IC 141 Term Paper

BIOMATERIALS


















BY PRATEEK GAUBA

ROLL NO. B12108
BRANCH ME
YEAR 1
st
Year
GROUP - C2


DEFINITION - A biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that
interacts with biological systems. A biomaterial may also be defined as
any material, natural or man-made, that comprises whole or part of a
living structure or biomedical device which performs, augments, or
replaces a natural function.


INTRODUCTION

The primary reason for the use and need of biomaterials is that our body
is prone to injuries, and a variety of destructive processes, including
fracture, infection, and cancer that cause pain, disfigurement, or loss of
function. Under these circumstances it is required to remove the diseased
tissue or bone and replace it with the best alternative material available.
This material must satisfy some properties. These properties vary with
the tissue to be replaced. eg. Some biomaterials , used to replace internal
tissues will have to stay in contact with body fluids . Exposure to body
fluids usually implies that the biomaterial is placed within the interior of
the body, and this places several strict restrictions on materials that can
be used as a biomaterial . For practical use, a biomaterial should be
amenable to being formed or machined into different shapes, have
relatively low cost, and be readily available.

The main aspects of any biomaterial are :-

1. Biocompatibility - First and foremost, a biomaterial must be
biocompatibleit should not elicit an adverse response from the body,
and vice versa. Additionally, it should be nontoxic and non-carcinogenic.
The biomaterials/devices must not degrade in its properties within the
body (unless this is wanted ) .These requirements eliminate many
engineering materials that are available.


2. Functional Performance The material must satisfy its design
requirements in service. The biomaterial should possess adequate
physical and mechanical properties to serve as augmentation or
replacement of body tissues.Eg. A biomaterial for bone replacement must
be efficient in load transmission and stress distribution and a biomaterial
for eye lens replacement should allow light transmission.
Eg. Ideal material for knee joint will be the one with following properties :-
A biocompatible chemical composition to avoid adverse tissue reactions
Excellent resistance to degradation (e.g., corrosion resistance for
metals or resistance to biological degradation in polymers)
Acceptable strength to sustain cyclic loading endured by the joint
High wear resistance to minimize wear-debris generation


BIOMATERIALS

The technical materials used to build most structures are divided into four
classes:-
1 . Metals
2 . Ceramics (including glasses)
3 . Composites
4 . Polymers

Metals Metals are widely used as biomaterials due to their strength and
toughness. Although many metals and alloys are used for medical device
applications, the most commonly employed are stainless steels,
commercially pure titanium and titanium alloys, and cobalt-base alloys.
Some people are allergic to ions released from these metals. Therefore
its is desirable that these metals are inert and non reactive (corrosion
resistant). Generation of fine wear particles in service can lead to
Inflammation and Implant loosening. Therefore these metals need to be
carefully processed to give them high tensile, high fatigue and high yield
strengths.


Metals are widely used for load-bearing implants. For instance, some of
the most common orthopedic surgeries involve the implantation of
metallic implants. These range from simple wires and screws to fracture
fixation plates and total joint prostheses (artificial joints) for hips,knees,
shoulders, ankles, and so on. In addition
to orthopedics, metallic implants are used in maxillofacial surgery,
cardiovascular surgery. Metals are also used to make internal fixation
devices.

Ceramics Bio-ceramics may be Bioinert like Alumina (Al2O3),
Zirconia (ZrO2), Resorbable like tri-calcium phosphate (TCP), Bioactive
like Hydroxyapatite, bioactive glasses, and glass-ceramics or Porous for
tissue in-growth (hydroxyapatite-coated metals, alumina) of the jaw bone.

Ceramics are generally used to repair or replace skeletal hard connective
tissue. Porous ceramic materials exhibit much lower strengths but have
been found extremely useful as coatings for metallic implants. The
coating aids in tissue fixation of the implant by providing a porous surface
for the surrounding tissue to grow into and mechanically interlock .Certain
ceramics are considered bioactive ceramics if they establish bonds with
the bone tissue.

Ceramics are used for Replacement for hips, knees, teeth, tendons and
ligaments, repair for periodontal disease, maxillofacial reconstruction,
augmentation and stabilization, spinal fusion and bone fillers after tumor
surgery. Carbon coatings are thrombo-resistant and are used for
prosthetic heart valves.


Polymers Polymers are available in a wide variety of compositions with
adequate physical and mechanical properties Polymers offer properties
like flexibility, resistance to biochemical attack, good biocompatibility and
light weight etc.. Another advantage that they offer is that they can be
easily manufactured into products with the desired shape.

The polymer biomaterials like other biomaterials should have acceptable
shelf life. The degradation time of the biodegradable polymers should
match the healing or regeneration process and the degradation products
must be non toxic and able to get metabolised and removed from the
body. The non-biodegradable polymers should have appropriate
mechanical properties for the indicated application .

Some well known Polymer biomaterials are Polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE) , Polyethylene(PE), Polypropylene(PP), Poly Methyl Mythacrylate
(PMMA), Polyesters and Polyurathane etc.

The biodegradable polymers find special application in drug delivery and
tissue engineering. Biodegradable polymers are mainly used where the
transient existence of materials is required and they find applications as
sutures, scaffolds for tissue regeneration, tissue adhesives, hemostats,
and transient barriers for tissue adhesion, as well as drug delivery
systems. Each of these applications demands materials with unique
physical, chemical, biological, and biomechanical properties to provide
efficient therapy.

Composites Composites are solids which contain two or more distinct
constituent materials or phases, on a scale larger than the atomic. The
tem "composite" is usually reserved for those materials in which the
distinct phases are separated on a scale larger than the atomic, and in
which properties such as the elastic modulus are significantly altered in
comparison with those of a homogeneous material. Accordingly,
reinforced plastics such as fiberglass as well as natural materials, such
as bone are viewed as composite materials. Natural composites often
exhibit hierarchical structures in which particulate, porous, and fibrous
structural features are seen in different micro-scales.
Composite materials offer a variety of advantages in comparison with
homogeneous materials. Those include the ability for the scientist or
engineer to exercise considerable control over material properties. This is
the potential for stiff, strong, light-weight materials as well as for highly
resilient and compliant materials.

Some applications of composites in biomaterial applications are Dental
filling composites, Reinforced methyl methacrylate bone cement and
ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene and Orthopaedic implants with
porous surfaces.



MAJOR APPLICATIONS OF BIOMATERIALS :-


Cardiovascular Applications - In the cardiovascular, or circulatory,
system (the heart and blood vessels involved in circulating blood
throughout the body), problems can arise with heart valves and arteries,
both of which can be successfully treated with implants. The heart valves
suffer from structural changes that prevent the valve from either fully
opening or fully closing, and the diseased valve can be replaced with a
variety of substitutes. As with orthopedic implants, ceramics , metals, and
polymers are used as materials of construction .

Arteries, particularly the coronary arteries and the vessels of the lower
limbs, become blocked by fatty deposits (atherosclerosis), and it is
possible in some cases to replace segments with artificial arteries.
Polymers are the material of choice for vascular prostheses. Basic
materials used to do make a vascular graft are Polyurethane, Teflon &
Dacron. These face the structural and functional challenge of
maintenaining mechanical integrity and long term blood compatibility
(avoidance of blood clotting).

Ophthalmics - The tissues of the eye can suffer from several diseases,
leading to reduced vision and eventually, blindness. Cataracts, for
example, cause cloudiness of the lens. This may be replaced with a
synthetic (polymer) intraocular lens .


Materials for contact lenses, because they are in intimate contact with
the tissues of the eye, are also considered biomaterials.The basic
materials used in intraocular lens are Silicon and PMMA. As with
intraocular lenses, they too are used to preserve and restore vision .


Dental Applications - Within the mouth, both the tooth and supporting
gum tissues can be readily destroyed by bacterially controlled diseases.
Dental caries (cavities), the demineralization and dissolution of teeth
associated with the metabolic activity in plaque (a film of mucus that traps
bacteria on the surface of the teeth),can cause extensive tooth loss.
Teeth in their entirety and segments of teeth both can be
replaced or restored by a variety of materials .


Wound Healing and Orthopedic Applications- One of the oldest uses
of implantable biomaterials can be traced back to the introduction of
sutures for wound closure.
The ancient Egyptians used linen as a suture as far back as 2000 b.c.
Synthetic suture materials include both polymers and some metals .
Another important wound-healing category is that of fracture fixation
devices. These include bone plates, screws, nails, rods, wires, and other
devices used for fracture treatment.

Although some nonmetallic materials (e.g., carbon-carbon composite
bone plates) have been investigated, almost all fracture fixation devices
used for orthopedic applications are made from metals, most notably
stainless steels . eg. The basic materials used in making a hip joint are
Stainless steel, titanium & its alloys & UHMWPE. The main purpose they
are required to serve is Prevention of wear & loosening over extended
periods.