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Review Article
Ficus religiosa Roxb. (Peepal): A Phyto-Pharmacological
Review

Sunita Panchawat

Department of Pharmacognosy, Bhupal Nobles Girls College of Pharmacy, Udaipur,
Rajasthan, India.
__________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
Ficus religiosa is known to be a native Indian tree. It is a familiar sight in Hindu temples, Buddhist
monasteries and shrines, villages and at roadsides. It is known to be a sacred plant in India and since
ancient times it is widely being used to treat various ailments like skin diseases, heart diseases,
constipation, dysentery, snakebite and important constituent of various traditional herbal
preparations like shankha vati, chandraprabha vati, kaminivindravan rasa. In recent studies Ficus
religiosa has been investigated for presence of a wide range of phytoconstituents viz. glycosides,
flavonoids, tannin, terpenoids and sterol. This compilation provides comprehensive review of its
ethnopharmacological use, phytochemistry, phytopathology, pharmacological activities, traditional
and medicinal use.

Keywords: Ficus religiosa, phytochemistry, Phytopathology, antioxidant, pharmacological activities.

INTRODUCTION
Ficus religiosa is a variety of fig tree that
was already known as the bodhi tree,
even before Gautama Buddha sat under
its branches meditating and achieved
enlightenment. It is the oldest depicted
tree in Indian art and literature and it can
be said that this is the mythical 'World
Tree' or the 'Tree of Life' of the Indian
subcontinent. This plant is considered
sacred by the followers of Hinduism,
J ainism and Buddhism, and hence the
name 'Sacred Fig' was given to it.
Siddhartha Gautama is referred to have
been sitting underneath a Bo Tree when
he was enlightened (Bodhi) or
"awakened" (Buddha). Thus, Bo Tree is
well-known symbol for happiness,
prosperity, longevity and good luck
1
.


Peepal tree or sacred fig is a large
deciduous tree. It is often planted near
temples and holy places. It is supposed to
be one of the longest-living trees and
there is one in Sri Lanka which is said to
be over one thousand years old. This tree
grows very fast and roots are attached to
the trunk as if they are pillars supporting it.
The tree needs lots of space, and the soil
must be deep enough to let the roots grow
down a long way. It is sometimes also
called kalpvruksha
2
.

Vedic history
The Brahma Purana and the Padma
Purana, relate how once, when the
demons defeated the Gods, Vishnu hide
in the peepal. Therefore spontaneous
worship to Vishnu can be offered to a
peepal without needing his image or

temple. The Skanda Purana also
considers the peepal, a symbol of Vishnu.
He is believed to have been born under
this tree. Some believe that the tree
houses the Trimurti, the roots being
Brahma, the trunk Vishnu and the leaves
Shiva. The Gods are said to hold their
councils under this tree and so it is
associated with spiritual understanding.
The peepal is also closely linked to
Krishna. In the Bhagavad Gita, he says:
"Among trees, I am the ashvattha."
Krishna is believed to have died under this
tree, after which the present Kali Yuga is
said to have begun. Five-trees (Pancha-
vat) are considered sacred in India. They
are:
1. Fig tree,
2. A wild fig (Sycamore) tree
(Gular),
3. Banyan tree,
4. Pakar (citron-leaved), Indian fig
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tree,
5. Mango tree.
According to the Skanda Purana, if one
does not have a son, the peepal should be
regarded as one. As long as the tree lives,
the family name will continue. To cut down
a peepal is considered a sin equivalent to
killing a Brahmin, one of the five deadly
sins or Panchapataka. According to the
Skanda Purana, a person goes to hell for
doing so. Some people are particular to
touch the peepal only on a Saturday. The
Brahma Purana explains why, saying that
Ashvattha and peepala were two demons
who harassed people. Ashvattha would
take the form of a peepal and peepala the
form of a Brahmin. The fake Brahmin
would advise people to touch the tree, and
as soon as they did, Ashvattha would kill
them. Later they were both killed by
Shani. Because of his influence, it is
considered safe to touch the tree on
Saturdays. Lakshmi is also believed to
inhabit the tree on Saturdays. Therefore it
is considered auspicious to worship it.
Women ask the tree to bless them with a
son tying red thread or red cloth around its
trunk or on its branches
3
.

Taxonomy/Botanical classi fication
4

Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Plantae
Subkingdom: Viridaeplantae
Phylum: Tracheophyta
Subphylum: Spermatophytina
Infraphylum: Angiospermae
Class: Magnoliopsida Brongniart.
Subclass: Dilleniidae.
Super order: Urticanae
Order: Urticales
Family: Moraceae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Tribe: Ficeae
Genus: Ficus (FY-kus) Linnaeus
Specific epithet: religiosa L.

Nomenclature
'Ficus' is the Latin word for 'Fig', the fruit of
the tree. 'Religiosa' refers to 'religion'
because the tree is sacred in both
Hinduism and Buddhism and is very
frequently planted in temples and shrines
of both faiths. 'Bodhi' or its short form 'Bo'
means 'supreme knowledge' or
'awakening' in the old Indian languages.
'Pipal' relates (I believe) to the same
ancient roots which give rise to English
words like 'Pip' and 'Apple' and therefore
mean something like 'fruit-bearing tree'.
'Ashwattha' and 'Ashvattha' come
from an ancient Indian root word "Shwa"
means 'morning' or 'tomorrow'. This refers
to the fact that Ashwattha is the mythical
Hindu world tree, both indestructible and
yet ever-changing: the same tree will not
be there tomorrow
5
.

Common names
5

Gujrati : J ari, Pipers, Pipal
Hindi: Pipal, Pipali
Kanarese: Arani, Ashwatha mara, Pippala,
Ragi
Marathi: Pimpala
Sanskrit: Ashvattha, Bodhidruma, Pippala,
Shuchidruma, Vrikshraj, yajnika.

Habitat
Ficus religiosa is known to be a native
Indian tree, and thought to be originating
mainly in Northern and Eastern India,
where it widely found in uplands and plane
areas and grows up to about 1650 meters
or 5000 ft in the mountainous areas. It is
also found growing elsewhere in India and
throughout the subcontinent and Southern
Asia, especially in Buddhist countries, wild
or cultivated. It is a familiar sight in Hindu
temples, Buddhist monasteries and
shrines, villages and at roadsides. People
also like to grow this sacred tree in their
gardens. Ficus religiosa has also been
widely planted in many hot countries all
over the world from South Africa to Hawai
and Florida but it is not able to naturalize
away from its Indian home, because of its
dependence on its pollinator wasp,
Blastophaga quadraticeps. An exception
to this rule is Israel where the wasp has
been successfully introduced
6
.
Descri ption
a. Macroscopic characteristics
General
Small tree or taller strangling climber, with
wide-spreading branches, semi or fully
deciduous in monsoon climates and
broadly ovate, glossy, leathery, dark green
leaves, 5-7 in (12-18 cm) long, with
unusual tail-like tips. Bears pairs of
rounded, flat-topped green figs, to 1/2 inch
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(1.5 cm) across, ripening to purple with
red dots. The trunk has smooth grey bark
and with age this trunk becomes
irregularly shaped. It becomes leafless for
a brief period in dry habitats
7
.
Leaves
When the leaves first appear their colour
is red-pinkish, but then they turn deep
green and grow to about 12 to 18 cm long
(5-7 inches). They are attached to long
flexible stalks which makes them rustle,
flutter and dance in the slightest whiff of
wind. The foliage can often be dense. The
alternate leaves are heart-shaped, shiny
with an elegant tail-like tip which is often
called a "drip-tip", guiding water efficiently
down to the soil. This prevents sometimes
heavy monsoon rain from collecting on the
leaves for prolonged periods, which could
make them hot in very warm weather. The
leaves have 6-8 pairs of side-veins and a
further network of very fine veins. This
delicate venation and the ability of the leaf
to disintegrate easily in water are both
clearly illustrated in the greeting cards
which are sometimes made with peepal
leaves. The leaves are soaked for 8 hours
(in warm countries) in a bowl of water and
then washed carefully under running water
until only the veins remain
8
.

Bark
Bark occurs in flat or slightly curved
pieces, varying from 1.0 - 2.5 cm or more
in thickness; outer surface brown or ash
colored; surface uneven due to exfoliation
of cork; inner surface smooth and
somewhat brownish; fracture - fibrous;
taste astringent
8
.

Fl owers
The small red flowers appear in February.
The tree is dependent on its associated
pollinator wasp, Blastophaga quadraticeps
to set seed
8
.

Fruit
The tree fruits in May/J une and bears a
small flat-topped figs (12-13 mm or inch
in diameter), which appears in pairs in the
angles of the leaves on the twigs (or
above the scars in the bark left by fallen
leaves). They have 3 basal bracts, are
green at first and ripen to a blackish
purple (may have reddish dots). The
fruiting tree becomes a treat for many
different birds and animals
8
.

b. Microscopic characteristi cs
Transverse section of bark shows
rectangular to cubical, thick walled cork
cells and dead elements of secondary
cortex, consist of masses of stone cells;
cork cambium distinct with rows of newly
formed secondary cortex, mostly
composed of stone cells towards
periphery. Stone cells found scattered in
large groups, rarely isolated; most of
parenchymatous cells of secondary cortex
contain numerous starch grains and few
prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate;
secondary phloem a wide zone, consisting
of sieve elements, phloem fibers in singles
or in groups of two and non lignified;
numerous crystal fibers also present; in
outer region sieve elements mostly
collapsed while in inner region intact;
phloem parenchyma mostly thick-walled;
stone cells present in single or in small
groups similar to those in secondary
cortex; a number of ray-cells and phloem
parenchyma filled with brown pigments;
prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate and
starch grains present in a number of
parenchymatous cells; medullary rays uni
to multiseriate, wider towards outer
periphery composed of thick-walled cells
with simple pits; in tangential section ray
cells circular to oval in shape; cambium
when present, consists of 2-4 layers of
thin-walled rectangular cells
7
.

Standardization
9

Foreign matter- Not more than 2
percent.
Total ash- Not more than 7
percent.
Acid-insoluble ash- Not more than
0.3 percent.
Alcohol-soluble extractive- Not less
than 8 percent.
Water-soluble extractive- Not less
than 9 percent.

Pests and Di seases
Several pests including various ants which
were seen carrying off pollinator wasps
from ficus fruits, Hymenoptera and mites
that may be parasites of the pollinator
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wasps, and staphylinids which were seen
entering ficus fruits and eating the
pollinator wasps
9
.

Phyto chemistry of Ficus religiosa
Li nn.
Phyto-chemistry is the chemistry of plants
or chemical constituents of plants. Phyto
chemistry understood in pharmacy as the
chemistry of natural products used as
drugs or of drugs plants with the emphasis
on biochemistry. The constituents are
therapeutically active or inactive. The
inactive constituents are structural
constituents of the plants like starch,
sugars or proteins. The inactive
constituents have however
pharmaceutical uses. The active
constituents are secondary metabolites,
like alkaloids glycosides, volatile oils,
tannins etc. They are single substances or
usually mixtures of several substances.
The secondary products of metabolism
are formed from primary products and the
plant is not able to reutilize them and they
are deposited in the cells and so are
called secondary metabolites
10
.
The reported phytoconstituents of stem
bark of Ficus religiosa Linn. are phenols,
tannins, steroids, alkaloids and flavonoids,
-sitosteryl-d-glucoside, vitamin K, n-
octacosanol, methyl oleanolate,
lanosterol, stigmasterol, lupen-3-one
11
.
Stem bark contains three methyl ethers of
leucoanthocyanins, delphinindin-3-0--L-
rhamnoside
1
, Pelargonidin-3-0--L-
rhamnoside (11) and Leucocyanidin-3-0-
-D-galactosyl-cellobioside (111)-along
with methyl ether of leucoanthocyanidin
isolated from stem bark as characterized;
20- tetratriaconten-2-one, pentatriacontan-
5-one and 6 heptatria content-10-one
isolated from stem bark and
characterized; -sitosterol--D-glucoside
and meso anisosital also isolated
12
.
The active constituent from the root bark
F. religiosa was found to be -sitosteryl-d-
glucoside, which showed a peraral
hypoglycemic effect in fasting and alloxan-
diabetic rabbits and in pituitary-diabetic
rats. The fruits contain 4.9% protein
having the essential amino acids,
isoleucine, and phenylalanine.
[13]
The
seeds contain phytosterolin, -sitosterol,
and its glycoside, albuminoids,
carbohydrate, fatty matter, coloring matter,
caoutchoue 0.7-5.1%
15
Ficus religiosa
fruits contain flavonols namely
kaempeferol, quercetin, and myricetin
15
.
Leaves and fruits contain carbohydrate,
protein, lipid, calcium, sodium, potassium,
and phosphorus. The aqueous extract of
dried bark of Ficus religiosa has been
reported to contain phytosterols,
flavonoids, tannins, furanocoumarin
derivatives namely bergapten and
begaptol
16
.
The fruit of Ficus religiosa contained
appreciable amounts of total phenolic
contents, total flavonoid, and percent
inhibition of linoleic acid. Generally higher
extract yields, phenolic contents, and plant
material antioxidant activity were obtained
using aqueous organic solvents, as
compared to the respective absolute
organic solvents. Although higher extract
yields were obtained by the refluxing
extraction technique, in general higher
amounts of total phenolic contents and
better antioxidant activity were found in
the extracts prepared using a shaker
17
.

Uses of Ficus religiosa Linn.
Nearly every part of the tree can be used
as medicine. The leaves are used to feed
camels and elephant, and the tree is often
the home to the tiny lac insect. When the
leaves are dried, they are used for
decoration and often painted on. Like all
the fig trees many birds and bats love to
eat the fruit, and in times when there is
little food, villager eats them as well. The
wood lasts well in water and is sometimes
used for buildings small boats.
"Proper use makes a good remedy even
out of poison while a good medicinal plant
acts as a poison if used improperly"
Charaka-samhita (1000 B.C.).

a. Medicinal Uses
Ficus religiosa is reported to have
numerous therapeutic uses in folk
medicine viz.: leaf juice has been used for
the treatment of asthama, cough, sexual
disorders, diarrhoea, haematuria, ear-
ache and toothache, migrane, eye
troubles, gastric problems and scabies.
Leaf decoction has been used as an
analgesic for toothache. Fruits for the
treatment of asthama, other respiratory
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disorders and scabies. Stem bark is used
in gonorrhoea, bleeding, paralysis,
diabetes, diarrhoea, bone fracture,
antiseptic, astringent and antidote
18
.
Ficus is used extensively used in
traditional systems of medicine like
Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha in the form of
various formulations. Bark is used in
healing ulcers, various skin diseases and
scabies and in treatment of diabetes, the
root bark is stated to be aphrodisiac. Fruit
is laxative and digestive. The fruit powder
is also given to enhance fertility and used
in dysentery, uterine troubles, ulcers,
biliousness, bitter tonic, in blood diseases.
All plant parts are acrid, sweetish, cooling
and are useful in diseases of blood
vagina, uterus, given in leucorrhoea,
burning sensation, biliousness and ulcers.
The ripe fruit is cooling, alexipharmic,
good for burning sensation, foul taste,
thirst, biliousness and diseases of blood
and heart
19,20,21,22
.
Powdered dry fruit destroys sorrows of a
person. Seeds are laxative and if taken
three days during menstruation, sterilizes
women for long time. Bark phytosterolin is
a powerful CNS stimulant. The fruit extract
demonstrated antitumour activity in potato
disc bioassay. Fibre from Ficus religiosa
produces hyper lipidemia
23
.

b. Traditional Uses
Healing and curative
Leaves are laxative and a tonic. They
relieve feverish feeling of coolness. They
are also useful in arresting secretion or
bleeding. In such cases, about 50 ml of
raw juice of the leaves or 1 teaspoon of
powdered dried leaves can be taken with
water
24
.

Heart diseases
The leaves of the peepal are used in the
treatment of heart diseases. The leaves
are infused in water at night. Distilled the
following morning and then stored in white
bottles. About 15 ml of this infusion is
administered thrice daily. It is highly
effective in relieving palpitation of the
heart and cardiac weakness
24
.

Constipati on
The leaves of peepal should be dried in
the shade and powdered. Pills are made
by adding the required quantity of a
solution of anise and jaggery with water.
In the same way, the fruits can be dried in
shade, powdered and mixed with an equal
quantity of sugar. This compound in doses
of 4 to 6gms, taken at bedtime with milk,
ensures proper bowl movement, the
following morning
24
.

Mumps and boils
Peepal leaves smeared with ghee,
warmed over a fire and bandaged over the
inflamed part (mumps) to get relieve. A
leaf of peepal smeared with ghee can be
banged like worm on the boil. If there is
any pus formation, it will burst, if it is in
preliminary stages, the growth will subside
in initial stage itself
24
.


Gynaecologi cal problems
For many vaginal diseases, a decoction
from the bark is employed to cleanse the
vagina as a wash. A decoction prepared
from the bark of peepul and tamarind or
their freshly extracted juice, is given as a
drink for patients with difficult
menstruation or even absence of
menstruation. For pregnant ladies who
have a tendency or fear of abortion, six
maashaas of bark powder is to be given
with a decoction of the rind of an orange.
This is continued 3-8 times a day for a
week
25
.

Gastrointestinal diseases
Even intolerably severe pain in the
stomach is relieved by drinking a
decoction of the bark with salt and
jaggery. Severe and repeated vomiting is
relieved by using the innerbark of the tree.
The bark is dried in the shade and
powdered finely. This, when mixed with
honey repeatedly in a dosage of 4 to 8
rattiis, relieves vomiting due to kapha.
Uncontrollable thirst is also quenched by
water in which burnt peepul bark is dipped
for cooling. An enema from the trees
sprouts, cooked in milk and filtered, is
advantageously employed for dysentery,
rectal prolapse, haemorrhage and fever
25
.

Fever and Joint pains
Peepal is effective in fever because of its
cooling nature. Burn the bark fully to
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ashes. Sieve this through a fine cloth and
sprinkle on the bed of a patient with fever
and eruptions. Take five tolaas (50 gms)
of bark and cook it in five liters of water.
When the quantity of liquid is reduced to
100ml, filter, add a little honey and let the
patient drink a half in the morning and the
rest in the evening. This cures rheumatism
even where aggravation of all the three
doshas has occurred
25
.

Respiratory system
For an asthmatic patient, the powder from
the dried fruit is given with water. A cough
of any type is relieved by taking it with
honey. This is also believed to render the
voice sweet and melodious. For whooping
cough in children, giving the powder of
peepal lac in a dosage of 3 rattiis along
with 3 maashaas of butter, three times a
day, has been seen to be beneficial
25
.

Skin
A patient with itching or eczema is advised
to drink a decoction of peepal bark. For
eruptions, the bark is rubbed on a grind
stone with water and the paste is applied
gently. This is said to aid maturation of the
eruptions. Old peepal trees develop a thin
papery cover over the bark. This is dried,
powdered fine and stored. For wounds,
first smear a thin layer of gingely (sesame)
oil and then sprinkle this powder so that a
thick layer is formed. If discharge from the
wound emerges from this layer, apply the
oil again, followed by another thick
sprinkling of the powder. By these
measures, even severe wounds, that are
not filling up heal easily
25
.

Orodental problems and Ear problems
A decoction or cold infusion of the bark
strengthens the gums, heals them,
offering relief even in severe toothache.
Growing children often suffer from
frequent mouth ulcers. A favourite and
effective remedy is application of the
paste of the powdered bark and tender
leaves with honey. Take tender young
peepul leaves, grind and cook them in
gingely (sesame) oil over a low fire. A
small quantity of this oil is to be poured
into the painful ear, after making it
comfortably warm, to relieve pain
25
.


C. Other Uses
People in India collect the leaves, clean
and dry them and paint them with the gold
acrylic in order to preserve them for years.
From the bark of the tree, reddish dye is
extracted. People tie threads of white, red
and yellow silk around it to pray for
pregnancy. The Peepal tree has its own
symbolic meaning of enlightenment and
peace
26
.

Pharmacological/Pharmacognostical
activities
Antiulcer activity- The antiulcer potential
of the ethanol extract of stem bark of
Ficus religiosa against in vivo
indomethacin, cold restrained stress
induced gastric ulcer and pylorus ligation
assays were validated. The extract (100,
200 and 400 mg/kg) significantly (P<0.05)
reduced the ulcer index in all assays used.
The extract also significantly increased the
pH of gastric acid while at the same time
reduced the volume of gastric juice, free
and total acidities. The study provides
preliminary data on the antiulcer potential
of Ficus religiosa stem bark and support
the traditional uses of the plant for the
treatment of gastric ulcer
27
.

Anticonvulsant activity- The
anticonvulsant activity of the aqueous
aerial root extract Ficus religiosa (25, 50
and 100 mg/kg, p.o.) was investigated in
strychnine, pentylenetrazole, picrotoxin
and isoniazid induced seizures in mice.
The extract showed no toxicity and
protected the animals in the strychnine,
pentylenetrazole tests in a dose
dependent manner. Its effect in the
picrotoxin and isoniazid tests was less
potent. The extract also exhibited dose
dependent potentiation of Ach in rat ileum
but failed to potentiate the effect of 5-HT
in rat fundus strip preparation
28
.

Bronchospasm acti vity
The in vivo studies of histamine induced
bronchospasm in guinea pigs and in vitro
isolated guinea pig tracheal chain and
ileum preparation were performed. Pre-
treatment of guinea pigs with ketotifen (1
mg/kg, p.o.), has significantly delayed the
onset of histamine aerosol induced pre-
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convulsive dyspnea, compared with
vehicle control (281.8 11.7 vs112.2
9.8). The administration of methanolic
extract (125, 250 and 500 mg/kg, p.o.) did
not produce any significant effect on
latency to develop histamine induced pre-
convulsive dyspnea. Methanolic extract of
fruits at a doses (0.5, 1 and 2 mg/ml) has
significantly potentiate the EC
50
doses of
both histamine and acetylcholine in
isolated guinea pig tracheal chain and
ileum preparation. HPLC analysis of
methanolic extract showed the presence
of high amounts of serotonin (2.89%
w/w)
29
.

Anti oxi dant acti vity- The ethanolic
extract of leaves of Ficus religiosa was
evaluated for antioxidant (DPPH), wound
healing (incision, excision,
histopathological and dead space wound
model) and anti-inflammatory
(Carageenan induced paw odema)
activity. The tested extract of different
dilutions in range 200 g/ml to 1000 g/ml
shows antioxidant activity in range of
6.34% to 13.35%. Significant increase in
wound closure rate, skin breaking
strength, granuloma breaking strength
was observed. The extract shows
prominent anti-inflammatory activity as
compared to that of standard (Ibuprofen
gel)
30
.
Antiamnesic activity- the effect of the
methanol extract of figs of Ficus religiosa
(FRFE) on scopolamine-induced
anterograde and retrograde amnesia in
mice was investigated. The methanolic
extracts were administered at a dose of
10, 50 and 100 mg/kg, i.p. and
scopolamine at 10 mg/kg, i.p. Methanol
extract of figs of Ficus religiosa showed a
significant improvement of memory as it
treatment attenuated the scopolamine-
induced anterograde and restrograde
amnesia dose dependently.
Cyproheptadine pretreatment significantly
reversed the antiamnesic effect
31
.

Pharmacognostic evaluation-A detailed
comparative pharmacognostic evaluation
of the barks of four species, namely Ficus
racemosa, Ficus virens, Ficus religiosa
and Ficus bengalensis which are
important ingredient in many Ayurvedic
and traditional formulations, effective in
various treatments such as diabetes, skin
diseases, ulcers and nervous disorders
were studied. Ficus barks were sold in
Indian marketunder traditional names
such as plaksah, udumbarah, asvattah
and vatah. The barks of the species
mentioned above are usually interchanged
or adulterated with other species of ficus
because of the limited knowledge in
identification and differentiation.
Pharmacognostic evaluation has been
carried out with the aim to establish the
diagnostic keys of important drugs based
on the macroscopic, microscopic and
HPTLC profile
32
.

Antidiabetic activi ty
The antidiabetic effect of aqueous extract
of Ficus religiosa bark (FRAE) in normal
glucose loaded hyperglycemic and
streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic rats,
at the dose of 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg were
investigated. The effect was more
pronounced in 50 and 100 mg/kg than 25
mg/kg. FRAE also showed significant
increase in serum insulin, body weight and
glycogen content in iver and
skeletalmuscle of STZ- induced diabetic
rats while there was significant reduction
in the levels of serum triglyceride and total
cholesterol. FRAE also showed significant
antilipidperoxidative effect in the pancreas
of STZ induced diabetic rats
33
.

Antioxidant and Antidiabetic activi ty-
The aqueous extract of Ficus religiosa
Linn. was assessed at a dose of 100 and
200 mg/kg orally, it decreases the fasting
blood glucose in streptozotocin induced
type 2 diabetic rats. The drug had enzyme
induction effect with respect to catalase
(CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-
Px) activity, however decreased the
exaggerated activity of superoxide
dismutase (SOD) in type 2 diabetic rats. F.
religiosa modulated the enzymes of
significant antioxidant defense system to
combat oxidative stress. Drug at higher
dose (200 mg/kg) had more pronounced
effect. F. religiosa, a rasayana group of
plant drug having anti-diabetic activity
along with antioxidant potential was
beneficial in treatment of type-2
diabetes
34
.
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Wound-Healing activity- The wound
healing activity (incision and excision
model) of Ficus religiosa leaf extract
prepared as ointment form (5 and 10%)
was investigated. Povidone iodine 5% was
used as standard drug. The healing of
wound was assessed by the rate of wound
contraction, decreased in the period of
epithelialization, high skin breaking
strength was observed in animals. 10%
ointment shows better wound healing
activity than 5% concentration
35
.

Anti convulsant activi ty wi th
antiepileptic drugs- Anticonvulsant
activity of methanolic fig extracts of Ficus
religiosa (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg, i.p.) was
studied. Seizures induced by maximum
electroshock (MES), picrotoxin and
pentylenetetrazol (PTZ), cyproheptadine,
a nonselective (5HT
1/2
) serotonin
antagonist (4mg/kg, i.p.) was used to
study the reversal of protective effect of
extract in various animal models. Extract
showed no toxicity, potentiated
pentobarbitone induced sleep and
inhibited seizures induced by MES and
picrotoxin in a dose dependent manner.
Anticonvulsant effect of extract was
comparable to clinically used antiepileptic
drugs, phenytoin and diazepam
36
.

Immunomodulatory activity- The
immunomodulatory effect of alcoholic
extract of the bark of F. religiosa
(Moraceae) in mice was investigated. The
study was carried out by various
hematological and serological tests.
Administration of extract remarkably
ameliorated both cellular and tic rats while
there was humoral antibody response. It is
concluded that the test extract possessed
promising immunostimulant properties
37
.

Anti bacteri al and Anti tumor acti vity-
The aqueous, methanol and chlorophorm
extracts of the leaves of Ficus religiosa
were evaluated for their antibacterial and
antitumor activities. These extracts
showed an elevated level of antibacterial
activity and a reduced antifungal activity.
The most sensitive organisms S. typhi, P.
vulgaris, S. typhimurium and E. coli were
inhibited even at lowest concentrations of
the chloroform extracts. Aqueous and
methanolic extracts were found to be less
active. The antitumor activity conducted
by crown gall potato disc assay proved
that all the three extracts are efficient in
reducing the tumors formed
38
.

Ethno-botanical eval uation- The new
ethno-medico botanical information and
traditional use of medicinal plants against
kidney and urinary disorders were
documented. The use of 68 medicinal
plants belonging to 29 families and 58
genera of cold desert was documented
against the treatment of kidney and
urinary disorders in the triable
communities of Ladakh region in India.
These species were used in combination
of some exotic species such as Bergenia
ligulata, Cinnamomum zylanicum, Crocus
sativus, Elettaria cardamomum, Emblica
officinalis, Ficus religiosa, Mangifera
indica, Punica granatum, Santalum album,
Spondiax axillaris, Terminalia belerica,
Terminalia chebula, Zingiber officinale and
some medicinal stones, minerals and
salts
39
.
Antibacterial activi ty- Ten medicinal
plants namely Commiphora wightii,
Hibiscus cannbinus, Anethum gravelons,
Emblica officinalis, Ficus religiosa, Ficus
racemosa, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus
tisela, Mentha arvensis and Mimusops
elengi were screened for potential
antibacterial activity against medically
important bacterial strains. The ethanol
extracts were more potent than aqueous
extracts of all the plant studied. P.
aeruginosa and S. typhimurium were the
most restant strains while the most
susceptible bacterial strains were B.
cereus and P. mirabilis
40
.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory
activity-Seventy six plant extracts
including methanolic and successive
water extracts from 37 Indian medicinal
plants were investigated for
acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory
activity (in vitro). Results indicated that
methanolic extracts to be more active than
water extracts. The potent AChE inhibiting
methanolic plant extracts included
Withania somnifera (root), Semecarpus
anacardium (stem bark), Emblica ribes
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(root), Tinospora cardifolia (stem), Ficus
religiosa (stem bark) and Nordostachys
jatamanasi (rhizome). The IC
50
values
obtained for these extracts were 33.38,
16.74, 23.04, 38.36, 73.69 and 47.21
g/ml respectively
41
.

Anti -infl ammatory activity- The
methanolic extract of the stem bark of
Ficus religiosa Linn. was screened for its
anti-inflammatory activity in Wistar albino
rats and analgesic effects in Swiss albino
mice. A significant inhibition of
carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema,
comparable to that produced by
indomethacin, the standard anti-
inflammatory drug was obtained with all
the three doses of the extract. A
significant inhibition of acetic acid induced
writhing in mice was observed with two
doses of the extract. The analgesic effect
was comparable to that caused by the
standard drug, aspirin. The methanol
extract also showed significant anti-lipid
peroxidant effects in- vitro
42
.

Isolation of compounds- The
compounds were analyzed of volatile
blends released by respective figs of
twenty Ficus species to attract their
specific pollinating wasps. In all, 99
different compounds were identified. The
compounds are mainly terpenoids,
aliphatic compounds and products from
the shikmic acid pathway. In each species
blend there are few major compounds
which are generally common among floral
fragrances. A possible basis for species-
specificity of Ficus-wasp interactions is
discussed in relation to the patterns of
volatiles found in this interspecies
comparison
43
.

Anti ulcer acti vity- Four sitavirya plants
viz. Satavari (fresh root juice, 1250
mg/kg), Yastimadhu (water decoctions of
root, 600 mg/kg), Kutaja and aswattha
(water decoctions of bark; 400 and 500
mg/kg respectively) were studied for their
effects on different models of
gastroduodenal ulcers in rats, when given
orally for 3 days. All of them were found to
protect the animals against 2 hr cold
restraint stress and pylorus ligation
induced gastric and cystamine induced
duodenal ulcers
44
.

Antifungal acti vity- The benzene extract
of both the plants i.e. Ficus infectoria
Roxb. and Ficus religiosa Linn. afforded
furanocoumarins, bergapten and
bergaptol. The isolated compounds of
both the plants were assayed against its
microorganisms Staphylococcus aureus,
E scherichia coli, Penicillium gluacum and
Paramecium at concentration of 0.2% for
aqueous bark extracts and 1x10
-2
M for
the isolated compounds. The results
indicate bacterial activity of both the
compounds bergapten and bergaptol
against S. aureus and E. coli. An
antifungal activity of the compounds
against P. gluacum was also observed
45
.

Isolation of leaf proteins- Leaf protein
concentrates from leaves of Ficus
religiosa and Mimusopa elengi Linn have
been isolated. Nitrogen contents were
estimated to be 12.25% in F. religiosa and
11.5% in M. elengi. The amino acids
obtained by the acid and alkaline
hydrolysis of leaf protein concentrates
were separated and identified by
descending paper chromatography
technique. The liquid paper
chromatography (LPC) of Ficus religiosa
was found to be a condensation polymer
of L-cystine, L-lysine, L-arginine, DL-
serine, DL-aspartic acid, glycine, DL-
threonine, D and L-alanine, L-proline
tryptophan, L-tyrosine, DL-methionine,
DL-valine, isoleucine and L-leucine
46
.

CONCLUSION
India is sitting on a gold mine of well
recorded and traditionally well practiced
knowledge of herbal medicine. This
country is perhaps the largest producer of
medicinal herbs and is rightly called the
botanical garden of the world. The study
of herbal medicine spans the knowledge
of pharmacology, history, source, physical
and chemical nature, mechanism of
action, tradional, medicinal and
therapeutic use of drug. Ficus religiosa is
highly regarded and used plant in
Ayurvedic medicine. It is one of the most
versatile plant having a wide spectrum of
medicinal activities. This is the unique
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source of various types of compounds
having diverse chemical structure. A drug
development program should be
undertaken to develop modern drugs with
the compounds isolated from Ficus
religiosa. With the availability of primary
information, further studies can be carried
out like phyto pharmacology of different
extracts, standardization of the extracts,
identification and isolation of active
principles and pharmacological studies of
isolated compound. These may be
followed by development of lead
molecules as well as it may serve for the
purpose of use of specific extract in
specific herbal formulation.

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