Gender and Sexual Identity in The Modern French Novel

Cambridge Companions Online
http://universitypublishingonline.org/cambridge/companions/
The Cambridge Companion to the French Novel

From 1800 to the Present
Edited by Timothy Unwin
Book DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CCOL0521495636
Online ISBN: 9781139000239
Hardback ISBN: 9780521495639
Paperback ISBN: 9780521499149
Chapter
14 - Gender and sexual identity in the modern French novel pp. 223-241
Chapter DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CCOL0521495636.014
Cambridge University Press
JANE WINSTON
Gender and sexual identity in the

modern French novel
Simone de Beauvoir's Le Deuxieme Sexe (1949) soundly refuted the

patriarchal myth of an eternal feminine nature which, until then, had
provided poets and novelists with their most cherished topoi. The famous
opening line of Beauvoir's second volume is considered the origin of gender
construction theory: 'On ne nait pas femme; on le devient' (Beauvoir, Le
Deuxieme Sexe (Paris: Gallimard, 1949), vol. 11, p. 2) ['One is not born, but
becomes, woman']. Writing after the Holocaust, in the early days of
France's colonial wars, at a time when Afro-American writer Richard
Wright was in Paris publishing articles and excerpts from his novel Black
Boy in Les Temps modernes, Beauvoir showed that patriarchy uses the
eternal feminine to oppress women, precisely as antisemitic and racist
systems of oppression deploy ideologies of the Black soul or Jewish
character. Le Deuxieme Sexe outraged French literary and critical establishments. Hostile articles and hate mail poured in. Even Beauvoir's friend
Albert Camus castigated her for making French men appear foolish. But Le
Deuxieme Sexe also elicited letters of gratitude from female readers and
stimulated a wealth of women's fiction in the following decade. It remains
the intellectual cornerstone of twentieth-century Western feminism, the text
with or against which feminist theorists and novelists have been writing for
nearlyfiftyyears.
Let us begin, then, with a brief survey of what Beauvoir challenges and
enables and how, under her pen, issues of sexual identity and gender
intersect with the writing of novels. Beauvoir opens her essay with
seventeenth-century feminist Poulain de la Barre's claim that everything
men have written about women must be considered suspect. She then
makes two crucial moves. First she shows how patriarchal ideology underpins scientific, mythic, popular and literary representations of women and
undermines their truth claims. Then she demonstrates that the patriarchal
myth of feminine nature plays a fundamental role in the social construction
and oppression of women. To explore that construction, she turns to
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JANE WINSTON
women's accounts of their own lived experiences, especially first-person

narratives and autobiographical novels. Despite her general view that
women's literature tends to be less universal and thus less good than men's,
she ends up convincing readers of the political value of women's writing as
counter-representations to men's ideological fiction. The sort of novels
Beauvoir encouraged has a great deal to do with her analysis of women's
condition and views on writing. Beauvoir adopts an existentialist and
sociological perspective to analyse women's oppression. Humans are
primarily conscious beings, she holds, born empty of any pre-given content
or essence into specific situations. Consciousness defines itself as a subject
in relation to an 'other' and by its own transcendent activity. Patriarchy
prevents women from taking up a subject position by casting them, en
masse, as the other in relation to men. Born free, they are constructed as
objects in a system designed to meet male needs and desires. As she
becomes a woman, a girl thus becomes alienated from herself in a process
that imposes objectified self-images on her and gets her to internalise them.
Patriarchy arrests women in passivity and objectivity and makes them
unable to reach out to the world, accept responsibility for their projects,
and act authentically. Beauvoir does not explicitly extend these insights to
the field of sexuality. She believes that the involuntary biological processes
human reproduction forces on women render them slaves of the species
and holds that patriarchy transforms this biological subordination into a
permanent social, political and existential dependency and inferiority.
To change their social situation women must reject marriage and maternity,
attain financial independence, establish projects, and work toward
transcendence.
Beauvoir considers writing one route to financial independence. Since
they largely escape patriarchal domination, female intellectuals (like
herself) are best positioned to elucidate the situation of 'woman'. Reading
can raise a reader's awareness of her situation so that she might assume it
and act authentically. It is thus essential that committed writers portray the
world as it is in order to create the will to change it. Beauvoir does not
propose that female writings transgress male and female sexual paradigms:
she does not believe sexuality can be changed, nor does she appear to
believe such a change desirable. She does not counsel formal experimentation either. In 1949, she considers language a transparent instrument used
to communicate a message and tends to think of textual politics in terms of
content. She neither argues for nor produces feminist Utopian writing or
heroic liberated female figures.
Beauvoir's novels often read like case-histories of the oppressive scenarios
and woman-types described in he Deuxieme Sexe. Ulnvitee (1943) worries
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Gender and sexual identity

about the restrictiveness of feminine social roles, while Tous les hommes
sont mortels (1946) demonstrates women's historical marginalisation in
patriarchy. Beauvoir is candid about this illustrative or cautionary nature of
her writing, identifying, for instance, several fictional amoureuses - Elisabeth in Ulnvitee, Denise in Le Sang des autres (1945) and Paule in Les
Mandarins (1954). Beauvoir believes one of the greatest impediments to
women's liberation is the fact that, living dispersed among men, we are
unable to form a collective consciousness. She seems to hope that by
reading Colette, Emily Bronte, Anna de Noailles, Virginia Woolf, Rosamond Lehmann, George Eliot, Clara Malraux or Katherine Mansfield we
might recognise our shared conditions of oppression and begin to form a
nous capable of thinking of itself in independent, collective terms.
Women published massively in the wake of Beauvoir. Editions Julliard had
fifteen female writers in 1950; Plon had twenty-five by 1951. Elle magazine
published a photograph of seventy women novelists and their children in
1954, eliciting Barthes's 'Novels and Children' article in Mythologies
(1957). In 1952 the first French paperback appeared from Hachette and
women began to dominate the pulp-fiction industry. Rene Julliard, the first
publisher in France to deploy a heavy marketing campaign, was closely
associated with women's pulp. Editions Julliard mobilised gender and
sexuality in various ways to promote sales, printing young female authors'
names on bands around their novels and placing their photos on book
jackets. Julliard himself paraded around Paris with various young protegees, assuring them mass press coverage as well. Julliard writers sold well.
Francoise Sagan's Bonjour Tristesse (1954) sold more than 840,000 French
copies and 4,500,000 translations by 1962. Francoise Mallet-Joris's Le
Kemp art des beguines (1951) was translated into thirteen languages by
1953 and had sold 30,000 copies by the end of 1956.
The realist pulp of Sagan, Mallet-Joris, and the third of Julliard's 'trois
F', Francoise d'Eaubonne (Comme un vol de gerfauts, 1950) dislodged the
traditional construction of women as producers and consumers of sentimental fiction. Their anti-sentimental novels contested sentimentalism's
themes, disrupted its family romance scenario, refused its happy endings,
and flooded the French literary field with a new generation of independentminded young heroines. Moulded in their author's image, these heroines
assume the textual role of first-person homodiegetic (internal) narrator and
look back a year or two to relate their own coming of age. As they take
narrative power, these women transgress traditional boundaries separating
fiction from autobiography. Many pulp tales are structured around the
heroine's investigation, appraisal and rejection of patriarchal gender roles
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JANE WINSTON
and her non-traditional sexual initiation. Anti-sentimental novels typically

end with the heroine standing alone on the threshold of what one is left to
surmise will be her active adult life.
But anti-sentimental pulp novels raise gender issues only to respond to
them conservatively. One critic argues that 1950s pulp novels, authored
mostly by privileged women like Sagan and Mallet-Joris, actually helped
shore up France's emerging technocratic bourgeoisie (Kristen Ross, Fast
Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture
(Cambridge, MA, and London: MIT, 1995)). Post-war France was moving
rapidly from left-wing to right-wing political dominance. A conservative
technocratic bourgeoisie was emerging around an ideology of happiness
grounded in the privatised, consuming couple. The country was shifting to
Tordist consumerism' structured around standardised housing, the
woman's domain, and the automobile on which men spent their money. In
1945 De Gaulle called on French women to produce twelve million
beautiful babies; in 1955 family subsidy laws were amended to provide
bonuses for births in the first two years of marriage and allowances for
women staying or returning home to raise children. Women writing realist
pulp helped produce the myth of the car as an intimate domestic space.
Consciously or not, some also aided attempts to coax women back home
and into traditional feminine roles.
Mallet-Joris's Le Rempart des beguines thematises the lesbian relation of
a fifteen-year-old girl and her father's mistress, but fails to analyse
normative heterosexuality. It does not portray lesbian desire or pleasure
and paints lesbian culture in unrelentingly negative, even homophobic,
terms. What counts in Le Rempart is not lesbianism at all, but the
interaction between an older and younger woman. Older Tamara is a
clearly phallic-then-fallen Oedipal mother. She is phallic in her sadistic
dominance of her young lover, Helene; fallen when she has sex with a man
and even more irreparably when she chooses the security of marriage to
Helene's wealthy father over freedom. Like the reader, Helene is to watch
and learn. She sees and experiences a woman's strength and glimpses a
lesbian love once shared by Tamara and another woman. Yet lesbian
sexuality remains too vague and distant to help this heroine. Mallet-Joris's
neglect of female sexuality also constrains her own ability to envisage an
active and fully sexual female subject. Like Beauvoir and for the same
reasons, she can only imagine one possible first step toward liberation financial independence. Symptomatically, she leaves her heroine right
where Le Deuxieme Sexe left off: poised for professional success, but in
bed, and (like Renee Nere in Colette's 1906 Vagabonde) utterly alone. The
sequel La Chambre rouge (1955) corroborates Mallet-Joris's impasse, as it
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leaves an even more isolated Helene saved from dependence, from others
and from herself, but lost to love.
In Francoise Sagan's Bonjour Tristesse, wealthy and motherless Celine
refuses to identify with any of the substitute mother figures offered her. She
detests the immanence of the bourgeois wife and mother. She goes so far as
to force the suicide of independent mother-figure Anne, whose professional
profile suggests that in rejecting her, Celine refuses the new technocratic
bourgeois society and female model as well. But if Celine knows what she
refuses, she has no idea of what she wants, other than a vague 'liberte de
penser . . . de choisir moi-meme ma vie, de me choisir moi-meme. Je ne
peux dire "d'etre moi-meme" puisque je n'etais rien qu'une pate modelable,
mais celle de refuser les moules' (Sagan, Bonjour Tristesse (Paris: Julliard,
1954), p. 4) ['freedom to think . . . to choose my life and myself. I cannot
say "to be myself" as I was but mere modelling clay, but the freedom to
refuse pre-cast moulds']. Celine's individualist revolt is tied to no collective
struggle; Bonjour Tristesse in fact provides no social register outside the
heroine's upper bourgeoisie and no historical context. Isolated, privileged
and petulant, Celine fails to come of age: she remains a privileged enfant
terrible - alone, projectless and in a state of complacent nostalgia for the
patriarchal happy ending her own actions precluded. It is difficult to
imagine who would be convinced by this novel to follow Celine's lead and
reject women's patriarchal destiny.
Other women did pen sustained and convincing realist critiques of
patriarchal gender and sexual identities. Two of them, Christiane Rochefort
and Marguerite Duras, had manuscripts refused as too intellectual by
Editions Julliard. A native of Paris's mixed fourteenth arrondissement,
Rochefort indicts the alienation she considers fundamental to advanced
capitalism. Le Repos du guerrier (1958) pits a philosophiser against a
young bourgeois woman incapable of articulating her desires in his
language, while Les Petits Enfants du siecle (1963) explores the alienation
of working-class women under capitalism and patriarchy. Adolescent
Josyane moves from a love of intellectual work to recuperation by a social
order in which lower-class women like her serve solely to reproduce
workers and consumers. Her sexual initiation with an older Italian migrant
worker rings of medieval courtships, k;nights errant and pre-cultural
nature, making it more promising as eventual daydream material for a
depressed housewife than as a viable alternative to Joysane's bleak future.
Raised in an HLM ('habitation a loyer modere', or low-cost council
housing), Joysane ends up pregnant, with her desires channelled into a
thirst for consumer goods - washing machines, fridges and TVs. She looks
forward not to freedom, but to life in the grand ensemble at Sarcelles
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JANE WINSTON
where, in the early 1960s, France tried to contain its immigrants and
working classes.
If Rochefort's portrayal of lower-class women forms a powerful reverse
image of the elite heroines of Sagan and Mallet-Joris, her textualisation of
immigrant populations gestures towards women's explorations of sexual
identity and gender oppression in Francophone cultures (a theme which is
developed by Francoise Lionnet in her discussion of the Francophone novel
in this volume). One of the first novels to explore Francophone women's
oppression and make the case for their liberation was the 1952 Sommeil
delivre by Egyptian-Lebanese expatriate Andree Chedid. Chedid tells of
one woman's suffering and deadly revolt. Married at fifteen to an old man
and victimised for her failure to produce a male child, the heroine finally
kills her husband so that a young girl might live. Le Sommeil delivre
prefigures 1970s and 1980s novels by Francophone women writers,
especially Evelyne Accad's thematically similar but theoretically and stylistically more interesting treatment of the construction of female sexuality
and women's oppression in the Middle East, UExcisee (1982).
As for Rochefort, after Les Petits Enfants she worked more closely on
sexuality and social change. Une Rose pour Morrison (1966) ironically
casts the construction of female sexuality as a process that forces women to
pass through prenuptial institutions where they learn to perform intercourse functions 'sans bouger', i.e. without moving. Despite her interest in
sexuality and social change, Rochefort's understanding of the role language
plays in forming and sustaining them lagged behind more experimental
writings of the 1950s and early 1960s. Mid-century writers took a renewed
interest in the Marquis de Sade and the sado-masochistic structures of the
bourgeois patriarchal subject. In 1953 Editions Jean-Jacques Pauvert
reissued Sade. In 1954 they published Pauline Reage's (Dominique Aury's)
Histoire d'O. Pauvert also published Georges Bataille's Bleu du ciel (1956)
and Histoire de Voeil (1967), whose title repeats and transforms Reage's. In
his preface to Histoire d'O, Jean Paulhan claims the novel opposes female
emancipation by establishing female subjugation as a matter of individual
preference. Consistently, Histoire d'O has been widely read as a pornographic and misogynist work. More recently, however, Reage's novel has
been seen to extend Beauvoir's analysis of the social construction of woman
to the level of the body, showing in explicit detail that the structuration of
the female subject begins with the inscription and organisation of the body.
On this reading, O's violently physical assimilation into a network of
prostitution (she is bound, whipped, raped, penetrated all the time, everywhere and by everyone) functions as an allegory of patriarchy's discursive
territorialisation of the bodies which, duly mapped and charted, come to
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signify woman and female sexuality. Produced by a discursive network
exterior to her and from which she is excluded, the signification inscribed
on the woman's body and internalised by her to form a 'soul' is thereafter
perceived, even by her, as a properly feminine interior or essence.
In the 1950s lesbian titles also increased. Three Nicole Louvier novels
appeared in 1953 ~ Chansons interdites, Qui qu'en grogne and UHeure des
jeux. Julliard printed Simone Magny's Fresence in 1954. Violette Leduc's
Ravages (1955) explicitly portrayed lesbian desire and passion. Despite the
authoritative support and protests of Leduc's friend and reader Beauvoir,
Gallimard elided substantial sections of Ravages and expunged its prologue
(which it published in 1966 as Therese et Isabelle). Ravages critiques
heterosexuality and traces the heroine's journey from the heights of lesbian
pleasure to extreme heterosexual suffering, including a late abortion that
terminates the heroine's sex life as well. Splitting her narrative voice
between an unconscious and conscious self, Leduc presents the inner conflict
of a woman caught between shifting sexual desires and normative gender
exigencies. Recalling the multiple sexualities in the writing of the first
female Academician, Marguerite Yourcenar, Leduc refuses to reduce desire
to one particular, fixed sexual orientation. Her desiring female subject is not
merely lesbian, heterosexual or bisexual, but mobile and shifting.
Women's textual treatment of gender and sexual identity to the mid-1960s
thus follows two main trends: realist accounts of gender oppression that
maintain Beauvoir's view of committed literature, and explorations of
sexuality and desire that extend her tentative deployment of Lacan's model
of subject construction and engage in formal experimentation. Politics and
collective concerns thus seem to gravitate to one side, personal narratives
to the other. As Margaret Cohen shows elsewhere in this volume in her
discussion of women and fiction in the nineteenth century, this division
repeats the traditional distinction between the masculine novel's engagement with social, philosophical or political issues and the feminine
rendering of personal suffering, sexuality and desire. As one critic put it,
for a woman to treat anything but 'the personal, individual experience of
women who live hie et nunc, their present boredom, their very personal
hopes or despair. . . would mean writing science fiction or trying to imitate
men' (Jacques Guicharnaud, 'Women's Fate: Marguerite Duras', Yale
French Studies 27 (1961), 107). When post-war male critics did read
women's novels, they were more alarmed by political themes than by
transgressive sexuality. If some objected to women's textual sex on moral
grounds, they did not seem to recognise its political potential. In any case
they did not generally argue, as they routinely did against women's political
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narratives, that sexual explicitness makes women unfeminine or renders

their novels unliterary. That such critics helped shape the production and
reception of women's novels is borne out by Marguerite Duras's critical
history, which began in earnest with the publication of Un barrage contre
le Pacifique (1950).
Barrage was the first major novel in French by a woman writer to weave
together a colonial context, a political narrative and the psychoanalytic
portrayal of subject formation. Duras wrote it in the period framed by the
May 1945 massacres of Algerian insurgents at Setif and Guelma, the 1947
massacre of Madagascan insurgents, Ho Chi Minh and the Viet-Minh's
attempts to reclaim Indochina from its French colonisers, and her own
Parti Communiste Frangais activism. She situates her semi-autobiographical Bildungsroman in the Asian colonial context in which she came of
age, thus broadening Beauvoir's bourgeois Caucasian account of gender
oppression to include a cross-section of Francophone women - rich urban
colonialists, prostitutes, rural Asian peasants, poor white French and a
wandering lumpenproletarian girl-mother. Duras's treatment of these
women remains within realist and engaged conventions; bearing witness to
gender oppression across race and class, she is clearly out to educate
readers and produce social change. At the same time, however, Barrage
also engages with concerns that would characterise the 1950s nouveau
roman (such as narrative form) and 1970s feminist novels (the relation
between formal, social and subjective structures).
Barrage begins with an undefined third person plural 'ils', readily
recognisable as an unusual Oedipal family comprised of an adolescent girl
and her widowed mother, with the dead father's place taken by an older
brother. The heroine's voice emerges from within that collective to chart, in
the remaining 200 pages, her route to subjecthood. Her Bildung proceeds
through a set of stages structured along the lines of Lacanian scenes of
desire. In Lacan's famous account of the 'mirror stage', a child defines itself
as a subject in relation to an image mediated by the mother and then in
relation to paternal power. As it does, it enters the order of language and
symbolism, where, Lacan says, the speaking subject is implicitly male and
women are predicates. Duras appropriates and politicises Lacan's model.
Infusing his scene with patriarchal colonialism's unequal relations of social,
cultural, economic and political power, she sets the stage for the emergence
of a political and sexual female subject that prefigures the subjects of later
postcolonial and feminist writings. Sitting on multiple borders, her heroine
hovers between colonial and indigenous cultures, torn by maternal and
patriarchal power, trying to understand where she belongs in relation to
established heterosexual gender positions.
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Duras's most concerted efforts at textual and conceptual disruption
engage the sex-gender link. She confuses traditional gender attributes,
making her male lead physically and emotionally weak and her heroine
emotionless, calculating and increasingly powerful. She denatures masculine power by detaching it from the male and objectifying it: her hero
carries his power around in the comic, detached and transferable form of
diamonds in his pockets. She correlates a diminution of male power with a
rise in female sexuality, culminating in her heroine's subversion of the
alignment of men, power and automobiles. Speeding around in her wouldbe lover's shiny black limousine, she dominates this man and the colonial
streets: 'Au-dessus de la ville terrifiante, [elle] vit ses seins, elle vit l'erection
de ses seins plus haut que tout ce qui se dressait dans la ville, dont c'etait
eux qui auraient raison' (Duras, Un barrage contre le Facifique (Paris:
Gallimard, Folio, 1991), p. 2.26) ['Above the terrifying city, she saw her
breasts, their erections standing higher than everything in the city, and
knew that it was they who would win the day']. Barrage ends after this girl
takes her sexual initiation with a man of her choosing and refuses to marry
him. She prepares to leave Indochina alone but in full possession of an
active sexual identity and poised to engage her freedom in a revolutionary
project: 'II me faudrait entrer dans leur combine . . . pour mieux les tuer'
(p. 2.75) ['I must enter their world . . . so as to kill them all the more
efficaciously'].
After Barrage, Duras moved from realist accounts of female alienation
like Madame Dodin (1954) and Le Square (1955) to formal experimentation. Moderate cantabile (1958) discards realist trappings, divests plot of
all but essential details, slows narrative temporality to near stasis and bears
in on the repressive structures of bourgeois desire. Her later works disrupt
narrative linearity, foreground discursive gaps and silences, and efface
genre boundaries, as in the text/theatre/film India Song (1973 and 1976) or
exceedingly slim volumes like UHomme atlantique (1982) and La Pute de
la cote normande (1986). Duras's Prix Goncourt L'Amant (1984) carries
no generic mark, while the equally autobiographical L'Amant de la Chine
du Nord (1991) is labelled roman, dissolving the line between autobiography and fiction. In the 1991 novel as in Agatha (1981), Duras focuses
on incestuous sexuality, while L'Homme atlantique (1982) textualises male
homosexuality.
Duras claims her writing is of a piece with her revolutionary politics.
Seen from this point of view, her work on linguistic and conceptual
categories would represent an attempt to transcend rational structures of
thought (see La Douleur, 1985) and the Western patriarchal social and
economic system they subtend (see Duras a Montreal, 1981, and (Euvres
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cinematographiques, 1983). Yet few critics read Duras in Marxist terms or

see Moderate* cantabile or Le ravissement de Lol. V. Stein (1964) as studies
of bourgeois women's alienation. They have tended rather to separate her
novels and her politics and read the novels in terms of desire alone. This
trend is reflected in the recent critical tendency to view Duras as the
embodiment of ecriture feminine, or feminine writing, and neglect those
areas where she rejoins materialist feminist writers like Monique Wittig.
When Wittig's UOpoponax appeared in 1964, Duras was being praised
as a textualiser of Lacan's theories and spokeswoman for femininity. Duras
praised Wittig, calling UOpoponax a chef-d'oeuvre, Texecution capitale
de quatre-vingt-dix pour cent des livres qui ont ete faits sur Penfance' (in
France Observateur, 5 November 1964) ['the complete annihilation of
ninety per cent of the books heretofore written on childhood']. While
Duras and Wittig might be seen to work towards a common end, Wittig's
writing begins precisely where Duras's could or would not go: in the
unwavering insistence that sexual differences are socially constructed. Like
Beauvoir, Wittig compares the categories of sex to those of race, arguing
that both were designed to isolate a group of human beings, construct them
as different, and oppress them on the basis of what thereafter appear to be
pre-social and essential differences. She describes woman like Beauvoir did,
as an ideological and political myth used to form the socio-economic class
women, whose individual members are negated as human beings and made
to correspond body and soul to the myth of woman. Wittig labels woman
the class enemy of women and argues that all heterosexual forms that
support it, including linguistic, conceptual and literary structures (like the
novel), must be destroyed and new ones created.
Wittig considers literature a battleground where attempts to constitute
the subject compete and where s/he who defines the subject also determines
social and economic meaning. To transform prevalent notions of subjectivity and help move humankind past the heterosexual paradigm, minority
writers must transform their points of view into general models of subject
identity. She believes sexism manifests itself in language by restricting
minorities to the particular, making their experiences look like anomalies
and perversions. They must reclaim the general, abstract and universal
voice heterosexual men and Man currently monopolise. If universalising
one's point of view is, as Beauvoir argues, the only way to write an
important literary work, it is also, Wittig adds, the only political action a
text can take. Wittig describes her texts as war machines designed to
pulverise traditional narrative forms and conventions, destroy the signifying system structured around the phallus, and create a new one
structured around the O. Of the many alchemical symbols in Wittig's work,
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the O, symbol of transformation, is most prevalent. It tends to change or
transform its meanings constantly. At different times, it stands for the
vulva, water (eau), the island of Lesbos, a mirror, the female breast, the
sound of a siren, the mouth, or the rien (nothing, zero, o) of female
sexuality in Freud. Wittig explicitly links her textual O to the O in Reage's
Histoire d'O. Where Reage's O is the physical embodiment of the female
human caught in the process of her social construction as woman, Wittig's
O is a site of transformation, the place and means by which the mark of O's
enslavement (O as woman and as branding ring inserted through her labia)
is transubstantiated into the epic of female power and emancipation.
Wittig appropriates and rewrites specific literary genres. L'Opoponax
attacks the humanist Bildungsroman and its tale of young love. Les
Guerilleres (1969) destroys the heroic male epic, myths and legends. Le
Corps lesbien (1973) attacks pornographic literature, the heterosexual
construction of female sexual identity, and medical and anatomical discourses of the female body. Suppressing gender, refusing the punctuation
marks that divide heterosexual concepts and individuals, and subverting
male authors' words, Wittig paves the way for a new subject identity. That
new subject often seems to emerge from within the linguistic fabric she
demolishes. Take for instance her neologistic guerilleres (lesbian warrior/
solders). To reverse patriarchy's valorisation of the masculine, the novel
begins with only feminine characters and objects. This deconstructive
strategy seeks to displace heterosexual binary thinking. By the novel's end it
seems to have achieved that, for a new subject does emerge. It is identified
by a new pronoun, an 'ille', formed of the gendered 'il' and 'elle' of the
patriarchal social order. Wittig ironically implies that this 'new' subject has
been with us all along, when she puts the ille before our eyes, or under our
noses, from the novel's title on, as a still unrecognised route out of
patriarchy.
Between UOpononax and Les Guerilleres, and between Duras's Lol. V.
Stein and her own 1969 fiction-manifesto Detruire dit-elle, stands the
student-worker revolt of May 1968. A year earlier, Claire Etcherelli's Elise
ou la vraie vie (1967) had portrayed many of the social tensions that helped
produce that uprising. Etcherelli's novel seems to take over where Duras's
Un barrage contre le Pacifique left off by bringing racism home to Parisian
streets and car factories. Much had changed between 1950 and 1967.
Duras did not feel that she could identify her Barrage heroine's lover as
Asian (she feared family reprisal, she said). Etcherelli foregrounds a white
Frenchwoman's affair with an Algerian man. While Duras portrayed the
author as something of a politically committed saviour, Etcherelli's characters no longer support such non-conflictual notions. They are not unified
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JANE WINSTON
or in control of their actions and meanings the way the traditional humanist
subject purports to be: indeed Etcherelli prefigures 1970s feminist writing
by presenting identity as complex, contradictory and conflictual. Although
she still relies on realist conventions, she is thus able to deploy the split
autobiographical structure in new and exciting ways. Her first-person
female narrator recounts her earlier coming of age as a political awakening,
restaging the struggle to free her alienated self from patriarchal gender and
racist positions. Appearing at a time when the influence of the left-wing
revolutionary International Situationists was at its height, Elise shows how
what Guy Debord calls the societe du spectacle alienates working-class
women. So doing, Elise complements Beauvoir's study of the technocratic
alienation of bourgeois women in Les Belles Images (1966). Etcherelli's
females read the women's magazines Beauvoir's heroines produce and scan
their pages for beauty and marital advice. They struggle to conform to the
female images Beauvoir's women created and could alone afford. If
Etcherelli's women suffer in the attempt, some are able to make light of the
chasm separating their work-weary hands and bodies from those demanded
of Woman. One even takes a clearly feminist and postcolonial step by
aligning gender and colonial oppressions in her appeal to her husband,
'Moi aussi je suis ton Algerie' (Elise (Paris: Denoel, 1967) p. 55) ['I too am
your Algeria'].
If French students and workers failed to bring down the French government
in 1968, that was mainly because the French Communist Party rejected
their unorthodox revolutionary methods. May 1968 thus taught the
political left not to dialogue with the Party. Female radicals took away a
second lesson: their male co-revolutionaries were as phallocratic as the
bourgeois enemy. That summer, they set about forming women's groups in
Toulouse, Paris and Lyons. In August 1970 Wittig and Rochefort brought
feminism to the French front page in a pre-publicised event at the Arc de
Triomphe, where they tried to place a wreath to the unknown soldier's less
known wife. Borrowing a term from the USA, journalists reported the brief
incarceration of members of the Mouvement de liberation des femmes
(MLF). This rubric was quickly adopted as an umbrella term by the
disparate women's groups then meeting at the Sorbonne. Even though these
groups rallied around the political goal of ending women's oppression,
their political positions and analyses often brought them into open conflict.
By 1970 the battle for dominance had been all but won by Antoinette
Fouque and Psychanalyse et Politique (Psych et Po), while the radical
Feministes revolutionnaires' Monique Wittig had moved to the United
States.
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Neo-Lacanian writers such as Helene Cixous, Annie Leclerc and Chantal
Chawaf were affiliated with Psych et Po. Theorists influenced by psychoanalysis, such as Julia Kristeva, Luce Irigaray and Michele Montrelay were
not. This is not surprising since Psych et Po were quite vocal in arguing that
all theoretical work is hopelessly masculinist. Despite such differences of
view, however, most neo-Lacanians share a certain amount of common
analytic ground. They agree that when Lacan shows the speaking social
subject to be an implicitly masculine subject, he simultaneously demonstrates that females are constructed as objects in both language (the
symbolic) and society. This means, the neo-Lacanians continue, that the
sexuality that would define any complete female subject is being elided in
patriarchal linguistic and social systems. Some say that feminine sexuality
(or iibidinal economy') is repressed, forming an individual and social
unconscious; others argue that it is absolutely excluded from both the
individual subject and social system. To expand a bit, then, Lacan calls the
patriarchal order of language 'the symbolic', and associates it with the
father's law and the social order it structures. He calls the pre-social and
pre-linguistic realms 'the semiotic' and associates them with the maternal
function. Importantly, although he identifies the social and symbolic
'repressed' with feminine sexuality, Lacan emphatically does not believe
that its repression could or should be avoided. Most neo-Lacanian feminists
enlist and modify his model to study and end women's oppression.
Kristeva agrees with Lacan that one must be extremely cautious when it
comes to overthrowing the existing order in favour of a fully fledged return
of the repressed. Like him she believes that such a total revolution would
abandon subjectivity altogether and precipitate humankind into violent
and inarticulate chaos. Psych et Po writers disagree. Most of them want,
precisely, to dislocate patriarchal language so as to define a fully sexed
female subject. They believe that since language forms the subject and its
reality, changing language can provoke revolutionary social change. To that
end they work to dislocate the exclusionary subject-object relations that, in
1949, Beauvoir already identified with male dominance. They explore
alternative subject-object relations and undermine the tools of conventional narrative coherence. They efface genre boundaries, use subject or
object pronouns in plurivocal, inconsistent or otherwise confusing ways
and reject narrative linearity, often in favour of seemingly endless digression. They use fragmentation, repetition, non-traditional syntax and punctuation, and elliptical or parenthetical phrases. They accentuate textual
gaps and silences. They stress to varying degrees the political power of
writing. Against Wittig's rejection of sexual difference and the myth
Woman, many work on difference. Like Antoinette Fouque, they do not
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JANE WINSTON
believe that 'women' - that is, female subjects in full possession of their
own feminine sexuality - have ever existed. The goal of the women's
movement must thus be to bring women and woman into existence. Many
psychoanalytic writers appeal to women to write themselves, to invent
Woman: Annie Leclerc's Parole de femtne (1975), Benoite Groult's Ainsi
soit-elle (1975), Claudine Hermann's Les Voleuses de langue (1976), and
Helene Cixous's La Jeune Nee and Le Rire de la Meduse (both 1975).
Women heeded this call differently. Even theorists whose research on
psychoanalysis and women most influenced the course of the modern novel
disagreed about the repressed and its relation to social change. In Revolution du langage poetique (1974), Kristeva talks of the pre-Oedipal
'semiotic', which she describes as the endless flow of rhythmic pulsions and
which, with the 'symbolic' language, constitutes the signifiying process.
Rather than gendering the semiotic, she warns against a too facile idealisation of it or of sexual difference. At the same time, she identifies poetic
language as a privileged site of change and transformation and encourages
its deployment to keep the subject mobile and perhaps productive of social
change. In her work on women and gender, especially (Stab at Mater3
(1979) 'Women's Time' (1979) and Histoires d3 amour (1983), she focuses
on the mother-child relation as a promising form of subject-object
relations. Motherhood, she suggests, is a mode of experience in which the
child both is and is not the mother, in which the mother experiences a same
which is not same, and which becomes, in the course of time, progressively
but never entirely other.
Helene Cixous defines patriarchy's repressed as the feminine, which she
describes as a libidinal economy based on the relation to the mother and
characterised by generosity, the gift, depense with no thought of return. She
tends to focus on internal rather than interpersonal difference. The ecriture
feminine she encourages is a bisexual writing that mobilises H3autre
bisexualite . . . la presence . . . des deux sexes, non-exclusion de la
difference' (Cixous and Clement, La Jeune Nee (Paris: Union Generale
d'Editions, 1975), p. 155) ['the other bisexuality, the presence of two sexes,
non-exclusion of difference']. As Cixous describes it, feminine writing
explores the other within. While Kristeva thinks the mother-child relation
from the mother's perspective, Cixous approaches it from the daughter's.
She describes writing as a process in which the self goes so close to the
other as to be altered by it, while maintaining sufficient distance to avoid
fusion. Her 1970s novels often trace the return to the origin of feminine
writing, the mother's voice. These novels are dense dialogues between a
mobile je and tu that attempt to free multiple and mobile selves. Souffles
(1975) and La Venue a Vecriture (1977) explore the relation between
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writing, the maternal voice and the body. La Missexualite, ou jouis-je?
(1976) focuses on the ways in which the feminine economy of the gift can
multiply the effects of desire.
In Speculum de Vautre femme (1974) and Ce sexe qui nen est pas un
(1977), Luce Irigaray argues that the path to a fully sexed female subject
begins with the mother. The girl's desire for the mother is displaced to the
father at the Oedipal stage, thus exiling her from her own sexuality.
Excluded from male 'hom(m)osexual logic', objectified by male thought
and gaze - 'specul(aris)ation' - she is unable to retrace her relationship to
her origin, access her signifying or sexual pleasures, or achieve independence. Irigaray suggests the unconscious might be formed of repressed or
foreclosed femininity; that is, of irrationality or madness, the child, the
uncivilised and woman. Irigaray goes on to suggest that the unspoken in
the relation to the mother is at the root of hysteria. The hysteric, she
contends, speaks that repressed relation, albeit in a mode of paralysed
gesturing or tabooed speech. Where Cixous conceptualises the connection
between women in individualist terms, Irigaray explores dialogue between
women, the spontaneous forms of speech she calls parler-femme ['womenspeak'] as well as an exaggerated and ironic mimicry of male discourse.
As women took up pens to write themselves, they changed the face of
autobiography. To them writing represented a process of self-birth aimed at
defining new subject identities and social forms. Such self-birth often meant
encouraging the return of the repressed. Many writers focused on the relation
between madness, women and social change, while critics began to reinterpret women writers politically. Duras was suddenly read as a feminist, as her
long-neglected lumpenproletarian 'beggarwoman' emerged from critical
shadows to take up the place of Woman, excluded from patriarchal language,
rational thought and society and forced to wander their multiple interstices.
Psych et Po's publishing house, Editions des Femmes, printed works by exmental patients like Emma Santos's La Malcastree (1975), J'ai tue Emma
Santos ou Vecriture colonisee (1976), La Lomeheuse (1978). Jeanne
Hyvrard's Mere la mort (1976) exposed mental-home horrors. Chantal
Chawaf's Retable - La Reverie (1976) and Marie Cardinal's Les Mots pour le
dire (1973) worked on the repressed relation to maternal origin.
Cardinal textualises her break with two origins, her mother and her
native Algeria, and makes her recovery from hysteria dependent on coming
to terms with both. In her work identity is seen as woven of cross-cultural
and cross-class threads, including those involved in her relationship to her
mother, who was also formed on multiple and conflicting socio-cultural,
ethnic and historical intersections. Many other 1970s and 1980s Francophone women helped relativise hegemonic Eurocentric and bourgeois
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notions of women under patriarchy. Before discussing the ways in which

these writers interrogate, expand or complicate the neo-Lacanian account
of women's oppression, it is worth noting that some continental writers
also reject the exclusively bourgeois model of female identity. Annie
Ernaux's Les Armoires vides (1974) - to note an outstanding example traces a white French heroine's sexual identity and oppression across the
class divide in France. Assia Djebar's Femmes d'Alger dans leur appartement (1980) presents female identities within a rich North African collectivity: Djebar's women laugh and bath and suffer and die together.
Individual subjects emerge ephemerally, then cede the place to others. In
Femmes d'Alger, female identity is defined in relation to the larger group of
women and children as well as to Algeria's colonial history and Algerian
Islamic cultural tradition, including female circumcision (or female genital
mutilation, FGM). For its part, Evelyne Accad's stunning L'Excisee (1982)
forces readers to rethink the universalising pretensions of Irigaray's idealised two lips and Wittig's O, while Leila Sebbar's Sherazade trilogy
(1982-91) portrays a young female Beur's effort to construct a viable
identity in relation to other Parisian emigre adolescents.
Editions des Femmes also reissued lesbian classics like Liane de Pougy's
Idylle saphique (1901) in the 1970s. Renee Vivien's Une Femme m'apparut
(1904) and Natalie Clifford Barney's Pensees d'une amazone (1920) and
Nouvelles Pensees de Vamazone, (1939) enjoyed enhanced readerships.
Yourcenar's story of a bisexual seminarian condemned to burn at the stake,
UCEuvre au noir (1968), became her most popular novel. Women's heteroerotic novels also increased remarkably. Where Histoire d'O marked a
certain feminist moment by presenting sado-masochistic violence from a
victim's perspective, post-1968 writers often reject Sadean paradigms and
focus on female erotics. Duras's UHomme assis dans le couloir (1980) and
La Maladie de la mort (1982) renounce traditional first-person erotic form
for third-person objectivity. While such third-person efforts often result in
an ambiguous identification of the narrator with the narrated female
object, a more successful female erotic identity is defined in Xaviere's La
Punition (1971), whose first-person narrator traces her struggle and final
victory over masochism. Benoite Groult's Les Vaisseaux du cceur (1988)
opened the heteroerotic scene to the evolution and agency of a female
character. Unwilling to intellectualise her sexuality, her heroine recalls her
life-long relationship with a man with whom she shares little but sexuality
- he is a Breton fisherman, she a professor and both are married with
children. Groult's concrete, detailed description of the desiring female and
desired male bodies fills in the silences critics often label 'feminine' but
leave abstract and empty. Les Vaisseaux resonates with laughter, which
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women writers from Duras to Irigaray have argued is profoundly disruptive
of masculine rationality. Groult's version of the morning after: 'Tandis que
j'etale une creme apaisante sur la region sinistree je m'etonne que les
auteurs erotiques ne semblent jamais tenir compte de cet accident du . . .
plaisir. Les vagins de leurs heroines sont presentes comme d'inusables
conduits . . . Quant au mien, c'est comme s'il avait ete ecorche vif' (Groult,
Les Vaisseaux du cceur (Paris: Grasset, 1988), p. 221). ['As I spread a
soothing lotion on the afflicted area, I am astonished erotic authors never
seem to notice this accident of . . . pleasure. They portray their heroines'
vaginas as indefatigable conduits . . . As far as mine is concerned, it feels as
if it has been flayed'].
While Groult rewrote the desiring female subject, many gay writers were
wrestling with the complex issues involved in writing AIDS (in French,
sida). AIDS discourse was, from its beginning in the early 1980s, highly
scientific and bound up in ideological attributions of blame, shame and
high-risk. As one critic notes, AIDS 'had no poetic dimension, no literarity
with which it entered the world of writing. The only name it had was the
scientific one; it entered writing as a fact of life and a fact of death'
(Lawrence R. Schehr, 'Herve Guibert under Bureaucratic Quarantine',
Esprit Createur 34, 1 (1994), 73). The challenge, then, was to give AIDS a
properly literary dimension. This effort was complicated by the etiology
and dynamics of AIDS itself, which work to undermine the mental and
physical boundaries of the inflicted writing subject/narrator. AIDS victims
perceive themselves as inhabited, some say, by ghosts and memories of
lovers past and now dead. Similarly, Herve Guibert's Le Protocole compassionel (1991) portrays his AIDS-infected body as inhabited and sustained
by the lost life of a gay dancer whose death alone made contraband
medication available to Guibert. AIDS also blurs the boundaries between
subject and virus. Uncannily recalling Kristeva's model of motherhood, the
AIDS virus 'is both me and not me, different and the same . . . I am both it
and not it' (Schehr, p. 81). Yet where Kristeva's maternity is pregnant with
narrative and subjective possibilities, death-dealing, parasitic AIDS risks
taking over the essential being of the subject and becoming the sole
narrative signified. In other words, it threatens subject and narrative with
aphasia.
In Hotel Styx (1988), Yves Navarre works to neutralise this narrative
threat by integrating AIDS into the larger, more universal, story of human
life and death. AIDS is but one reason for registering at his Hotel Styx, an
idyllic last resort for those seeking a final exit. Navarre's postmodern
pastiche paints a world of ever-changing subjects who arrive, emerge briefly
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JANE WINSTON
into the reader's view, speak briefly of themselves or perhaps engage in last
moments of jouissance, then disappear without a trace. Cyril Collard's
Nuits fauves (1991) attempts to raise to the level of tragedy the story of a
handsome young HIV positive man who willingly infects naive adolescent
girls. With its film version, Nuits fauves did manage to raise reader/viewer
awareness of the risk of romanticising AIDS, thus enhancing public support
for safe sex programmes in France. In a more interesting scriptural fashion,
Herve Guibert also textualises his battle with AIDS in A Vami qui ne m'a
pas sauve la vie (1990), he Protocole compassionel (1991) and the
posthumous UHomme au chapeau rouge (1991) and Cytomegalovirus
(1992).
A VAmi presents the early days of Guibert's battle with AIDS and the
last of Michel Foucault's. Transcribing Foucault's deathbed admission that
AIDS had rendered him speechless, Guibert takes Foucault's avowal as his
textual challenge. He recorded and published an intimate account of
Foucault's final days and insisted on writing his own AIDS narrative with
maximum experiential transparency. Yet Guibert also recognised that a
certain distance must be maintained between the writing subject and his
AIDS-infected body, for that space alone can prevent the subject from
merging with the dying body and permit him to transform AIDS into
language. To that end Guibert enlists his experience as a photographer (for
he Monde) to write his body. Before his AIDS, in explicitly sexual works
such as hes Chiens (1982), he focuses on the homosexual inscription of
his and other desiring male bodies. From A I'Ami on, he works to write
his body in pain, sick and dying. So doing, he reappropriates his body
from the sole medical gaze and, as in a self-portrait, transforms it into the
object and subject of his sida narrative as well. His latter novels thus
familiarise readers with lexicological and experiential insights into the
diagnosis and treatment of AIDS in France. But refusing to let AIDS
function as his work's only meaning, he also emphasises the problematic
intersections of pain and eroticism as well as of rough gay sex and
violating medical AIDS testing procedures, and the power dynamics
between medical personnel and sida victims. In Cytomegalovirus Guibert
thematises his struggle against an opportunistic infection that threatened
to blind him during his last months. This novel marks the late twentieth
century as a time when, for many writers, issues of sexuality and gender
seem less relevant and intersubjective relations are constrained by pain,
fear and sheaths of rubber. Rather than redefining itself in terms of desire,
the AIDS-infected writer traces his/her post-sexual, post-narcissistic path
to fragmentation, dissolution and the silence or, as Guibert has it,
blindness of death.
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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
Nottingham French Studies: Herve Guibert, Special Issue 1995 ( v l- 34? P a r t J )
Apter, E., 'Fantom Images: Herve Guibert and the Writing of "sida" in France', in
T. F. Murphy and S. Poirier (eds.), Writing AIDS: Gay Literature, Language,
and Analysis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993)
Atack, M. and P. Powrie (eds.), Contemporary French Fiction by Women: Feminist
Perspectives (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990)
Butler, J., Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (London and
New York: Routledge, 1990)
Coquillat, M., Romans d*amour (Paris: Odile Jacob, 1989)
Durham, C. A., The Contexture of Feminism: Marie Cardinal and Multicultural
Literacy (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1992.)
Fallaize, E., The Novels of Simone de Beauvoir (London and New York: Routledge,
1988)
French Women's Writing: Recent Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1993)
Frappier-Mazur, L., 'Marginal Canons: Rewriting the Erotic', Yale French Studies
75(1988), 112-28
Fuss, D., Essentially Speaking

Gallop, J., The Daughter's
Cornell University Press,
Hewitt, L., Autobiographical
(London: Routledge, 1989)

Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysis (Ithaca:
1982)
Tightropes (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,
1990)
Levy, J. and A. Nouss, SIDA-Fiction: essai d'anthropologie romanesque (Lyon:

Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 1994)
Lionnet, E, Autobiographical Voices (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989)
Moi, T., Sexual/Textual Politics (London and New York: Methuen, 1985)
Simone de Beauvoir: The Making of an Intellectual Woman (Oxford, UK, and
Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1993)
Ostrovosky, E., A Constant Journey: The Fiction of Monique Wittig (Carbondale:
Southern Illinois University Press, 1991)
Shiach, M., Helene Cixous: A Politics of Writing (London and New York:
Routledge, 1991)
Silverman, K., 'Histoire d'O: The Construction of a Female Subject', in C. Vance
(ed.), Pleasure and Danger (London: Routledge, 1984)
Stambolian, G. and E. Marks (eds.), Homosexualities and French Literature (Ithaca
and London: Cornell University Press, 1979)
Whitford, M., Luce Irigaray: Philosophy in the Feminine (London and New York:
Routledge, 1991)
Winston, J., 'Forever Feminine: Marguerite Duras and Her Critics', New Literary
History 24 (1993), 467-82
'Marguerite Duras: Marxism, Feminism, Writing', Theatre Journal 47 (1995),
345-65
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Gender and Sexual Identity in The Modern French Novel

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Gender and sexual identity in the

Simone de Beauvoir's Le Deuxieme Sexe (1949) soundly refuted the

women's accounts of their own lived experiences, especially first-person

Gender and sexual identity

and her non-traditional sexual initiation. Anti-sentimental novels typically

Gender and sexual identity

Gender and sexual identity

narratives, that sexual explicitness makes women unfeminine or renders

Gender and sexual identity

cinematographiques, 1983). Yet few critics read Duras in Marxist terms or

Gender and sexual identity

Gender and sexual identity

Gender and sexual identity

notions of women under patriarchy. Before discussing the ways in which

Gender and sexual identity

Gender and sexual identity

Fuss, D., Essentially Speaking

(London: Routledge, 1989)

Levy, J. and A. Nouss, SIDA-Fiction: essai d'anthropologie romanesque (Lyon:

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