Linear Motion

1.

Distance (scalar quantity) is the total length of the path moved

by an object.

2.

Displacement (vector quantity) is the shortest distance between

the final positions of an object to a reference point in a specified
direction. P107/12/[calculate], [area under the graph] P111
KDH14

3.

Speed (scalar quantity) is defined as the rate of change of

distance with time. SPM P2S06/E07
PHG14

4.

Velocity (vector quantity) is defined as the rate of change of

displacement with time, unit metre per second ( ms-2 ). SPM 08
KDH14

i.
ii.

5.

Acceleration (vector quantity) is defined as the rate of change of

velocity with time, SBP14 unit ( ms-2 ). SPM P2E07

6.

Modifications that can be made to make a man run faster and

achieve maximum acceleration. SBP14
Type of attire: light/tight/smooth (reason: less air friction)
Type of shoes: spike shoes/shoes with grooves (reason:
better grip, prevent slippery)

iii.

Additional equipment: starting block (reason: increase

forward force at starting)
7.

An object is under going a deceleration when it is slowing down.

The rate of change of velocity of the object has a negative value.

8.

The ticker time can be used to measure the velocity and

acceleration of an object.

9.

The ticker timer uses an a.c. 50Hz power supply. Therefore

i.

Makes 50 ticks on the ticker tape in one second.

ii.

Makes one tick in 0.02 second. PHG14

b.

c. An object which start to move with an initial velocity, u and attains a

final velocity, v in time, t has an acceleration of SPM 08
-> Equation (1)

d.
Time taken for an object to fall from a height from the moons
Example
surface is longer than the earths surface. Because g moon < g
1:
earth. SPM 05

e. For motion with constant acceleration:

-> Equation (2)
-> Equation (3)

g. Motion graphs
i.

Displacement-time graphs

Inertia

1.
2.

Inertia is the natural characteristic of an object that resists

changes to its state of motion.
Newton's first law of motion states that:
Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform speed in a
straight line unless acted upon by an external force. SPM 11

3.

Newtons third law of motion: Action and reaction; they are

always of same magnitude but in opposite directions. SPM 08

4.

Inertia is a phenomenon and it has no unit.

5.

The table below shows a few situations involving inertia.

Relationship between Mass and Inertia

1.

It is more difficult to start a swing that carries a person in

motion compared to a vacant swing.

When the total mass of the swing is larger, the resistance

to change its initial position is greater. Hence, when the mass
increases, the inertia increases.

2.

Similarly, it is more difficult to stop a moving swing that carries

a person compared to a vacant swing because when the total
mass is larger, the resistance to change its initial movement
is greater. SPM 06 P3

Ways to reduce the negative Effect of Inertia

2. Safety Measures in Vehicle to Reduce Negative Effect of
Inertia
i.

Seat belts to prevent the drivers / passengers from the

being thrown forward.

increases sloping time

reduce impulsive force

stop the motion of driver

ii.

Air bags prevent the driver/passenger from being injured of

hitting the dashboard.
3. Other Safety Measure

i.

Steering column Easily collapsed during accident to prevent

it from injuring the driver.

ii.

Head rests Prevent the head of the passengers from being

thrown backwards.

iii.

Centre of Gravity is lowered to increase the stability.

iv.

Screens Only crack into small pieces and not sharp

v.

Engine Collapse downward during collision.

vi.
vii.

Reinforced body structure to protect the passengers /

driver.
Speed and passengers limits to reduce the momentum

viii.

The front & rear sections of a car designed to crumple

easily SPM 07 To increase impact time

ix.

Crumple zone SPM 10 is crushed & compressed when an

obstacle to lengthen collision time

x.

Bumper filled with shock absorbers to minimises the

impulsive force during an incident .
3. Lorries or trucks that carry heavy loads utilise the following
features to reduce the negative effects of inertia:

Momentum

1.

A fast moving trolley has a higher resistance to a change in its

state of motion compared to a trolley with a lower velocity and it is
more difficult to stop a heavy trolley which is moving at the same
velocity as an empty trolley. SPM P2E07

2.

The resistance of an object to a change in its state of

motion is known as momentum.

3.

The total momentum before and after the collision is the same.
P106 P2S12

4.

The linear momentum, p of an object of mass, m, which is

moving with a velocity, v, is defined as the product of mass and
velocity. SPM P2E07 p = m x v

5.

The unit of momentum is kg ms-1.

6.

Momentum is a vector quantity and acts in the same

direction as the velocity. When the positive sign is used to represent
the right direction, then the left direction is represented by the
negative sign and vice versa.

7.

When the velocity increase, momentum increases. SPM

P2E07

Conservation of Momentum
1.

The principle of conservation of momentum states that:

that: P2S12
The total momentum of a system is constant,
if no external force acts on the system.

2.

Examples of external force are friction, air resistance, etc.

3.

A balloon is tied to arod when the air is released, a backward

momentum is produced.

4.

The principle of conservation of momentum is applied in two

situations:

a.

Collision (elastic and inelastic)

b.

Explosion

Collisions

Explosions
Example 1 SPM 08

1.

A balloon filled with air, moves upwards with a certain

momentum when air is released from the bottom of the balloon. The
air which has mass and moves with a velocity, produces a backward
momentum which then causes the balloon to move upwards with
the same momentum.

2.

The total momentum before the explosion is zero as the

velocities of the balloon and air are zero.

3.

The total momentum after the explosion is still zero as the

upward momentum is equal to the downward momentum.

4.

Therefore, the principle of conservation of momentum is

obeyed.
Example 2

1.

Before explosion, both the bullet and the rifle are at rest. The
total momentum is zero.

2.

When the rifle is fired, the bullet which has mass and moves
with a velocity, produces a forward momentum. This causes the rifle
to recoil backwards with a backward momentum which has the
same momentum as the bullet.
Therefore, the total momentum after the explosion is still zero and it can be
written as:
m v + m v2 = 0
1

Rearranging the formula gives:

m v =m v
1

where the negative sign indicates the opposite direction. Since the
magnitudes are equal, the equation can be written as:
m v =m v
1

Other applications of explosions are rocket propulsion and jet

propulsion for airplanes.
Example 3
1.
2.

A running athlete
Momentum of the hand moving backwards = momentum of
the body moving forward SPM 10
Force

1.
2.
a.
b.

A force (vector quantity) is a push or a pull on an object, unit

newton (N).
Effect of a force:
Moves a stationary object
Changes the velocity of a moving object in magnitude or
in direction or both

c.

Can decelerate or stop a moving object

d.

Changes the size of shape of an object.

3.

Newton second law of motion states that the rate of change of

momentum is directly proportional to the resultant force and in
the same direction as the force.

4.

To produce motion, the forward force > backward force +

friction SPM 05

5.

Mass does not effect the force that applied that applied.
Impulse and Impulsive Force

Impulse = Ft

1.
The impulse (vector quantity) of a constant force F is defined as the
product of the force and the time t for it acts.
2.

A golfer continue his swing after hitting the ball: P2E12

o
to
increase impulse on the ball
o

the time of contact increase

change of momentum increases

the speed increases

3.

Impulse force is defined as the rate of change of momentum.

SPM 07 P2 E12 PP14 PP14

4.

Front and rear sections of car designed to crumple easily, to

increase impact time. As time of impact increases, a smaller
impulsive force results. SPM 07

5.

Ways to reduce impulse force;

Thick mattress will lengthen the time impact on landing,

thus reducing the resultant impulsive force. SPM 05

Basket ball player moves his hand backwards when

catching the ball. Thus, prolong the time of impact and reduce the
impulsive force acting on his palm. SPM 09

The parachutist bends his kegs to lengthen the time of

impact/collision. This reduces the impulsive force acting on his legs.
SPM 06//11

2. The earth is surrounded by a gravitational field which exerts a force

on any body in the field is called the force of gravity, unit Nkg -1.
3. The force of gravity acting on an object is called weight (vector
quantity), unit newton (N). SPM P2S05

-> g = acceleration due to gravity

4. Design a helmet:
o

Fibre glass shell

also crush on impact thus absorbing impulsive force

give better protection

Polysrtyrene as inside

good absorber shock

give protection for head

provide comfort

Full-face helmet
provide a large area of protection of head
not too heavy

b. Characteristics of the rope to make the parachute: PHG14

Forces that act on the parachute during decending: Lifting force, gravity,
thrust force, dragging force
Forces in Equilibrium

EXAM TIPS

1.

When forces are in equilibrium or when forces are balanced,

the net force or resultant force, FR is zero. The object at this
moment will either be stationary / at rest or moving with
uniform velocity (zero acceleration). SPM 07/08/09 & P2S05
MLK14

2.

Normal reaction, R and the weight, W (mg) are acting in

opposite directions. SPM 11 MLK14 So the resultant force is the
subtraction of the two forces. SPM P2S05

3.
a.

An example of forces in equilibrium:

A television placed on a table.

When the forces are in equilibrium:

Normal reaction force, R
= Weight of television, W (= m)
* The television is stationary.
b.

A skydiver falling at terminal velocity. When the forces are

in equilibrium: Air resistance, G
= Weight of object, W (= mg)
* The object falls with a uniform velocity.

SPM 07.

c.

A car descending a hill at constant velocity

d.

A lamp is hanging at rest in hall

e.

A ship floating at rest in the sea

1.

When two forces are parallel to each other, the addition can be
done by simple arithmetic.>

a.

Forces acting in the same direction

b.

Forces acting in opposite directions SPM 07/08

2.

Frictional Force
is force which opposes movement.

3.

When two forces are neither parallel nor perpendicular to ea

other, there are two methods to calculate the resultant force.

a.

Triangle method P107/12

When the forces do not start from the same point, a force diagram
can be drawn to obtain the resultant force, FR. A force diagram is a
representation of forces with their respective magnitudes and
directions.

i.

The diagram is drawn to a suitable scale.

ii.

F1 is drawn first, followed by F2.

iii.

The resultant force is then drawn from the beginning

of F1 to the end of F2

iv.

The value of the resultant force is measured from

the length of AC and the direction of the resultant force is < CAB.
b.

Parallelogram method
When the forces start from the same point, a vector diagram is
drawn to obtain the resultant force, FR.

i.

A suitable scale is used in this drawing and both F1

and F2 are drawn from the same point.

ii.

Complete the drawing using a pair of compasses

and then draw the diagonal of the parallelogram.

iii.

The diagonal represents the magnitude and

direction of the resultant force, FR.
4.

When two forces are perpendicular to each other, Pythagoras'

theorem and the parallelogram method can be applied to obtain the
resultant force.

Resolution of Forces
1.

The resultant force is found by combining the forces. The

reverse process where a single force is split into two components is
known as the resolution of forces.

2.

The two components of force are the vertical force, Fy and the
horizontal force, Fx. They are perpendicular to each other in a
parallelogram. PHG14

3.

Simple trigonometry is applied to obtain the values of Fx and

Fy . PHG14, MLK14

Inclined Plane MLK14

A boy in a lift SPM P2S05 PP14

1.

When the lift moves up with acceleration, the normal reaction

is greater than his weight. R > W, W = mg, R W = ma SPM 06

2.

There is a resultant force acting upwards, f=ma SPM 07/10 &

P2E07 PHG14 due to its acceleration.

3.

Normal reaction is equal to the sum of the boys weight and

the resultant force, R=mg+ma.

4.

When the lift moves down, weight reduces.

5.

Because W > R or R = W ma .
Modifications to avoid string from being broken MLK14

a.

Type of material of spring: Nylon (reason: strong material)

b.

Angle of pulling force, F from vertical line, :Use smaller angle

(reason: reduce magnitude of tension of the spring)
Work done, Energy, Power and Efficiency

1.

2.

EXAM TIPS

Work done (scalar quantity) defined as the force applied

multiplied by the displacement of an object in the direction of
the force, unit joule (J). SPM P2S05 & 07

Some work is used to overcome frictional force. SPM P207

3.

A person pushes a wall. There is no displacement, thus no work

is done. SPM 08

4.

Energy (scalar quantity) is defined as the ability of a system

to do work, unit joule (J).

5.

Energy due to motion called kinetic energy.

Example: Kinetic energy increases when a book is falling.

6.

The principle of conservation of energy SPM P2S06

states that energy can be transferred from one form to another, but
it cannot be created or destroyed. SPM 11

7.

Power is defined as a measure of the rate of work done

P2E12 or energy changed or transferred. SPM 11 PHG14

8.

The efficiency of a device is defined as the percentage of the

energy input that is transformed into useful energy.

9.

Racing car is design use light composite material for making

the body of car, acceleration increases when mass decreases.

10.
A trainer with consistent time over a longer period can be
choose to compete in 1500m race.
Gravity

1.

Gravitational fall, F=mg

Since g is a constant, when an object falls, F is directly proportional
to m. SPM 09

2.
3.
4.

Weight is gravitational force (the pull of gravity) PHG14

The acceleration of all failing objects is influenced by the earth
gravitational force. SPM 09
When weight is released, energy change: SPM 10

The potential energy of the weight -> kinetic energy of the wooden
block & weight
5.

Gravitational potential energy of an object is the energy

possessed by the object due to its higher position in the
gravitational field.

Elasticity

1.

2.

A property of matter that enables an object to return to its

original shape and size after the force acting on it is removed.
KDH14, PHG14,
Hooke's law states that:
The change in length of a spring is directly proportional to the force
applied to the spring without exceeding the elastic limit of the
spring. SPM 06 graph

Factors that Affecting the Elasticity / Stiffness of a

Spring [Hookes Law]