Java Concepts

Difference between JDK, JRE and JVM
1. Brief summary of JVM

2. Java Runtime Environment (JRE)
3. Java Development Kit (JDK)
Understanding the difference between JDK, JRE and JVM is important in Java. We are
having brief overview of JVM here.
If you want to get the detailed knowledge of Java Virtural Machine, move to the next
page. Firstly, let's see the basic differences between the JDK, JRE and JVM.
JVM
JVM (Java Virtual Machine) is an abstract machine. It is a specification that provides
runtime environment in which java bytecode can be executed.
JVMs are available for many hardware and software platforms. JVM, JRE and JDK are
platform dependent because configuration of each OS differs. But, Java is platform
independent.
The JVM performs following main tasks:
Loads code
Verifies code
Executes code
Provides runtime environment
JRE
JRE is an acronym for Java Runtime Environment.It is used to provide runtime
environment.It is the implementation of JVM.It physically exists.It contains set of
libraries + other files that JVM uses at runtime.
Implementation of JVMs are also actively released by other companies besides Sun
Micro Systems.
JDK
JDK is an acronym for Java Development Kit.It physically exists.It contains JRE +
development tools.
VM (Java Virtual Machine)

1. Java Virtual Machine
2. Internal Architecture of JVM
JVM (Java Virtual Machine) is an abstract machine. It is a specification that provides runtime
environment in which java bytecode can be executed.
JVMs are available for many hardware and software platforms (i.e.JVM is plateform
dependent).
What is JVM?
It is:
1. A specification where working of Java Virtual Machine is specified. But

implementation provider is independent to choose the algorithm. Its implementation
has been provided by Sun and other companies.
2. An implementation Its implementation is known as JRE (Java Runtime
Environment).
3. Runtime Instance Whenever you write java command on the command prompt to
run the java class, and instance of JVM is created.
What it does?
The JVM performs following operation:
Loads code
Verifies code
Executes code
Provides runtime environment
JVM provides definitions for the:
Memory area
Class file format
Register set
Garbage-collected heap
Fatal error reporting etc.
Internal Architecture of JVM

Let's understand the internal architecture of JVM. It contains classloader, memory area,
execution engine etc.
1) Classloader:
Classloader is a subsystem of JVM that is used to load class files.
2) Class(Method) Area:
Class(Method) Area stores per-class structures such as the runtime constant pool, field and
method data, the code for methods.
3) Heap:
It is the runtime data area in which objects are allocated.
4) Stack:
Java Stack stores frames.It holds local variables and partial results, and plays a part in
method invocation and return.
Each thread has a private JVM stack, created at the same time as thread.
A new frame is created each time a method is invoked. A frame is destroyed when its
method invocation completes.
5) Program Counter Register:

PC (program counter) register. It contains the address of the Java virtual machine
instruction currently being executed.
6) Native Method Stack:

It contains all the native methods used in the application.
7) Execution Engine:
It contains:
1) A virtual processor
2) Interpreter:Read bytecode stream then execute the instructions.
3) Just-In-Time(JIT) compiler:It is used to improve the performance.JIT compiles
parts of the byte code that have similar functionality at the same time, and hence
reduces the amount of time needed for compilation.Here the term ?compiler? refers to a
translator from the instruction set of a Java virtual machine (JVM) to the instruction set
of a specific CPU.
Variable and Datatype in Java

1. Variable
2. Types of Variable
3. Data Types in Java
In this page, we will learn about the variable and java data types. Variable is a name of
memory location. There are three types of variables: local, instance and static. There are
two types of datatypes in java, primitive and non-primitive.
Variable
Variable is name of reserved area allocated in memory.
int data=50;//Here data is variable
Types of Variable
There are three types of variables in java
local variable
instance variable
static variable
Local Variable
A variable that is declared inside the method is called local variable.
Instance Variable
A variable that is declared inside the class but outside the method is called instance
variable . It is not declared as static.
Static variable
A variable that is declared as static is called static variable. It cannot be local.
We will have detailed learning of these variables in next chapters.
Example to understand the types of variables

class A{
int data=50;//instance variable
static int m=100;//static variable
void method(){
int n=90;//local variable
}
}//end of class
Data Types in Java

In java, there are two types of data types
primitive data types

non-primitive data types
Data Type Default Value Default size

boolean
false
1 bit
char
'\u0000'
2 byte
byte
1 byte
short
2 byte
int
4 byte
long
0L
8 byte
float
0.0f
4 byte
double
0.0d
8 byte
Why char uses 2 byte in java and what is \u0000 ?

because java uses unicode system rather than ASCII code system. \u0000 is the lowest
range of unicode system.To get detail about Unicode see below.
Unicode System
Unicode is a universal international standard character encoding that is capable of
representing most of the world's written languages.
Why java uses Unicode System?

Before Unicode, there were many language standards:
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) for the United
States.
ISO 8859-1 for Western European Language.
KOI-8 for Russian.
GB18030 and BIG-5 for chinese, and so on.
This caused two problems:

1. A particular code value corresponds to different letters in the various language
standards.
2. The encodings for languages with large character sets have variable length.Some
common characters are encoded as single bytes, other require two or more byte.
To solve these problems, a new language standard was developed i.e. Unicode System.
In unicode, character holds 2 byte, so java also uses 2 byte for characters.
lowest value:\u0000
highest value:\uFFFF
Operators in java
Operator is a special symbol that is used to perform operations. There are many types of
operators in java such as unary operator, arithmetic operator, relational operator, shift
operator, bitwise operator, ternary operator and assignment operator.
Precedence of Operators
Operators
Precedence
postfix
expr++ expr--
unary
++expr --expr +expr -expr ~ !
multiplicative
* / %
additive
+ -
shift
<< >> >>>
relational
< > <= >= instanceof
equality
== !=
bitwise AND
&
bitwise exclusive OR
bitwise inclusive OR
logical AND
&&
logical OR
||
ternary
? :
assignment
= += -= *= /= %= &= ^= |= <<= >>= >>>=
Useful Programs:
There is given some useful programs such as factorial number, prime number, fibonacci
series etc.
It is better for the freshers to skip this topic and come to it after OOPs
concepts.
1) Program of factorial number.

class Operation{
static int fact(int number){

int f=1;
for(int i=1;i<=number;i++){
f=f*i;
}
return f;
}
public static void main(String args[]){

int result=fact(5);
System.out.println("Factorial of 5="+result);
}
}
2) Program of fibonacci series.
class Fabnoci{
public static void main(String...args)

{
int n=10,i,f0=1,f1=1,f2=0;
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
f2=f0+f1;
f0=f1;
f1=f2;
f2=f0;
System.out.println(f2);
}
}
}
3) Program of armstrong number.

class ArmStrong{
public static void main(String...args)
{
int n=153,c=0,a,d;
d=n;
while(n>0)
{
a=n%10;
n=n/10;
c=c+(a*a*a);
}
if(d==c)
System.out.println("armstrong number");
else
System.out.println("it is not an armstrong number");
}
}
4) Program of checking palindrome number.

class Palindrome
{
public static void main( String...args)
{
int a=242;
int
n=a,b=a,rev=0;
while(n>0)
{
a=n%10;
rev=rev*10+a;
n=n/10;
}
if(rev==b)
System.out.println("it is Palindrome");
else
System.out.println("it is not palinedrome");
}
}
5) Program of swapping two numbers without using third variable.
class SwapTwoNumbers{
int a=40,b=5;
a=a*b;
b=a/b;
a=a/b;
System.out.println("a= "+a);
System.out.println("b= "+b);
}
}
6) Program of factorial number by recursion

class FactRecursion{
static int fact(int n){

if(n==1)
return 1;
return n*=fact(n-1);
}
int f=fact(5);
System.out.println(f);
}
}
Java OOPs Concepts

1. Object Oriented Programming
2. Advantage of OOPs over Procedure-oriented programming language
3. Difference between Objcet-oriented and Objcet-based programming language.
In this page, we will learn about basics of OOPs. Object Oriented Programming is a
paradigm that provides many concepts such as inheritance, data
binding,polymorphism etc.
Simula is considered as the first object-oriented programming language. The programming
paradigm where everything is represented as an object, is known as truly object-oriented
programming language.
Smalltalk is considered as the first truly object-oriented programming language.
OOPs (Object Oriented Programming System)
Object means a real word entity such

as pen, chair, table etc. Object-Oriented Programming is a methodology or paradigm to
design a program using classes and objects. It simplifies the software development and
maintenance by providing some concepts:
Object
Class
Inheritance
Polymorphism
Abstraction
Encapsulation
Object
Any entity that has state and behavior is known as an object. For example: chair, pen,
table, keyboard, bike etc. It can be physical and logical.
Class
Collection of objects is called class. It is a logical entity.
Inheritance
When one object acquires all the properties and behaviours of parent object i.e.
known as inheritance. It provides code reusability. It is used to achieve runtime
polymorphism.
Polymorphism
When one task is performed by different ways i.e. known as polymorphism. For
example: to convense the customer differently, to draw something e.g. shape or rectangle
etc.
In java, we use method overloading and method overriding to achieve polymorphism.
Another example can be to speak something e.g. cat speaks meaw, dog barks woof etc.
Abstraction
Hiding internal details and showing functionality is known as abstraction. For
example: phone call, we don't know the internal processing.
In java, we use abstract class and interface to achieve abstraction.
Encapsulation
Binding (or wrapping) code and data together into a single unit is known as
encapsulation. For example: capsule, it is wrapped with different medicines.
A java class is the example of encapsulation. Java bean is the fully encapsulated class
because all the data members are private here.
Advantage of OOPs over Procedure-oriented programming

language
1)OOPs makes development and maintenance easier where as in Procedure-oriented
programming language it is not easy to manage if code grows as project size grows.
2)OOPs provides data hiding whereas in Procedure-oriented prgramming language a
global data can be accessed from anywhere.
3)OOPs provides ability to simulate real-world event much more effectively. We can
provide the solution of real word problem if we are using the Object-Oriented
Programming language.
What is difference between object-oriented programming language and

object-based programming language?
Object based programming language follows all the features of OOPs except Inheritance.
JavaScript and VBScript are examples of object based programming languages.
Do You Know ?
Can we overload main method ?

Constructor returns a value but, what ?
Can we create a program without main method ?
What are the 6 ways to use this keyword ?
Why multiple inheritance is not supported in java ?
Why use aggregation ?
Can we override the static method ?
What is covariant return type ?
What are the three usage of super keyword?
Why use instance initializer block?
What is the usage of blank final variable ?
What is marker or tagged interface ?
What is runtime polymorphism or dynamic method dispatch ?
What is the difference between static and dynamic binding ?
How downcasting is possible in java ?
What is the purpose of private constructor?
What is object cloning ?
What we will learn in OOPs Concepts ?
Advantage of OOPs
Naming Convention
Object and class
Method overloading
Constructor
static keyword
this keyword with 6 usage
Inheritance
Aggregation
Method Overriding
Covariant Return Type
super keyword
Instance Initializer block
final keyword
Abstract class
Interface
Runtime Polymorphism
Static and Dynamic Binding
Downcasting with instanceof operator
Package
Access Modifiers
Encapsulation
Object Cloning
Java Naming conventions

Java naming convention is a rule to follow as you decide what to name your identifiers
such as class, package, variable, constant, method etc.
But, it is not forced to follow. So, it is known as convention not rule.
All the classes, interfaces, packages, methods and fields of java programming language are
given according to java naming convention.
Advantage of naming conventions in java

By using standard Java naming conventions, you make your code easier to read for yourself
and for other programmers. Readability of Java program is very important. It indicates
that less time is spent to figure out what the code does.
Name
Convention
class name
should start with uppercase letter and be a noun e.g. String, Color, Button,
System, Thread etc.
interface
should start with uppercase letter and be an adjective e.g. Runnable, Remote,
name
ActionListener etc.
method name
should start with lowercase letter and be a verb e.g. actionPerformed(), main(),
print(), println() etc.
variable name
should start with lowercase letter e.g. firstName, orderNumber etc.
package
should be in lowercase letter e.g. java, lang, sql, util etc.
name
constants
should be in uppercase letter. e.g. RED, YELLOW, MAX_PRIORITY etc.
name
Understanding CamelCase in java naming conventions

Java follows camelcase syntax for naming the class, interface, method and variable.
If name is combined with two words, second word will start with uppercase letter always
e.g. actionPerformed(), firstName, ActionEvent, ActionListener etc.
Object and Class in Java

1. Object in Java
2. Class in Java
3. Instace Variable in Java
4. Method in Java
5. Example of Object and class that maintains the records of student
6. Annonymous Object
In this page, we will learn about java objects and classes. In object-oriented programming
technique, we design a program using objects and classes.
Object is the physical as well as logical entity whereas class is the logical entity only.
Object in Java
An entity that has state and behavior is known as an object e.g. chair, bike, marker, pen,
table, car etc. It can be physical or logical (tengible and intengible). The example of
integible object is banking system.
An object has three characteristics:
state: represents data (value) of an object.

behavior: represents the behavior (functionality) of an object such as deposit,
withdraw etc.
identity: Object identity is typically implemented via a unique ID. The value of the
ID is not visible to the external user. But,it is used internally by the JVM to identify
each object uniquely.
For Example: Pen is an object. Its name is Reynolds, color is white etc. known as its
state. It is used to write, so writing is its behavior.

Object is an instance of a class. Class is a template or blueprint from which objects
are created. So object is the instance(result) of a class.
Class in Java
A class is a group of objects that has common properties. It is a template or blueprint
from which objects are created.
A class in java can contain:
data member
method
constructor
block
class and interface
Syntax to declare a class:

1. class <class_name>{
2.
data member;
3.
method;
4. }
Simple Example of Object and Class

In this example, we have created a Student class that have two data members id and
name. We are creating the object of the Student class by new keyword and printing the
objects value.
1. class Student1{
2. int id;//data member (also instance variable)
3. String name;//data member(also instance variable)
4.
5. public static void main(String args[]){
6.
Student1 s1=new Student1();//creating an object of Student
7.
System.out.println(s1.id);
8.
System.out.println(s1.name);
9. }
10. }
Test it Now
Output:0 null
Instance variable in Java

A variable that is created inside the class but outside the method, is known as instance
variable.Instance variable doesn't get memory at compile time.It gets memory at
runtime when object(instance) is created.That is why, it is known as instance variable.
Method in Java
In java, a method is like function i.e. used to expose behaviour of an object.
Advantage of Method
Code Reusability
Code Optimization
new keyword
The new keyword is used to allocate memory at runtime.
Example of Object and class that maintains the records of

students
In this example, we are creating the two objects of Student class and initializing the
value to these objects by invoking the insertRecord method on it. Here, we are displaying
the state (data) of the objects by invoking the displayInformation method.
1. class Student2{
2. int rollno;
3. String name;
4.
5. void insertRecord(int r, String n){ //method
6.
rollno=r;
7.
name=n;
8. }
9.
10. void displayInformation(){System.out.println(rollno+" "+name);}//method
11.
13. Student2 s1=new Student2();
15.
16. s1.insertRecord(111,"Karan");
17. s2.insertRecord(222,"Aryan");
18.
19. s1.displayInformation();
20. s2.displayInformation();
21.
22. }
23. }
Test it Now
Output:111 Karan
222 Aryan
download this example of object and class
As you see in the above figure, object gets the memory in Heap area and reference
variable refers to the object allocated in the Heap memory area. Here, s1 and s2 both
are reference variables that refer to the objects allocated in memory.
Another Example of Object and Class

There is given another example that maintains the records of Rectangle class. Its
exaplanation is same as in the above Student class example.
1. class Rectangle{
2. int length;
3. int width;
4.
5. void insert(int l,int w){
6.
length=l;
7.
width=w;
8. }
9.
10. void calculateArea(){System.out.println(length*width);}
11.
13. Rectangle r1=new Rectangle();
14. Rectangle r2=new Rectangle();
15.
16. r1.insert(11,5);
17. r2.insert(3,15);
18.
19. r1.calculateArea();
21. }
22. }
Output:55
45
What are the different ways to create an object in Java?

There are many ways to create an object in java. They are:
By
By
By
By
new keyword
newInstance() method
clone() method
factory method etc.
We will learn, these ways to create the object later.
Annonymous object
Annonymous simply means nameless.An object that have no reference is known as
annonymous object.
If you have to use an object only once, annonymous object is a good approach.
1. class Calculation{
2.
3. void fact(int n){
4.
int fact=1;
5.
for(int i=1;i<=n;i++){
6.
fact=fact*i;
7.
}
8. System.out.println("factorial is "+fact);
9. }
10.
12. new Calculation().fact(5);//calling method with annonymous object
13. }
14. }
Output:Factorial is 120
Creating multiple objects by one type only

We can create multiple objects by one type only as we do in case of primitives.
1. Rectangle r1=new Rectangle(),r2=new Rectangle();//creating two objects
Let's see the example:
1. class Rectangle{
2. int length;
3. int width;
4.
5. void insert(int l,int w){
6.
length=l;
7.
width=w;
8. }
9.
10. void calculateArea(){System.out.println(length*width);}
11.
13. Rectangle r1=new Rectangle(),r2=new Rectangle();//creating two objects
14.
15. r1.insert(11,5);
16. r2.insert(3,15);
17.
20. }
21. }
Method Overloading in Java

1. Different ways to overload the method
2. By changing the no. of arguments
3. By changing the datatype
4. Why method overloading is not possible by changing the return type
5. Can we overload the main method
6. method overloading with Type Promotion
If a class have multiple methods by same name but different parameters, it is known
as Method Overloading.
If we have to perform only one operation, having same name of the methods increases the
readability of the program.
Suppose you have to perform addition of the given numbers but there can be any number
of arguments, if you write the method such as a(int,int) for two parameters, and
b(int,int,int) for three parameters then it may be difficult for you as well as other
programmers to understand the behaviour of the method because its name differs. So, we
perform method overloading to figure out the program quickly.
Advantage of method overloading?

Method overloading increases the readability of the program.
Different ways to overload the method

There are two ways to overload the method in java
1. By changing number of arguments
2. By changing the data type
In java, Methood Overloading is not possible by changing the return type of the
method.
1)Example of Method Overloading by changing the no. of

arguments
In this example, we have created two overloaded methods, first sum method performs
addition of two numbers and second sum method performs addition of three numbers.
1. class Calculation{
2.
void sum(int a,int b){System.out.println(a+b);}
3.
void sum(int a,int b,int c){System.out.println(a+b+c);}
4.
5.
6.
Calculation obj=new Calculation();
7.
obj.sum(10,10,10);
8.
obj.sum(20,20);
9.
10. }
11. }
Test it Now
Output:30
40
2)Example of Method Overloading by changing data type of

argument
In this example, we have created two overloaded methods that differs in data type. The first
sum method receives two integer arguments and second sum method receives two double
arguments.
1. class Calculation2{
2.
void sum(int a,int b){System.out.println(a+b);}
3.
void sum(double a,double b){System.out.println(a+b);}
4.
5.
6.
Calculation2 obj=new Calculation2();
7.
obj.sum(10.5,10.5);
8.
obj.sum(20,20);
9.
10. }
11. }
Test it Now
Output:21.0
40
Que) Why Method Overloaing is not possible by changing the return

type of method?
In java, method overloading is not possible by changing the return type of the method
because there may occur ambiguity. Let's see how ambiguity may occur:
because there was problem:
1. class Calculation3{
2.
int sum(int a,int b){System.out.println(a+b);}
3.
double sum(int a,int b){System.out.println(a+b);}
4.
5.
6.
Calculation3 obj=new Calculation3();
7.
int result=obj.sum(20,20); //Compile Time Error
8.
9.
}
10. }
Test it Now
int result=obj.sum(20,20); //Here how can java determine which sum() method should be
called
Can we overload main() method?

Yes, by method overloading. You can have any number of main methods in a class by
method overloading. Let's see the simple example:
1. class Overloading1{
2.
public static void main(int a){
3.
System.out.println(a);
4.
}
5.
6.
7.
System.out.println("main() method invoked");
8.
main(10);
9.
}
10. }
Test it Now
Output:main() method invoked
10
Method Overloading and TypePromotion

One type is promoted to another implicitly if no matching datatype is found. Let's
understand the concept by the figure given below:
As displayed in the above diagram, byte can be promoted to short, int, long, float or double.
The short datatype can be promoted to int,long,float or double. The char datatype can be
promoted to int,long,float or double and so on.
Example of Method Overloading with TypePromotion

1. class OverloadingCalculation1{
2.
void sum(int a,long b){System.out.println(a+b);}
3.
void sum(int a,int b,int c){System.out.println(a+b+c);}
4.
5.
6.
OverloadingCalculation1 obj=new OverloadingCalculation1();
7.
obj.sum(20,20);//now second int literal will be promoted to long
8.
obj.sum(20,20,20);
9.
10. }
11. }
Test it Now
Output:40
60
Example of Method Overloading with TypePromotion if

matching found
If there are matching type arguments in the method, type promotion is not performed.
2.
void sum(int a,int b){System.out.println("int arg method invoked");}
3.
void sum(long a,long b){System.out.println("long arg method invoked");}
4.
5.
6.
7.
obj.sum(20,20);//now int arg sum() method gets invoked
8.
}
9. }
Test it Now
Output:int arg method invoked
Example of Method Overloading with TypePromotion in case

ambiguity
If there are no matching type arguments in the method, and each method promotes similar
number of arguments, there will be ambiguity.
2.
void sum(int a,long b){System.out.println("a method invoked");}
3.
void sum(long a,int b){System.out.println("b method invoked");}
4.
5.
6.
7.
obj.sum(20,20);//now ambiguity
8.
}
9. }
Constructor in Java
1. Types of constructors
1. Default Constructor
2. Parameterized Constructor
2. Constructor Overloading
3. Does constructor return any value
4. Copying the values of one object into another
5. Does constructor perform other task instead initialization
Constructor is a special type of method that is used to initialize the object.
Constructor is invoked at the time of object creation. It constructs the values i.e.
provides data for the object that is why it is known as constructor.
Rules for creating constructor

There are basically two rules defined for the constructor.
1. Constructor name must be same as its class name
2. Constructor must have no explicit return type
Types of constructors
There are two types of constructors:
1. default constructor (no-arg constructor)
2. parameterized constructor
1) Default Constructor
A constructor that have no parameter is known as default constructor.
Syntax of default constructor:

1. <class_name>(){}
Example of default constructor

In this example, we are creating the no-arg constructor in the Bike class. It will be
invoked at the time of object creation.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
class Bike1{
Bike(){System.out.println("Bike is created");}
Bike1 b=new Bike1();
}
}
Test it Now
Output: Bike is created
Rule: If there is no constructor in a class, compiler automatically creates a default

constructor.
Que)What is the purpose of default constructor?

Default constructor provides the default values to the object like 0, null etc. depending on
the type.
Example of default constructor that displays the default values

1. class Student3{
2. int id;
3. String name;
4.
5. void display(){System.out.println(id+" "+name);}
6.
10. s1.display();
11. s2.display();
12. }
13. }
Test it Now
Output:0 null
0 null
Explanation:In the above class,you are not creating any constructor so compiler provides
you a default constructor.Here 0 and null values are provided by default constructor.
Parameterized constructor
A constructor that have parameters is known as parameterized constructor.
Why use parameterized constructor?

Parameterized constructor is used to provide different values to the distinct objects.
Example of parameterized constructor

In this example, we have created the constructor of Student class that have two
parameters. We can have any number of parameters in the constructor.
1. class Student4{
2.
int id;
3.
String name;
4.
5.
Student4(int i,String n){
6.
id = i;
7.
name = n;
8.
}
9.
void display(){System.out.println(id+" "+name);}
10.
11.
12.
Student4 s1 = new Student4(111,"Karan");
13.
Student4 s2 = new Student4(222,"Aryan");
14.
s1.display();
15.
s2.display();
16. }
17. }
Test it Now
Output:111 Karan
222 Aryan
Constructor Overloading
Constructor overloading is a technique in Java in which a class can have any number of
constructors that differ in parameter lists.The compiler differentiates these constructors
by taking into account the number of parameters in the list and their type.
Example of Constructor Overloading
1. class Student5{
2.
int id;
3.
String name;
4.
int age;
5.
6.
id = i;
7.
name = n;
8.
}
9.
Student5(int i,String n,int a){
10.
id = i;
11.
name = n;
12.
age=a;
13.
}
14.
void display(){System.out.println(id+" "+name+" "+age);}
15.
16.
17.
18.
Student5 s2 = new Student5(222,"Aryan",25);
19.
s1.display();
20.
s2.display();
21. }
22. }
Test it Now
Output:111 Karan 0
222 Aryan 25
What is the difference between constructor and method ?

There are many differences between constructors and methods. They are given below.
Constructor
Constructor is used to initialize the state of an object.
Method
Method is used to expose behaviour of
an object.
Constructor must not have return type.
Method must have return type.
Constructor is invoked implicitly.
Method is invoked explicitly.
The java compiler provides a default constructor if you
Method is not provided by compiler in
don't have any constructor.
any case.
Constructor name must be same as the class name.
Method name may or may not be same

as class name.
Copying the values of one object to another like copy constructor

in C++
There are many ways to copy the values of one object into another. They are:
By constructor
By assigning the values of one object into another
By clone() method of Object class
In this example, we are going to copy the values of one object into another using
constructor.
1. class Student6{
2.
int id;
3.
String name;
4.
5.
id = i;
6.
name = n;
7.
}
8.
9.
Student6(Student s){
10.
id = s.id;
11.
name =s.name;
12.
}
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Student6 s2 = new Student6(s1);
18.
s1.display();
19.
s2.display();
20. }
21. }
Test it Now
Output:111 Karan
111 Karan
Copying the values of one object to another without constructor
We can copy the values of one object into another by assigning the objects values to
another object. In this case, there is no need to create the constructor.
1. class Student7{
2.
int id;
3.
String name;
4.
5.
id = i;
6.
name = n;
7.
}
8.
Student7(){}
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Student7 s2 = new Student7();
14.
s2.id=s1.id;
15.
s2.name=s1.name;
16.
s1.display();
17.
s2.display();
18. }
19. }
Test it Now
Output:111 Karan
111 Karan
Que)Does constructor return any value?

Ans:yes,that is current class instance (You cannot use return type yet it returns a value).
Can constructor perform other tasks instead of initialization?

Yes, like object creation, starting a thread, calling method etc. You can perform any
operation in the constructor as you perform in the method.
static keyword
1. Static variable
2. Program of counter without static variable
3. Program of counter with static variable
4. Static method
5. Restrictions for static method

6. Why main method is static ?
7. Static block
8. Can we execute a program without main method ?
The static keyword is used in java mainly for memory management. We may apply static
keyword with variables, methods, blocks and nested class. The static keyword belongs to
the class than instance of the class.
The static can be:
1.
2.
3.
4.
variable (also known as class variable)

method (also known as class method)
block
nested class
1) static variable
If you declare any variable as static, it is known static variable.
The static variable can be used to refer the common property of all objects (that is
not unique for each object) e.g. company name of employees,college name of
students etc.
The static variable gets memory only once in class area at the time of class loading.
Advantage of static variable

It makes your program memory efficient (i.e it saves memory).
Understanding problem without static variable

1. class Student{
2.
int rollno;
3.
String name;
4.
String college="ITS";
5. }
Suppose there are 500 students in my college, now all instance data members will get
memory each time when object is created.All student have its unique rollno and name so
instance data member is good.Here, college refers to the common property of all objects.If
we make it static,this field will get memory only once.
static property is shared to all objects.
Example of static variable

1. //Program of static variable
2.
3. class Student8{
4.
int rollno;
5.
String name;
6.
static String college ="ITS";
7.
8.
Student8(int r,String n){
9.
rollno = r;
10. name = n;
11. }
12. void display (){System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+college);}
13.
15. Student8 s1 = new Student8(111,"Karan");
16. Student8 s2 = new Student8(222,"Aryan");
17.
18. s1.display();
19. s2.display();
20. }
21. }
Test it Now
Output:111 Karan ITS
222 Aryan ITS
Program of counter without static variable

In this example, we have created an instance variable named count which is incremented in
the constructor. Since instance variable gets the memory at the time of object creation,
each object will have the copy of the instance variable, if it is incremented, it won't reflect
to other objects. So each objects will have the value 1 in the count variable.
1. class Counter{
2. int count=0;//will get memory when instance is created
3.
4. Counter(){
5. count++;
6. System.out.println(count);
7. }
8.
10.
11. Counter c1=new Counter();

14.
15. }
16. }
Test it Now
Output:1
1
1
Program of counter by static variable

As we have mentioned above, static variable will get the memory only once, if any object
changes the value of the static variable, it will retain its value.
1. class Counter2{
2. static int count=0;//will get memory only once and retain its value
3.
4. Counter2(){
5. count++;
6. System.out.println(count);
7. }
8.
10.
11. Counter2 c1=new Counter2();
14.
15. }
16. }
Test it Now
Output:1
2
3
2) static method
If you apply static keyword with any method, it is known as static method
A static method belongs to the class rather than object of a class.

A static method can be invoked without the need for creating an instance of a class.
static method can access static data member and can change the value of it.
Example of static method

1. //Program of changing the common property of all objects(static field).
2.
3. class Student9{
4.
int rollno;
5.
String name;
6.
static String college = "ITS";
7.
8.
static void change(){
9.
college = "BBDIT";
10.
}
11.
12.
Student9(int r, String n){
13.
rollno = r;
14.
name = n;
15.
}
16.
17.
void display (){System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+college);}
18.
19.
20.
Student9.change();
21.
22.
Student9 s1 = new Student9 (111,"Karan");
23.
Student9 s2 = new Student9 (222,"Aryan");
24.
Student9 s3 = new Student9 (333,"Sonoo");
25.
26.
s1.display();
27.
s2.display();
28.
s3.display();
29.
}
30. }
Test it Now
Output:111 Karan BBDIT
222 Aryan BBDIT
333 Sonoo BBDIT
Another example of static method that performs normal

calculation
1. //Program to get cube of a given number by static method
2.
3. class Calculate{
4.
static int cube(int x){
5.
return x*x*x;
6.
}
7.
8.
9.
int result=Calculate.cube(5);
10. System.out.println(result);
11. }
12. }
Test it Now
Output:125
Restrictions for static method

There are two main restrictions for the static method. They are:
1. The static method can not use non static data member or call non-static method
directly.
2. this and super cannot be used in static context.
1. class A{
2. int a=40;//non static
3.
5.
System.out.println(a);
6. }
7. }
Test it Now
Output:Compile Time Error
Que)why main method is static?

Ans) because object is not required to call static method if it were non-static method,
jvm create object first then call main() method that will lead the problem of extra
memory allocation.
3)static block
Is used to initialize the static data member.

It is executed before main method at the time of classloading.
Example of static block
1. class A2{
2.
3.
static{System.out.println("static block is invoked");}
4.
5.
6.
System.out.println("Hello main");
7.
}
8. }
Test it Now
Output:static block is invoked
Hello main
Que)Can we execute a program without main() method?

Ans)Yes, one of the way is static block but in previous version of JDK not in JDK 1.7.
1. class A3{
2.
static{
3.
System.out.println("static block is invoked");
4.
System.exit(0);
5.
}
6. }
Test it Now
Output:static block is invoked (if not JDK7)
In JDK7 and above, output will be:
Output:Error: Main method not found in class A3, please define the main
method as:
public static void main(String[] args)
this keyword
1. this keyword
2. Usage of this keyword
1. to refer the current class instance variable
2. to invoke the current class constructor
3. to invoke the current class method
4. to pass as an argument in the method call
5. to pass as an argument in the constructor call
6. to return the current class instance
3. Proving this keyword

There can be a lot of usage of this keyword. In java, this is a reference variable that
refers to the current object.
Usage of this keyword

Here is given the 6 usage of this keyword.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
this keyword can be used to refer current class instance variable.

this() can be used to invoke current class constructor.
this keyword can be used to invoke current class method (implicitly)
this can be passed as an argument in the method call.
this can be passed as argument in the constructor call.
this keyword can also be used to return the current class instance.
Suggestion:If you are beginner to java, lookup only two usage of this keyword.
1) The this keyword can be used to refer current class instance

variable.
If there is ambiguity between the instance variable and parameter, this keyword resolves
the problem of ambiguity.
Understanding the problem without this keyword

Let's understand the problem if we don't use this keyword by the example given below:
1. class Student10{
2.
int id;
3.
String name;
4.
5.
student(int id,String name){
6.
id = id;
7.
name = name;
8.
}
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
s1.display();
15.
s2.display();
16.
}
17. }
Test it Now
Output:0 null
0 null
In the above example, parameter (formal arguments) and instance variables are same
that is why we are using this keyword to distinguish between local variable and instance
variable.
Solution of the above problem by this keyword

1. //example of this keyword
2. class Student11{
3.
int id;
4.
String name;
5.
6.
Student11(int id,String name){
7.
this.id = id;
8.
this.name = name;
9.
}
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
s1.display();
15.
s2.display();
16. }
17. }
Test it Now
Output111 Karan
222 Aryan
If local variables(formal arguments) and instance variables are different, there is no need
to use this keyword like in the following program:
Program where this keyword is not required

1. class Student12{
2.
int id;
3.
String name;
4.
5.
6.
id = i;
7.
name = n;
8.
}
9.
10.
11.
Student12 e1 = new Student12(111,"karan");
12.
Student12 e2 = new Student12(222,"Aryan");
13.
e1.display();
14.
e2.display();
15. }
16. }
Test it Now
Output:111 Karan
222 Aryan
2) this() can be used to invoked current class constructor.

The this() constructor call can be used to invoke the current class constructor (constructor
chaining). This approach is better if you have many constructors in the class and want to
reuse that constructor.
1. //Program of this() constructor call (constructor chaining)
2.
3. class Student13{
4.
int id;
5.
String name;
6.
Student13(){System.out.println("default constructor is invoked");}
7.
8.
9.
this ();//it is used to invoked current class constructor.
10.
this.id = id;
11.
this.name = name;
12.
}
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
e1.display();
19.
e2.display();
20. }
21. }
Test it Now
Output:
default constructor is invoked
default constructor is invoked
111 Karan
222 Aryan
Where to use this() constructor call?

The this() constructor call should be used to reuse the constructor in the constructor. It
maintains the chain between the constructors i.e. it is used for constructor chaining. Let's
see the example given below that displays the actual use of this keyword.
1. class Student14{
2.
int id;
3.
String name;
4.
String city;
5.
6.
7.
this.id = id;
8.
this.name = name;
9.
}
10.
Student14(int id,String name,String city){
11.
this(id,name);//now no need to initialize id and name
12.
this.city=city;
13.
}
14.
void display(){System.out.println(id+" "+name+" "+city);}
15.
16.
17.
18.
Student14 e2 = new Student14(222,"Aryan","delhi");
19.
e1.display();
20.
e2.display();
21. }
22. }
Test it Now
Output:111 Karan null
222 Aryan delhi
Rule: Call to this() must be the first statement in constructor.

1. class Student15{
2.
int id;
3.
String name;
4.
Student15(){System.out.println("default constructor is invoked");}
5.
6.
7.
id = id;
8.
name = name;
9.
this ();//must be the first statement
10.
}
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
e1.display();
17.
e2.display();
18. }
19. }
Test it Now
3)The this keyword can be used to invoke current class method

(implicitly).
You may invoke the method of the current class by using the this keyword. If you don't
use the this keyword, compiler automatically adds this keyword while invoking the
method. Let's see the example
1. class S{
2.
void m(){
3.
System.out.println("method is invoked");
4.
}
5.
void n(){
6.
this.m();//no need because compiler does it for you.
7.
}
8.
void p(){
9.
n();//complier will add this to invoke n() method as this.n()
10. }
12. S s1 = new S();
13. s1.p();
14. }
15. }
Test it Now
Output:method is invoked
4) this keyword can be passed as an argument in the method.
The this keyword can also be passed as an argument in the method. It is mainly used in
the event handling. Let's see the example:
1. class S2{
2.
void m(S2 obj){
3.
System.out.println("method is invoked");
4.
}
5.
void p(){
6.
m(this);
7.
}
8.
9.
10. S2 s1 = new S2();
11. s1.p();
12. }
13. }
Test it Now
Output:method is invoked
Application of this that can be passed as an argument:

In event handling (or) in a situation where we have to provide reference of a class to
another one.
5) The this keyword can be passed as argument in the

constructor call.
We can pass the this keyword in the constructor also. It is useful if we have to use one
object in multiple classes. Let's see the example:
1. class B{
2.
A4 obj;
3.
B(A4 obj){
4.
this.obj=obj;
5.
}
6.
void display(){
7.
System.out.println(obj.data);//using data member of A4 class
8.
}
9. }
10.
11. class A4{
12. int data=10;
13. A4(){
14. B b=new B(this);
15. b.display();
16. }
18. A4 a=new A4();
19. }
20. }
Test it Now
Output:10
6) The this keyword can be used to return current class instance.

We can return the this keyword as an statement from the method. In such case, return
type of the method must be the class type (non-primitive). Let's see the example:
Syntax of this that can be returned as a statement

1. return_type method_name(){
2. return this;
3. }
Example of this keyword that you return as a statement from

the method
1. class A{
2. A getA(){
3. return this;
4. }
5. void msg(){System.out.println("Hello java");}
6. }
7.
8. class Test1{
10. new A().getA().msg();
11. }
12. }
Test it Now
Output:Hello java
Proving this keyword

Let's prove that this keyword refers to the current class instance variable. In this
program, we are printing the reference variable and this, output of both variables are
same.
1. class A5{
2. void m(){
3. System.out.println(this);//prints same reference ID
4. }
5.
7. A5 obj=new A5();
8. System.out.println(obj);//prints the reference ID
9.
10. obj.m();
11. }
12. }
Test it Now
Output:A5@22b3ea59
A5@22b3ea59
Inheritance in Java
1. Inheritance
2. Types of Inheritance
3. Why multiple inheritance is not possible in java in case of class?
Inheritance in java is a mechanism in which one object acquires all the properties and
behaviors of parent object.
The idea behind inheritance in java is that you can create new classes that are built upon
existing classes. When you inherit from an existing class, you can reuse methods and fields
of parent class, and you can add new methods and fields also.
Inheritance represents the IS-A relationship, also known as Parent-Child relationship.
Why use Inheritance?
For Method Overriding (So Runtime Polymorphism).

For Code Reusability.
Syntax of Inheritance
1. class Subclass-name extends Superclass-name
2. {
3.
//methods and fields
4. }
The keyword extends indicates that you are making a new class that derives from an
existing class.
In the terminology of Java, a class that is inherited is called a super class. The new class is
called a subclass.
Understanding the simple example of inheritance
As displayed in the above figure, Programmer is the subclass and Employee is the
superclass. Relationship between two classes is Programmer IS-A Employee.It means
that Programmer is a type of Employee.
1. class Employee{
2. float salary=40000;
3. }
4.
5. class Programmer extends Employee{
6. int bonus=10000;
8.
Programmer p=new Programmer();
9.
System.out.println("Programmer salary is:"+p.salary);
10. System.out.println("Bonus of Programmer is:"+p.bonus);
11. }
12. }
Test it Now
Programmer salary is:40000.0
Bonus of programmer is:10000
In the above example, Programmer object can access the field of own class as well as of
Employee class i.e. code reusability.
Types of Inheritance
On the basis of class, there can be three types of inheritance: single, multilevel and
hierarchical in java.
In java programming, multiple and hybrid inheritance is supported through interface only.
We will learn about interfaces later.
Multiple inheritance is not supported in java in case of class.

When a class extends multiple classes i.e. known as multiple inheritance. For Example:
Q) Why multiple inheritance is not supported in java?

To reduce the complexity and simplify the language, multiple inheritance is not supported in
java.
Consider a scenario where A, B and C are three classes. The C class inherits A and B
classes. If A and B classes have same method and you call it from child class object, there
will be ambiguity to call method of A or B class.
Since compile time errors are better than runtime errors, java renders compile time error if
you inherit 2 classes. So whether you have same method or different, there will be compile
time error now.
1. class A{
2. void msg(){System.out.println("Hello");}
3. }
4. class B{
5. void msg(){System.out.println("Welcome");}
6. }
7. class C extends A,B{//suppose if it were
8.
9. Public Static void main(String args[]){
10. C obj=new C();
11. obj.msg();//Now which msg() method would be invoked?
12. }
13. }
Test it Now
Compile Time Error
Aggregation in Java
If a class have an entity reference, it is known as Aggregation. Aggregation represents HASA relationship.
Consider a situation, Employee object contains many informations such as id, name, emailId
etc. It contains one more object named address, which contains its own informations such
as city, state, country, zipcode etc. as given below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
class Employee{
int id;
String name;
Address address;//Address is a class
...
}
In such case, Employee has an entity reference address, so relationship is Employee HAS-A
address.
Why use Aggregation?
For Code Reusability.
Simple Example of Aggregation
In this example, we have created the reference of Operation class in the Circle class.
1. class Operation{
2. int square(int n){
3.
return n*n;
4. }
5. }
6.
7. class Circle{
8. Operation op;//aggregation
9. double pi=3.14;
10.
11. double area(int radius){
12. op=new Operation();
13. int rsquare=op.square(radius);//code reusability (i.e. delegates the method call).
14. return pi*rsquare;
15. }
16.
17.
18.
20. Circle c=new Circle();
21. double result=c.area(5);
22. System.out.println(result);
23. }
24. }
Test it Now
Output:78.5
When use Aggregation?
Code reuse is also best achieved by aggregation when there is no is-a relationship.
Inheritance should be used only if the relationship is-a is maintained throughout the
lifetime of the objects involved; otherwise, aggregation is the best choice.
Understanding meaningful example of Aggregation

In this example, Employee has an object of Address, address object contains its own
informations such as city, state, country etc. In such case relationship is Employee HAS-A
address.
Address.java
1. public class Address1 {
2. String city,state,country;
3.
4. public Address1(String city, String state, String country) {
5.
this.city = city;
6.
this.state = state;
7.
this.country = country;
8. }
9.
10. }
Emp.java
1. public class Emp {
2. int id;
3. String name;
4. Address address;
5.
6. public Emp(int id, String name,Address address) {
7.
this.id = id;
8.
this.name = name;
9.
this.address=address;
10. }
11.
12. void display(){
13. System.out.println(id+" "+name);
14. System.out.println(address.city+" "+address.state+" "+address.country);
15. }
16.
17. public static void main(String[] args) {
18. Address address1=new Address("gzb","UP","india");
19. Address address2=new Address("gno","UP","india");
20.
21. Emp e=new Emp(111,"varun",address1);
22. Emp e2=new Emp(112,"arun",address2);
23.
24. e.display();
25. e2.display();
26.
27. }
28. }
Test it Now
Output:111 varun
gzb UP india
112 arun
gno UP india
Method Overriding in Java

1. Understanding problem without method overriding
2. Can we override the static method
3. method overloading vs method overriding
If subclass (child class) has the same method as declared in the parent class, it is known
as method overriding.
In other words, If subclass provides the specific implementation of the method that has
been provided by one of its parent class, it is known as Method Overriding.
Advantage of Java Method Overriding
Method Overriding is used to provide specific implementation of a method that is

already provided by its super class.
Method Overriding is used for Runtime Polymorphism
Rules for Method Overriding

1. method must have same name as in the parent class
2. method must have same parameter as in the parent class.
3. must be IS-A relationship (inheritance).
Understanding the problem without method overriding

Let's understand the problem that we may face in the program if we don't use method
overriding.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
class Vehicle{
void run(){System.out.println("Vehicle is running");}
}
class Bike extends Vehicle{
6.
7.
Bike obj = new Bike();
8.
obj.run();
9.
}
10. }
Test it Now
Output:Vehicle is running
Problem is that I have to provide a specific implementation of run() method in subclass that
is why we use method overriding.
Example of method overriding

In this example, we have defined the run method in the subclass as defined in the parent
class but it has some specific implementation. The name and parameter of the method is
same and there is IS-A relationship between the classes, so there is method overriding.
1. class Vehicle{
2. void run(){System.out.println("Vehicle is running");}
3. }
4. class Bike2 extends Vehicle{
5. void run(){System.out.println("Bike is running safely");}
6.
8. Bike2 obj = new Bike2();
9. obj.run();
10. }
Test it Now
Output:Bike is running safely
Real example of Java Method Overriding

Consider a scenario, Bank is a class that provides functionality to get rate of interest. But,
rate of interest varies according to banks. For example, SBI, ICICI and AXIS banks could
provide 8%, 7% and 9% rate of interest.
1. class Bank{
2. int getRateOfInterest(){return 0;}
3. }
4.
5. class SBI extends Bank{
7. }
8.
9. class ICICI extends Bank{
11. }
12. class AXIS extends Bank{
14. }
15.
16. class Test2{
18. SBI s=new SBI();
19. ICICI i=new ICICI();
20. AXIS a=new AXIS();
21. System.out.println("SBI Rate of Interest: "+s.getRateOfInterest());
22. System.out.println("ICICI Rate of Interest: "+i.getRateOfInterest());
23. System.out.println("AXIS Rate of Interest: "+a.getRateOfInterest());
24. }
25. }
Test it Now
Output:
SBI Rate of Interest: 8
ICICI Rate of Interest: 7
AXIS Rate of Interest: 9
Can we override static method?

No, static method cannot be overridden. It can be proved by runtime polymorphism so
we will learn it later.
Why we cannot override static method?

because static method is bound with class whereas instance method is bound with object.
Static belongs to class area and instance belongs to heap area.
Can we override java main method?

No, because main is a static method.
What is the difference between method Overloading and Method

Overriding?
There are three basic differences between the method overloading and method overriding.
They are as follows:
Method Overloading
Method Overriding
1) Method overloading is used to
Method overriding is used to provide the specific
increase the readability of the
implementation of the method that is already provided by
program.
its super class.
2) method overloading is performed
Method overriding occurs in two classes that have IS-A
within a class.
relationship.
3) In case of method overloading
In case of method overriding parameter must be same.
parameter must be different.
More topics on Method Overriding (Not For Fresher)

Method Overriding with Access Modifier
Let's see the concept of method overriding with access modifier.
Exception Handling with Method Overriding
Let's see the concept of method overriding with exception handling.
Covariant Return Type

The covariant return type specifies that the return type may vary in the same direction as
the subclass.
Before Java5, it was not possible to override any method by changing the return type. But
now, since Java5, it is possible to override method by changing the return type if subclass
overrides any method whose return type is Non-Primitive but it changes its return type to
subclass type. Let's take a simple example:
Note: If you are beginner to java, skip this topic and return to it after OOPs
concepts.
Simple example of Covariant Return Type

1. class A{
2. A get(){return this;}
3. }
4.
5. class B1 extends A{
6. B1 get(){return this;}
7. void message(){System.out.println("welcome to covariant return type");}
8.
10. new B1().get().message();
11. }
12. }
Test it Now
Output:welcome to covariant return type
As you can see in the above example, the return type of the get() method of A class is A but
the return type of the get() method of B class is B. Both methods have different return type
but it is method overriding. This is known as covariant return type.
super keyword
The super is a reference variable that is used to refer immediate parent class object.
Whenever you create the instance of subclass, an instance of parent class is created
implicitly i.e. referred by super reference variable.
Usage of super Keyword

1. super is used to refer immediate parent class instance variable.
2. super() is used to invoke immediate parent class constructor.
3. super is used to invoke immediate parent class method.
1) super is used to refer immediate parent class instance variable.

Problem without super keyword
1. class Vehicle{
2.
int speed=50;
3. }
4.
6.
int speed=100;
7.
8.
void display(){
9.
System.out.println(speed);//will print speed of Bike
10. }
12. Bike3 b=new Bike3();
13. b.display();
14.
15. }
16. }
Test it Now
Output:100
In the above example Vehicle and Bike both class have a common property speed.
Instance variable of current class is refered by instance bydefault, but I have to refer
parent class instance variable that is why we use super keyword to distinguish between
parent class instance variable and current class instance variable.
Solution by super keyword

1. //example of super keyword
2.
3. class Vehicle{
4.
int speed=50;
5. }
6.
8.
int speed=100;
9.
10. void display(){
11. System.out.println(super.speed);//will print speed of Vehicle now
12. }
15. b.display();
16.
17. }
18. }
Test it Now
Output:50
2) super is used to invoke parent class constructor.

The super keyword can also be used to invoke the parent class constructor as given
below:
1. class Vehicle{
2.
Vehicle(){System.out.println("Vehicle is created");}
3. }
4.
6.
Bike5(){
7.
super();//will invoke parent class constructor
8.
System.out.println("Bike is created");
9.
}
12.
13. }
14. }
Test it Now
Output:Vehicle is created
Bike is created
super() is added in each class constructor automatically by compiler.
As we know well that default constructor is provided by compiler automatically but it also
adds super() for the first statement.If you are creating your own constructor and you
don't have either this() or super() as the first statement, compiler will provide super() as
the first statement of the constructor.
Another example of super keyword where super() is provided by the

compiler implicitly.
1. class Vehicle{
2.
Vehicle(){System.out.println("Vehicle is created");}
3. }
4.
6.
int speed;
7.
Bike6(int speed){
8.
this.speed=speed;
9.
System.out.println(speed);
10. }
12. Bike6 b=new Bike6(10);
13. }
14. }
Test it Now
Output:Vehicle is created
10
3) super can be used to invoke parent class method.

The super keyword can also be used to invoke parent class method. It should be used in
case subclass contains the same method as parent class as in the example given below:
1. class Person{
2. void message(){System.out.println("welcome");}
3. }
4.
5. class Student16 extends Person{
6. void message(){System.out.println("welcome to java");}
7.
8. void display(){
9. message();//will invoke current class message() method
10. super.message();//will invoke parent class message() method
11. }
12.
14. Student16 s=new Student16();
15. s.display();
16. }
17. }
Test it Now
Output:welcome to java
welcome
In the above example Student and Person both classes have message() method if we call
message() method from Student class, it will call the message() method of Student class
not of Person class because priority is given to local.
In case there is no method in subclass as parent, there is no need to use super. In the
example given below message() method is invoked from Student class but Student class
does not have message() method, so you can directly call message() method.
Program in case super is not required

1. class Person{
2. void message(){System.out.println("welcome");}
3. }
4.
5. class Student17 extends Person{

6.
7. void display(){
8. message();//will invoke parent class message() method
9. }
10.
12. Student17 s=new Student17();
13. s.display();
14. }
15. }
Test it Now
Output:welcome
Instance initializer block:

1. Instance initializer block
2. Example of Instance initializer block
3. What is invoked firstly instance initializer block or constructor?
4. Rules for instance initializer block
5. Program of instance initializer block that is invoked after super()
Instance Initializer block is used to initialize the instance data member. It run each
time when object of the class is created.
The initialization of the instance variable can be directly but there can be performed
extra operations while initializing the instance variable in the instance initializer block.
Que) What is the use of instance initializer block while we can directly
assign a value in instance data member? For example:
1. class Bike{
2.
int speed=100;
3. }
Why use instance initializer block?

Suppose I have to perform some operations while assigning value to instance data
member e.g. a for loop to fill a complex array or error handling etc.
Example of instance initializer block
Let's see the simple example of instance initializer block the performs initialization.
1. class Bike7{
2.
int speed;
3.
4.
Bike7(){System.out.println("speed is "+speed);}
5.
6.
{speed=100;}
7.
8.
9.
Bike7 b1=new Bike7();
10.
11.
}
12. }
Test it Now
Output:speed is 100
speed is 100
There are three places in java where you can perform operations:
1. method
2. constructor
3. block
What is invoked firstly instance initializer block or

constructor?
1. class Bike8{
2.
int speed;
3.
4.
Bike8(){System.out.println("constructor is invoked");}
5.
6.
{System.out.println("instance initializer block invoked");}
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
}
12. }
Test it Now
Output:instance initializer block invoked
constructor is invoked
instance initializer block invoked
constructor is invoked
In the above example, it seems that instance initializer block is firstly invoked but NO.
Instance intializer block is invoked at the time of object creation. The java compiler
copies the instance initializer block in the constructor after the first statement super().
So firstly, constructor is invoked. Let's understand it by the figure given below:
Note: The java compiler copies the code of instance initializer block in
every constructor.
Rules for instance initializer block :

There are mainly three rules for the instance initializer block. They are as follows:
1. The instance initializer block is created when instance of the class is created.
2. The instance initializer block is invoked after the parent class constructor is invoked
(i.e. after super() constructor call).
3. The instance initializer block comes in the order in which they appear.
Program of instance initializer block that is invoked

after super()
1. class A{
2. A(){
3. System.out.println("parent class constructor invoked");
4. }
5. }
7. B2(){
8. super();
9. System.out.println("child class constructor invoked");
10. }
11.
12. {System.out.println("instance initializer block is invoked");}
13.
15. B2 b=new B2();
16. }
17. }
Test it Now
Output:parent class constructor invoked
instance initializer block is invoked
child class constructor invoked
Another example of instance block

1. class A{
2. A(){
3. System.out.println("parent class constructor invoked");
4. }
5. }
6.
8. B3(){
9. super();
10. System.out.println("child class constructor invoked");
11. }
12.
13. B3(int a){
14. super();
15. System.out.println("child class constructor invoked "+a);
16. }
17.
18. {System.out.println("instance initializer block is invoked");}
19.
21. B3 b1=new B3();

22. B3 b2=new B3(10);
23. }
24. }
Test it Now
Output:parent class constructor invoked
child class constructor invoked
parent class constructor invoked
child class constructor invoked 10
Final Keyword In Java

1. Final variable
2. Final method
3. Final class
4. Is final method inherited ?
5. Blank final variable
6. Static blank final variable
7. Final parameter
8. Can you declare a final constructor
The final keyword in java is used to restrict the user. The final keyword can be used in
many context. Final can be:
1. variable
2. method
3. class
The final keyword can be applied with the variables, a final variable that have no value it is
called blank final variable or uninitialized final variable. It can be initialized in the
constructor only. The blank final variable can be static also which will be initialized in the
static block only. We will have detailed learning of these. Let's first learn the basics of final
keyword.
1) final variable
If you make any variable as final, you cannot change the value of final variable(It will be
constant).
Example of final variable

There is a final variable speedlimit, we are going to change the value of this variable, but It
can't be changed because final variable once assigned a value can never be changed.
1. class Bike9{
2. final int speedlimit=90;//final variable
3. void run(){
4.
speedlimit=400;
5. }
7. Bike9 obj=new Bike9();
8. obj.run();
9. }
10. }//end of class
Test it Now
2) final method
If you make any method as final, you cannot override it.
Example of final method

1. class Bike{
2.
final void run(){System.out.println("running");}
3. }
4.
5. class Honda extends Bike{
6.
void run(){System.out.println("running safely with 100kmph");}
7.
8.
9.
Honda honda= new Honda();
10. honda.run();
11. }
12. }
Test it Now
3) final class
If you make any class as final, you cannot extend it.
Example of final class

1. final class Bike{}
2.
3. class Honda1 extends Bike{
4.
void run(){System.out.println("running safely with 100kmph");}
5.
6.
7.
Honda1 honda= new Honda();
8.
honda.run();
9.
}
10. }
Test it Now
Q) Is final method inherited?

Ans) Yes, final method is inherited but you cannot override it. For Example:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
class Bike{
final void run(){System.out.println("running...");}
}
class Honda2 extends Bike{
new Honda2().run();
}
}
Test it Now
Output:running...
Q) What is blank or uninitialized final variable?

A final variable that is not initialized at the time of declaration is known as blank final
variable.
If you want to create a variable that is initialized at the time of creating object and once
initialized may not be changed, it is useful. For example PAN CARD number of an employee.
It can be initialized only in constructor.
Example of blank final variable

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
class Student{
int id;
String name;
final String PAN_CARD_NUMBER;
...
}
Que) Can we initialize blank final variable?

Yes, but only in constructor. For example:
1. class Bike10{
2.
final int speedlimit;//blank final variable
3.
4.
Bike10(){
5.
speedlimit=70;
6.
System.out.println(speedlimit);
7.
}
8.
9.
10.
new Bike10();
11. }
12. }
Test it Now
Output:70
static blank final variable
A static final variable that is not initialized at the time of declaration is known as static blank
final variable. It can be initialized only in static block.
Example of static blank final variable

1. class A{
2.
static final int data;//static blank final variable
3.
static{ data=50;}
4.
5.
System.out.println(A.data);
6. }
7. }
Q) What is final parameter?

If you declare any parameter as final, you cannot change the value of it.
1. class Bike11{
2.
int cube(final int n){
3.
n=n+2;//can't be changed as n is final
4.
n*n*n;
5.
}
6.
7.
Bike11 b=new Bike11();
8.
b.cube(5);
9. }
10. }
Test it Now
Runtime Polymorphism in Java

1. Runtime Polymorphism
2. Upcasting
3. Example of Runtime Polymorphism
4. Runtime Polymorphism with data members
Runtime polymorphism or Dynamic Method Dispatchis a process in which a call to an
overridden method is resolved at runtime rather than compile-time.
In this process, an overridden method is called through the reference variable of a

superclass. The determination of the method to be called is based on the object being
referred to by the reference variable.
Let's first understand the upcasting before Runtime Polymorphism.
Upcasting
When reference variable of Parent class refers to the object of Child class, it is known as
upcasting. For example:
1. class A{}
2. class B extends A{}
1. A a=new B();//upcasting
Example of Runtime Polymorphism

In this example, we are creating two classes Bike and Splendar. Splendar class extends Bike
class and overrides its run() method. We are calling the run method by the reference
variable of Parent class. Since it refers to the subclass object and subclass method overrides
the Parent class method, subclass method is invoked at runtime.
Since method invocation is determined by the JVM not compiler, it is known as runtime
polymorphism.
1. class Bike{
2.
void run(){System.out.println("running");}
3. }
4. class Splender extends Bike{
5.
void run(){System.out.println("running safely with 60km");}
6.
7.
8.
Bike b = new Splender();//upcasting
9.
b.run();
10. }
11. }
Test it Now
Output:running safely with 60km.
Real example of Java Runtime Polymorphism

Consider a scenario, Bank is a class that provides method to get the rate of interest. But,
rate of interest may differ according to banks. For example, SBI, ICICI and AXIS banks
could provide 8%, 7% and 9% rate of interest.
Note: It is also given in method overriding but there was no upcasting.

1. class Bank{
2. int getRateOfInterest(){return
3. }
4.
7. }
8.
9. class ICICI extends Bank{
11. }
12. class AXIS extends Bank{
14. }
15.
16. class Test3{
0;}
8;}
7;}
9;}

18. Bank b1=new SBI();
19. Bank b2=new ICICI();
20. Bank b3=new AXIS();
21. System.out.println("SBI Rate of Interest: "+b1.getRateOfInterest());
22. System.out.println("ICICI Rate of Interest: "+b2.getRateOfInterest());
23. System.out.println("AXIS Rate of Interest: "+b3.getRateOfInterest());
24. }
25. }
Test it Now
Output:
SBI Rate of Interest: 8
ICICI Rate of Interest: 7
AXIS Rate of Interest: 9
Runtime Polymorphism with data member

Method is overridden not the datamembers, so runtime polymorphism can't be achieved
by data members.
In the example given below, both the classes have a datamember speedlimit, we are
accessing the datamember by the reference variable of Parent class which refers to the
subclass object. Since we are accessing the datamember which is not overridden, hence
it will access the datamember of Parent class always.
Rule: Runtime polymorphism can't be achieved by data members.

1. class Bike{
2. int speedlimit=90;
3. }
5. int speedlimit=150;
6.
8.
Bike obj=new Honda3();
9.
System.out.println(obj.speedlimit);//90
10. }
Test it Now
Output:90
Runtime Polymorphism with Multilevel Inheritance
Let's see the simple example of Runtime Polymorphism with multilevel inheritance.
1. class Animal{
2. void eat(){System.out.println("eating");}
3. }
4.
5. class Dog extends Animal{
6. void eat(){System.out.println("eating fruits");}
7. }
8.
9. class BabyDog extends Dog{
10. void eat(){System.out.println("drinking milk");}
11.
13. Animal a1,a2,a3;
14. a1=new Animal();
15. a2=new Dog();
16. a3=new BabyDog();
17.
18. a1.eat();
19. a2.eat();
20. a3.eat();
21. }
22. }
Test it Now
Output: eating
eating fruits
drinking Milk
Try for Output

1. class Animal{
2. void eat(){System.out.println("animal is eating...");}
3. }
4.
6. void eat(){System.out.println("dog is eating...");}
7. }
8.
9. class BabyDog1 extends Dog{
11. Animal a=new BabyDog1();
12. a.eat();
13. }}
Test it Now
Output: Dog is eating
Static Binding and Dynamic Binding
Connecting a method call to the method body is known as binding.

There are two types of binding
1. static binding (also known as early binding).
2. dynamic binding (also known as late binding).
Understanding Type
Let's understand the type of instance.
1) variables have a type

Each variable has a type, it may be primitive and non-primitive.
1. int data=30;
Here data variable is a type of int.
2) References have a type

1. class Dog{
3.
Dog d1;//Here d1 is a type of Dog
4. }
5. }
3) Objects have a type

An object is an instance of particular java class,but it is also an instance of its superclass.
1. class Animal{}
2.
5.
Dog d1=new Dog();
6. }
7. }
Here d1 is an instance of Dog class, but it is also an instance of Animal.
static binding
When type of the object is determined at compiled time(by the compiler), it is known as
static binding.
If there is any private, final or static method in a class, there is static binding.
Example of static binding

1. class Dog{
2. private void eat(){System.out.println("dog is eating...");}
3.
5.
Dog d1=new Dog();
6.
d1.eat();
7. }
8. }
Dynamic binding
When type of the object is determined at run-time, it is known as dynamic binding.
Example of dynamic binding

1. class Animal{
2. void eat(){System.out.println("animal is eating...");}
3. }
4.
6. void eat(){System.out.println("dog is eating...");}
7.
9.
Animal a=new Dog();
10. a.eat();
11. }
12. }
Test it Now
Output:dog is eating...
Java instanceof
1. java instanceof
2. Example of instanceof operator
3. Applying the instanceof operator with a variable the have null value
4. Downcasting with instanceof operator
5. Downcasting without instanceof operator
The java instanceof operator is used to test whether the object is an instance of the
specified type (class or subclass or interface).
The instanceof in java is also known as typecomparison operator because it compares the
instance with type. It returns either true or false. If we apply the instanceof operator with
any variable that has null value, it returns false.
Simple example of java instanceof

Let's see the simple example of instance operator where it tests the current class.
1. class Simple1{
3. Simple1 s=new Simple1();
4. System.out.println(s instanceof Simple);//true
5. }
6. }
Test it Now
Output:true
An object of subclass type is also a type of parent class. For example, if Dog extends Animal
then object of Dog can be referred by either Dog or Animal class.
Another example of java instanceof operator

1. class Animal{}
2. class Dog1 extends Animal{//Dog inherits Animal
3.
5. Dog1 d=new Dog1();
6. System.out.println(d instanceof Animal);//true
7. }
8. }
Test it Now
Output:true
instanceof in java with a variable that have null value

If we apply instanceof operator with a variable that have null value, it returns false. Let's
see the example given below where we apply instanceof operator with the variable that
have null value.
1. class Dog2{
3.
Dog2 d=null;
4.
System.out.println(d instanceof Dog2);//false
5. }
6. }
Test it Now
Output:false
Downcasting with java instanceof operator

When Subclass type refers to the object of Parent class, it is known as downcasting. If we
perform it directly, compiler gives Compilation error. If you perform it by typecasting,
ClassCastException is thrown at runtime. But if we use instanceof operator, downcasting is
possible.
1. Dog d=new Animal();//Compilation error
If we perform downcasting by typecasting, ClassCastException is thrown at runtime.
1. Dog d=(Dog)new Animal();
2. //Compiles successfully but ClassCastException is thrown at runtime
Possibility of downcasting with instanceof

Let's see the example, where downcasting is possible by instanceof operator.
1. class Animal { }
2.
3. class Dog3 extends Animal {
4.
static void method(Animal a) {
5.
if(a instanceof Dog3){
6.
Dog3 d=(Dog3)a;//downcasting
7.
System.out.println("ok downcasting performed");
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
}
}
public static void main (String [] args) {
Animal a=new Dog3();
Dog3.method(a);
}
}
Test it Now
Output:ok downcasting performed
Downcasting without the use of java instanceof

Downcasting can also be performed without the use of instanceof operator as displayed in
the following example:
1. class Animal { }
2. class Dog4 extends Animal {
3.
static void method(Animal a) {
4.
Dog4 d=(Dog4)a;//downcasting
5.
System.out.println("ok downcasting performed");
6.
}
7.
public static void main (String [] args) {
8.
Animal a=new Dog4();
9.
Dog4.method(a);
10. }
11. }
Test it Now
Output:ok downcasting performed
Let's take closer look at this, actual object that is referred by a, is an object of Dog class. So
if we downcast it, it is fine. But what will happen if we write:
1. Animal a=new Animal();
2. Dog.method(a);
3. //Now ClassCastException but not in case of instanceof operator
Understanding Real use of instanceof in java

Let's see the real use of instanceof keyword by the example given below.
1. interface Printable{}
2. class A implements Printable{
3. public void a(){System.out.println("a method");}

4. }
5. class B implements Printable{
6. public void b(){System.out.println("b method");}
7. }
8.
9. class Call{
10. void invoke(Printable p){//upcasting
11. if(p instanceof A){
12. A a=(A)p;//Downcasting
13. a.a();
14. }
15. if(p instanceof B){
16. B b=(B)p;//Downcasting
17. b.b();
18. }
19.
20. }
21. }//end of Call class
22.
23. class Test4{
25. Printable p=new B();
26. Call c=new Call();
27. c.invoke(p);
28. }
29. }
Test it Now
Output: b method
Abstract class in Java

A class that is declared with abstract keyword, is known as abstract class in java. It can
have abstract and non-abstract methods (method with body).
Before learning java abstract class, let's understand the abstraction in java first.
Abstraction in Java
Abstraction is a process of hiding the implementation details and showing only
functionality to the user.
Another way, it shows only important things to the user and hides the internal details for
example sending sms, you just type the text and send the message. You don't know the
internal processing about the message delivery.
Abstraction lets you focus on what the object does instead of how it does it.
Ways to achieve Abstaction

There are two ways to achieve abstraction in java
1. Abstract class (0 to 100%)
2. Interface (100%)
Abstract class in Java

A class that is declared as abstract is known as abstract class. It needs to be extended
and its method implemented. It cannot be instantiated.
Example abstract class

1. abstract class A{}
abstract method
A method that is declared as abstract and does not have implementation is known as
abstract method.
Example abstract method

1. abstract void printStatus();//no body and abstract
Example of abstract class that has abstract method

In this example, Bike the abstract class that contains only one abstract method run. It
implementation is provided by the Honda class.
1. abstract class Bike{

2.
abstract void run();
3. }
4.
6. void run(){System.out.println("running safely..");}
7.
9. Bike obj = new Honda4();
10. obj.run();
11. }
12. }
Test it Now
running safely..
Understanding the real scenario of abstract class

In this example, Shape is the abstract class, its implementation is provided by the
Rectangle and Circle classes. Mostly, we don't know about the implementation class (i.e.
hidden to the end user) and object of the implementation class is provided by the factory
method.
A factory method is the method that returns the instance of the class. We will learn about
the factory method later.
In this example, if you create the instance of Rectangle class, draw() method of Rectangle
class will be invoked.
File: TestAbstraction1.java
1. abstract class Shape{
2. abstract void draw();
3. }
4. //In real scenario, implementation is provided by others i.e. unknown by end user
5. class Rectangle extends Shape{
6. void draw(){System.out.println("drawing rectangle");}
7. }
8.
9. class Circle1 extends Shape{
10. void draw(){System.out.println("drawing circle");}
11. }
12.
13. //In real scenario, method is called by programmer or user
14. class TestAbstraction1{
16. Shape s=new Circle1();//In real scenario, object is provided through method e.g. getShape
() method
17. s.draw();
18. }
19. }
Test it Now
drawing circle
Another example of abstract class in java

File: TestBank.java
1. abstract class Bank{
2. abstract int getRateOfInterest();
3. }
4.
7. }
8. class PNB extends Bank{
10. }
11.
12. class TestBank{
14. Bank b=new SBI();//if object is PNB, method of PNB will be invoked
15. int interest=b.getRateOfInterest();
16. System.out.println("Rate of Interest is: "+interest+" %");
17. }}
Test it Now
Rate of Interest is: 7 %
Abstract class having constructor, data member,

methods etc.
An abstract class can have data member, abstract method, method body, constructor and
even main() method.
File: TestAbstraction2.java
1. //example of abstract class that have method body
2. abstract class Bike{
3.
Bike(){System.out.println("bike is created");}
4.
abstract void run();
5.
void changeGear(){System.out.println("gear changed");}
6. }
7.
8. class Honda extends Bike{
9. void run(){System.out.println("running safely..");}
10. }
11. class TestAbstraction2{
13. Bike obj = new Honda();
14. obj.run();
15. obj.changeGear();
16. }
17. }
Test it Now
bike is created
running safely..
gear changed
Rule: If there is any abstract method in a class, that class must be abstract.
1. class Bike12{
2. abstract void run();
3. }
Test it Now
compile time error
Rule: If you are extending any abstract class that have abstract method, you must
either provide the implementation of the method or make this class abstract.
Another real scenario of abstract class

The abstract class can also be used to provide some implementation of the interface. In
such case, the end user may not be forced to override all the methods of the interface.
Note: If you are beginner to java, learn interface first and skip this example.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
interface A{
void a();
void b();
void c();
void d();
6. }
7.
8. abstract class B implements A{
9. public void c(){System.out.println("I am C");}
10. }
11.
12. class M extends B{
13. public void a(){System.out.println("I am a");}
14. public void b(){System.out.println("I am b");}
15. public void d(){System.out.println("I am d");}
16. }
17.
18. class Test5{
20. A a=new M();
21. a.a();
22. a.b();
23. a.c();
24. a.d();
25. }}
Test it Now
Output:I am a
I am b
I am c
I am d
Next TopicInterface in Java
Interface in Java
1. Interface
2. Example of Interface
3. Multiple inheritance by Interface
4. Why multiple inheritance is supported in Interface while it is not supported in case of class.
5. Marker Interface
6. Nested Interface
An interface in java is a blueprint of a class. It has static constants and abstract methods
only.
The interface in java is a mechanism to achieve fully abstraction. There can be only
abstract methods in the java interface not method body. It is used to achieve fully
abstraction and multiple inheritance in Java.
Java Interface also represents IS-A relationship.

It cannot be instantiated just like abstract class.
Why use Java interface?

There are mainly three reasons to use interface. They are given below.
It is used to achieve fully abstraction.

By interface, we can support the functionality of multiple inheritance.
It can be used to achieve loose coupling.
The java compiler adds public and abstract keywords before the interface method
and public, static and final keywords before data members.
In other words, Interface fields are public, static and final bydefault, and methods are public
and abstract.
Understanding relationship between classes and

interfaces
As shown in the figure given below, a class extends another class, an interface extends
another interface but a class implements an interface.
Simple example of Java interface

In this example, Printable interface have only one method, its implementation is provided
in the A class.
1. interface printable{
2. void print();
3. }
4.
5. class A6 implements printable{
6. public void print(){System.out.println("Hello");}
7.
9. A6 obj = new A6();
10. obj.print();
11. }
12. }
Test it Now
Output:Hello
Multiple inheritance in Java by interface

If a class implements multiple interfaces, or an interface extends multiple interfaces i.e.
known as multiple inheritance.
1. interface Printable{
2. void print();
3. }
4.
5. interface Showable{
6. void show();
7. }
8.
9. class A7 implements Printable,Showable{
10.
12. public void show(){System.out.println("Welcome");}
13.
15. A7 obj = new A7();
16. obj.print();
17. obj.show();
18. }
19. }
Test it Now
Output:Hello
Welcome
Q) Multiple inheritance is not supported through class in java but it

is possible by interface, why?
As we have explained in the inheritance chapter, multiple inheritance is not supported in
case of class. But it is supported in case of interface because there is no ambiguity as
implementation is provided by the implementation class. For example:
2. void print();
3. }
4.
5. interface Showable{
6. void print();
7. }
8.
9. class testinterface1 implements Printable,Showable{
10.
12.
14. testinterface1 obj = new testinterface1();
15. obj.print();
16. }
17. }
Test it Now
Hello
As you can see in the above example, Printable and Showable interface have same methods
but its implementation is provided by class A, so there is no ambiguity.
Interface inheritance
A class implements interface but one interface extends another interface .
2. void print();
3. }
4. interface Showable extends Printable{
5. void show();
6. }
7. class Testinterface2 implements Showable{
8.
10. public void show(){System.out.println("Welcome");}
11.
13. Testinterface2 obj = new Testinterface2();
14. obj.print();
15. obj.show();
16. }
17. }
Test it Now
Hello
Welcome
Q) What is marker or tagged interface?

An interface that have no member is known as marker or tagged interface. For example:
Serializable, Cloneable, Remote etc. They are used to provide some essential information to
the JVM so that JVM may perform some useful operation.
1. //How Serializable interface is written?
2. public interface Serializable{
3. }
Nested Interface in Java

Note: An interface can have another interface i.e. known as nested interface. We will learn it
in detail in the nested classes chapter. For example:
interface printable{
void print();
interface MessagePrintable{
void msg();
}
}
Java Package
1. Java Package
2. Example of package
3. Accessing package
1. By import packagename.*
2. By import packagename.classname
3. By fully qualified name
4. Subpackage
5. Sending class file to another directory
6. -classpath switch
7. 4 ways to load the class file or jar file
8. How to put two public class in a package
9. Static Import
10. Package class
A java package is a group of similar types of classes, interfaces and sub-packages.

Package in java can be categorized in two form, built-in package and user-defined package.
There are many built-in packages such as java, lang, awt, javax, swing, net, io, util, sql etc.
Here, we will have the detailed learning of creating and using user-defined packages.
Advantage of Java Package

1) Java package is used to categorize the classes and interfaces so that they can be easily
maintained.
2) Java package provides access protection.
3) Java package removes naming collision.
Simple example of java package

The package keyword is used to create a package in java.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
//save as Simple.java
package mypack;
public class Simple{
System.out.println("Welcome to package");
}
}
How to compile java package

If you are not using any IDE, you need to follow the syntax given below:
1. javac -d directory javafilename
For example
1. javac -d . Simple.java
The -d switch specifies the destination where to put the generated class file. You can use
any directory name like /home (in case of Linux), d:/abc (in case of windows) etc. If you
want to keep the package within the same directory, you can use . (dot).
How to run java package program

You need to use fully qualified name e.g. mypack.Simple etc to run the class.
To Compile: javac -d . Simple.java

To Run: java mypack.Simple
Output:Welcome to package
The -d is a switch that tells the compiler where to put the class file i.e. it represents
destination. The . represents the current folder.
How to access package from another package?

There are three ways to access the package from outside the package.
1. import package.*;
2. import package.classname;
3. fully qualified name.
1) Using packagename.*
If you use package.* then all the classes and interfaces of this package will be accessible
but not subpackages.
The import keyword is used to make the classes and interface of another package
accessible to the current package.
Example of package that import the packagename.*

1. //save by A.java
2.
3. package pack;
4. public class A{
5.
public void msg(){System.out.println("Hello");}
6. }
1. //save by B.java
2.
3. package mypack;
4. import pack.*;
5.
6. class B{
7.
8.
A obj = new A();
9.
obj.msg();
10. }
11. }
Output:Hello
2) Using packagename.classname
If you import package.classname then only declared class of this package will be accessible.
Example of package by import package.classname

1. //save by A.java
2.
3. package pack;
4. public class A{
5.
6. }
1. //save by B.java
2.
3. package mypack;
4. import pack.A;
5.
6. class B{
7.
8.
A obj = new A();
9.
obj.msg();
10. }
11. }
Output:Hello
3) Using fully qualified name

If you use fully qualified name then only declared class of this package will be accessible.
Now there is no need to import. But you need to use fully qualified name every time when
you are accessing the class or interface.
It is generally used when two packages have same class name e.g. java.util and java.sql
packages contain Date class.
Example of package by import fully qualified name

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
//save by A.java
package pack;
public class A{
}
//save by B.java
package mypack;
class B{
pack.A obj = new pack.A();//using fully qualified name
obj.msg();
}
}
Output:Hello
Note: If you import a package, subpackages will not be imported.

If you import a package, all the classes and interface of that package will be imported
excluding the classes and interfaces of the subpackages. Hence, you need to import the
subpackage as well.
Note: Sequence of the program must be package then import then class.
Subpackage in java
Package inside the package is called the subpackage. It should be created to categorize
the package further.
Let's take an example, Sun Microsystem has definded a package named java that contains
many classes like System, String, Reader, Writer, Socket etc. These classes represent a
particular group e.g. Reader and Writer classes are for Input/Output operation, Socket and
ServerSocket classes are for networking etc and so on. So, Sun has subcategorized the java
package into subpackages such as lang, net, io etc. and put the Input/Output related
classes in io package, Server and ServerSocket classes in net packages and so on.
The standard of defining package is domain.company.package e.g.

com.javatpoint.bean or org.sssit.dao.
Example of Subpackage
1. package com.javatpoint.core;
2. class Simple{
3.
4.
System.out.println("Hello subpackage");
5.
}
6. }
To Compile: javac -d . Simple.java
To Run: java com.javatpoint.core.Simple
Output:Hello subpackage
How to send the class file to another directory or drive?

There is a scenario, I want to put the class file of A.java source file in classes folder of c:
drive. For example:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
//save as Simple.java
package mypack;
public class Simple{
System.out.println("Welcome to package");
}
}
To Compile:
e:\sources> javac -d c:\classes Simple.java
To Run:
To run this program from e:\source directory, you need to set classpath of the directory
where the class file resides.
e:\sources> set classpath=c:\classes;.;
e:\sources> java mypack.Simple
Another way to run this program by -classpath switch of java:

The -classpath switch can be used with javac and java tool.
To run this program from e:\source directory, you can use -classpath switch of java that
tells where to look for class file. For example:
e:\sources> java -classpath c:\classes mypack.Simple
Output:Welcome to package
Ways to load the class files or jar files

There are two ways to load the class files temporary and permanent.
Temporary
o By setting the classpath in the command prompt
o By -classpath switch
Permanent
o By setting the classpath in the environment variables
o By creating the jar file, that contains all the class files, and copying the jar file
in the jre/lib/ext folder.
Rule: There can be only one public class in a java source file and it must be saved
by the public class name.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
//save as C.java otherwise Compilte Time Error

class A{}
class B{}
public class C{}
How to put two public classes in a package?

If you want to put two public classes in a package, have two java source files containing
one public class, but keep the package name same. For example:
//save as A.java
package javatpoint;
public class A{}
//save as B.java
package javatpoint;
public class B{}
Java Naming conventions

Java naming convention is a rule to follow as you decide what to name your identifiers
such as class, package, variable, constant, method etc.
But, it is not forced to follow. So, it is known as convention not rule.
All the classes, interfaces, packages, methods and fields of java programming language are
given according to java naming convention.
Advantage of naming conventions in java

By using standard Java naming conventions, you make your code easier to read for yourself
and for other programmers. Readability of Java program is very important. It indicates
that less time is spent to figure out what the code does.
Name
class name
Convention
should start with uppercase letter and be a noun e.g. String, Color, Button,
System, Thread etc.
interface
should start with uppercase letter and be an adjective e.g. Runnable, Remote,
name
ActionListener etc.
method name
should start with lowercase letter and be a verb e.g. actionPerformed(), main(),
print(), println() etc.
variable name
should start with lowercase letter e.g. firstName, orderNumber etc.
package
should be in lowercase letter e.g. java, lang, sql, util etc.
name
constants
should be in uppercase letter. e.g. RED, YELLOW, MAX_PRIORITY etc.
name
Understanding CamelCase in java naming conventions

Java follows camelcase syntax for naming the class, interface, method and variable.
If name is combined with two words, second word will start with uppercase letter always
e.g. actionPerformed(), firstName, ActionEvent, ActionListener etc.
Encapsulation in Java
Encapsulation in java is a process of wrapping code and data together into a single unit,
for example capsule i.e. mixed of several medicines.
We can create a fully encapsulated class in java by making all the data members of the
class private. Now we can use setter and getter methods to set and get the data in it.
The Java Bean class is the example of fully encapsulated class.
Advantage of Encapsulation in java

By providing only setter or getter method, you can make the class read-only or writeonly.
It provides you the control over the data. Suppose you want to set the value of id i.e.
greater than 100 only, you can write the logic inside the setter method.
Simple example of encapsulation in java

Let's see the simple example of encapsulation that has only one field with its setter and
getter methods.
1. //save as Student.java
2. package com.javatpoint;
3. public class Student{
4. private String name;
5.
6. public String getName(){
7. return name;
8. }
9. public void setName(String name){
10. this.name=name
11. }
12. }
1. //save as Test.java
2. package com.javatpoint;
3. class Test{
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
public static void main(String[] args){

Student s=new Student();
s.setname("vijay");
System.out.println(s.getName());
}
}
Compile By: javac -d . Test.java
Run By: java com.javatpoint.Test
Output: vijay
Object class in Java

The Object class is the parent class of all the classes in java bydefault. In other words, it is
the topmost class of java.
The Object class is beneficial if you want to refer any object whose type you don't know.
Notice that parent class reference variable can refer the child class object, know as
upcasting.
Let's take an example, there is getObject() method that returns an object but it can be of
any type like Employee,Student etc, we can use Object class reference to refer that object.
For example:
1. Object obj=getObject();//we don't what object would be returned from this method
The Object class provides some common behaviours to all the objects such as object can be
compared, object can be cloned, object can be notified etc.
Methods of Object class

The Object class provides many methods. They are as follows:
Method
public final ClassgetClass()
Description
returns the Class class object of this object. The
Class class can further be used to get the metadata
of this class.
public int hashCode()
returns the hashcode number for this object.
public boolean equals(Object obj)
compares the given object to this object.
protected Object clone() throws
creates and returns the exact copy (clone) of this
CloneNotSupportedException
object.
public String toString()
returns the string representation of this object.
public final void notify()
wakes up single thread, waiting on this object's

monitor.
public final void notifyAll()
wakes up all the threads, waiting on this object's

monitor.
public final void wait(long
causes the current thread to wait for the specified
timeout)throws InterruptedException
milliseconds, until another thread notifies (invokes

notify() or notifyAll() method).
public final void wait(long timeout,int
causes the current thread to wait for the specified
nanos)throws InterruptedException
miliseconds and nanoseconds, until another thread

notifies (invokes notify() or notifyAll() method).
public final void wait()throws
causes the current thread to wait, until another
InterruptedException
thread notifies (invokes notify() or notifyAll()

method).
protected void finalize()throws
is invoked by the garbage collector before object is
Throwable
being garbage collected.
We will have the detailed learning of these methods in next chapters.
Object Cloning in Java
The object cloning is a way to create exact copy

of an object. For this purpose, clone() method of Object class is used to clone an object.
The java.lang.Cloneable interface must be implemented by the class whose object clone
we want to create. If we don't implement Cloneable interface, clone() method
generatesCloneNotSupportedException.
The clone() method is defined in the Object class. Syntax of the clone() method is as
follows:
1. protected Object clone() throws CloneNotSupportedException
Why use clone() method ?
The clone() method saves the extra processing task for creating the exact copy of an
object. If we perform it by using the new keyword, it will take a lot of processing to be
performed that is why we use object cloning.
Advantage of Object cloning

Less processing task.
Example of clone() method (Object cloning)

Let's see the simple example of object cloning
1. class Student18 implements Cloneable{
2. int rollno;
3. String name;
4.
5. Student18(int rollno,String name){
6. this.rollno=rollno;
7. this.name=name;
8. }
9.
10. public Object clone()throws CloneNotSupportedException{
11. return super.clone();
12. }
13.
15. try{
16. Student18 s1=new Student18(101,"amit");
17.
18. Student18 s2=(Student18)s1.clone();
19.
20. System.out.println(s1.rollno+" "+s1.name);
21. System.out.println(s2.rollno+" "+s2.name);
22.
23. }catch(CloneNotSupportedException c){}
24.
25. }
26. }
Test it Now
Output:101 amit
101 amit
download the example of object cloning

As you can see in the above example, both reference variables have the same value. Thus,
the clone() copies the values of an object to another. So we don't need to write explicit code
to copy the value of an object to another.
If we create another object by new keyword and assign the values of another object to this
one, it will require a lot of processing on this object. So to save the extra processing task
we use clone() method
Java Array
Normally, array is a collection of similar type of elements that have contiguous memory
location.
Java array is an object the contains elements of similar data type. It is a data structure
where we store similar elements. We can store only fixed set of elements in a java array.
Array in java is index based, first element of the array is stored at 0 index.
Advantage of Java Array
Code Optimization: It makes the code optimized, we can retrieve or sort the data
easily.
Random access: We can get any data located at any index position.
Disadvantage of Java Array
Size Limit: We can store only fixed size of elements in the array. It doesn't grow its
size at runtime. To solve this problem, collection framework is used in java.
Types of Array in java

There are two types of array.
Single Dimensional Array

Multidimensional Array
Single Dimensional Array in java

Syntax to Declare an Array in java
1. dataType[] arr; (or)
2. dataType []arr; (or)
3. dataType arr[];
Instantiation of an Array in java

1. arrayRefVar=new datatype[size];
Example of single dimensional java array

Let's see the simple example of java array, where we are going to declare, instantiate,
initialize and traverse an array.
1. class Testarray{
3.
4. int a[]=new int[5];//declaration and instantiation
5. a[0]=10;//initialization
6. a[1]=20;
7. a[2]=70;
8. a[3]=40;
9. a[4]=50;
10.
11. //printing array
12. for(int i=0;i<a.length;i++)//length is the property of array
13. System.out.println(a[i]);
14.
15. }}
Test it Now
Output: 10
20
70
40
50
Declaration, Instantiation and Initialization of Java Array
We can declare, instantiate and initialize the java array together by:
1. int a[]={33,3,4,5};//declaration, instantiation and initialization
Let's see the simple example to print this array.
1. class Testarray1{
3.
4. int a[]={33,3,4,5};//declaration, instantiation and initialization
5.
6. //printing array
7. for(int i=0;i<a.length;i++)//length is the property of array
8. System.out.println(a[i]);
9.
10. }}
Test it Now
Output:33
3
4
5
Passing Array to method in java

We can pass the java array to method so that we can reuse the same logic on any array.
Let's see the simple example to get minimum number of an array using method.
2. static void min(int arr[]){
3. int min=arr[0];
4. for(int i=1;i<arr.length;i++)
5. if(min>arr[i])
6.
min=arr[i];
7.
8. System.out.println(min);
9. }
10.
12.
13. int a[]={33,3,4,5};
14. min(a);//passing array to method
15.
16. }}
Test it Now
Output:3
Multidimensional array in java

In such case, data is stored in row and column based index (also known as matrix form).
Syntax to Declare Multidimensional Array in java

1.
2.
3.
4.
dataType[][] arrayRefVar; (or)

dataType [][]arrayRefVar; (or)
dataType arrayRefVar[][]; (or)
dataType []arrayRefVar[];
Example to instantiate Multidimensional Array in java

1. int[][] arr=new int[3][3];//3 row and 3 column
Example to initialize Multidimensional Array in java

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
arr[0][0]=1;
arr[0][1]=2;
arr[0][2]=3;
arr[1][0]=4;
arr[1][1]=5;
arr[1][2]=6;
arr[2][0]=7;
arr[2][1]=8;
arr[2][2]=9;
Example of Multidimensional java array

Let's see the simple example to declare, instantiate, initialize and print the 2Dimensional
array.
3.
4. //declaring and initializing 2D array
5. int arr[][]={{1,2,3},{2,4,5},{4,4,5}};
6.
7. //printing 2D array
8. for(int i=0;i<3;i++){
9. for(int j=0;j<3;j++){
10. System.out.print(arr[i][j]+" ");
11. }
12. System.out.println();
13. }
14.
15. }}
Test it Now
Output:1 2 3
2 4 5
4 4 5
What is class name of java array?

In java, array is an object. For array object, an proxy class is created whose name can be
obtained by getClass().getName() method on the object.
3.
4. int arr[]={4,4,5};
5.
6. Class c=arr.getClass();
7. String name=c.getName();
8.
9. System.out.println(name);
10.
11. }}
Test it Now
Output:I
Copying a java array

We can copy an array to another by the arraycopy method of System class.
Syntax of arraycopy method

1. public static void arraycopy(
2. Object src, int srcPos,Object dest, int destPos, int length
3. )
Example of arraycopy method

1. class TestArrayCopyDemo {
2.
public static void main(String[] args) {
3.
char[] copyFrom = { 'd', 'e', 'c', 'a', 'f', 'f', 'e',
4.
'i', 'n', 'a', 't', 'e', 'd' };
5.
char[] copyTo = new char[7];
6.
7.
System.arraycopy(copyFrom, 2, copyTo, 0, 7);
8.
System.out.println(new String(copyTo));
9.
}
10. }
Test it Now
Output:caffein
Addition of 2 matrices in java

Let's see a simple example that adds two matrices.
3. //creating two matrices
4. int a[][]={{1,3,4},{3,4,5}};
5. int b[][]={{1,3,4},{3,4,5}};
6.
7. //creating another matrix to store the sum of two matrices
8. int c[][]=new int[2][3];
9.
10. //adding and printing addition of 2 matrices
11. for(int i=0;i<2;i++){
12. for(int j=0;j<3;j++){
13. c[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j];
14. System.out.print(c[i][j]+" ");
15. }
16. System.out.println();//new line
17. }
18.
19. }}
Test it Now
Output:2 6 8
6 8 10
Call by Value and Call by Reference in Java

There is only call by value in java, not call by reference. If we call a method passing a
value, it is known as call by value. The changes being done in the called method, is not
affected in the calling method.
Example of call by value in java

In case of call by value original value is not changed. Let's take a simple example:
1. class Operation{
2. int data=50;
3.
4. void change(int data){
5. data=data+100;//changes will be in the local variable only
6. }
7.
9.
Operation op=new Operation();
10.
11. System.out.println("before change "+op.data);
12. op.change(500);
13. System.out.println("after change "+op.data);
14.
15. }
16. }
download this example

Output:before change 50
after change 50
Another Example of call by value in java

In case of call by reference original value is changed if we made changes in the called
method. If we pass object in place of any primitive value, original value will be changed. In
this example we are passing object as a value. Let's take a simple example:
1. class Operation2{
2. int data=50;
3.
4. void change(Operation2 op){
5. op.data=op.data+100;//changes will be in the instance variable
6. }
7.
8.
10. Operation2 op=new Operation2();
11.
12. System.out.println("before change "+op.data);
13. op.change(op);//passing object
14. System.out.println("after change "+op.data);
15.
16. }
17. }
download this example

Output:before change 50
after change 150
strictfp keyword
The strictfp keyword ensures that you will get the same result on every platform if you
perform operations in the floating-point variable. The precision may differ from platform
to platform that is why java programming language have provided the strictfp keyword,
so that you get same result on every platform. So, now you have better control over the
floating-point arithmetic.
Legal code for strictfp keyword

The strictfp keyword can be applied on methods, classes and interfaces.
1. strictfp class A{}//strictfp applied on class
1. strictfp interface M{}//strictfp applied on interface
1. class A{
2. void m(){}//strictfp applied on method
3. }
Illegal code for strictfp keyword
The strictfp keyword can be applied on abstract methods, variables or constructors.

class B{
strictfp abstract void m();//Illegal combination of modifiers
}
class B{
strictfp int data=10;//modifier strictfp not allowed here
}
class B{
strictfp B(){}//modifier strictfp not allowed here
}
Creating API Document | javadoc tool
We can create document api in java by the help of javadoc tool. In the java file, we must
use the documentation comment /**... */ to post information for the class, method,
constructor, fields etc.
Let's see the simple class that contains documentation comment.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
package com.abc;
/** This class is a user-defined class that contains one methods cube.*/
public class M{
/** The cube method prints cube of the given number */
public static void cube(int n){System.out.println(n*n*n);}
}
To create the document API, you need to use the javadoc tool followed by java file name.
There is no need to compile the javafile.
On the command prompt, you need to write:
javadoc M.java
to generate the document api. Now, there will be created a lot of html files. Open the
index.html file to get the information about the classes.
Java Command Line Arguments

1. Command Line Argument
2. Simple example of command-line argument
3. Example of command-line argument that prints all the values
The java command-line argument is an argument i.e. passed at the time of running the java
program.
The arguments passed from the console can be received in the java program and it can be
used as an input.
So, it provides a convenient way to check the behavior of the program for the different
values. You can passN (1,2,3 and so on) numbers of arguments from the command prompt.
Simple example of command-line argument in java
In this example, we are receiving only one argument and printing it. To run this java
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
program, you must pass at least one argument from the command prompt.
class CommandLineExample{
System.out.println("Your first argument is: "+args[0]);
}
}
1. compile by > javac CommandLineExample.java

2. run by > java CommandLineExample sonoo
Output: Your first argument is: sonoo
Example of command-line argument that prints all the values

In this example, we are printing all the arguments passed from the command-line. For
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
this purpose, we have traversed the array using for loop.

class A{
for(int i=0;i<args.length;i++)
System.out.println(args[i]);
}
}
1. compile by > javac A.java

2. run by > java A sonoo jaiswal 1 3 abc
Output: sonoo
jaiswal
1
3
abc
ava String
1. Java String Handling
2. How to create string object
1. String literal
2. new keyword
Java String provides a lot of concepts that can be performed on a string such as compare,
concat, equals, split, length, replace, compareTo, intern, substring etc.
In java, string is basically an object that represents sequence of char values.
An array of characters works same as java string. For example:
1. char[] ch={'j','a','v','a','t','p','o','i','n','t'};
2. String s=new String(ch);
is same as:
1. String s="javatpoint";
The java.lang.String class
implements Serializable, Comparable and CharSequence interfaces.
The java String is immutable i.e. it cannot be changed but a new instance is created. For
mutable class, you can use StringBuffer and StringBuilder class.
We will discuss about immutable string later. Let's first understand what is string in java
and how to create the string object.
What is String in java

Generally, string is a sequence of characters. But in java, string is an object that represents
a sequence of characters. String class is used to create string object.
How to create String object?

There are two ways to create String object:
1. By string literal
2. By new keyword
1) String Literal
Java String literal is created by using double quotes. For Example:

1. String s="welcome";
Each time you create a string literal, the JVM checks the string constant pool first. If the
string already exists in the pool, a reference to the pooled instance is returned. If string
doesn't exist in the pool, a new string instance is created and placed in the pool. For
example:
1. String s1="Welcome";
2. String s2="Welcome";//will not create new instance
In the above example only one object will be created. Firstly JVM will not find any string
object with the value "Welcome" in string constant pool, so it will create a new object. After
that it will find the string with the value "Welcome" in the pool, it will not create new object
but will return the reference to the same instance.
Note: String objects are stored in a special memory area known as string constant
pool.
Why java uses concept of string literal?

To make Java more memory efficient (because no new objects are created if it exists
already in string constant pool).
2) By new keyword
1. String s=new String("Welcome");//creates two objects and one reference variable
In such case, JVM will create a new string object in normal(non pool) heap memory and the
literal "Welcome" will be placed in the string constant pool. The variable s will refer to the
object in heap(non pool).
Java String Example

1. public class StringExample{
3. String s1="java";//creating string by java string literal
4.
5. char ch[]={'s','t','r','i','n','g','s'};
6. String s2=new String(ch);//converting char array to string
7.
8. String s3=new String("example");//creating java string by new keyword
9.
10. System.out.println(s1);
13. }}
Test it Now
java
strings
example
Java String class methods

The java.lang.String class provides many useful methods to perform operations on
sequence of char values.
No.
1
Method
char charAt(int index)
Description
returns char value for the particular
index
int length()
returns string length
static String format(String format, Object... args)
returns formatted string
static String format(Locale l, String format, Object...
returns formatted string with given
args)
locale
String substring(int beginIndex)
returns substring for given begin
index
String substring(int beginIndex, int endIndex)
returns substring for given begin

index and end index
boolean contains(CharSequence s)
returns true or false after matching

the sequence of char value
static String join(CharSequence delimiter,
returns a joined string
CharSequence... elements)
static String join(CharSequence delimiter, Iterable<?
returns a joined string
extends CharSequence> elements)
10
boolean equals(Object another)
checks the equality of string with

object
11
boolean isEmpty()
checks if string is empty
12
String concat(String str)
concatinates specified string
13
String replace(char old, char new)
replaces all occurrences of specified

char value
14
15
String replace(CharSequence old, CharSequence
replaces all occurrences of specified
new)
CharSequence
String trim()
returns trimmed string omitting

leading and trailing spaces
Do You Know ?
Why String objects are immutable?

How to create an immutable class?
What is string constant pool?
What code is written by the compiler if you concat any string by + (string
concatenation operator)?
What is the difference between StringBuffer and StringBuilder class?
What we will learn in String Handling ?
Concept of String
Immutable String
String Comparison
String Concatenation
Concept of Substring
String class methods and its usage
StringBuffer class
StringBuilder class
Creating Immutable class
toString() method
StringTokenizer class
Immutable String in Java

In java, string objects are immutable. Immutable simply means unmodifiable or
unchangeable.
Once string object is created its data or state can't be changed but a new string object is
created.
Let's try to understand the immutability concept by the example given below:
1. class Testimmutablestring{
3.
String s="Sachin";
4.
s.concat(" Tendulkar");//concat() method appends the string at the end
5.
System.out.println(s);//will print Sachin because strings are immutable objects
6. }
7. }
Test it Now
Output:Sachin
Now it can be understood by the diagram given below. Here Sachin is not changed but a
new object is created with sachintendulkar. That is why string is known as immutable.
As you can see in the above figure that two objects are created but s reference variable still
refers to "Sachin" not to "Sachin Tendulkar".
But if we explicitely assign it to the reference variable, it will refer to "Sachin Tendulkar"
object.For example:
1. class Testimmutablestring1{
3.
String s="Sachin";
4.
s=s.concat(" Tendulkar");
5.
System.out.println(s);
6. }
7. }
Test it Now
Output:Sachin Tendulkar
In such case, s points to the "Sachin Tendulkar". Please notice that still sachin object is not
modified.
Why string objects are immutable in java?

Because java uses the concept of string literal.Suppose there are 5 reference variables,all
referes to one object "sachin".If one reference variable changes the value of the object,
it will be affected to all the reference variables. That is why string objects are immutable
in java.
String comparison in Java
We can compare two given strings on the basis of content and reference.
It is used in authentication (by equals() method),sorting (by compareTo()
method), reference matching (by == operator) etc.
There are three ways to compare String objects:
1. By equals() method
2. By = = operator
3. By compareTo() method
1) By equals() method
equals() method compares the original content of the string.It compares values of string
for equality.String class provides two methods:
public boolean equals(Object another){} compares this string to the specified

object.
public boolean equalsIgnoreCase(String another){} compares this String to
another String, ignoring case.
1. class Teststringcomparison1{
3.
4.
String s1="Sachin";
5.
String s2="Sachin";
6.
String s3=new String("Sachin");
7.
String s4="Saurav";
8.
9.
System.out.println(s1.equals(s2));//true
10. System.out.println(s1.equals(s3));//true
11. System.out.println(s1.equals(s4));//false
12. }
13. }
Test it Now
Output:true
true
false
1. //Example of equalsIgnoreCase(String) method
4.
5.
String s1="Sachin";
6.
String s2="SACHIN";
7.
8.
System.out.println(s1.equals(s2));//false
9.
System.out.println(s1.equalsIgnoreCase(s3));//true
10. }
11. }
Test it Now
Output:false
true
2) By == operator
The = = operator compares references not values.
1. //Example of == operator
2.

5.
6.
String s1="Sachin";
7.
String s2="Sachin";
8.
String s3=new String("Sachin");
9.
10. System.out.println(s1==s2);//true (because both refer to same instance)
11. System.out.println(s1==s3);//false(because s3 refers to instance created in nonpool)
12. }
13. }
Test it Now
Output:true
false
3) By compareTo() method:
compareTo() method compares values and returns an int which tells if the values
compare less than, equal, or greater than.
Suppose s1 and s2 are two string variables.If:
s1 == s2 :0
s1 > s2 :positive value
s1 < s2 :negative value
1. //Example of compareTo() method:

2.
5.
6.
String s1="Sachin";
7.
String s2="Sachin";
8.
String s3="Ratan";
9.
10. System.out.println(s1.compareTo(s2));//0
11. System.out.println(s1.compareTo(s3));//1(because s1>s3)
12. System.out.println(s3.compareTo(s1));//-1(because s3 < s1 )
13. }
14. }
Test it Now
Output:0
1
-1
String Concatenation in Java

Concating strings form a new string i.e. the combination of multiple strings.
There are two ways to concat string objects:
1. By + (string concatenation) operator
2. By concat() method
1) By + (string concatenation) operator

String concatenation operator is used to add strings.For Example:
1. //Example of string concatenation operator
2.
3. class TestStringConcatenation1{
5.
6.
String s="Sachin"+" Tendulkar";
7.
System.out.println(s);//Sachin Tendulkar
8. }
9. }
Test it Now
The compiler transforms this to:
1. String s=(new StringBuilder()).append("Sachin").append(" Tendulkar).toString();
String concatenation is implemented through the StringBuilder(or StringBuffer) class and
its append method.String concatenation operator produces a new string by appending
the second operand onto the end of the first operand.The string concatenation operator
can concat not only string but primitive values also.For Example:
3.
4.
String s=50+30+"Sachin"+40+40;
5.
System.out.println(s);//80Sachin4040
6. }
7. }
Test it Now
Output:80Sachin4040
Note:If either operand is a string, the resulting operation will be string concatenation. If
both operands are numbers, the operator will perform an addition.
2) By concat() method
concat() method concatenates the specified string to the end of current string.
Syntax:public String concat(String another){}
1. //Example of concat(String) method
2.
5.
6.
String s1="Sachin ";
7.
String s2="Tendulkar";
8.
9.
String s3=s1.concat(s2);
10.
11. System.out.println(s3);//Sachin Tendulkar
12. }
13. }
Test it Now
Substring in Java
A part of string is called substring. In other words, substring is a subset of another string.
In case of substring startIndex starts from 0 and endIndex starts from 1 or startIndex is
inclusive and endIndex is exclusive.
You can get substring from the given String object by one of the two methods:
1. public String substring(int startIndex): This method returns new String object
containing the substring of the given string from specified startIndex (inclusive).
2. public String substring(int startIndex,int endIndex): This method returns new
String object containing the substring of the given string from specified startIndex to
endIndex.
In case of string:
startIndex:starts from index 0(inclusive).

endIndex:starts from index 1(exclusive).
Example of java substring

1. //Example of substring() method
2.
3. public class TestSubstring{
5.
6.
String s="Sachin Tendulkar";
7.
System.out.println(s.substring(6));//Tendulkar
8.
System.out.println(s.substring(0,6));//Sachin
9. }
10. }
Test it Now
Output:Tendulkar
Sachin
Java String class

The java.lang.String class provides a lot of methods to work on string. By the help of these
methods, we can perform operations on string such as trimming, concatenating, converting,
comparing, replacing strings etc.
Java String is a powerful concept because everything is treated as a string if you submit any
form in window based, web based or mobile application.
Let's see the important methods of String class.
Method
Description
1)public boolean equals(Object anObject)
Compares this string to the specified object.
2)public boolean equalsIgnoreCase(String
Compares this String to another String, ignoring
another)
case.
3)public String concat(String str)
Concatenates the specified string to the end of

this string.
4)public int compareTo(String str)
Compares two strings and returns int
5)public int compareToIgnoreCase(String str)
Compares two strings, ignoring case differences.
6)public String substring(int beginIndex)
Returns a new string that is a substring of this

string.
7)public String substring(int beginIndex,int
Returns a new string that is a substring of this
endIndex)
string.
8)public String toUpperCase()
Converts all of the characters in this String to

upper case
9)public String toLowerCase()
Converts all of the characters in this String to

lower case.
10)public String trim()
Returns a copy of the string, with leading and

trailing whitespace omitted.
11)public boolean startsWith(String prefix)
Tests if this string starts with the specified

prefix.
12)public boolean endsWith(String suffix)
Tests if this string ends with the specified suffix.
13)public char charAt(int index)
Returns the char value at the specified index.
14)public int length()
Returns the length of this string.
15)public String intern()
Returns a canonical representation for the string

object.
16)public byte[] getBytes()
Converts string into byte array.
17)public char[] toCharArray()
Converts string into char array.
18)public static String valueOf(int i)
converts the int into String.
19)public static String valueOf(long i)
converts the long into String.
20)public static String valueOf(float i)
converts the float into String.
21)public static String valueOf(double i)
converts the double into String.
22)public static String valueOf(boolean i)
converts the boolean into String.
23)public static String valueOf(char i)
converts the char into String.
24)public static String valueOf(char[] i)
converts the char array into String.
25)public static String valueOf(Object obj)
converts the Object into String.
26)public void replaceAll(String firstString,String
Changes the firstString with secondString.
secondString)
First seven methods have been discussed earlier. Now Let's take the example of other
methods:
Java String toUpperCase() and toLowerCase() method

The java string toUpperCase() method converts this string into uppercase letter and string
toLowerCase() method into lowercase letter.
1.
2.
3.
4.
String s="Sachin";
System.out.println(s.toUpperCase());//SACHIN
System.out.println(s.toLowerCase());//sachin
System.out.println(s);//Sachin(no change in original)
Test it Now
SACHIN
sachin
Sachin
Java String trim() method
The string trim() method eliminates white spaces before and after string.
1. String s=" Sachin ";
2. System.out.println(s);// Sachin
3. System.out.println(s.trim());//Sachin
Test it Now
Sachin
Sachin
Java String startsWith() and endsWith() method

1. String s="Sachin";
2. System.out.println(s.startsWith("Sa"));//true
3. System.out.println(s.endsWith("n"));//true
Test it Now
true
true
Java String charAt() method

The string charAt() method returns a character at specified index.
2. System.out.println(s.charAt(0));//S
3. System.out.println(s.charAt(3));//h
Test it Now
S
h
Java String length() method

The string length() method returns length of the string.
2. System.out.println(s.length());//6
Test it Now
6
Java String intern() method

A pool of strings, initially empty, is maintained privately by the class String.
When the intern method is invoked, if the pool already contains a string equal to this String
object as determined by the equals(Object) method, then the string from the pool is
returned. Otherwise, this String object is added to the pool and a reference to this String
object is returned.
1. String s=new String("Sachin");
2. String s2=s.intern();
3. System.out.println(s2);//Sachin
Test it Now
Sachin
Java String valueOf() method

The string valueOf() method coverts given type such as int, long, float, double, boolean,
char and char array into string.
1. int a=10;
2. String s=String.valueOf(a);
3. System.out.println(s+10);
1010
StringBuffer class:
The StringBuffer class is used to created mutable (modifiable) string. The StringBuffer
class is same as String except it is mutable i.e. it can be changed.
Note: StringBuffer class is thread-safe i.e. multiple threads cannot

access it simultaneously .So it is safe and will result in an order.
Commonly used Constructors of StringBuffer class:

1. StringBuffer(): creates an empty string buffer with the initial capacity of 16.
2. StringBuffer(String str): creates a string buffer with the specified string.

3. StringBuffer(int capacity): creates an empty string buffer with the specified
capacity as length.
Commonly used methods of StringBuffer class:

1. public synchronized StringBuffer append(String s): is used to append the
specified string with this string. The append() method is overloaded like
append(char), append(boolean), append(int), append(float), append(double) etc.
2. public synchronized StringBuffer insert(int offset, String s): is used to
insert the specified string with this string at the specified position. The insert()
method is overloaded like insert(int, char), insert(int, boolean), insert(int, int),
insert(int, float), insert(int, double) etc.
3. public synchronized StringBuffer replace(int startIndex, int endIndex,
String str): is used to replace the string from specified startIndex and endIndex.
4. public synchronized StringBuffer delete(int startIndex, int endIndex): is
used to delete the string from specified startIndex and endIndex.
5. public synchronized StringBuffer reverse(): is used to reverse the string.
6. public int capacity(): is used to return the current capacity.
7. public void ensureCapacity(int minimumCapacity): is used to ensure the
capacity at least equal to the given minimum.
8. public char charAt(int index): is used to return the character at the specified
position.
9. public int length(): is used to return the length of the string i.e. total number of
characters.
10. public String substring(int beginIndex): is used to return the substring from
the specified beginIndex.
11. public String substring(int beginIndex, int endIndex): is used to return the
substring from the specified beginIndex and endIndex.
What is mutable string?

A string that can be modified or changed is known as mutable string. StringBuffer and
StringBuilder classes are used for creating mutable string.
simple example of StringBuffer class by append() method

The append() method concatenates the given argument with this string.
1. class A{
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

StringBuffer sb=new StringBuffer("Hello ");
sb.append("Java");//now original string is changed
System.out.println(sb);//prints Hello Java
}
}
Example of insert() method of StringBuffer class

The insert() method inserts the given string with this string at the given position.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
class A{
StringBuffer sb=new StringBuffer("Hello ");
sb.insert(1,"Java");//now original string is changed
System.out.println(sb);//prints HJavaello
}
}
Example of replace() method of StringBuffer class

The replace() method replaces the given string from the specified beginIndex and
endIndex.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
class A{
StringBuffer sb=new StringBuffer("Hello");
sb.replace(1,3,"Java");
System.out.println(sb);//prints HJavalo
}
}
Example of delete() method of StringBuffer class

The delete() method of StringBuffer class deletes the string from the specified
beginIndex to endIndex.
1. class A{
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

sb.delete(1,3);
System.out.println(sb);//prints Hlo
}
}
Example of reverse() method of StringBuffer class

The reverse() method of StringBuilder class reverses the current string.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
class A{
sb.reverse();
System.out.println(sb);//prints olleH
}
}
Example of capacity() method of StringBuffer class

The capacity() method of StringBuffer class returns the current capacity of the buffer.
The default capacity of the buffer is 16. If the number of character increases from its
current capacity, it increases the capacity by (oldcapacity*2)+2. For example if your
current capacity is 16, it will be (16*2)+2=34.
1. class A{
3.
4. StringBuffer sb=new StringBuffer();
5. System.out.println(sb.capacity());//default 16
6.
7. sb.append("Hello");
8. System.out.println(sb.capacity());//now 16
9.
10. sb.append("java is my favourite language");
11. System.out.println(sb.capacity());//now (16*2)+2=34 i.e (oldcapacity*2)+2
12. }
13. }
Example of ensureCapacity() method of StringBuffer class

The ensureCapacity() method of StringBuffer class ensures that the given capacity is the
minimum to the current capacity. If it is greater than the current capacity, it increases
the capacity by (oldcapacity*2)+2. For example if your current capacity is 16, it will be
(16*2)+2=34.
class A{
StringBuffer sb=new StringBuffer();
System.out.println(sb.capacity());//default 16
sb.append("Hello");
System.out.println(sb.capacity());//now 16
sb.append("java is my favourite language");
System.out.println(sb.capacity());//now (16*2)+2=34 i.e (oldcapacity*2)+2
sb.ensureCapacity(10);//now no change
sb.ensureCapacity(50);//now (34*2)+2
}
}
StringBuilder class:
The StringBuilder class is used to create mutable (modifiable) string. The StringBuilder
class is same as StringBuffer class except that it is non-synchronized. It is available since
JDK1.5.
Commonly used Constructors of StringBuilder class:

1. StringBuilder(): creates an empty string Builder with the initial capacity of 16.
2. StringBuilder(String str): creates a string Builder with the specified string.
3. StringBuilder(int length): creates an empty string Builder with the specified
capacity as length.
Commonly used methods of StringBuilder class:
1. public StringBuilder append(String s): is used to append the specified string

with this string. The append() method is overloaded like append(char),
append(boolean), append(int), append(float), append(double) etc.
2. public StringBuilder insert(int offset, String s): is used to insert the specified
string with this string at the specified position. The insert() method is overloaded
like insert(int, char), insert(int, boolean), insert(int, int), insert(int, float),
insert(int, double) etc.
3. public StringBuilder replace(int startIndex, int endIndex, String str): is
used to replace the string from specified startIndex and endIndex.
4. public StringBuilder delete(int startIndex, int endIndex): is used to delete
the string from specified startIndex and endIndex.
5. public StringBuilder reverse(): is used to reverse the string.
6. public int capacity(): is used to return the current capacity.
7. public void ensureCapacity(int minimumCapacity): is used to ensure the
capacity at least equal to the given minimum.
8. public char charAt(int index): is used to return the character at the specified
position.
9. public int length(): is used to return the length of the string i.e. total number of
characters.
10. public String substring(int beginIndex): is used to return the substring from
the specified beginIndex.
11. public String substring(int beginIndex, int endIndex): is used to return the
substring from the specified beginIndex and endIndex.
simple program of StringBuilder class by append() method

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The append() method concatenates the given argument with this string.
class A{
StringBuilder sb=new StringBuilder("Hello ");
sb.append("Java");//now original string is changed
System.out.println(sb);//prints Hello Java
}
}
Example of insert() method of StringBuilder class

The insert() method inserts the given string with this string at the given position.
1. class A{
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
StringBuilder sb=new StringBuilder("Hello ");

sb.insert(1,"Java");//now original string is changed
System.out.println(sb);//prints HJavaello
}
}
Example of replace() method of StringBuilder class

The replace() method replaces the given string from the specified beginIndex and
endIndex.
1. class A{
3.
4. StringBuilder sb=new StringBuilder("Hello");
5. sb.replace(1,3,"Java");
6.
7. System.out.println(sb);//prints HJavalo
8. }
9. }
Example of delete() method of StringBuilder class

The delete() method of StringBuilder class deletes the string from the specified
beginIndex to endIndex.
1. class A{
3.
5. sb.delete(1,3);
6.
7. System.out.println(sb);//prints Hlo
8. }
9. }
Example of reverse() method of StringBuilder class

The reverse() method of StringBuilder class reverses the current string.
1. class A{
3.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
sb.reverse();
System.out.println(sb);//prints olleH
}
}
Example of capacity() method of StringBuilder class

The capacity() method of StringBuilder class returns the current capacity of the Builder.
The default capacity of the Builder is 16. If the number of character increases from its
current capacity, it increases the capacity by (oldcapacity*2)+2. For example if your
current capacity is 16, it will be (16*2)+2=34.
1. class A{
3.
4. StringBuilder sb=new StringBuilder();
6.
9.
12. }
13. }
Example of ensureCapacity() method of StringBuilder class

The ensureCapacity() method of StringBuilder class ensures that the given capacity is the
minimum to the current capacity. If it is greater than the current capacity, it increases
the capacity by (oldcapacity*2)+2. For example if your current capacity is 16, it will be
(16*2)+2=34.
1. class A{
3.
4. StringBuilder sb=new StringBuilder();
6.
9.
12.
13. sb.ensureCapacity(10);//now no change

15.
16. sb.ensureCapacity(50);//now (34*2)+2
18.
19. }
20. }
How to create Immutable class?

There are many immutable classes like String, Boolean, Byte, Short, Integer, Long, Float,
Double etc. In short, all the wrapper classes and String class is immutable. We can also
create immutable class by creating final class that have final data members as the
example given below:
Example to create Immutable class

In this example, we have created a final class named Employee. It have one final
datamember, a parameterized constructor and getter method.
1. public final class Employee{
2. final String pancardNumber;
3.
4. public Employee(String pancardNumber){
5. this.pancardNumber=pancardNumber;
6. }
7.
8. public String getPancardNumber(){
9. return pancardNumber;
10. }
11.
12. }
The above class is immutable because:

The instance variable of the class is final i.e. we cannot change the value of it
after creating an object.
The class is final so we cannot create the subclass.
There is no setter methods i.e. we have no option to change the value of the
instance variable.
These points makes this class as immutable.
Understanding toString() method

If you want to represent any object as a string, toString() method comes into existence.
The toString() method returns the string representation of the object.
If you print any object, java compiler internally invokes the toString() method on the object.
So overriding the toString() method, returns the desired output, it can be the state of an
object etc. depends on your implementation.
Advantage of the toString() method

By overriding the toString() method of the Object class, we can return values of the
object, so we don't need to write much code.
Understanding problem without toString() method

Let's see the simple code that prints reference.
1. class Student{
2. int rollno;
3. String name;
4. String city;
5.
6. Student(int rollno, String name, String city){
8. this.name=name;
9. this.city=city;
10. }
11.
13. Student s1=new Student(101,"Raj","lucknow");
14. Student s2=new Student(102,"Vijay","ghaziabad");
15.
16. System.out.println(s1);//compiler writes here s1.toString()
18. }
19. }
Output:Student@1fee6fc
Student@1eed786
As you can see in the above example, printing s1 and s2 prints the hashcode values of
the objects but I want to print the values of these objects. Since java compiler internally
calls toString() method, overriding this method will return the specified values. Let's
understand it with the example given below:
Example of toString() method

Now let's see the real example of toString() method.
1. class Student{
2. int rollno;
3. String name;
4. String city;
5.
6. Student(int rollno, String name, String city){
8. this.name=name;
9. this.city=city;
10. }
11.
12. public String toString(){//overriding the toString() method
13. return rollno+" "+name+" "+city;
14. }
16. Student s1=new Student(101,"Raj","lucknow");
17. Student s2=new Student(102,"Vijay","ghaziabad");
18.
21. }
22. }
download this example of toString method

Output:101 Raj lucknow
102 Vijay ghaziabad
StringTokenizer in Java
1. StringTokenizer
2. Methods of StringTokenizer
3. Example of StringTokenizer
The java.util.StringTokenizer class allows you to break a string into tokens. It is simple
way to break string.
It doesn't provide the facility to differentiate numbers, quoted strings, identifiers etc. like
StreamTokenizer class. We will discuss about the StreamTokenizer class in I/O chapter.
Constructors of StringTokenizer class

There are 3 constructors defined in the StringTokenizer class.
Constructor
Description
StringTokenizer(String str)
creates StringTokenizer with specified string.
StringTokenizer(String str,
creates StringTokenizer with specified string and delimeter.
String delim)
StringTokenizer(String str,
creates StringTokenizer with specified string, delimeter and
String delim, boolean
returnValue. If return value is true, delimiter characters are
returnValue)
considered to be tokens. If it is false, delimiter characters serve

to separate tokens.
Methods of StringTokenizer class

The 6 useful methods of StringTokenizer class are as follows:
Public method
Description
boolean hasMoreTokens()
checks if there is more tokens available.
String nextToken()
returns the next token from the StringTokenizer object.
String nextToken(String delim)
returns the next token based on the delimeter.
boolean hasMoreElements()
same as hasMoreTokens() method.
Object nextElement()
same as nextToken() but its return type is Object.
int countTokens()
returns the total number of tokens.
Simple example of StringTokenizer class

Let's see the simple example of StringTokenizer class that tokenizes a string "my name is
khan" on the basis of whitespace.
1. import java.util.StringTokenizer;
2. public class Simple{
4.
StringTokenizer st = new StringTokenizer("my name is khan"," ");
5.
while (st.hasMoreTokens()) {
6.
System.out.println(st.nextToken());
7.
}
8.
}
9. }
Output:my
name
is
khan
Example of nextToken(String delim) method of StringTokenizer

class
1. import java.util.*;
2.
3. public class Test {
4.
public static void main(String[] args) {
5.
StringTokenizer st = new StringTokenizer("my,name,is,khan");
6.
7.
// printing next token
8.
System.out.println("Next token is : " + st.nextToken(","));
9.
}
10. }
Output:Next token is : my
Java Regex
The Java Regex or Regular Expression is an API to define pattern for searching or
manipulating strings.
It is widely used to define constraint on strings such as password and email validation. After
learning java regex tutorial, you will be able to test your own regular expressions by the
Java Regex Tester Tool.
Java Regex API provides 1 interface and 3 classes in java.util.regex package.
java.util.regex package
It provides following classes and interface for regular expressions. The Matcher and Pattern
classes are widely used in java regular expression.
1.
2.
3.
4.
MatchResult interface
Matcher class
Pattern class
PatternSyntaxException class
Matcher class
It implements MatchResult interface. It is a regex engine i.e. used to perform match
operations on a character sequence.
No.
Method
Description
boolean matches()
test whether the regular expression matches the pattern.
boolean find()
finds the next expression that matches the pattern.
boolean find(int
finds the next expression that matches the pattern from the given
start)
start number.
Pattern class
It is the compiled version of a regular expression. It is used to define a pattern for the regex
engine.
No.
1
Method
Description
static Pattern compile(String
compiles the given regex and return the instance of
regex)
pattern.
Matcher matcher(CharSequence
creates a matcher that matches the given input with
input)
pattern.
static boolean matches(String
It works as the combination of compile and matcher
regex, CharSequence input)
methods. It compiles the regular expression and

matches the given input with the pattern.
String[] split(CharSequence input)
splits the given input string around matches of given

pattern.
String pattern()
returns the regex pattern.
Example of Java Regular Expressions

There are three ways to write the regex example in java.
1. import java.util.regex.*;
2. public class RegexExample1{
4. //1st way
5. Pattern p = Pattern.compile(".s");//. represents single character
6. Matcher m = p.matcher("as");
7. boolean b = m.matches();
8.
9. //2nd way
10. boolean b2=Pattern.compile(".s").matcher("as").matches();
11.
12. //3rd way
13. boolean b3 = Pattern.matches(".s", "as");
14.
15. System.out.println(b+" "+b2+" "+b3);
16. }}
Test it Now
Output
true true true
Regular Expression . Example

The . (dot) represents a single character.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
import java.util.regex.*;
class RegexExample2{
System.out.println(Pattern.matches(".s", "as"));//true (2nd char is s)
System.out.println(Pattern.matches(".s", "mk"));//false (2nd char is not s)
System.out.println(Pattern.matches(".s", "mst"));//false (has more than 2 char)
System.out.println(Pattern.matches(".s", "amms"));//false (has more than 2 char)
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("..s", "mas"));//true (3rd char is s)
}}
Test it Now
Regex Character classes

No.
Character Class
Description
[abc]
a, b, or c (simple class)
[^abc]
Any character except a, b, or c (negation)
[a-zA-Z]
a through z or A through Z, inclusive (range)
[a-d[m-p]]
a through d, or m through p: [a-dm-p] (union)
[a-z&&[def]]
d, e, or f (intersection)
[a-z&&[^bc]]
a through z, except for b and c: [ad-z] (subtraction)
[a-z&&[^m-p]]
a through z, and not m through p: [a-lq-z](subtraction)
Regular Expression Character classes Example

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]", "abcd"));//false (not a or m or n)
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]", "a"));//true (among a or m or n)
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]", "ammmna"));//false (m and a comes more t
han once)
7. }}
Test it Now
Regex Quantifiers
The quantifiers specify the number of occurrences of a character.
Regex
Description
X?
X occurs once or not at all
X+
X occurs once or more times
X*
X occurs zero or more times
X{n}
X occurs n times only
X{n,}
X occurs n or more times
X{y,z}
X occurs at least y times but less than z times
Regular Expression Character classes and Quantifiers

Example
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
System.out.println("? quantifier ....");
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]?", "a"));//true (a or m or n comes one time)
6. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]?", "aaa"));//false (a comes more than one tim

e)
7. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]?", "aammmnn"));//false (a m and n comes m
ore than one time)
8. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]?", "aazzta"));//false (a comes more than one
time)
9. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]?", "am"));//false (a or m or n must come one
time)
10.
11. System.out.println("+ quantifier ....");
12. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]+", "a"));//true (a or m or n once or more time
s)
13. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]+", "aaa"));//true (a comes more than one tim
e)
14. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]+", "aammmnn"));//true (a or m or n comes
more than once)
15. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]+", "aazzta"));//false (z and t are not matchin
g pattern)
16.
17. System.out.println("* quantifier ....");
18. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]*", "ammmna"));//true (a or m or n may com
e zero or more times)
19.
20. }}
Test it Now
Regex Metacharacters
The regular expression metacharacters work as a short codes.
Regex
Description
Any character (may or may not match terminator)
\d
Any digits, short of [0-9]
\D
Any non-digit, short for [^0-9]
\s
Any whitespace character, short for [\t\n\x0B\f\r]
\S
Any non-whitespace character, short for [^\s]
\w
Any word character, short for [a-zA-Z_0-9]
\W
Any non-word character, short for [^\w]
\b
A word boundary
\B
A non word boundary
Regular Expression Metacharacters Example

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
System.out.println("metacharacters d....");\\d means digit
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\d", "abc"));//false (non-digit)

System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\d", "1"));//true (digit and comes once)
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\d", "4443"));//false (digit but comes more than onc
e)
9. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\d", "323abc"));//false (digit and char)
10.
11. System.out.println("metacharacters D....");\\D means non-digit
12.
13. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\D", "abc"));//false (nondigit but comes more than once)
14. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\D", "1"));//false (digit)
16. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\D", "323abc"));//false (digit and char)
17. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\D", "m"));//true (non-digit and comes once)
18.
19. System.out.println("metacharacters D with quantifier....");
20. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\D*", "mak"));//true (nondigit and may come 0 or more times)
21.
22. }}
Test it Now
Regular Expression Question 1

1. /*Create a regular expression that accepts alpha numeric characters only. Its
2. length must be 6 characters long only.*/
3.
5.
6.
7.
8.
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[a-zA-Z0-9]{6}", "arun32"));//true
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[a-zA-Z09]{6}", "kkvarun32"));//false (more than 6 char)
9. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[a-zA-Z0-9]{6}", "JA2Uk2"));//true
10. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[a-zA-Z09]{6}", "arun$2"));//false ($ is not matched)
11. }}
Test it Now

1. /*Create a regular expression that accepts 10 digit numeric characters
2. starting with 7, 8 or 9 only.*/
3.
5. class RegexExample7{
7. System.out.println("by character classes and quantifiers ...");
8. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[789]{1}[0-9]{9}", "9953038949"));//true
9. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[789][0-9]{9}", "9953038949"));//true
10.
11. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[789][09]{9}", "99530389490"));//false (11 characters)
12. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[789][09]{9}", "6953038949"));//false (starts from 6)
14.
15. System.out.println("by metacharacters ...");
16. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[789]{1}\\d{9}", "8853038949"));//true
17. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[789]{1}\\d{9}", "3853038949"));//false (starts fr
om 3)
18.
19. }}
Java Regex
The Java Regex or Regular Expression is an API to define pattern for searching or
manipulating strings.
It is widely used to define constraint on strings such as password and email validation. After
learning java regex tutorial, you will be able to test your own regular expressions by the
Java Regex Tester Tool.
Java Regex API provides 1 interface and 3 classes in java.util.regex package.
java.util.regex package
It provides following classes and interface for regular expressions. The Matcher and Pattern
classes are widely used in java regular expression.
1.
2.
3.
4.
MatchResult interface
Matcher class
Pattern class
PatternSyntaxException class
Matcher class
It implements MatchResult interface. It is a regex engine i.e. used to perform match
operations on a character sequence.
No.
Method
Description
boolean matches()
test whether the regular expression matches the pattern.
boolean find()
finds the next expression that matches the pattern.
boolean find(int
finds the next expression that matches the pattern from the given
start)
start number.
Pattern class
It is the compiled version of a regular expression. It is used to define a pattern for the regex
engine.
No.
1
Method
static Pattern compile(String
Description
compiles the given regex and return the instance of
regex)
pattern.
Matcher matcher(CharSequence
creates a matcher that matches the given input with
input)
pattern.
static boolean matches(String
It works as the combination of compile and matcher
regex, CharSequence input)
methods. It compiles the regular expression and

matches the given input with the pattern.
String[] split(CharSequence input)
splits the given input string around matches of given

pattern.
String pattern()
returns the regex pattern.
Example of Java Regular Expressions

There are three ways to write the regex example in java.
2. public class RegexExample1{
4. //1st way
5. Pattern p = Pattern.compile(".s");//. represents single character
6. Matcher m = p.matcher("as");
7. boolean b = m.matches();
8.
9. //2nd way
10. boolean b2=Pattern.compile(".s").matcher("as").matches();
11.
12. //3rd way
13. boolean b3 = Pattern.matches(".s", "as");
14.
15. System.out.println(b+" "+b2+" "+b3);
16. }}
Test it Now
Output
true true true
Regular Expression . Example

The . (dot) represents a single character.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
System.out.println(Pattern.matches(".s", "as"));//true (2nd char is s)
System.out.println(Pattern.matches(".s", "mk"));//false (2nd char is not s)
System.out.println(Pattern.matches(".s", "mst"));//false (has more than 2 char)
System.out.println(Pattern.matches(".s", "amms"));//false (has more than 2 char)
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("..s", "mas"));//true (3rd char is s)
}}
Test it Now
Regex Character classes

No.
Character Class
Description
[abc]
a, b, or c (simple class)
[^abc]
Any character except a, b, or c (negation)
[a-zA-Z]
a through z or A through Z, inclusive (range)
[a-d[m-p]]
a through d, or m through p: [a-dm-p] (union)
[a-z&&[def]]
d, e, or f (intersection)
[a-z&&[^bc]]
a through z, except for b and c: [ad-z] (subtraction)
[a-z&&[^m-p]]
a through z, and not m through p: [a-lq-z](subtraction)
Regular Expression Character classes Example

4. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]", "abcd"));//false (not a or m or n)

5. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]", "a"));//true (among a or m or n)
6. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]", "ammmna"));//false (m and a comes more t
han once)
7. }}
Test it Now
Regex Quantifiers
The quantifiers specify the number of occurrences of a character.
Regex
Description
X?
X occurs once or not at all
X+
X occurs once or more times
X*
X occurs zero or more times
X{n}
X occurs n times only
X{n,}
X occurs n or more times
X{y,z}
X occurs at least y times but less than z times
Regular Expression Character classes and Quantifiers

Example
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
System.out.println("? quantifier ....");
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]?", "a"));//true (a or m or n comes one time)
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]?", "aaa"));//false (a comes more than one tim
e)
7. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]?", "aammmnn"));//false (a m and n comes m
ore than one time)
8. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]?", "aazzta"));//false (a comes more than one

time)
9. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]?", "am"));//false (a or m or n must come one
time)
10.
11. System.out.println("+ quantifier ....");
12. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]+", "a"));//true (a or m or n once or more time
s)
13. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]+", "aaa"));//true (a comes more than one tim
e)
14. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]+", "aammmnn"));//true (a or m or n comes
more than once)
15. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]+", "aazzta"));//false (z and t are not matchin
g pattern)
16.
17. System.out.println("* quantifier ....");
18. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[amn]*", "ammmna"));//true (a or m or n may com
e zero or more times)
19.
20. }}
Test it Now
Regex Metacharacters
The regular expression metacharacters work as a short codes.
Regex
Description
Any character (may or may not match terminator)
\d
Any digits, short of [0-9]
\D
Any non-digit, short for [^0-9]
\s
Any whitespace character, short for [\t\n\x0B\f\r]
\S
Any non-whitespace character, short for [^\s]
\w
Any word character, short for [a-zA-Z_0-9]
\W
Any non-word character, short for [^\w]
\b
A word boundary
\B
A non word boundary
Regular Expression Metacharacters Example

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
System.out.println("metacharacters d....");\\d means digit
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\d", "abc"));//false (non-digit)

System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\d", "1"));//true (digit and comes once)
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\d", "4443"));//false (digit but comes more than onc
e)
9. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\d", "323abc"));//false (digit and char)
10.
11. System.out.println("metacharacters D....");\\D means non-digit
12.
13. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\D", "abc"));//false (nondigit but comes more than once)
16. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\D", "323abc"));//false (digit and char)
17. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\D", "m"));//true (non-digit and comes once)
18.
19. System.out.println("metacharacters D with quantifier....");
20. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("\\D*", "mak"));//true (nondigit and may come 0 or more times)
21.
22. }}
Test it Now

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
/*Create a regular expression that accepts alpha numeric characters only. Its
length must be 6 characters long only.*/
System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[a-zA-Z0-9]{6}", "arun32"));//true
8. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[a-zA-Z09]{6}", "kkvarun32"));//false (more than 6 char)

9. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[a-zA-Z0-9]{6}", "JA2Uk2"));//true
10. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[a-zA-Z09]{6}", "arun$2"));//false ($ is not matched)
11. }}
Test it Now

1. /*Create a regular expression that accepts 10 digit numeric characters
2. starting with 7, 8 or 9 only.*/
3.
7. System.out.println("by character classes and quantifiers ...");
8. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[789]{1}[0-9]{9}", "9953038949"));//true
10.
11. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[789][09]{9}", "99530389490"));//false (11 characters)
12. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[789][09]{9}", "6953038949"));//false (starts from 6)
14.
15. System.out.println("by metacharacters ...");
16. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[789]{1}\\d{9}", "8853038949"));//true
17. System.out.println(Pattern.matches("[789]{1}\\d{9}", "3853038949"));//false (starts fr
om 3)
18.
19. }}
Exception Handling in Java

1. Exception Handling
2. Advantage of Exception Handling
3. Hierarchy of Exception classes
4. Types of Exception
5. Scenarios where exception may occur
The exception handling in java is one of the powerful mechanism to handle the runtime
errors so that normal flow of the application can be maintained.
In this page, we will learn about java exception, its type and the difference between
checked and unchecked exceptions.
What is exception
Dictionary Meaning: Exception is an abnormal condition.
In java, exception is an event that disrupts the normal flow of the program. It is an object
which is thrown at runtime.
What is exception handling

Exception Handling is a mechanism to handle runtime errors such as ClassNotFound, IO,
SQL, Remote etc.
Advantage of Exception Handling

The core advantage of exception handling is to maintain the normal flow of the
application. Exception normally disrupts the normal flow of the application that is why we
use exception handling. Let's take a scenario:
1. statement
2. statement
3. statement
4. statement
5. statement
6. statement
7. statement
8. statement
9. statement
10. statement
1;
2;
3;
4;
5;//exception occurs
6;
7;
8;
9;
10;
Suppose there is 10 statements in your program and there occurs an exception at

statement 5, rest of the code will not be executed i.e. statement 6 to 10 will not run. If we
perform exception handling, rest of the exception will be executed. That is why we use
exception handling in java.
Do You Know ?
What is the difference between checked and unchecked exceptions ?

What happens behind the code int data=50/0; ?
Why use multiple catch block ?
Is there any possibility when finally block is not executed ?
What is exception propagation ?
What is the difference between throw and throws keyword ?
What are the 4 rules for using exception handling with method overriding ?
Hierarchy of Exception classes
Types of Exception
There are mainly two types of exceptions: checked and unchecked where error is considered
as unchecked exception. The sun microsystem says there are three types of exceptions:
1. Checked Exception
2. Unchecked Exception
3. Error
Difference between checked and unchecked

exceptions
1) Checked Exception
The classes that extend Throwable class except RuntimeException and Error are known as
checked exceptions e.g.IOException, SQLException etc. Checked exceptions are checked at
compile-time.
2) Unchecked Exception
The classes that extend RuntimeException are known as unchecked exceptions e.g.
ArithmeticException, NullPointerException, ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException etc.
Unchecked exceptions are not checked at compile-time rather they are checked at runtime.
3) Error
Error is irrecoverable e.g. OutOfMemoryError, VirtualMachineError, AssertionError etc.
Common scenarios where exceptions may occur

There are given some scenarios where unchecked exceptions can occur. They are as
follows:
1) Scenario where ArithmeticException occurs

If we divide any number by zero, there occurs an ArithmeticException.
1. int a=50/0;//ArithmeticException
2) Scenario where NullPointerException occurs

If we have null value in any variable, performing any operation by the variable occurs an
NullPointerException.
1. String s=null;
2. System.out.println(s.length());//NullPointerException
3) Scenario where NumberFormatException occurs

The wrong formatting of any value, may occur NumberFormatException. Suppose I have a
string variable that have characters, converting this variable into digit will occur
NumberFormatException.
1. String s="abc";
2. int i=Integer.parseInt(s);//NumberFormatException
4) Scenario where ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException occurs

If you are inserting any value in the wrong index, it would result
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException as shown below:
1. int a[]=new int[5];
2. a[10]=50; //ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException

Java Concepts

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Difference between JDK, JRE and JVM

1. Brief summary of JVM

VM (Java Virtual Machine)

1. A specification where working of Java Virtual Machine is specified. But

JVM provides definitions for the:

Internal Architecture of JVM

5) Program Counter Register:

6) Native Method Stack:

Variable and Datatype in Java

int data=50;//Here data is variable

We will have detailed learning of these variables in next chapters.

Example to understand the types of variables

int data=50;//instance variable

static int m=100;//static variable

Data Types in Java

primitive data types

Data Type Default Value Default size

Why char uses 2 byte in java and what is \u0000 ?

Why java uses Unicode System?

This caused two problems:

++expr --expr +expr -expr ~ !

<< >> >>>

< > <= >= instanceof

= += -= *= /= %= &= ^= |= <<= >>= >>>=

1) Program of factorial number.

static int fact(int number){

public static void main(String args[]){

2) Program of fibonacci series.

public static void main(String...args)

3) Program of armstrong number.

4) Program of checking palindrome number.

5) Program of swapping two numbers without using third variable.

6) Program of factorial number by recursion

static int fact(int n){

public static void main(String args[]){

Java OOPs Concepts

OOPs (Object Oriented Programming System)

Object means a real word entity such

Advantage of OOPs over Procedure-oriented programming

What is difference between object-oriented programming language and

Can we overload main method ?

What we will learn in OOPs Concepts ?

Java Naming conventions

Advantage of naming conventions in java

should start with lowercase letter e.g. firstName, orderNumber etc.

should be in lowercase letter e.g. java, lang, sql, util etc.

should be in uppercase letter. e.g. RED, YELLOW, MAX_PRIORITY etc.

Understanding CamelCase in java naming conventions

Object and Class in Java

state: represents data (value) of an object.

state. It is used to write, so writing is its behavior.

A class in java can contain:

Syntax to declare a class:

Simple Example of Object and Class

Instance variable in Java

Example of Object and class that maintains the records of

download this example of object and class

are reference variables that refer to the objects allocated in memory.

Another Example of Object and Class