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ISI KANDUNGAN
1.0

Introduction
1.1

2.0

Objective of study 1

Properties of Carbon Allotropes 2

2.1

Properties of Graphite

2.2

Properties of Diamond

3.0

The Usage of Diamond and Graphite

4.0

Conclusion

RUJUKAN

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1.0

Introduction

Although the discovery of carbon is earlier than we expect, it is still unknown until Howler
(1964) define carbon as a chemical element with symbol C, atomic number of 6, and electron
configuration of [He]2s22p2. The name carbon originated from Latin carbo and French
charbon meaning charcoal. Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in the
universe by mass. It is also the second abundant element by mass in human body. Carbon has
been knownsince prehistoric time.Woods, mainly consisted of carbon, have been widely used
for warming and cooking from prehistoric time. Diamond, another allotrope of carbon, has
been treasured as gemstones because of remarkable optical characteristics and widely applied
in industry because of superior hardness and good thermal conductivity.
People from the early civilization had discovered carbon and the first known use of activated
carbon dates back to the Ancient Egyptians who utilized its adsorbent properties for purifying
oils and medicinal purposes. Centuries later, the early ocean-going vessels stored drinking
water in wooden barrels, the inside of which had been charred. By the early 19th century both
wood and bone charcoal was in large-scale use for the decolorization and purification of cane
sugar. However, it was not until the beginning of the First World War that the potential of
activated carbon was really capitalized upon. The advent of gas warfare necessitated the
development of suitable respiratory devices for personnel protection. Granular activated
carbon was used to this end as, indeed, it still is today. By the late 1930s there was
considerable industrial-scale use of carbon for gaseous and liquid phase application and new
manufacturing processes had been developed to satisfy the needs of industry. During the
1939-1945 war, a further significant development took place - the production of more
sophisticated chemically impregnated carbon for entrapment of both war and nerve gases.

1.1
Objective of study
The main purpose of this study is to find out the isotopes or the allotropes of carbon which is
diamond and graphite. By using the information of the allotropes, we can also:i.
ii.

Identify the physical and chemical properties of the allotropes

List down the main applications of the allotropes

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2.0

Properties of Carbon Allotropes

Carbon has several allotropes, or different forms in which it exists. Interestingly, carbon
allotropes span a wide range of physical properties; the hardest naturally occurring substance
(diamond) and one of the softest known substances (graphite) are both allotropes. Diamond is
transparent, the ultimate abrasive, and can be an electrical insulator and thermal conductor;
conversely, graphite is opaque, a very good lubricant, a good conductor of electricity, and a
thermal insulator. Allotropes of carbon are not limited to diamonds and graphites, but also
include buckyballs (fullerenes), amorphous carbon, glassy carbon, and nanotubes.

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2.1

I.

Properties of Graphite

Physical Properties

Graphite has a layered and planar structure. In each layer, the carbon atoms are arranged in a
hexagonal lattice with a lattice parameter of 0.142nm while the distance between planes is
0.335 nm, making it the softest natural materials with Mohs hardness of 1(Setton, 2002).
Each graphite layer is consists of pure sp2 hybridized carbon atoms and van der Waals force
holds the layers together.Graphite is mainly applied in industry for lubrication. The mineral
graphite is steel gray to black in color and is odorless. It is opaque and has a sub metallic
luster. Graphite is very soft and has a greasy texture. It can be broken easily and leaves a
black streak on the hand when touched. Although graphite is soft and flexible, it is not elastic
in nature.
Graphite is crystalline in nature, however, perfect crystals of graphite are rarely found. The
carbon atoms in graphite are arranged in a hexagonal manner in a planar condensed ring
system. This gives the graphite crystals, a hexagonal shape. Different layers of graphite are
stacked together and held by weak covalent forces, to form a giant covalent structure.
Graphite has a high melting point above 3000, like that of diamond, the other allotrope of
carbon. Hence, it is stable over a wide range of temperatures. As there is a lot of vacant space
between the graphite sheets, held by the weak covalent bonds, the density of graphite is 2.09
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to 2.33 g/cc, which is lower than that of diamond. The measured specific gravity of graphite
is approximately 2.26 g/cc, however, it depends upon the purity of graphite. Graphite with a
higher ash content shows a specific gravity higher than 2.26, while natural graphite has a
lower

specific

gravity

or

density

due

to

the

trapped

porosity

Graphite is insoluble in water as well as other organic solvents. There are no attractive forces
that occur between the solvent molecules and the carbons atoms in graphite and so it fails to
dissolve in any of the organic solvents. There is vast delocalization of electrons within the
carbon layers of graphite. The delocalized electrons are free to move and are able to conduct
electricity, thus making graphite a good conductor of electricity.

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II.

Chemical properties

Pure graphite is one of the most chemically inert materials. It is resistant to most acids,
alkalies and corrosive gases. However impurities are almost always present to some degree in
both natural and artificial graphites and often have an important catalytic effect with resulting
increase in the chemical reactivity. The anisotropy of the graphite crystal is reflected in its
chemical behavior. Reaction with gases or vapors occurs preferentially at "active sites", i.e.,
the end of the basal planes of the crystal which are the zigzag face and the arm-chair face,
and at defect sites, such as dislocations, vacancies, and steps. Reaction with the basal plane
surfaces is far slower. The reason is that the graphite crystal exhibits large differences in
surface energy in the different crystallographic directions; these energies amount to 5 J/m2 in
the prismatic plane but only 0.11 J/m2 in the basal plane. These differences account for the
different rate of reaction, i.e., slow at the basal plane and rapid at the edge (or prismatic)
surfaces found at the termination of the basal planes or at defects within the basal plane.
Consequently, graphite materials with large crystals and few defects have the best chemical
resistance.

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2.2

Properties of Diamond

Diamonds are formed when carbon deposits are exposed to high pressure and high
temperature for prolonged periods of time. Deep within the earth's crust there are regions that
have a high enough temperature (900C to 1400C) and pressure (5 to 6 GPa) that it is
thermodynamically possible for liquified carbon to form into diamonds. Diamond consists of
pure sp3 hybridized carbon atoms. It is renowned for its extreme hardness (hardest natural
materials with Mohs hardness of 10 since antiquity) originating from the strong covalent
bonding between carbon atoms and for its relatively high optical dispersion of visible
spectrum coving 15.5 eV and thermal conductivity (9002,320W/m/K (Walker, 1979) .
Diamond is mainly applied in industrial cutting and polishing tools besides as themost
popular gemstone in our life.
I.

Physical Properties

Study by Walker (1979) define diamond as a transparent crystal of tetrahedrally bonded

carbon atoms in a covalent network lattice (sp3) that crystallizes into the diamond lattice
which is a variation of the face centered cubic structure. Diamonds have been modified for
many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics. Most notable are its
extreme hardness and thermal conductivity (9002,320 Wm1K1) as well as wide bandgap
and high optical dispersion. Naturally occurring diamonds have a density ranging from 3.15
3.53 g/cm3, with pure diamond close to 3.52 g/cm3. The chemical bonds that hold the carbon
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atoms in diamonds together are weaker than those in graphite. In diamonds, the bonds form
an inflexible three-dimensional lattice, whereas in graphite, the atoms are tightly bonded into
sheets, which can slide easily over one another, making the overall structure weaker.
According to P. G. (2005), with the Mohs scale of 10, diamond is the hardest known natural
material on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, where hardness is defined as resistance to
scratching and is graded between 1 (softest) and 10 (hardest). Diamond's hardness and high
melting point make it useful for cutting tools, such as the diamond-tipped discs used to cut
bricks and concrete. Heavy-duty drill bits, like those used to drill through rocks in the oil
exploration industry, are made with diamonds so that they stay sharp for longer.

II.

Chemical Properties

Diamond is generally inert to most chemical environments with the notable exception of
oxidation. In pure oxygen, the onset of oxidation has been shown to start at temperature as
low as 250C for finely divided powders and to become rapid above 600C. Diamond burns
brightly in an oxygen jet at 720C. Diamond is resistant to all liquid organic and inorganic
acids at room temperature. However it can be etched by several compounds including strong
oxidizers such as sodium and potassium nitrates above 500C, by fluxes of sodium and
potassium chlorates, and by molten hydroxides such as NaOH. It is resistant to alkalis and
solvents. At approximately 1000C, it reacts readily with carbide-forming metals such as Fe,
Co, Ni, Al, Ta, and B.

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Comparison of Diamonds and graphite

Properties
Diamond
Physical
and Very hard (Moh's = 10)

Graphite
Very soft (Moh's < 1)

Chemical

Electrical insulator

Electrical conductor

Colorless

Black in color

More dense form

Less dense form

Less reactive form

More reactive form

Grinding/abrasives

Solid lubricant

Adornment

Electrodes

Uses

Crucibles
Neutron moderator in nuclear reactors
High strength composites

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2.3

Other allotropes by carbon

Figure 1 - Allotropes of carbon. (From top left) Diamond, Graphite, Amorphous carbon,
Spherical fullerene, Ellipsoidal fullerene, Tubular fullerene

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3.0

The Usage of Diamond and Graphite

Graphite
The technology to manufactur graphite into molded graphite is versatile, improvements in the
manufacturing techniques are continuously made and the scope of applications is gradually
expanding. This expansion is the direct result of a sizeable research effort carried out by
many workers in universities, government laboratories, and industry. In the last twenty years
or so, several major applications of molded graphite have developed into an important,
complex, and diverse industrial market. Because of this diversity, the classification of these
applications is a critical factor if a proper perspective of the industry is to be obtained.
i.

Applications in the Metal Processing Industry

Gazda (1991) point out that one the largest use of graphite is as electrodes in the production
of steel in electric-arc furnaces, mostly for the reclamation of ferrous scrap. This is because
graphite electrodes have good electrical conductivity, good refractory properties, and low
cost. Beside steel, aluminum also processed electrotytically and the production of the
necessary electrodes is the second-largest application of molded graphite. The anodes are
similar to those used in electric-arc steel production and are also manufactured from
petroleum-coke filler and coal-tar pitch. The aluminum collects at the cathodes which are
large blocks lining the electrolytic cell. These cathodes were originally made of baked carbon
based on anthracite coal but, in recent years, have been upgraded and are now made of
molded graphite from petroleum coke.

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ii.

Nuclear Applications

Although known for its brittleness and chemically inert, Mantell (1968) stated that molded
graphite is one of the best materials for nuclear-fission applications since it combines high
neutron-moderating efficiency and a low neutron-absorption cross section, good mechanical
strength and chemical resistance, ease of machinability, and relatively low cost.

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iii.

Chemical application

Graphite is inert to chemical reaction thus graphite also has many applications in areas where
chemical resistance is the major factor. Such applications are found in chemical reactors, heat
exchangers, steam jets, chemical-vapor deposition equipment, and cathodic-protection anodes
for pipelines, oil rigs, DC-power lines, and highway and building construction. There are
many high temperature uses for graphite in the chemical industry such as in the production of
phosphorus and calcium carbide in arc furnaces. Graphite is used as anodes in some aqueous
electrolytic processes such as in the production of halogens (chlorine and fluorine.)

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Diamond
i.

Industrial Diamond Powder, Grit, and Stones

Study by Austin (1991) proved that aside from natural diamond, small synthetic crystals (<1
mm) are used as powder and grit (in six different sizes), in the manufacture of fine grinding,
lapping and polishing compounds, matrix-set drill bits and tools, saw blades, and
polycrystalline diamond (PCD) . Larger crystals (>1 mm) are polished and shaped and
handled as individual stones in the manufacture of drill bits, glass cutters, abrasive wheel
truers, single-point turning, shaping and cutting tools, heavy-duty truing and large plunge
cutting tools, and wire-drawing dies. The main advantages of the synthetic stones over the
natural are the ability to control uniformity, size, crystal habit, crystal friability, and generally
higher quality and consistency. Natural industrial diamond usually used for the low-grade
(and cheaper) applications such as nail files, low-cost saw blades, and polishing compounds.

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ii.

Medical applications

Hamilton (1990) study on CVD (chemical vapour deposition) diamond, found out that it is an
excellent material for windows of x-ray spectrometers. In thin cross section, it is transparent
to the x-rays generated by low-energy elements such as boron, carbon, and and is superior to
beryllium which is the present standard material. Diamond is known for its leak-tight to
helium and capable of withstanding at least one atmosphere differential pressure.

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iii.

Miscellaneous usage

Natural diamond is used almost exclusively for applications requiring half a carat or more
such as heat sinks, optical windows, knives, and others described below. Although diamond
can be considered as the ideal optical material, it has found little applications in optics so far
because of its restricted size and high cost. It has been used by NASA as an optical window
for the Pioneer Venus spacecraft, clearly a case where cost is secondary to performance. Seal
(1991) found out that beside used for optical purposes, natural diamond also can be used as a
single-crystal anvil that can generate extremely high pressures, up to 4.6 Mbar (a pressure
significantly higher than the pressure at the center of the earth).

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iv.

Thermionic Applications (Power supply)

A diamond-coated cylinder of refractory metal (Nb, Mo, W, or Re) may replace the
cylindrical ceramic insulators used in thermionic fuel elements (TFE) for space nuclearpower systems (Adams, 1991). A TFE converts the thermal energy from a nuclear reaction
into electrical energy and is designed to provide power to a spacecraft for as long as ten
years. The unique properties of diamond would prevent power loss due to electrical leakage
while simultaneously removing the waste heat from the fuel element. A molybdenum
cylinder, 16 mm in diameter and 75 mm in length, was coated with 5/im of CVD diamond by
DC plasma (Garacadden, 1991).

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4.0

Conclusion

Allotropes of carbon have similar chemical properties but different physical properties due to
the structure of the allotropes. The carbon-hydrogen bond plays as important part in the
mechanism of pyrolysis of carbon compounds and in the formation of graphite and diamond.
The bond of carbon hydrogen also affects the energy as the lengths of the carbon-hydrogen
bond are related to the type of hybridization of the carbon atom. Due to the different type of
bond and structural arrangement, variety of carbon allotropes with different purpose can be
utilized. As a conclusion, it is undeniable that carbon is a unique element, as quarter of the
universe and the earth is made up carbon, it is truly a major element in the universe. Although
this study only focuses on the application of graphite and diamond, scholars proved that all
allotropes of carbon play an important role in industry, technology and health.

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RUJUKAN
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Materials, (Y. Tzeng, et al., eds.), 371-376, Elsevier Science Publishers
Austin, G. T. (1991), Ceramic Bull., 70(5):860
Gazda, I. W. (1992), Twentieth BiennialConf. on Carbon, Univ. of Cal., Santa Barbara, CA
H.W. Fowler, F.G. Fowler (1964), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English,
Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Hamilton, R. F., Garg. D., Wood, K. A., and Hoover, D. S (1990), Proc. XRay Conf., Vol. 34,
Denver
J. Walker, (1979) Optical absorption and luminescence in diamond. Rep. Prog. Phys. 42(10),
1605
L. Wei, P.K. Kuo, R.L. Thomas, T.R. Anthony, W.F. Banholzer (1993), Thermal conductivity
of isotopically modified single crystal diamond. Phys. Rev. Lett. 70(24)
Mantell, C. L, (1968) Carbon and Graphite Handbook, 391 -424, Interscience Publishers,
New York
R. Setton, P. Bernier, S. Lefrant (2002), Carbon Molecules and Materials, CRC Press, New
York.
Read, P. G. (2005). Gemmology. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 4950.
Seal, M. (1989), Interdisciplinary Science Review, 14(1):64-76
Spain, I. L, (1973) in Chemistry and Physics of Carbon, (P. L.Walker and P. A. Thrower,
eds.), Vol. 8, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York
Walker, J. (1979). "Optical absorption and luminescence in diamond". Reports on Progress in
Physics 42 (10): 16051659.
Wu, R. L, Garacadden, A., and Kee, P. (1991), Applications of Diamond Films and Related
Materials, (Y. Tzeng, et al., eds.), 365-370, Elsevier Science Publishers

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