Bmht. Sci. Vol. 9, pp. 157 166. Pergamon Press 1974.

Printed in Great Britain

[ Vll , (K4)]

Non-Destructive
Testing of Concrete
R. ,1. W H E E N *
The man), methodr .for the non-destructive testing of concrete are reviewed.
The methods' are classified, though somewhat superficially, as su(fiace methods',
vibration and resonance methods, pulse propagation methods', radioactive
methods" and electrical and magnetic methods. The use of combinations Off
methods' is seen as a significant development in the field. Ottter methods, some
of which await exploitation, are discussed. It is concluded that unreasonable
expectations for non-destructive test methods and a lack o f trained technician~
to apply them are the main reasons br their slow acceptance.

INTRODUCTION

destructive testing must be based on a clear understanding of the capabilities and limitations of the
various methods.
Clearly, specification writers hold the key to the
acceptance of non-destructive test methods if they'
will permit the use o f the results of non-destructive
tests as full or even partial acceptance:rejection
criteria.
The currently available methods for nondestructive testing are reviewed in the succeeding
sections.

T H E S E A R C H for a non-destructive method of

test which will give values of compressive strength
for any concrete has been carried on with a fervour
which almost equals that o f the alchemists. No such
test has been discovered and it seems unlikely that
one will be discovered.
The non-destructive tests which are available,
however, are as many and varied as the characteristics which are valued in concrete. The characteristics of compressive strength, elastic modulus,
durability, hardness, impermeability and many
others are required in different applications. More
importance attaches to some characteristics than
others depending on the application yet it is
curious how tenaciously the standard compressive
strength test is held up as the measure o f concrete
quality. Elvery[I] in referring to the cube crushing
test states that "it must always be appreciated that
it does not measure any fundamental property of
concrete and it is arguable whether it should be
regarded as a universal assessment of quality
without question."
As Collins[2] has observed, "'if the pulsevelocity apparatus has been developed first and it
were now desired to use the cube strength as a test
we might now be asking for evidence to relate the
results of the cube strength to the pulse velocity
rather than the reverse."
Non-destructive testing offers the possibility of
assessing the state of the concrete in a product
without interfering in any way with its service
performance. The widespread adoption of non-

SURFACE M E T H O D S

(a) SwJ'ace hardnes,~

(i) hMentation methodr, Jones[3] refers to the
development of indentation methods as having
originated in G e r m a n y in 1934. The method,
similar to that used in the hardness testing of
metals, consists of applying a known impacting
force to a steel ball and measuring the diameter of
the indentation in the surface of the concrete. The
average diameter for a number of closely spaced
indentations is used to enter calibration charts or
tables to obtain a value for the crushing strength.
There is generally such a wide scatter of results that
the method is not of great practical value.
(ii) Rebound methods. Relatively low cost,
simplicity and robustness combine to give the
rebound hammer its popularity, In summarising
results o f a questionnaire on the Schmidt Hammer,
Kolek[4] noted, "'The usefulness of the device is
rated variously ranging from "very useful" to
"'red herring" and "psychological weapon."
The hammer shown in figure I consists of a
spring-loaded mass which slides on a plunger. The
hammer is pressed against the surface to be tested

*Lecturer. School of Civil Engineering, University o f

Sydney. Sydney, N.S.W.. Australia.
157

158

R. J. Wheen

Fig. 1. The Schmidt Rebound Hammer.

compressing the spring until it releases automatically

causing the mass to impinge on the plunger with the
energy of the compressed spring. The hammer
automatically registers the degree of rebound of the
mass as a percentage of the initial extension of the
impact spring. (Schmidt[5] and Kolek[6, 7].)
Experience with the use o f the Schmidt hammer
is quite extensive. Despite its deceptive simplicity
many respondents to the R I L E M questionnaire[4]
warn that the tests should only be carried out and
the results interpreted by persons sufficiently
experienced in concrete technology.
The makers recommend that any result should
be the average of twelve tests and that no single
test result should be rejected unless there are clear
reasons why it would not be relevant. Use of the
hammer should generally be confined to testing
concrete which is less than three months old.
Results are dependent on the concrete within
30 mm from the surface and so are sensitive to
surface hardness changes, particularly in older
concretes, which bear little relation to the compressive strength.
Many more factors other than strength and age
can influence the hardness readings. High-alumina
cements can give apparent strengths up to ]00 per
cent higher than ordinary portland cements. On
the other hand super-sulphated cements can give
values 50 per cent lower than ordinary portland
cement. Differences in the specific surface for
otherwise similar cements cause only minor variations (up to 10 per cent) in the strength values.
Except where unusual aggregate types are used,
different aggregate types cause only minor variations, while varying aggregate-cement ratios can
give up to 10 per cent variation.
Carbonation of the surface in older concretes

can extend to depths of up to 20 mm from the

surface. Carbonation can cause apparent values of
compressive strength to be more than 50 per cent
higher than the actual strength. Because of the
sensitivity to surface effects, care should be taken
in applying calibration curves obtained in other
conditions. A wet surface, for example, can give
results 20 per cent lower than expected, while
formwork surfaces of differing porosities can give
large surface hardness variations which are not
related to the strength of the main body of concrete

[71.
The Schmidt Rebound Hammer is useful in
checking uniformity of concrete and comparing
one concrete against another, but it can only be
used as a rough indication of concrete strength in
absolute terms. It is unanimously agreed by all
writers that users should prepare their own calibration charts covering the specific range of variables they are likely to encounter.
(b) Surface absorption of water
The liability of a concrete to degrade under the
effects of weather or chemical attack is mainly a
function of the porosity of the concrete and this in
turn is governed by the filling up of void structure
with cement gel and fine aggregate. The absorption
test has been used as a measure of durability,
results being reported as the percentage increase
in weight of a prepared specimen of dried concrete
after immersion for a stated period in water. Levitt
[8] describes the initial surface absorption test in
which the rate of flow of water into concrete per
unit area at a stated interval from the start of the
test and at a constant applied head and temperature
is measured. Much of the literature refers to high
pressure permeability tests at pressures up to

Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete

0"7 N/mm 2 (100 lb/in2). Such pressures will break
down capillary structure that would never have
been affected by the worst of weathers. Low pressure
(200 m m head of water) initial surface absorption
tests represent conditions of pressure equal to twice
the most severe wind and rain pressures.
The initial surface absorption test has been found
to be very sensitive to changes in quality and
correlates with weathering behaviour and that
observed during freeze/thaw tests.

IF ........................
......... l
.
.z

nt:r=

"6 ,~

Z 40 ~,H "oc''-c---

a--o--a

-o

{b) Measuremenl of damping

The determination of the damping coefficient
in resonance experiments may be carried out
(i) from a measurement of the band width of the
resonance

curve

or

(ii) by measuring the logarithmic decrement of free

vibrations.
In method (i) (Whitehurst[10]) frequencies fl
and f , are determined on either side of the resonant
frequency ./~ such that the corresponding ampli-

c ~j

I I II
I I1
III
I l t l l l l
20 40 60 8C 100
150

~'

JLiJ
200

I I [ I lilt
250

I I I
300

II
350

Age [Do}S',

Fig. 2. Variation of the Inodulus of elasticio' o j air and

water cured concrete

(a) Longitudinal, )qexural and torsional resonance

The most convenient way of measuring the
moduli of elasticity of concrete is by vibrational
techniques[3}. The test specimens are beams or
cylinders, usually standard specimens for flexural
or compressive tests. The specimens are set into
vibration by means of a variable frequency
oscillator which supplies electrical oscillations to
the moving coil of a vibration generator. A vibration pickup at the free end of the specimen detects
the vibrations. Resonant frequencies are then
determined and from these the required values of the
dynamic moduli for the concrete can be found. The
best means of identifying a resonance is from the
number and position of the nodes and antinodes
along the length of the specimen. In flexural
resonances, for example, these can be readily
located by means of small auxiliary pickup held in
contact with the top of the beam and sensitive to
vertical movement.
Because changes in dynamic moduli are related
empirically to changes in strength resonant frequency methods have been used to follow changes
in quality in hardening and durability but the
influence of curing on elastic modulus as shown in
figure 2 needs to be carefully accounted for.
Resistance to frost and attack by sulphate or
sewage have also been studied using these methods
(Jones[7)).
Once the dynamic moduli have been ascertained
it is a simple matter to compute the so-called
"'Dynamic Poisson's Ratio". (a = E/2G-I).

35[

VIBRATION A N D R E S O N A N C E
METHODS

159

-0 -

.v~ecimens.
, air curing.

--[-]--,

w a t e r curing,"

(Jones [31.

tudes are 0.707 times the amplitude at resonance.

The damping constant Q is given by

QA -L
Resonant frequency methods tend to be confined
to laboratory use in that specimens are restricted to
shapes for which it is possible to derive the frequency equations. Brunarski[9] reports the final
recommendations of the RILEM Working Group
on the shape, dimensions, curing conditions and
age of specimens.
PULSE PROPAGATION METHODS
(a) Shock wat,es
Long, Kurtz and Sandenaw[ll] first reported
a pulse technique for testing concrete in pavements.
The pulse was produced by a hammer blow on the
surface and the longitudinal wave velocity V was
measured between two detectors along the surface
of the pavement. The dynamic Young's Modulus E
was calculated from:
V2 _

E(I-a)
p(1 + a ) ( l - 2 a )

where the density p was known and Poisson's

ratio a assumed as 0-15. The assumption is not
justified since Poisson's ratio may lie anywhere
between 0-18 and 0.31 which can vary the value of
E by up to 28 per cent.
Andersen and Nerenst[12] also describe the
determination using the condensor chronograph
of the velocity of a longitudinal wave, caused by an
axial blow. They examined the effect of age and
curing conditions on wave velocity as illustrated
in figure 3.
These methods are not widely used now having
been superseded by the sonic and ultrasonic
methods.
(b) Sonic and ultrasonic method~
Both sonic and ultrasonic test methods are

160

R. J. W/wen

4.6
4

4.4

4-2

4"0

:~; s- 8
/

~"

z, A-1.3

A-14

~ate~

erred

A ", 5
A ! 6 tOr(3rbor:~;d

3-6

//1

/ t/
. . . .

i
i

3,4
. 4

3-2
1

12 18

24

~,g (OGys,

Fig, 3. Variation o f longitudinal wacet, elociO, with age.

Specimens cured in water and in air. (Andersen and
Nerenst[! 2]).

concerned primarily with the determination of the

velocity of longitudinal waves in concrete. The sonic
tester or soniscope operates at frequencies in the
audible range from 30 to 17000 Hz, while the
ultrasonic tester operates at frequencies up to
200 kHz.

In the usual configuration a short duration

pulse is sent into the concrete. The time taken for
the pulse to travel between transmitting and
receiving transducers over the known path length
is measured. Measurements have previously been
by way of a display on an oscilloscope, however,
Elvery and Vale[13] report the development of
PUNDIT (Portable Ultrasonic Non-destructive
Digital Indicating Tester) (figure 4), which simply
indicates transit time. The soniscope has been
successfully used in dams through thicknesses of up
to 75 ft., Whitehurst[10], while the ultrasonic tester
has a reported range of up to 7 ft Whitehurst[14]
reported ~he use of the soniscope for determining
setting times for concretes made using different
cement types (figure 5), In this context it should be
noted that ultrasonic pulses are sometimes used in
research laboratories to disperse cement particles in
suspension as a means of delaying hydration, s o
that operating frequencies shoukl be chosen which
do not affecl the phenomenon being studied.
The relationship between pulse velocity and
compressive strength is sho~.n in figure 6 for three

Fig,. 4. The PU,\'DIT ullraS'ot;i~ te~'te~

,j

. . . .

15000

::jp~m

!yp i

.......... ,_ ~==~=5_............

cz

.J

! 0 OO0
>

%~ltf b 4 x ~
~] < O p p r o ; ' ,: 4
",!.JmD 11~ 1/,I :r

~'/

c~

000 !

~8

J---4" i

12

7~rn Ct <c~ttmg
T},~e i
5hrs
45rl~lr
TyDc ]I 7 h r s
1C~Tlr,
yD~]~ 5 hrs
Tv DQ ~_~ ?hP S 4.r~ ~ :7

24

TJme

After

AdCit!or!

i 4

: :5

OrJys

Hours
Lopsed

__~_--_ . . . . .

-,<

o!

W~ter

to

Mix

Fig. 5. Evaluation o f setting, time o f concrete ]~'om pulse velocity tests. ( W h i t e h u r s l

[14]).

Non- Destructive Testing of Omcrete

,)

--]--

The longitudinal wave velocity can be used as

a criterion of quality provided the concrete is
"'known". The method has been used in laboratory
work to determine the initiation of cracking in
specimens under test and in field work to determine
the location and extent of cracks in concrete
structures or pavements. A high proportion of the
wave energy is absorbed at an air filled crack giving
an apparently slower velocity because of the longer
path.

MOISt car e c~
/4

161

o.

The method is particularly useful for repetitive

tests to follow the progress of some action in the
concrete such as hydration or deterioration under
frost action.
:

14
15
15
Pult c2 Ve OCl~y (J p q x ~0~3/

Many variables affect the wave velocity in

concrete and so the concrete being examined must
be "'calibrated" for the property desired against
wave velocity. For this reason cores will almost
always be needed if an attempt is to be made to
assess the quality of concrete in an unknown
structure.

17

t'1]~. 6, (]~l~lparLwm o f pulse r e ] o c i / j ' wiltl compre.~'.~'ire

~n'en#ff7 /Dr wecime,',<~' f r o m individual mi.res. (While-

hurst[14]).

different mixes. These results serve to emphasise the

fact that there is no universal expression relating
these two concrete properties despite the fairly
widespread belief that one should exist.
The ultrasonic pulse technique has been progressivly developed since about 1945. Jones[3, 15
17], Jones and Gatfield[18], Cawkell[19J, Jones and
Facaoaru[20, 21] and EIvery and Din[22] have all
played a part.
I

4.El

Figures 7 and 8 indicate the effect of different

ages on the wave velocity l\)r a number of concretes. Figure 9 shows that the strength versus wave
velocity relationship depends very much on the
aggregate/cement ratio when using a particular
aggregate.
The scatter of results in figure 10 is misleading
I

1 1'/2 3 / 0 ' 4

", ,

6 40
.D
3"5 t

11000

?63

s.o~ ,;

b 2.5i ~

9,000

ZOO0

~d 2 , o r e
cn !.5b
1"8L

5000

3,ooo L
0

L
20

I
40

I
60

I
80

I
100

I
120

I
140

I
160

I
180

I
20C

I
220

l
240

I
26C

Ag~ ( h o u r s ]

f~:e. 7. /re'tease of/ongt'/udina/ wave ve/oc/f.v //1 selling com'retes and mortars. Llollesll 5]).

%
E

~ 5 r
~4-~1
u

16,500

16,000

>
i
~ 48i
15,500
E 47i
~ 4'6

15,000

9
J 4.~
!4,500
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

90

Ag~ (dsys)

Fig. 8. Increase o f Iol~itudinal ware velocity with age for d(ff~'rent concretes, (Jones[15l),

R. J. Wheen

162

~6,000

1--

- ~

T--"

thickness the fraction of absorbed radiation dl is

proportional to dx and I i.e.

' I

dl

E] 1 : 3 : 6

q ~5,oocr

::

i~

/,x /

/,

__1

2000

L
l~On

I
4000
~b/~a Ln

J
2OO

./.

//a

000

~
3O0

--o

1
6~300

I
400

i
500

Fig. 9. Relation between the longitudinal wave velocity

and the compressive cube strength at 28 days. (Jones [ 5]),

EE 4,8
~

46

17'000 I

~6,000

&Ca

: "

~ ~32.3 k,meston
" j

v
T

1 1 3 1 Nat,- -~ver
1 3 : 6 ~ ra~!

I 3 6 , Gr~mt~

!5,000

4,4
4.2

~gp
" 14,000

i ~ : %: 3"iJ

13,000

3' g
12000
0

mt
200

1
40O

6O0

8OO

_._._J

1OO',

tb/sq in

,"
Modulus

o~ RJpture

{
8000

kq/sq ~:n,

5"O

- I d d.~

so that

',

&

(kg,/sq cm;

Fig. 10. Relation between longitudinal wave velocity and

modulus o f rupture o f concrete beams. (Jones[15]).

until it is noted that results for each aggregate

type and mix lie on a smooth curve. The fact that
the solid points form one group and the open
points another implies that the relation between the
velocity and modulus of rupture is independent of
age, water/cement ratio and type of aggregate
but depends on the aggregate/cement ratio.
Jones[16] reported no observed effect on wave
velocity for percentages of entrained air ranging
from 0.4 per cent to 8.1 per cent. There was also no
apparent influence, on the basis of his limited tests,
with high-alumina and ordinary portland cement.
Interest in the use of sonic and ultrasonic devices
arises from their convenience portability and
versatility. They will certainly be used extensively
in the future.

RADIOACTIVE METHODS
Gamma rays
G a m m a rays are extremely short electromagnetic
waves representing a very penetrating radiation.
Ordinary cobalt with a mass number of 59 when
placed in an atomic reactor gives cobalt 60 which is
radioactive and may be used as a source of g a m m a
rays.
I f radiation of intensity I falls on a body dx in

/ = /o e ' ~
Measurement of the intensity I enables a value to be
determined for I~. Variations in gamma ray intensity are detected by radiation detectors such as
Geiger or scintillation counters,
The principal advantage of g a m m a rays over
X-rays is that high energy radiation can be obtained
without expensive and dangerous high voltage
equipment and at negligible running cost. The
disadvantage is that they cannot be switched off
and so constitute a permanent hazard. (Forrester
[23]).
(i) Gamma radiometry. It has been found that
the absorption of gamma rays is almost proportional to the density for concrete and so can serve as
a useful indicator of concrete density
Brocard[24] standardising on conventional density determination methods by soaking specimens
in vacuo was able to achieve a dispersion of 0.2-0.9 per cent for results from the density/absorption
relationship.
Instruments are either of the transmission type
with source and detector on either side of the
concrete or the backscattering type in which the
source and detector (often as one unit) are placed on
one concrete surface,
The method has potential in measuring the
density of freshly-placed concrete as a quality
control procedure to detect badly compacted
concrete at a time when remedial action is inexpensive[l]. An accuracy of + I per cent for the
density of freshly placed concrete within 100 m m
of the surface is claimed.
Li el a1.[25] observe that the backscatter technique can be used for the detection of voids in
concrete under steel plating.
(ii) Gamma radiography. The principle of radiography is the observation of the difference in
attenuation of incident radiation produced by
differences in density and thickness of material.
The technique used is to allow gamma rays
generated by a suitable radioactive source to pass
through the concrete and observe the intensity of
the emergent radiation on X-ray film. The activity
of the source determines the required exposure
time, E.
Sl" / ~
E (in hours)
4
where f = source to film distance (m)
A = source activity (Curies}
S = concrete thickness factor
F = film f a c t o r .

163

Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete

Clear definition on the film requires a reasonable
exposure time and depends also on the size of the
source, the distance from the object to the film and
the source to object distance[23].
Exposure times become excessive when concrete
thickness exceeds about 450 ram, however, many
applications fall within this range. Uses have
included the detection of voids in grouted prestressing ducts, and the examination of in situ
concrete or mortar joints between precast segments.
Fackler[26] used the method to observe the
behaviour of aggregate particles during compaction
by vibration.

49 ~

--~--~----

43

~(q~

37

ELECTRICAL AND M A G N E T I C
METHODS

\'
]000

3400
U!tr-clsor,,

(a) Moisture content determination

The electrical method for the determination of
moisture content of concrete is based on the changes
produced in the dielectric properties when the
moisture content changes. By setting up a known
alternating potential difference between two electrodes in contact with the concrete the dielectric
constant can be determined[17]. Since the dielectric
constant for water is about fifteen times that for the
other constituents of concrete at frequencies up to
80 MHz the method provides a sensitive measure
of moisture content. One commercial application
in France based on this principle has been used for
the determination of moisture content in piaster
walls to ascertain when they can be painted.
Another method based on dielectric losses
caused by water at microwave frequencies has been
developed into a practical device in Britain[I 7].

3800

420(

UjIS(2 ~21[~lt,

cover.

C O M B I N A T I O N S OF M E T H O D S
A very promising recent development in the
field of non-destructive testing comes from Facaoaru[27]. Facaoaru has been using combinations
of non-destructive test methods to obtain results
which are much better than can be obtained from
any of the methods used individually.
The most efficient combination that has been
found in practice in Romania is that of the ultrasonic pulse velocity and rebound index methods.

\~

/ 30

//

-0'

qc

, ,~

1" .

rn~thoc

F ~ b o u n d ,r/d,z~ rT'l~tb ,,!

' \~.,...

,,

/d\

45

Cc m b l n e d

'q

4 b : c;
i

its size. Currently available instruments can detect

reinforcement up to about 75 mm from the concrete surface. Because the rate of change of induced
current is markedly non-linear with respect to the
distance of the sensor from the reinforcing bar the
reading sensitivity decreases for the larger values of

/'

/4r

,r

(gacaoaru[27]).

r- (%;

Fig. 12. Correlation graph f o r combim'd pulse reh~ciO',"

rebound ittde.v metkocA' iJ stan~ktrd Collcreld i.~ ltx#d.

(b) Magnetic m(,thods

Simple devices known as covermeters have been
developed in Britain and Holland based on measurement of the reluctance of a magnetic circuit to
locate the position of reinforcement and determine

46

22

%0

2-

~c,

4C

,:;

m;

Fig. 1 1. General distribution cur:ses (Facaoaru [17]).

~"

qG

164

R. Y. J4'heen

Another useful combination is that of the pulse

velocity and pulse attenuation methods which shows
a greater sensitivity for lower concrete strengths.
Galan[28] has demonstrated elsewhere how pulse
velocity is much more sensitive than attenuation to
changes in compressive strength.
General error distribution curves for the relationship between compressive strength and the ultrasonic pulse method, the rebound index method and
their combination taken from Facaoaru's paper[27]
have been plotted in figure 1l. Figure I I clearly
demonstrates the significant improvement in accuracy possible using the two methods in combination.
To apply Facaoaru's combined ultrasonic pulse
velocity and rebound index method one enters his
correlation graph (reproduced as figure 12) with
the pulse velocity and rebound number as abscissa
and ordinate respectively to determine the con>
pressive strength of a standard composition
concrete. A correction coefficient must be applied to
the compressive strength value for the standard
composition concrete to obtain the compressive
strength result for the concrete under test. The
correction coefficient is the product of individual
correction coefficients for cement type, dosage of
cement, aggregate type, maximum aggregate size
and fine aggregate fraction which Facaoaru has
tabulated in his paper.
The combination of two relatively simple nondestructive tests such as the ultrasonic pulse
velocity and the rebound index methods yields
results which are so much more reliable that the
additional cost seems well justified.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS
Numerous other non-destructive methods of test
have been attempted for use with concrete. Several
will be briefly described.
The chemical analysis method described by'
Kelly and Vail[29], though strictly not a nondestructive test, is included here because it yields
an "instant" result. The test can be completed l\~r a
sample of fresh concrete within l 5 min. of sampling.
The test gives results for the cement and water
content in a mix with coefficient of variation of
4.1 per cent and 4.6 per cent respectively. At this
level of accuracy only gross mixing errors could be
positively detected.
The probe technique[30] involves the use of a
pistol-like driving device powered by a precisely
loaded explosive charge, the metal probe and
related measuring instruments. The driving device
fires the probe into the surface of the concrete to
be tested. The depth of penetration of the probe is
entered in a calibration chart to determine the
compressive strength of the concrete.

In the discussion to the papers by Forrester[23],

K olek [7] and Levitt[8] several versions of a pull-out
test are described. The pull-out plug is either cast
into tile concrete or cemented into a drilled hole.
The ti~rce required to pull the plug and a small
surrounding cone of concrete from the surface is
related to the compressive strength.
Other methods such as microwave absorptiom
penetrant dyes, acoustic emission and opticai
microscopy, are referred to by 15 ,q a/.[25].

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
Holographic interference method~ may be used
in the detection of minute (several wavelengths o,e
light) movements (Robertson and Harvey [3 t ]).
Roper of Sydney University is currently attempting
to examine the movements in a concrete specimen
as water is absorbed by the specimen using the
principles of holography. Though the technique i,
very much a laboratory technique at the moment
it does not take too much imagination to see
potential applications. It is conceivable, for
example, that holography might be used in conjunction with high speed cinematography to
observe strain waves m concrete i,~ siru resulting
from some impulse.
Magnetostrictive methods have been used lk~r
many years to determine elastic constants in rock
(Roper[32]). Although they are simply resonance
methods it is curious that no reference to them was
found in the literature on non-destructive testing of
concrete.
During hydration of cement appreciable heat is
generated and since hydration continues for a long
time cameras sensitive to infl:ared radiation could
be used to chart the progress of hydration. Int~ared
cameras may also be able to detect the presence of
reinforcement or aggregate particles near the
surface because of their different thermal characteristics. Only one reference (Paljak[33]) on this
method was found in the literature.
The development in Romania[27] of combinations of non-destructive tests appears to be one of"
the most promising prospects in the near future.
Combined methods seem assured of an important
position in the non-destructive lesting of concrete.
On the other hand there are characteristics of
concrete which are valued, but For which no
satisfactory measures vet exi.,',. A quantitative
measure of '+pumpability". for example, would be
of considerable value.
If the objectives aimed at by' Kelly and Vail[29]
of checking the composition of a concrete after
mixing and prior to placement could be achieved
with sufficient accuracy at least part of the "instant"
testing envisaged by Robertson and Colquhoun[34]
would have been realised.

Non-Destructire Testing (!f Concrete

CONCLUSION
The variety o f non-destructive m e t h o d s of test
for concrete available is impressive. Provided the
limitations o f the methods are understood there is
no reason why non-destructive testing should not
occupy a far more i m p o r t a n t role in the everyday
production and use of concrete. T h a t it does not
already occupy this role is p r o b a b l y due to two main
reasons.
The first is the fixation on the compressive
strength test and the belief that any non-destructive
test resull must correlate perfectly with any
crushing test result.
1-he second reason may be the civil engineers"
mistrust of "'electronic black boxes". Li el a1.[25]

165

conclude, "Nonetheless, one o f the progresshindering p r o b l e m s in non-destructive testing o f

concrete is the b a c k g r o u n d training o f testing
engineers. Those w o r k i n g with concrete have been
trained in civil engineering and do not have enough
b a c k g r o u n d to feel c o m f o r t a b l e with the w o r k i n g
o f ultrasonic, electrical and nuclear e q u i p m e n t " .
Successful use o f non-destructive test methods
requires the training o f special technical staff. The
strength o f the methods, in general, lies in quality
control procedures and c o m p a r a t i v e testing o f
concretes.
Recognition o f the value o f non-destructive
methods o f testing concrete by specification writers
will open the doors to everyday acceptance.

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166

R. J. Wheen

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Les nombreuses m6thodes d'essai non-destructif du b6ton sont passees en revue. Les
m6thodes sont classdes bien que superficiellement comme m6thodes de surface, de
vibration et de rfisonnance, de propagation d'impulsions, radioactives, et 61ectriques
et magn6tiques. L'emploi de combinaisons de mdthodes est considdr6 ~tre un
d6veloppement important dans ce domaine. D'autres mdthodes dont certaines
demandent encore "5 atre exploit6es sont discut6es. 11 est conclu que des expectatives
d&aisonnables de m6thodes d'essai non-destructifs et un manque de techniciens
qualifi6s pour les appliquer sont les raisons majeures de leur lente acceptation.
Es werden die vielen Verfahren nicht zerst6render Priifungen yon Beton besprochen
Die Verfahren werden, wenn auch etwas oberft~ichlich, als Oberfl~ichenverfahrem
Vibrations- und Resonanzverfahren, Impulsfortpflanzungsverfahren, radioaktive
Verfahren und elektrische und magnetische Verfahren klassifiziert. Die
Kombinierung yon Verfahren wird als eine bedeutende Entwicklung auf dem
Gebiet angesehen. Es werden andere Verfahren, welche zum Teil darauf
warten, ausgenutzt zu werden, besprochen. Man kommt zu dem Schlug, daf3
unangemessene Erwartungen aus den nicht zerstiSrenden Prtifverfahren und ein Mangel
an getibten Fachleuten, diese zu verwenden, die Hauptgrtinde ftir ihre langsame
Annahme darstellen.