is sometimes used
to refer to Marxism-Leninism, sometimes to avoid implying Marxism-Leninism is related to Marxism and Leninism.
Maoism is a form of Marxism-Leninism associated with Chinese leader Mao Zedong. After de-Stalinization,
Marxism-Leninism was kept in the Soviet Union but certain "anti-revisionist" tendencies, such as Hoxhaism and
Maoism, argued that it was deviated from. Therefore, different policies were applied in Albania and China, which
became more distanced from the Soviet Union.
Marxism-Leninism has been criticized by other communist and Marxist tendencies. They argue that Marxist-Leninist
states did not establish socialism but rather state capitalism. The dictatorship of the proletariat, according to
Marxism, represents the rule of the majority (democracy) rather than of one party, to the extent that co-founder of
Marxism Friedrich Engels described its "specific form" as the democratic republic.
[34]
Additionally, according to
Engels, state property by itself is private property of capitalist nature
[35]
unless the proletariat has control of political
power, in which case it forms public property.
[36]
Whether the proletariat was actually in control of the
Marxist-Leninist states is a matter of debate between Marxism-Leninism and other communist tendencies. To these
tendencies, MarxismLeninism is neither Marxism nor Leninism nor the union of both, but rather an artificial term
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created to justify Stalin's ideological distortion, forced into the CPSU and Comintern. In the Soviet Union, this
struggle against MarxismLeninism was represented by Trotskyism, which describes itself as a Marxist and Leninist
tendency.
Trotskyism
Main article: Trotskyism
Leon Trotsky reading The Militant.
Trotskyism is a Marxist and Leninist tendency that was developed by
Leon Trotsky, opposed to Marxism-Leninism and Stalinism. It
supports the theory of permanent revolution and world revolution
instead of the two stage theory and socialism in one country. It
supported proletarian internationalism and another Communist
revolution in the Soviet Union, which Trotsky claimed had become a
degenerated worker's state under the leadership of Stalin, rather than
the dictatorship of the proletariat, in which class relations had
re-emerged in a new form.
Trotsky and his supporters, struggling against Stalin for power in the Soviet Union, organized into the Left
Opposition and their platform became known as Trotskyism. Stalin eventually succeeded in gaining control of the
Soviet regime and Trotskyist attempts to remove Stalin from power resulted in Trotsky's exile from the Soviet Union
in 1929. Trotsky later founded the Fourth International, a Trotskyist rival to the Comintern, in 1938.
Trotsky's politics differed sharply from those of Stalin and Mao, most importantly in declaring the need for an
international proletarian revolution (rather than socialism in one country) and unwavering support for a true
dictatorship of the proletariat based on democratic principles.
Libertarian Marxism
Main article: Libertarian Marxism
Libertarian Marxism refers to a broad scope of economic and political philosophies that emphasize the
anti-authoritarian aspects of Marxism. Early currents of libertarian Marxism, known as left communism,
[37]
emerged
in opposition to MarxismLeninism
[38]
and its derivatives, such as Stalinism, Maoism, and Trotskyism.
[39]
Libertarian Marxism is also critical of reformist positions, such as those held by social democrats.
[40]
Libertarian
Marxist currents often draw from Marx and Engels' later works, specifically the Grundrisse and The Civil War in
France;
[41]
emphasizing the Marxist belief in the ability of the working class to forge its own destiny without the
need for a revolutionary party or state to mediate or aid its liberation.
[42]
Along with anarchism, Libertarian Marxism
is one of the main currents of libertarian socialism.
[43]
Libertarian Marxism includes such currents as Luxemburgism, council communism, left communism, Socialisme ou
Barbarie, the Johnson-Forest tendency, world socialism, Lettrism/Situationism and operaismo/autonomism, and
New Left. Libertarian Marxism has often had a strong influence on both post-left and social anarchists. Notable
theorists of libertarian Marxism have included Anton Pannekoek, Raya Dunayevskaya, CLR James, Antonio Negri,
Cornelius Castoriadis, Maurice Brinton, Guy Debord, Daniel Gurin, Ernesto Screpanti and Raoul Vaneigem.
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11
Council communism
Main article: Council communism
Council communism is a far-left movement originating in Germany and the Netherlands in the 1920s. Its primary
organization was the Communist Workers Party of Germany (KAPD). Council communism continues today as a
theoretical and activist position within both left-wing Marxism and libertarian socialism.
The central argument of council communism, in contrast to those of social democracy and Leninist communism, is
that democratic workers' councils arising in the factories and municipalities are the natural form of working class
organization and governmental power. This view is opposed to both the reformist and the Leninist ideologies, with
their stress on, respectively, parliaments and institutional government (i.e., by applying social reforms, on the one
hand, and vanguard parties and participative democratic centralism on the other).
The core principle of council communism is that the government and the economy should be managed by workers'
councils composed of delegates elected at workplaces and recallable at any moment. As such, council communists
oppose state-run authoritarian "State socialism"/"State capitalism". They also oppose the idea of a "revolutionary
party", since council communists believe that a revolution led by a party will necessarily produce a party
dictatorship. Council communists support a worker's democracy, which they want to produce through a federation of
workers' councils.
Left communism
Main article: Left communism
Rosa Luxemburg, inspiration of left communism.
Left communism is the range of communist viewpoints held by the
communist left, which criticizes the political ideas of the Bolsheviks at
certain periods, from a position that is asserted to be more authentically
Marxist and proletarian than the views of Leninism held by the
Communist International after its first and during its second congress.
Left Communists see themselves to the left of Leninists (whom they
tend to see as 'left of capital', not socialists), anarchist communists
(some of whom they consider internationalist socialists) as well as
some other revolutionary socialist tendencies (for example De
Leonists, who they tend to see as being internationalist socialists only
in limited instances).
Although she died before left communism became a distinct tendency,
Rosa Luxemburg has heavily influenced most left communists, both
politically and theoretically. Proponents of left communism have
included Amadeo Bordiga, Herman Gorter, Anton Pannekoek, Otto
Rhle, Karl Korsch, Sylvia Pankhurst and Paul Mattick.
Prominent left communist groups existing today include the
International Communist Party, the International Communist Current
and the Internationalist Communist Tendency.
Communism
12
Non-Marxist communism
The dominant forms of communism are based on Marxism, but non-Marxist versions of communism (such as
Christian communism and anarchist communism) also exist.
Anarchist communism
Part of a series on
Anarcho-communism
v
t
e
[44]
Main article: Anarchist communism
Peter Kropotkin, main theorist of
anarcho-communism.
Anarchist communism (also known as libertarian communism) is a
theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, private
property, and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means
of production, direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary
associations and workers' councils with production and consumption
based on the guiding principle: "from each according to his ability, to
each according to his need".
Anarcho-communism differs from Marxism rejecting its view about
the need for a State Socialism phase before building communism. The
main anarcho-communist theorist Peter Kropotkin argued "that a
revolutionary society should "transform itself immediately into a
communist society,", that is, should go immediately into what Marx
had regarded as the "more advanced," completed, phase of
communism." In this way it tries to avoid the reappearance of "class
divisions and the need for a state to oversee everything".
Some forms of anarchist communism such as insurrectionary
anarchism are egoist and strongly influenced by radical
individualism,
[45]
believing that anarchist communism does not require a communitarian nature at all. Most
anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and
society.
[46][47][48]
To date in human history, the best known examples of an anarchist communist society, established around the ideas
as they exist today, that received worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon, are the anarchist
territories during the Spanish Revolution and the Free Territory during the Russian Revolution. Through the efforts
and influence of the Spanish Anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War, starting in
Communism
13
1936 anarchist communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante and Andalusia, as well as in the
stronghold of Anarchist Catalonia before being brutally crushed by the combined forces of the authoritarian regime
that won the war, Hitler, Mussolini, Spanish Communist Party repression (backed by the USSR) as well as economic
and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself. During the Russian
Revolution, anarchists such as Nestor Makhno worked to create and defendthrough the Revolutionary
Insurrectionary Army of Ukraineanarchist communism in the Free Territory of the Ukraine from 1919 before
being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921.
Christian communism
Christian communism is a form of religious communism centred on Christianity. It is a theological and political
theory based upon the view that the teachings of Jesus Christ urge Christians to support communism as the ideal
social system. Christian communists trace the origins of their practice to teachings in the New Testament, such as the
Acts of the Apostles at chapter 2 and verses 42, 44 and 45:
42
And they continued steadfastly in the apostles' doctrine and in fellowship ...
44
And all that believed were
together, and had all things in common;
45
And sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men,
as every man had need.
King James Version
Christian communism can be seen as a radical form of Christian socialism. Also, because many Christian
communists have formed independent stateless communes in the past, there is a link between Christian communism
and Christian anarchism. Christian communists may not agree with various parts of Marxism, but they share some
political goals of Marxists, for example replacing capitalism with socialism, which should in turn be followed by
communism at a later point in the future. However, Christian communists sometimes disagree with Marxists (and
particularly with Leninists) on the way a socialist or communist society should be organized.
Criticism
Main articles: Criticisms of communism and Anti-communism
See also Criticisms of Marxism and Criticisms of socialism for a discussion of objections to socialism in general.
The government's forced collectivization of
agriculture is considered a main reason for the
Soviet famine of 19321933.
Some peopleWikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch#Unsupported
attributions have criticized socialism and by extension communism,
stating that the two systems would distort or remove price signals,
[49]
slow or stagnate technological advance, reduce incentives,
[50][51][52]
and reduce prosperity,
[53][54]
as well as on the grounds of its feasibility
and its social and political effects.
[55][56][57]
References
Notes
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Communism_sidebar&
action=edit
[2] World Book 2008, p. 890.
[3] Principles of Communism (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ marx/ works/ 1847/ 11/ prin-com. htm), Frederick Engels, 1847, Section 18.
"Finally, when all capital, all production, all exchange have been brought together in the hands of the nation, private property will disappear
of its own accord, money will become superfluous, and production will so expand and man so change that society will be able to slough off
whatever of its old economic habits may remain."
[4] The ABC of Communism (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ bukharin/ works/ 1920/ abc/ 03. htm), Nikoli Bukharin, 1920, Section 20
[5] Anti-Duhring. Part 3, Chapter 2. (https:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ marx/ works/ 1877/ anti-duhring/ ch24. htm) Friedrich Engels; "State
interference in social relations becomes, in one domain after another, superfluous, and then dies out of itself; the government of persons is
Communism
14
replaced by the administration of things, and by the conduct of processes of production. The state is not "abolished". It dies out."
[6] V.I. Lenin. The New Economic Policy And The Tasks Of The Political Education Departments (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ lenin/
works/ 1921/ oct/ 17.htm). Report To The Second All-Russia Congress Of Political Education Departments October 17, 1921. Lenins
Collected Works, 2nd English Edition, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1965, Volume 33, pages 60-79
[7] V.I. Lenin. Role and Functions of the Trade Unions Under The New Economic Policy (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ lenin/ works/
1921/ dec/ 30.htm). Decision Of The C.C., R.C.P.(B.), January 12, 1922. Lenins Collected Works, 2nd English Edition, Progress Publishers,
Moscow, 1965, Volume 33, pages 188-196
[8] V.I. Lenin. Lenin's Testament, Letter to the Congress (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ lenin/ works/ 1922/ dec/ testamnt/ congress. htm).
"Stalin is too rude and this defect, although quite tolerable in our midst and in dealing among us Communists, becomes intolerable in a
Secretary-General. That is why I suggest that the comrades think about a way of removing Stalin from that post and appointing another man in
his stead who in all other respects differs from Comrade Stalin in having only one advantage, namely, that of being more tolerant, more loyal,
more polite and more considerate to the comrades, less capricious, etc."
[9] . (G. Lisichkin), , (Novy Mir), 1989, 3, p. 59
[10] [10] Contemporary Marxism, Issues 4-5. Synthesis Publications, 1981. Page 151. "socialism in one country, a pragmatic deviation from classical
Marxism".
[11] [11] North Korea Under Communism: Report of an Envoy to Paradise. Cornell Erik. Page 169. "Socialism in one country, a slogan that aroused
protests as not only it implied a major deviation from Marxist internationalism, but was also strictly speaking incompatible with the basic
tenets of Marxism".
[12] [12] History for the IB Diploma: Communism in Crisis 1976-89. Allan Todd. Page 16. "The term Marxism-Leninism, invented by Stalin, was not
used until after Lenin's death in 1924. It soon came to be used in Stalin's Soviet Union to refer to what he described as 'orthodox Marxism'.
This increasingly came to mean what Stalin himself had to say about political and economic issues." [...] "However, many Marxists (even
members of the Communist Party itself) believed that Stalin's ideas and practices (such as socialism in one country and the purges) were
almost total distortions of what Marx and Lenin had said".
[13] Ian Adams. Political ideology today. Manchester England, UK: Manchester University Press, 1993. p. 201.
[14] "State capitalism" in the Soviet Union (http:/ / www.hetsa. org. au/ pdf/ 34-A-08. pdf), M.C. Howard and J.E. King
[15] Richard Pipes Communism: A History (2001) ISBN 978-0-8129-6864-4, pp. 35.
[16] The Cambridge History of Iran Volume 3, , edited by Ehsan Yarshater, Parts 1 and 2, p1019, Cambridge University Press (1983)
[17] Eduard Bernstein, (1895). Kommunistische und demokratisch-sozialistische Strmungen whrend der englischen Revolution, J.H.W. Dietz,
Stuttgart. Sources available at Eduard Bernstein: Cromwell and Communism (1895) (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ reference/ archive/
bernstein/ works/ 1895/ cromwell/ ) at http:/ / www.marxists. org.
[18] "Communism" A Dictionary of Sociology. John Scott and Gordon Marshall. Oxford University Press 2005. Oxford Reference Online.
Oxford University Press.
[19] "Communism." Encyclopdia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopdia Britannica Online.
[20] Ryan, Lenin's Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence. 2012. Routledge.
[21] Marc Edelman, "Late Marx and the Russian road: Marx and the 'Peripheries of Capitalism'"book reviews. Monthly Review, Dec., 1984
[22] [22] Holmes 2009, p. 18.
[23] Norman Davies. "Communism" The Oxford Companion to World War II. Ed. I. C. B. Dear and M. R. D. Foot. Oxford University Press,
2001.
[24] Sedov, Lev (1980). The Red Book on the Moscow Trial: Documents (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ history/ etol/ writers/ sedov/ works/ red/
index. htm). New York: New Park Publications. ISBN 0-86151-015-1
[25] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Marxism& action=edit
[26] Stephen Whitefield. "Communism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University
Press, 2003.
[27] [27] McLean and McMillan, 2003.
[28] [28] Ball and Dagger 118
[29] Terence Ball and Richard Dagger. "Political Ideologies and the Democratic Ideal." Pearson Education, Inc.:2006.
[30] Karl Marx, (1845). The German Ideology, Marx-Engels Institute, Moscow. ISBN 978-1-57392-258-6.
[31] See Chapter 5 (http:/ / www. marxists.org/ archive/ lenin/ works/ 1917/ staterev/ ch05. htm#s3) of Vladimir Lenin's The State and
Revolution" (1917).
[32] http:/ / www.marxists.org/ archive/ lenin/ works/ 1903/ rp/ 1. htm
[33] . (G. Lisichkin), , (Novy Mir), 1989, 3, p. 59
[34] A Critique of the Draft Social-Democratic Program of 1891. Marx & Engels Collected Works Volume 27, p. 217. "If one thing is certain it
is that our party and the working class can only come to power under the form of a democratic republic. This is even the specific form for the
dictatorship of the proletariat"
[35] "Socialism: Utopian and Scientific". Friedrich Engels. Part III (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ marx/ works/ 1880/ soc-utop/ ch03.
htm). Progress Publishers. "But, the transformation either into joint-stock companies and trusts, or into State-ownership does not do
away with the capitalistic nature of the productive forces."
[36] "Socialism: Utopian and Scientific". Friedrich Engels. Part III (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ marx/ works/ 1880/ soc-utop/ ch03.
htm). Progress Publishers. "The proletariat seizes the public power, and by means of this transforms the socialized means of production,
Communism
15
slipping from the hands of the bourgeoisie, into public property. By this act, the proletariat frees the means of production from the character of
capital they have thus far borne, and gives their socialized character complete freedom to work itself out"
[37] Pierce, Wayne. "Libertarian Marxism's Relation to Anarchism" (http:/ / www. utopianmag. com/ files/ in/ 1000000034/
12___WayneLibMarx. pdf) "The Utopian" 7380.
[38] Herman Gorter, Anton Pannekoek, Sylvia Pankhurst, Otto Ruhl Non-Leninist Marxism: Writings on the Workers Councils. Red and Black,
2007.
[39] Marot, Eric. "Trotsky, the Left Opposition and the Rise of Stalinism: Theory and Practice" (http:/ / libcom. org/ library/
trotsky-left-opposition-rise-stalinism-theory-practice-john-eric-marot)
[40] "The Retreat of Social Democracy... Re-imposition of Work in Britain and the 'Social Europe'" (http:/ / libcom. org/ library/
social-democracy-1-aufheben-8) "Aufheben" Issue #8 1999.
[41] [41] Ernesto Screpanti, Libertarian communism: Marx Engels and the Political Economy of Freedom, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2007.
[42] Draper, Hal. "The Principle of Self-Emancipation in Marx and Engels" (https:/ / jps. library. utoronto. ca/ index. php/ srv/ article/ view/
5333) "The Socialist Register." Vol 4.
[43] Chomsky, Noam. "Government In The Future" (http:/ / chomsky. info/ audionvideo/ 19700216. mp3) Poetry Center of the New York
YM-YWHA. Lecture.
[44] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Anarcho-communism_sidebar& action=edit
[45] Christopher Gray, Leaving the Twentieth Century, p. 88.
[46] "Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of individual libertyprovided that the idea that begets the community be
Liberty, Anarchy... Communism guarantees economic freedom better than any other form of association, because it can guarantee wellbeing,
even luxury, in return for a few hours of work instead of a day's work."
[47] [47] This other society will be libertarian communism, in which social solidarity and free individuality find their full expression, and in which
these two ideas develop in perfect harmony.
[48] [48] "I see the dichotomies made between individualism and communism, individual revolt and class struggle, the struggle against human
exploitation and the exploitation of nature as false dichotomies and feel that those who accept them are impoverishing their own critique and
struggle.
[49] F. A. Hayek, (1935), "The Nature and History of the Problem" and "The Present State of the Debate," om in F. A. Hayek, ed. Collectivist
Economic Planning, pp. 140, 20143.
[50] Zoltan J. Acs & Bernard Young. Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises in the Global Economy. University of Michigan Press, p. 47, 1999.
[51] Mill, John Stuart. The Principles of Political Economy, Book IV, Chapter 7.
[52] John Kenneth Galbraith, The Good Society: The Humane Agenda, (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1996), 5960."
[53] Hans-Hermann Hoppe. A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism https:/ / www. mises. org/ etexts/ Soc& Cap. pdf .
[54] Ludwig von Mises, Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis, Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, Inc.. 1981, trans. J. Kahane,
IV.30.21
[55] F.A. Hayek. The Intellectuals and Socialism (https:/ / www. mises. org/ etexts/ hayekintellectuals. pdf). (1949).
[56] Alan O. Ebenstein. Friedrich Hayek: A Biography. (2003). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-18150-9 p. 137
[57] Self, Peter. Socialism. A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, editors Goodin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell
Publishing, 1995, p. 339 "Extreme equality overlooks the diversity of individual talents, tastes and needs, and save in a utopian society of
unselfish individuals would entail strong coercion; but even short of this goal, there is the problem of giving reasonable recognition to
different individual needs, tastes (for work or leisure) and talents. It is true therefore that beyond some point the pursuit of equality runs into
controversial or contradictory criteria of need or merit."
Bibliography
Holmes, Leslie (2009). Communism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN978-0-19-955154-5.
Lansford, Tom (2007). Communism. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN978-0-7614-2628-8.
Link, Theodore (2004). Communism: A Primary Source Analysis. The Rosen Publishing Group.
ISBN978-0-8239-4517-7.
Rabinowitch, Alexander (2004). The Bolsheviks come to power: the Revolution of 1917 in Petrograd. Pluto Press.
"CiCz Volume 4". World Book. Chicago, Illinois: World Book, Inc. 2008. ISBN978-0-7166-0108-1.
Further reading
Adami, Stefano. "Communism", in Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies, ed. Gaetana Marrone P. Puppa,
Routledge, New York, London, 2006
Beer, Max. The General History of Socialism and Social Struggles Volumes 1 & 2. New York, Russel and Russel,
Inc. 1957
Communism
16
Caplan, Byran (2008). Communism (http:/ / www. econlib. org/ library/ Enc/ Communism. html). The Concise
Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd ed.). Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN978-0-86597-665-8. OCLC
237794267 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 237794267).
Daniels, Robert Vincent. A Documentary History of Communism and the World: From Revolution to Collapse.
University Press of New England, 1994. ISBN 978-0-87451-678-4.
Dirlik, Arif. Origins of Chinese Communism. Oxford University Press, 1989. ISBN 978-0-19-505454-5
Forman, James D. Communism From Marx's Manifesto To 20th century Reality. New York, Watts. 1972. ISBN
978-0-531-02571-0
Furet, Francois and Deborah Kan (translator). The Passing of An Illusion: The Idea of Communism In the
Twentieth Century. University of Chicago Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-226-27341-9
Marx, Karl and Friedrich Engels. Communist Manifesto. (Mass Market Paperback REPRINT), Signet Classics,
1998. ISBN 978-0-451-52710-3
Pons, Silvio and Robert Service. A Dictionary of 20th century Communism. 2010.
Zinoviev, Alexandre. The Reality of Communism (1980), Publisher Schocken, 1984.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Communism.
Wikisource has original works on the topic: Communism
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Communism
Look up communism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Marxists.org (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ ) (Marxists Internet Archive) An archive of over 53,000 documents
from 592 authors in 45 languages, mostly Marxist works
Libcom.org (http:/ / www. libcom. org/ library) Extensive library of almost 20,000 articles, books, pamphlets and
journals on libertarian communism
"Communism". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
Samuel McCune Lindsay (1905). "Communism". New International Encyclopedia.
Article Sources and Contributors
17
Article Sources and Contributors
Communism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=626875401 Contributors: *Kat*, 05theben, 08toi, 0o64eva, 10qwerty, 10stone5, 172, 200.255.83.xxx, 213.67.126.xxx,
24.93.53.xxx, 4twenty42o, 4u1e, 5M4R7Y, 6birc, 98smithg2, A bit iffy, A-giau, A.Beaz, A.K.A.47, A.M., A50000, ALL YOUR STUPID IDEAS ARE BELONG TO US, ANTI COMMUNIST
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AeonicOmega, Aeusoes1, Afitillidie13, Aflafla1, Afrasclient, Afterword, Againme, Against the current, Aggie Jedi, Ahoerstemeier, Ahs gurl2012, Ahuitzotl, Ainlina, Aitias, Aiwendil42, Aksi
great, Al3xil, Alakhriveion, Alansohn, Alessandro57, Alex Peppe, Alex S, Alexb102072, Alexper, Alfa.golf.alfa, Alfons2, Alhutch, Allenc28, Allmightyduck, Allstarecho, AlphaEta,
Alphachimp, Alrasheedan, Altenmann, Alumnum, Amberrock, Amire80, Anarchist-communist, Anarchopedia, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andres, Andrew Gray, Andrewpmk, Android79, Andy
Marchbanks, Andypandy.UK, Andysoh, Angela, Anger22, Anime Editor, Anna Lincoln, Anna969, Anonymous editor, Anonymous from the 21th century, Anoopkn, Another disinterested reader,
Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Apeloverage, Aphaia, Apjohns54, Apollonius 1236, Aprogressivist, Aqualung, Arbor to SJ, ArcAngel, Arctic-Editor, Arhiv, Aris Katsaris, Arjun01, Arkhiver,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
19
Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: -xfi-, Dbc334, Doodledoo, Elian, Guillom, Jeffq,
Krinkle, Maderibeyza, Majorly, Nishkid64, RedCoat, Rei-artur, Rocket000, 11 anonymous edits
Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Vectorized by , based on original logo
tossed together by Brion Vibber
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg License: logo Contributors: ChrisiPK, Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, Leyo, MichaelMaggs,
NielsF, Rei-artur, Rocket000, Steinsplitter
Image:wikisource-logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg License: logo Contributors: ChrisiPK, Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, Leyo,
MichaelMaggs, NielsF, Rei-artur, Rocket000, Steinsplitter
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/