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Physics, Technology and Society

SI units
Fundamental and Derived Units
Least Count
Accuracy and Precision of Measuring Instruments

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Errors in Measurement
Significant Figures
Dimensions of Physical Quantities
Dimensional Analysis and its Applications

Science is a systematic attempt to understand natural phenomena in as much

detail and depth as possible and use the knowledge, so gained to predict, modify
and control phenomena. Science is exploring, experimenting and predicting from
what we see around us.
In physics, we attempt to explain diverse physical phenomena in terms of a few
concepts and laws. The effort is to see the physical world as manifestation of some
universal laws in different domains and conditions. The connection between
physics, technology and society can be seen in many examples. The discipline of
thermodynamics arose from the need to understand and improve the working of
heat engines. Also wireless communication technology followed from the
discovery of the basic laws of electricity and magnetism. Let another important
example of physics giving rise to technology is the silicon chip that triggered the
computer revolution in the last three decades of the twentiath century. Hence, we
observe that how much strong influence physics is having on technology
development and society.

The quantities by means of which we describe the laws of physics are called
physical quantities. To measure a physical quantity, some standard unit of that
quantity is required, e. g. , if length of some metal rod is measured to be 20 m, then
m is the unit of length and 20 is the numerical value. So,
Physical quantity = Numerical value Unit

Note

If the numerical value of any physical quantity in different units u1 and u 2 are n1 and n 2
respectively, then n1u1 = n 2u 2 .
As the unit will change, numerical value will also change, e . g ., acceleration due to gravity,
2
2
g = 32 fts = 9.8 ms .

Physics describes the laws of

nature. This description is
quantitative and involves
measurement and comparison of
physical quantities. To measure a
physical quantity, we need some
standard unit of that quantity. In
this chapter, we shall study about
the units and measurement.

4 JEE Main Physics

(ii) Steradians for solid angle It is the solid angle which
has the vertex at the centre of the sphere, and cut-off
an area of the surface of sphere equal to that of square
with sides of length equal to radius of sphere.

The number of physical quantities is quite large, but we

need a limited number of units only for expressing all the
physical quantities because they are interrelated with one
another. Thus, we may define a set of fundamental
(or base) quantities and all other quantities may be
expressed in terms of these fundamental quantities. All
other quantities are called derived quantities.
Units of fundamental and derived quantities are
respectively, known as the fundamental units and derived
units. A complete set of these units, both fundamental and
derived units, is known as the system of units.

Note

Angle and solid angle are considered supplementary base units

because although these have units but they are both
dimensionless.
2 p radians = 360

The physical quantities whose magnitude is either too

large or too small can be expressed more compactly by
the use of certain prefixes as given in the table.

Table 1.2 Metric Prefixes

Power of 10

The common system of units are

Prefix

Symbol

-1

deci

-2

centi

-3

milli

10-6

micro

-9

nano

-15

femto

-18

atto

-21

zepto

-24

yocto

101

deca

da

102

10

(i) FPS System The units of length, mass and time are
respectively foot, pound and second.
(ii) CGS System The units of length, mass and time are
respectively centimetre, gram and second.
(iii) MKS System The units of length, mass and time are
respectively metre, kilogram and second.

10

10

10
10

10

In 1971, CGPM held its meeting and decided a system of

units which is known as the International System of Units.
It is abbreviated as SI from the French name Le Systeme
International d unites. This system is widely used through
out the world.
The SI is based on the following seven fundamental units
and two supplementary units.

Table 1.1 Units and Symbol of Quantities

S. No.

Quantity

10
10

hecto

kilo

mega

giga

12

tera

15

10
10
10

Unit

Symbol

10

1.

Mass

kilogram

kg

10

peta

2.

Length

metre

1018

3.

Time

second

4.

Electric current

ampere

5.

Temperature

kelvin

6.

Amount of substance

mole

mol

7.

Luminous intensity

candela

cd

The two supplementary units in SI system are

(i) Radians for angle It is the angle subtended at the
centre by an arc of a circle having a length equal to
radius of the circle. Its symbol is rad.

exa

21

zetta

24

yotta

10
10

A large number of units are used in general life for

measurement of different quantities in comfortable
manner. But they are neither fundamental units nor
derived units.

Units and Measurements

Some practical units are listed below

Table 1.3 Practical Units of Length, Mass and Time

S.No.

Practical Units of Length

1015 m

Practical Units of Mass

1 quintal =

102

Practical Units of Time

1
1 year = 365 solar days
4

1.

1 light year = 9.46

kg

2.

1 astronomical unit
or 1 AU = 1.5 1011 m

1 metric ton =103 kg

3.

1 parsec = 3.26 light year

1 atomic mass unit (amu) =1.66 1027kg

1 solar day = 86400 s

4.

1 seamile = 6020 ft

1 pound = 0.4537 kg

Tropical year It is that year in which solar eclipse

occurs.

5.

1 micron = 1 mm = 106 m

1 chandrasekhar limit = 1.4 times the mass Leap year It is that year in which the month of
of sun =2.8 1030 kg
February has 29 days.

6.

1 angstrom = 1010 m

1 slug = 14.59 kg

7.

1 fermi = 1015 m

Sample Problem 1 What is the SI unit of surface tension?

(a) Nm-1

(b) Nm-2

(c) Nm

Interpret (a) Surface tension =

(d) N

Force N
= = Nm1
Length m

1 lunar month = 27.3 solar days

1 shake = 108 s

2. Screw gauge,
Value of 1 pitch scale reading
Total number of head scale divisions
1mm
Least count =
100 divisions
Least count =

= 0.01 mm
3. Travelling microscope,

The least count of a measuring device is the least distance

(resolution/accuracy), that can be measured using the
device. The general formula that can be used for least
count (LC).
Value of 1 main scale division
LC =
Total number of vernier scale divisions
Every measuring instrument has no error, when readings
are taken. The least count uncertainity or maximum
possible error characterises such errors. Instruments error
can be compared by calculating the percentage of
uncertainity of their readings. The instrument with the
least uncertainity is taken to measure objects, as all
measurements consider accuracy.
The percentage uncertainity is calculated with the
following formula
Maximum possible error
100
=
Measurement of object in question
The smaller the measurement, the larger the percentage
uncertainity. The least count of an instrument is indirectly
proportional to the precision of the instrument.

1. Vernier calliper,
Least count (LC) =

1 mm
= 0.1mm
10 divisions

Value of 1 main scale division

Total number of vernier scale divisions
0.5 mm
=
50 divisions

Least count =

= 0.01mm
4. Spectrometer,

0.5 degree
30 divisions
30
=
= 1
30 divisions

Least count =

Note 1 degree (angle) = 60' and1' = 60"

Measured values are good only upto its least count . The
least count error is the error associated with the resolution
of the instrument.
Least count error belongs to the category of random errors
but within a limited scale, it occurs with both systematic
and random errors. If we use a metre scale for
measurement of length, it may have graduations as 1 mm
division scale spacing or interval. Instruments of higher
precision, improving experimental techniques etc., can
reduce the least count error. Repeating the observations
and taking the arithmetic mean of the result, the mean
value would be very close to the true value of the
measured quantity.

6 JEE Main Physics

Sample Problem 2 In an experimental set up, the density of

Sample Problem 4 A vernier calliper has 1 mm mark on

a small sphere is to be determined. The diameter of the small

sphere is measured with the help of a screw gauge, whose pitch
is 0.5 mm and there are 50 divisions on the circular scale. The
reading on the main scale is 2.5 mm and that on the circular
scale is 20 divisions. If the measured mass of the sphere has a
relative error of 2%, the relative percentage error in the density is

the main scale. It has 20 equal divisions on the vernier scale

which match with 16 main scale divisions. For this vernier
callipers, the least count is

(a) 0.03%
(c) 0.08%

(b) 3.11%
(d) 8.2%

Interpret (b) Least count of screw gauge

Pitch
Total divisions on circular scale
0.5
Least count =
\
= 0.01mm = Dr
50
Diameter = Main scale + Circular scale Least count
0.5
= 2.5+20
= 2.70 mm
50
Dr 0.01
Q
=
r
2.70
Dr
1
100 =
r
2.7
m
m
Density, D = =
3
V
4 r
p
3 2
=

Here, r is diameter
Dm
DD
Dr
\
100 =
+ 3 100
r
D
m

Dm
Dr
100 + 3
100
m
r
1
= 2% + 3
= 3.11%
2.7

(a) 0.02 mm
(c) 0.1 mm

(b) 0.05 mm
(d) 0.2 mm

Interpret (d) Least count of a vernier calliper,

LC = 1MSD 1 VSD
Value of 1 MSD
=
Total divisions on the circular scale
20 divisions of Vernier scale = 16 divisions of main scale
16
1 VSD =
mm = 0.8 mm
20
\

LC = 1MSD 1 VSD
= 1mm 0.8 mm
= 0.2 mm

Measurements is the foundation of all experimental

science and technology. The result of every measurement
by any measuring instrument contains some uncertainity.
This uncertainity is called error.

Sample Problem 3 A screw gauge gives the following

reading, when used to measure the diameter of a wire.
Main scale reading : 0 mm
Circular scale reading : 52 divisions
Given that 1 mm on main scale corresponds to 100 divisions of
the circular scale
The diameter of the wire from the above data is
(a) 0.026 cm
(c) 0.052 cm

(b) 0.016 m
(d) 0.062 m

Interpret (c) Diameter of wire = MSR + CSR LC

Given main scale reading (MSR) = 0 mm
Circular scale reading = 52
Value of 1 main scale division
Least count =
Total divisions on circular scale
1
LC = 0 + 52
100
= 0.52 mm
= 0.052 cm

Resolution Stands for least count or the minimum reading

which an instrument can read.

Accuracy An instrument is said to be accurate, if the

physical quantity measured by it resembles very closely to
its true value.

Precision An instrument is said to have high degree of

precision, if the measured value remains unchanged, how
so ever, large number of times it may have been repeated.

Sample Problem 5 A man wishes to

Distant object

O
estimate the distance of a nearby tower
from him. He stands at a point A is front of
C
the tower C and spots A infront of the

tower C and spots a very distant object O

in line with AC. He then walks

perpendicular to AC upto B, a distance of A

B
100 m
100 m and looks at O and C again. Since
O is very distant, the direction BO is
practically the same as AO, but he finds the line of sight of C
shifted from the original line of sight by angle q = 40
( q is known as parallax), the distance of tower C from his
original position A is

Units and Measurements

(a) 100 m

(b) 10 m

(c) 19 m

(d) 119 m

Interpret (d) Given, parallax angle q = 40

From the given figure, AB = AC tan q
100 m
100
AB

AC =
=
=
= 119 m
tan q tan 40 0.8391

Sample Problem 6 The moon is observed from two

diametrically opposite points A and B on the earth. The angle q
subtended at the moon by the two directions of observation is
1 54. The distance of the moon from the earth is
[Given diameter of earth = 1.276 107 m]
(a) 3.84 10 8 m

(b) 1.5 10 3 m

(d) 3.2 10 5 m

(c) 2.81 10 m

Interpret (a) Given,

1 54 = 114 = (114 60) ( 4.85 10 6) rad
Since,
Also,

= 3.32 10 2 rad
1" = 4.85 10 6 rad
AB = b = 1.276 10 7 m
b
D=
q
1.276 10 7
= 3.84 10 8 m
D=
3.32 10 2

Sample Problem 7 The suns angular diameter is

measured to be 1920". The distance D of the sun from the earth
is 1.496 1011 m, the diameter of the sun is
(a) 9.31 10 3 m

(b) 1.39 10 9 m

(c) 3.26 10 6 m

(d) 8.32 10 4 m

Interpret (b) Suns angular diameter a = 1920"

= 1920 4.85 10 6 rad
= 9.31 10 3 rad
Suns diameter, d = aD
= (9.31 10 3) (1.496 10 11)
= 1.39 10 9 m

1 . Do AU and represent the same unit of length?

2 . In defining the standard of length, we have to specify the

temperature at which the measurement should be made. Are

we justified in calling length a fundamental quantity, if
another physical quantity (temperature) has to be specified in
choosing a standard?

3 . Can there be a physical quantity which has no unit and

dimensions? Can a physical quantity have unit without having

dimensions?

There are many causes of errors in measurement. Errors

may be due to instrumental defects, ignoring certain facts,
carelessness of experimenter, random change in
temperature, pressure, humidity, etc. When an
experimenter tries to reach accurate value of
measurement by doing large number of experiments, the
mean of a large number of the results of repeated
experiments is close to the true value.

(i) True value If a1, a2, a3, , an are the observed values of
a measurement, then true value of measurement is the
mean of these observed values.
\

atrue = amean = a0
a + a2 + a3 + + an
= 1
n
1 i=n
=
ai
n i =1

(ii) Absolute error The absolute errors in various

individual measured values are found by substracting
the observed value from true value. Thus,
Da1 = a0 - a1, Da2 = a0 - a2,
Da3 = a0 - a3, , Dan = a0 - an
The absolute error may be positive or negative.
(iii) Mean absolute error The arithmetic mean of the
magnitudes of different values of absolute errors is
known as the mean absolute error.
\ Mean absolute error,
Damean =

| Da1 | + | Da2 | + | Da3 | + + | Dan |

n

The final result of measurement can be written as

a = am Da . This implies that value of a is likely to lie
am + Da and am - Da .
(iv) Relative or fractional error The ratio of the mean
value of absolute error and the true value is known as
the mean relative error.
\ Mean relative error
=

Mean absolute error

Mean value of measurement

Damean Damean
=
amean
a0

Relative error is also known as fractional error. When

expressed in terms of percentage, relative error is
called the relative percentage error. Hence,
Da
Percentage error = mean 100%
amean

8 JEE Main Physics

Sample Problem 8 The average speed of a train is
measured by 5 students. The results of measurements are given
below
Number of Students

Speed (m/s)

10.2 ms1

10.4 ms1

9.8 ms1

10.6

ms1

10.8 ms1

(a) 2.6%
(c) 4.5%

(b) 3.5%
(d) 5.5%

10.2+10.4+9.8+10.6+10.8
5
51.8
=
= 10.0 ms1
5
Dv1 = v m - v1 = 10.4 10.2 = 0.2
Dv 2 = v m - v 2 = 10.4 10.4 = 0.0
Dv3 = v m - v3 = 10.4 9.8 = 0.6
Dv 4 = v m - v 4 = 10.4 10.6 = 0.2
Dv5 = v m - v5 = 10.4 10.8 = 0.4
Mean absolute error,
| Dv1| + | Dv 2| + | Dv3| + | Dv 4| + | Dv5|
Dv =
5
0.2+0.0 +0.6+0.2+0.4 1.4
=
=
= 0.28 ms1
5
5
Dv
0.28
Relative error =
=
vm
10.4

Interpret (a) Given, V1 = (10.2 0.02) cm3

DV = ( DV1 + DV2)
= (0.02+0.01) cm3 = 0.03 cm3
V1 + V2 = (10.2+6.4) cm3 = 16.6 cm3

Dv
0.28
100 =
100 = 2.6%
vm
10.4

Hence,
and

DZ DA + DB
fractional error in this case
=
Z
A+ B
i. e. , when two physical quantities are added, then the
maximum absolute error in the result is the sum of the
absolute errors of the individual quantities.

In Difference If Z = A - B, the maximum absolute error is

DZ = (DA + DB) and maximum fractional error in this case
DZ DA + DB
=
Z
A-B

Sample Problem 9 The volumes of two bodies are

measured to be V1 = (10.2 0.02) cm3 and V2 = (6.4 0.01) cm3.
The sum and difference in volumes with error limits is
(a) (16.6 0.03) cm3 and (3.8 0.03) cm3

sum of volume = (16.6 0.03) cm3

difference of volume = (3.8 0.03) cm3

In product If Z = AB, then maximum fractional error is

DZ
DA DB
=
+

A
Z
B
Therefore, maximum fractional error in product of two (or
more) quantities is equal to sum of fractional errors in the
individual quantities.

In division If Z = A / B, then maximum fractional error is

DZ
DA DB
=
+

A
Z
B
Therefore, maximum fractional error in product of two (or
more) quantities is equal to sum of fractional errors in the
individual quantities.

Sample Problem 10 Object distance, u = (50.1 0.5) cm

and image distance v = (20.1 0.2) cm, then focal length is
(a) (12.4 0.4) cm
(c) (14.3 0.4) cm

(b) (12.4 0.1) cm

(d) (14.3 0.1) cm

1 1 1
f v u
uv
(50.1) (20.1)
f=
=
= 14.3 cm
u + v (50.1) + (20.1)

Interpret (c) Focal length is given by = +

or

In Sum If Z = A + B, then DZ = (DA + DB), maximum

V1 - V2 = (10.2 6.4) cm3 = 3.8 cm3

and

Interpret (a) Mean value, v m =

Percentage error =

V2 = (6.4 0.01) cm3

and

Also,

Df
=
f

Du Dv Du + Dv
+
+

u
v
u+v

0.2
0.5+0.2
0.5
=
+
+

50.1 20.1 50.1+20.1

= [0.00998+0.00995+0.00997]
= (0.0299)
\

Df = 0.0299 14.3
= 0.428 = 0.4 cm

f = (14.3 0.4) cm
DZ
DA
In power If Z = An, then
=n
Z
A

In more general form if Z =

AxBy ,
Cq

(c) (16.2 0.03) cm3 and (3.6 0.03) cm3

then the maximum fractional error in Z is

DZ
DA
DB
DC
=x
+y
+q
Z
A
B
C

(d) (16.2 0.01) cm3 and (3.6 0.01) cm3

(Note that there is no negative sign)

(b) (16.6 0.01) cm3 and (3.8 0.01) cm3

Units and Measurements

Sample Problem 11 Calculate percentage error in
determination a time period of a pendulum
T = 2p

l
l
or 2 p
g
g

1/ 2

where, l and g are measured with 2% and 3% errors.

(a) 2.9%
(c) 1.5%

(b) 2.5%
(d) 1.9%

Interpret (b)

1 Dl

DT
1 Dg
100
100 = 100 +
2 l

2 g
T
1
1
= 2 + 3 = 2.5%

2
2

Sample Problem 13 Two resistors of resistances

R1 = 100 3 W and R2 = 200 4 W are connected in parallel,
then the equivalent resistance in parallel is (in ohm)

1
1
1
DR DR1 DR2
Use = +
=
+ 2
and
R R1 R2
R2
DR 2 R12

(a) 66.7 1.8

(c) 150.8 2

(b) 300 7
(d) 92.3 3

Interpret (a) The equivalent resistance of parallel combination is

R =
From,

Sample Problem 12 The period of oscillation of a simple

pendulum is measured, in successive measurement the
readings turn out to be 2.63 s, 2.56 s, 2.42 s, 2.71 s and 2.80 s.
Then, the relative error or percentage error is
(a) 2%
(c) 6%

(2.63+2.56+2.42+2.71+2.80) s
5
13.12
T=
s = 2.624 s = 2.62 s
5
T=

As the periods are measured to a resolution of 0.01 s, all times are to

the second decimal, it is proper to put this mean period also to the
second decimal. The errors in the measurement are
2.63 s 2.62 s = 0.01 s
2.56 s 2.62 s = 0.06 s
2.42 s 2.62 s = 0.20 s
2.71s 2.62 s = 0.09 s
2.80 s 2.62 s = 0.18 s
Note that the errors have the same units as the quantity to be
measured. The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors (for
arithmetic mean, we take only the magnitudes) is
DTmean = [(0.01+0.06+0.20 +0.09+0.18) s] / 5
= 0.54 s / 5 = 0.11s
That means, the period of oscillation of the simple pendulum is
(2.62 0.11) s i. e. , it lies between (2.62 + 0.11) s and (2.62 0.11) s
or between 2.73 s and 2.51 s. As the arithmetic mean of all the
absolute errors in 0.11 s, there is already an error in the tenth of a
second. Hence, there is no point in giving the period to a
hundredth. A move correct way will to be write,
T = 2.6 0.1 s
Note that the last numeral 6 is unreliable, since it may be anything
between 5 and 7. We indicate this by saying that the measurement
has two significant figures. In this case, the two significant figures
are 2, which is reliable and 6, which has an error associated with it.
Hence, the relative error or percentage error is
0.1
Sa =
100 = 4%
2.6

R1R2
200
=
= 66.7 W
R1 + R2
3

1
1
1
= + , we get
R R1 R2
DR DR1 DR2
= 2 + 2
R 2
R1
R2
DR
DR
DR = (R 2) 21 + (R 2) 22
R2
R1

(b) 4%
(d) 8%

Interpret (b) The mean period of oscillation of the pendulum is

66.7
66.7
=
4 = 1.8 W
3+
200
100
Hence,

R = (66.7 1.8) W

Sample Problem 14 The temperature of two bodies

measured by a thermometer are t1 = 20 C + 0.5 C and
t 2 = 50 C 0.5 C. The temperature difference is
(a) 1C
(c) 3C

(b) 2C
(d) 4C

Interpret (a) The temperature difference is given by

t = t 2 - t1 = (50 C 0.5 C) - (20 C 0.5 C)
t = 30 C 1 C

V
I
V = (100 5) V and I = (10 0.2) A. The percentage error in R is

Sample Problem 15 The resistance R = , where

(a) 5%
(c) 3%

(b) 2%
(d) 7%

Interpret (d) The percentage error in V is 5% and in I it is 2%.

Hence, the total error in R would be
% error = 5% + 2% = 7%

Sample Problem 16 The period of oscillation of a simple

pendulum is T = 2p

L
. Measured value of L is 20 cm known to
g

1 mm accuracy and time for 100 oscillations of the pendulum is

found to be 90 s using a wrist-watch of 1 s resolution. The
accuracy in the determination of g is
(a) 1%
(c) 3%

(b) 2%
(d) 4%

Interpret (c) Given, T = 2p

or

g =

L
g

4 p 2L
T2

10 JEE Main Physics

t
Dt
and DT =
n
n
DT Dt
=
\
T
t
The errors in both L and t are the least count errors. Therefore,
Dg DL
0.1
1
DT
+ 2 = 0.027

= +2
=
90

g
20.0
L
T
T=

Hence,

The percentage error in g is

Dg
DT
DL

100 = 100 + 2
100 = 3%
T
L
g

Few more examples of

Combination of Errors
1 Dl
DT
=
2 l
T
4
A = 4 pr 2, V = pr 3
3
DA
Dr
DV
Dr
and
= 2
= 3
A
r
V
r
GM
g=- 2
R
Dg
DR
(whereM is constant)
= -2
g
R

(iv) All zeros to the right of a derived point and to the left of
a non-zero digit are not significant.

Number
0.08
0.008
0.0846

Significant number
1
1
3

(v) All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the right
of a non-digit are significant.

Number
0.40
0.430

Significant number
2
3

(vi) The powers of ten are not counted as significant digits

e. g ., 1.4 107 has only two significant figures 1 and 4.

Simple pendulum, T l1/2

For sphere,

For gravity,

Certain rules are applied in order to round off the

measurements
(i) If the number lying to the right of digit to be rounded is
less than 5, then the rounded digit is retained as such.
However, if it is more than 5, then the digit to be
rounded is increased by 1.
For example, x = 6.24 is rounded off to 6.2 to two
significant digits and x = 8.356 is rounded off to 8.36 to
three significant digits.
(ii) If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other
than zero, then the preceding digit is increased by 1.

Significant figures in the measured value of a physical

quantity tell the number of digits in which we have
confidence. Larger the number of significant figures
obtained in a measurement, greater is the accuracy of the
measurement. The significant figures are those number
of digits in a quantity that are known reliably plus one
digit that is uncertain.

(i) All non-zero digits are significant figures.

Number
16
1683
16835

Significant figures
2
4
5

(ii) All zeros occuring between non-zero digits are

significant figures.

Number
802
80004

Significant figures
3
5

(iii) All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digits are not
significant.

Number
40
410
40240

Significant number
1
2
4

For example, x = 14.252 is rounded off to x = 14.3 to

three significant digits.
(iii) If the digit to be dropped is simply 5 or 5 followed by
zeros, then the preceding digit is left unchanged if it is
even.
For example, x = 6.250 or x = 6.25 becomes x = 6.2 after
rounding off to two significant digits.
(iv) If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros,
then the preceding digit is raised by one if it is odd.
For example, x = 6.350 or x = 6.35 becomes x = 6.4 after
rounding off to two significant digits.
Measured Values

Rounding off to Three

Significant Digits

7.364

7.36

7.367

7.37

8.3251

8.33

9.445

9.45

9.4450

9.45

15.75

15.8

15.7500

15.8

Units and Measurements

In addition, subtraction, multiplication or division

inaccuracy in the measurement of any one variable
affects the accuracy of the final result. Hence, in general ,
the final result have significant figures according to the
rules given below

The number of decimal places in the final result of any of

these operations has to be equal to the smallest number of
decimal places in any of the terms involved in calculation
e. g. , sum of terms 2.29 and 62.7 is 64.99. After rounding off
to one place of decimal, it will become 65.0. Subtraction of
62.7 from 82.27 gives 19.57. After rounding off to one place
of decimal, it will become 19.6.

1 . What importance do we attach to the final zeros in a number

without any decimal point?

2 . The length of a table as measured by two students is given as

2.5 m and 2.50 m. Which of the following measurement is

more accurate and why?
3 . Two students A and B made the length measurement in the
laboratory and wished to find their sum. The student A insisted
that they should round off and then add, while the student B
argued that they should add the measurements directly and
then round off their sum. Which student was correct?

Sample Problem 19 Each side of a cube is measured to be

7.203 m. The volume of the cube to appropriate significant
figures is
(a) 31.3 m3
(c) 373.7 m3

In these operations, the number of significant figures in

the result is same as the smallest number of significant
figures in any of the factors.

(b) 313 m3
(d) 37.3 m3

Interpret (c) The number of significant figures in the measured

length is 4. The volume should therefore be rounded off to 4
significant figures.

e. g. , 1.2 1.3 = 1.56. After rounding off to two significant

figures, it becomes 1.6.

As,

V = a3

Given,

a = 7.203 m

1100
gives 107.84. Thus, the result when
10.2
rounded off to two significant digits becomes 108.

Similarly, if

11

V = (7.203)3 = 373.714754 m3 = 373.7 m3

Sample Problem 20 5.74 g of a substance occupies 1.2 cm3.

Keeping the significant figure in view, its density is given by

Sample Problem 17 If L = 2.5 10 4 and B = 3.9 10 5,

then L - B is
(a) 1.4 10 4
(c) 3.6 10 4

(b) 1.4 10 5
(d) 3.6 10 5
4

Interpret (d) Given, L = 2.5 10 = 25000,

B = 3.9 10 5 = 390000
\

L - B = 390000 - 25000 = 365000

= 3.65 10 5 = 3.6 10 5

(rounded to one place of decimal)

(a) 4.8 g cm-3

(c) 2.1 g cm-3

(b) 1.5 g cm-3

(d) 9.2 g cm-3

Interpret (a) There are 3 significant figures in the measured

mass whereas there are only 2 significant figures in the measured
volume. Hence, the density should be expressed to only 2
significant figures.
Mass
Density =
Q
Volume
5.74
Density =
\
g cm3 = 4.8 g cm3
1.2

Sample Problem 18 The area enclosed by a circle of

diameter 1.06 m to correct number of significant figures is
(b) 0.088 m2
(d) 0.530 m2

(a) 0.88 m2
(c) 0.882 m2

Interpret (c) Here, r =

1.06
= 0.530 m
2

Area enclosed = pr 2 = 3.14 (0.53) 2

= 0.882026 m2 = 0.882 m2
(rounded to three significant figures)

Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which

the fundamental quantities must be raised to represent
the given physical quantity. In mechanics, all physical
quantities can be expressed in terms of mass [M], length [L]
and time [T].
For example,

12 JEE Main Physics

Force = Mass Acceleration
Velocity m s m s
= Mass
=
=
Time
t t
t2

Further, if we represent force by [F], then [F] = [M1L1T 2] is

called the dimensional equation of force.

= [M] [L] [T 2]
So, the dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and
-2 in time.

In the equation [MaLb T c], if a = b = c = 0, then the quantity is

called dimensionless.
For example, strain, specific gravity, angle. They are ratio
of two similar quantities.

The expression which shows how and which of the base

quantities represent a physical quantity is called the
dimensional formula of the given physical quantity.
above, [M1L1T 2] is the
dimensional formula of force. It reveals that unit of force
depends on [M], [L] and [T].

For

example,

as

deduced

Table 1.4
S. No.
1.

Follwing physical quantities are dimensionless angle, solid

angle, relative density, specific gravity, Poissons ratio,
Reynolds number, all trigonometric ratios refractive index,
relative permittivity, dielectric constant, magnetic
susceptibility. A dimensionless quantity has same numeric
value in all system of units.

Dimensional Formulae and SI Units of Some Physical Quantities

Physical quantity
Area

Relation with other quantities

Length breadth

Dimensional formula
2

0 2

[L L] =[L ] =[M L T ]
3

2.

Volume

Length breadth height

[L L L] =[L ] =[M L T ]

m3

3.

Density

Mass
Volume

M = [ML3 T0 ]
L3

kg m3

4.

Specific gravity

Density of body
Density of water at 4 C

M/L3
= [M0L0 T0 ]

3
M/L

No unit

5.

Speed or velocity

Distance or Displacement
Time

L = [LT1 ] = [M0LT1 ]
T

ms 1

6.

Linear momentum

Mass velocity

[MLT1 ] =[MLT1 ]

kg ms -1

7.

Acceleration

Change in velocity
Time taken

L / T = [LT2 ] =[M0LT2 ]
T

ms -2

8.

Acceleration due to gravity (g)

Change in velocity
Time taken

L / T = [LT2 ] = [M0LT2 ]
T

ms -2

9.

Force (F)

Mass acceleration

[M] (LT2 ] =[MLT2 ]

N (newton)

0 3 0

SI unit
2

10.

Impulse

Force time

[MLT ] [T] =[MLT ]

Ns

11.

Pressure

Force/area

MLT2
1 2
2 = [ML T ]
L

Nm -2

12.

Universal constant of
gravitation (G)

Fr 2
, where F is
m1m2
r
force between masses m1, m2 at a
distance r.

Work

Force distance

13.
14.

Energy (including potential

energy, kinetic energy, heat
energy, light energy etc.)

F=

Gm1m2

Work

or G =

G=

[MLT2 ] [L2 ]
= [M1L3 T2 ]
[MM]

[MLT2 ] [L ] = [ML2 T2 ]
2 2

[ML T ]

Nm2 kg 2

J (joule)
J (joule)

Units and Measurements

S. No.

Physical quantity

Relation with other quantities

Dimensional formula

13

SI unit

[MLT2 ] [L] =[ML2 T2 ]

Nm

ML2 T2
2 3

= [ML T ]
T

W (watt)

Force
Length

MLT2
0 2

= [ML T ]
L

Nm -1

Surface energy

Potential energy/Area

[ML0 T2 ]

Jm -2

19.

Force constant

Force
Length

MLT2
0 2

= [ML T ]
L

Nm -1

20.

Thrust

Force

[MLT2 ]

N (newton)

21.

Tension

Force

[MLT2 ]

N (newton)

22.

Stress

Force
Area

MLT
1 2
2 = [ML T ]
L

Nm -2

23.

Strain

Change in configuration
Original configuration

L = [M0L0 T0 ]
L

No unit

24.

Coefficient of elasticity

Stress
Strain

ML1T2
1 2

= [ML T ]
1

Nm2

25.

Radius of gyration (K)

Distance

[L ] = [M0LT0 ]

15.

Moment of force

16.

Power

17.

Surface tension

18.

Force distance
Work
Time

[ML ] =[ML T ]

kgm2

Length(l) / Radius( r)

L = [M0L0 T0 ]
L

radian

Angular velocity (w)

Angle(q)
Time (t )

1 = [T1 ] = [M0L0 T1 ]
T

rads 1

29.

Angular acceleration (a)

Change in angular velocity

Time taken

1/ T = [T2 ] =[M0L0 T2 ]
T

rads 2

30.

Angular momentum

Moment of inertia angular velocity

[ML2 ][T1 ] =[ML2 T1 ]

kgm2 s 1

31.

Torque

Moment of inertia angular

acceleration

[ML2 ][T2 ] =[ML2 T2 ]

N-m

32.

Wavelength (l )

Length of one wave i.e., distance

[L] =[M0LT0 ]

26.

Moment of inertia (I)

Mass (distance)

27.

Angle (q)

28.

2 0

0 0 1

33.

Frequency (n)

Number of vibrations/sec

1/ T =[T ] =[M L T ]

s 1 or Hz
(hertz)

34.

Velocity of light in vacuum(c)

Distance travelled/Time taken

L = [M0LT1 ]
T

ms 1

35.

Velocity gradient

Velocity/Distance

LT1
1
0 0 1

= [T ] = [M L T ]
L

s 1

36.

Rate of flow

Volume/Time

L3
3 1
0 3 1
= [L T ] [M L T ]
T

m3 s 1

37.

Plancks constant(h)

Energy (E )
Frequency (n)

ML2 T2
= [ML2 T1 ]

1
T

J-s

38.

Molar gas constant (R)

Pressure Volume
Moles Temperature

[ML2 T2 ]
[K]

kgm2 s 2 K 1

39.

Wiens constant

Wavelength Temperature

[M0LT0K ]

mK

14 JEE Main Physics

S. No.
40.

Physical quantity

Relation with other quantities

Avagadros number (N)

Dimensional formula

mol 1

Number of atoms/Molecules in one

gram atom/Mole

[M L T ]
[MLT2 ]
[AT]

41.

Electric field strength (E)

Force
Charge

42.

Capacitance (C)

Charge
Potential difference

0 0 0

NC 1

[AT]
[ML2 T3 A 1 ]

Coefficient of viscosity (h)

Force
Velocity gradient area

44.

Resistance (R)

Potential difference
Current

45.

Self inductance (L)

L=e

46.

Magnetic induction

Force
Charge velocity

43.

SI unit

F (farad)

= [ML2 T3 A 1 ]

[ML1T1 ]

Pascal-econd
or poise

2 3

dt
dt

[ML T A ]
= [ML2 T3 A 2 ]
[A]

W (ohm)

[ML2 T2 ] [T]
[AT] [A ]

H (henry)

[MLT2 ]
1

[AT] [LT ]

Hot Sp o t

T (tesla)

= [ML0 T2 A 1 ]

D im en s io n a l A n a lys is
and Its Applications

Applications of dimensional analysis is the most important topic of this chapter. There are three applications of
dimensional analysis.
1. To check the correctness of a given physical 2. Derivation of formula
equation
If we know the factors on which a given physical quantity may depend
As per principle of homogeneity, if the dimensions of each term on
both sides of a physical relation are same, then the relation is
dimensionally correct otherwise wrong.

Sample Problem 21 Is the given expression of velocity of

E
sound given by v = is dimensionally correct?
r
= density of medium
(b) No

(c) Cannot be predicted

(d) The correct expression is

Interpret (a)

[LHS] = [v ] = [LT 1]
E 1/ 2
[RHS] =
r
1 2 1/ 2
ML T
= [LT 1]
=
ML3

[LHS] = [RHS]

Hence, equation is dimensionally correct.

Assume the dimensions of the given physical quantity in terms of

these factors, combine them to form an equation, write the
dimensions of various quantities in terms of mass ( M ), length ( L) and
time (T ) on either side of the equations.
Using the principle of homogeneity of dimensions, equate the powers
of M, L and T on the both sides. The three equations , so obtained are
solved to obtaining the values of three unknown powers or
dimensions.

Here, E = coefficient of elasticity,

(a) Yes

we can find a relation correlating the quantity with these factors.

E
r

Sample Problem 22 The time period T of simple

pendulum depends upon length l of the pendulum and
gravitational acceleration. The formula for time period of
simple pendulum is given by
(a) T = 2p
(c) T =

1
2p

l
g

(b) T = 2p

lg

(d) T =

g
l

2 pl
g

Interpret (a) Let T l a and T g b

where a and b are dimensionless constants
T = kl a g b

Units and Measurements

As, n1 (u1) = n2(u2)

where, k is dimensionless constant.

and

[LHS] = [ T ] = [M 0L0 T 1]

or

[RHS] = ( l a g b) = [L ]a [LT 2]b

Here,

n1 [M1 L21 T12] = n2 [M 2 L22 T22]

M1 = kg, L1 = m, T1 = s
M2 = g, L2 = cm, T2 = s

= [La + b T -2b ] = [M 0La + b T -2b ]

M1 = 1000 M2,
L1 = 100 L2
T1 = T2 and n = 1

According to homogeneity principle,

[LHS] = [RHS]
or

[M 0L0 T] = [M 0La + b T -2b ]

For dimensional balance, dimensions on both sides should

be same.
\
and

M
n2 = n1 1
M2

a+ b =0
-2 b = 1

and

a=

T = 2p

1
2

Sample Problem 24 Consider a simple pendulum having

l
g

3. To convert a physical quantity from one

system to the other
Dimensional formula is useful to convert the value of a physical
quantity from one system to the other. Physical quantity is expressed
as a product of numerical value and unit. In any system of
measurement, this product remains constant.
Let dimensional formula of a given physical quantity be [M aLb T c ] . If in
a system having base units [M1L1T1 ] the numerical value of given
quantity ( Q ) be n1 and numerical value n2 in another unit system
having the base units M 2, L 2, T2 then

a bob attached to a string, that oscillates under the action of the

force of gravity. Suppose that the period of oscillations of the
simple pendulum depends on its length ( l ), mass of the bob (m)
and acceleration due to gravity ( g ). Using the method of
dimensions, expression for its time period is
g
l
l
(c) T k
g

(b) T k

Interpret (c) The dependence of time period T on the

quantities l, g and m as a product may be written as
T = kl xg ymz
where, k is dimensionless constant and x, y and z are the exponents.
Taking dimensions on both sides, we have
[L0M 0 T 1] = [L1]x [L1T 2]y [M1]z

n2 [Ma2 Lb2 T2c ]

a

2g
l
l
(d) T k
2g

(a) T k

Q = n1u1 = n2u2

\ 1 joule = 10 7 erg

[since, numerical value of k in case of simple pendulum is 2 p]

-2

1000 M 2 100 L 2 T1
7
=1
= 10

M
L
T

2
2 2

1
2

b=-

n1 [Ma1Lb1 T1c ]

L1 T1

L 2 T2

15

[M0 L0 T 1] = M zLx+ y T -2y

b

M L T
n2 = n1 1 1 1
M2 L 2 T2

On equating the dimensions on both sides, we have

x+ y = 0,
-2 y = 1

Sample Problem 23 In SI system, the magnitude work

done is joule. In another system, where the fundamental
physical quantities are in gram, centimetre and second, the
magnitude of work is
(a) 10 7 erg

(b) 10 5 erg

(c) 10 8 erg

(d) 10 10 erg

y=-

1
1
and x =
2
2

and

z =0

So that

T = kl1/ 2g - 1/ 2

or

T =k

l
g

Interpret (a) Joule is SI unit of work. The dimensions of work

in SI.
= [W1] = [M1 L21 T12]
But erg is CGS unit of work. The dimensions of work in
CGS unit = [W2] = [M 2 L22 T22]

Note The value of constant k cannot be obtained by the method of

dimensions. Here, it does not matter if some number multiplies the right
side of this formula, because that does not affect its dimensions.
l
Actually, k = 2 p so thatT = 2p
g

16 JEE Main Physics

Sample Problem 25 The SI unit of energy is J = kg m 2s-2,
that of speed v is ms -1 and of acceleration a is ms -2 which one
of the formula for kinetic energy given below is correct on the
basis of dimensional arguments.
[Given m stands for the mass of body]
(a) K = m2v 2
1
(c) K = mv 2 + ma
2

(b) K = ma
1
(d) K = mv 2
2

Interpret (a) Every correct formula or equation must have the

same dimensions on both sides of the equation. Also, only
quantities with the same physical dimensions can be added or
subtracted. The dimensions of the quantity on the right side for (a) is
K = m2v 2

[M] [LT 2] [L] = [M] [L2T 2] = [ML2T 2]

The dimensions of LHS and RHS are the same and hence the
equation is dimensionally correct.

Sample Problem 28 If force F, length L and time T be

considered fundamental units of mass will be
(a) [FLT -2]

(d) [F 2LT -2]

(c) [FL T ]

m = [M], a = [LT ]

[M1 L0 T 0 ] = K [MLT 2]a [L ]b [ T ]c

= K [M aLa + b T - 2a + b ]

\dimensions are [MLT 2]

option (c) has no proper dimensions,
1
option (d), K = mv 2, putting m = [M]
2
and

(b) [FL-2T -1]

So, using dimensions, we have

K = ma

putting

The dimensions of RHS are

Interpret (c) Let [M] [FaLbT c ]

\dimensions are [M 2L2T 2]

for (b),

[M] [LT 1]2 = [M] [L2T 2] = [ML2T 2]

-1 2

m = [M], v = [LT 1]

Putting,

1
mv 2 = mgh
2
The dimensions of LHS are

Interpret (b) Given,

V = [LT 1], we have

K = [M] [LT 1]2 =[ML2T 2]

We have,
\
and

a = 1, a = b = 0 and k = 1
b = -1
- 2a + c = 0
c =2

So unit of mass is [FL1 T 2]

in units it is written as kg m2 s2.

Sample Problem 26 The angle of 1" (second of arc) in

radians is (Given 360 = 2 p rad, 1 = 60 and 1 = 60")
(a) 1.745 10 rad
(b) 2.91 104 rad
(c) 4.85 106 rad
(d) 3.42 103 rad
2

Interpret (c) Given, 360 = 2p rad

p
2
1 =
rad = 1.745 10 rad
180
1 = 60 = 1.745 10 2 rad
1 = 2.90 s 10 4 rad ~
- 2.91 10 4 rad
1 = 60" = 2.908 10 4 rad
1" = 4.87 10 4 rad ~
- 4.85 10 6 rad

1
2
m is the mass of the body, v is velocity, g is the acceleration due
to gravity and h is the height. Then the given equation is

Sample Problem 27 Given equation mv 2 = mgh, where

(a) dimensionally incorrect

(b) dimensionally correct
(c) wrong
(d) None of above

Although dimensional analysis is very useful but it is not

universal, it has some limitations as given below
(i) This method gives no information about dimensional
constants. Such as universal constant of gravitation (G)
or Plancks constant (h) and where they have to be
introduced.
(ii) Numerical constant (k), having no dimensions such as
3/4, e, 2p etc., cannot be deduced by the method of
dimensions.
(iii) This technique is useful only for deducing and
verifying power relations. Relationship involving
exponential, trignometric functions etc., cannot be
obtained or studied by this technique.
(iv) In this method, we compare the powers of
fundamental quantities (like M,L,T etc.,) to obtain a
numbers of independent equations to find the
unknown powers. Since, the total number of such
equations cannot exceed the number of fundamental
quantities we cannot use this method to obtain the
required relation if the quantity of interest depends
upon more parameters than the number of
fundamental quantities used.
(v) Even if a physical quantity depends on three physical
quantities, out of which two have same dimensions,
the formula cannot be derived by theory of
dimensions.

Example 1

The ratio of one micron to one nanometer is

(b) 10 -3
(d) 10 -9

(a) 10 3
(c) 10 -6

Example 2

Solution

Example 7

(b) tesla
(d) weber

Example 3

\Unit of magnetic permeability =

Nuclear cross-section is measured in barn which

(b) 10 -28 m2

(a) 10 -20 m2

Solution

(d) 10

-14

1 barn = 10 -28 m2

Example 4

30

The order of 2

(a) 10 9
(c) 10 15

Solution

tesla m2
= WbA -1m-1
Am

(b) [ML2T -2A2]

(a) [MT -2A-2]

2 -2 -2

(c) [ML T A ]

(d) [ML2T -3 A-1]

Electromotive force = potential difference

V=

Example 9

W [ML2T -2]
=
= [ML2T -3 A -1]
q
[AT]

Which of the following is a dimensional

constant?

(2)30 = 1073741824 = 10 9

Units of magnetic flux is

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Refractive index
Dielectric constant
Relative density
Gravitational Constant

Solution

Magnetic flux f = B A =

F
newton m2
A=
il
ampere m

Example 6

Which of the following quantities has not been

expressed in proper units?
Stress
= Nm-2
Strain
(c) Energy = kgms-1

4pBr 2
idl sin q

The dimensions of electromotive force in terms

of current A are

is approximately

(a) weber/metre
(b) newton metre/ampere
(c) joule coulomb / metre
(d) tesla

(a)

m 0 idl sin q
4p
r2

Example 8

Solution
(b) 10 5
(d) 10 20

Example 5

Solution

From Biot-Savart's law, B =

m0 =

is equal to
(c) 10

Solution

(b) Wb -1Am
(d) WbA-1m

idl sin q Am
= 2 = Am-1
B=
m
r2

Magnetic intensity is measured in Am-1

-30

What are the units of magnetic permeability?

(a) WbA-1m-1
(c) WbAm-1

Magnetic intensity is measured in

(a) Am-1
(c) gauss

Energy = Force distance

\ Its unit will be kgm2s-2

Energy does not have the units of kg ms -1.

One micron
10 -6
= -9 = 10 3
One nanometre 10

Solution

Solution

(b) Surface tension = Nm -1

(d) Pressure = Nm-2

Gravitational constant G has a constant value and

dimensions. In SI system value of gravitational constant G is
6.6 10 -11 Nm2 kg -2. Dimensional formula of G is [M -1L3 T -2].

Example 10

The dimensions of solar constant are

(a) [M 0L0T 0 ]

(b) [MLT -2]

(c) [ML2T -3 ]

(d) [ML-3 ]

Solution

Solar constant = Energy / sec area

[ML2T -2]
= [MT -3 ]
[TL2]

18 JEE Main Physics

Example 11

The physical quantity denoted by

mass pressure
is
density
(a) force
(c) momentum

Solution

Given,

mass pressure [M] [ML-1T -2]

=
density
[ML-3 ]

DX
aDM bDL cDT
100 =
+
+
100
M
X
L
T

Example 12

The density of a cube is measured by

measuring its mass and length of its sides. If the maximum
errors in the measurement of mass and length are 3% and 2%
respectively, then the maximum error in the measurement of
density is
(b) 5%

= ( aa + bb + cg)%

Example 16

(c) 1%

(d) 9%

We know density,
M [M]
r=
=
V [L3 ]

(b) 5
(d) 2

As per rules, all zeros in the given number are

significant. Therefore, number of significant figures is 6.

The result after adding 3.8 10 -6

with due regard to significant figures is

Example 17
4.2 10
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

-5

Solution

3.8 10 -6 + 4.2 10 -5
= (3.8 10 -1 + 4.2 ) 10 -5
= (0.38 + 4.2) 10 -5

= 3% + 3 (2%) = 9%

= ( 4.58) 10 -5

Example 13

The mass of a box measured by a grocer's

balance is 2.3 kg. Two gold pieces of masses 20.15 g and 20.17 g
are added to the box. The total mass of the box is
(a) 2.30 kg

Solution

(b) 2.340 kg

(c) 2.34 kg

(d) 2.3 kg

Total mass = (2.3 + 0.02015 + 0.02017) kg

= 2.34032 kg, upto one decimal place
= 2.3 kg

When a current of (2.5 0.5) A flows through a

wire, it developes a potential difference of (20 1) V . The
resistance of wire is

Example 14

(a) (8 2) W
(c) (8 1.5) W

Solution

(b) (8 1.6) W
(d) (8 3) W

V 20
We know resistance R = =
=8W
I 2.5
DR DV DI
1
0.5 1
=
+
=
+
=
R
V
I
20 2.5 4
1
DR = 8 = 2 W = R (8 2) W
4

A quantity is represented by x = M aLbT c . The

percentage error in measurement of M, I, and T are a%, b% and
g% respectively. The percentage error in X would be

Example 15

(a) ( aa + bb + gc)%
(c) ( aa - bb - gc) 100%

to

4.58 10 -5
0.458 10 -4
4.6 10 -5
45.8 10 -6

Dr
DM
DL
100 =
100 + 3
100
r
M
L

The significant figures in 300.500 are

(a) 6
(c) 4

Solution

Which represents work.

Solution

X = M aLbT c

Let

(b) work
(d) angular momentum

= [ML2T -2]

(a) 7%

Solution

(b) ( aa - bb + gc)%
(d) None of these

Rounding off to one place of decimal.

The sum = 4.6 10 -5

Example 18

Which of the following numerical values have

three significant figures?
(a) 3.033
(c) 30.30

(b) 0.030
(d) 0.300

Solution

Options (a) and (c) have four significant figures; (b)

has two and (d) has three significant figures.

Example 19 What is the number of significant figures in

(3.20 + 4.80) 10 5?
(a) 5
(c) 3

Solution

(b) 4
(d) 2
(3.20 + 4.80) 10 5 = 8.00 10 5

Number of significant figures is 3.

Example 20 Subtract 0.2 J from 7.26 J and express the result

with correct number of significant figures.
(a) 7.1 J
(c) 7.0 J

Solution

(b) 7.06 J
(d) 7J

Subtraction is correct upto one place of decimal,

corresponding to the least number of decimal places.
7.26 - 0.2 = 7.06 = 7.1J.