FACTORS AFFECTING COST OF CONSTRUCTION

IN NIGERIA

BY

ESHOFONIE, FIKIEMO PATIENCE

PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING UNIVERSITY OF

LAGOS AKOKA, LAGOS IN PARTIAL FUFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS IN CONSTRUCTION
MANAGEMENT

NOVEMBER, 2008

1.0
CHAPTER ONE

1.0

Background of the study

The growing need for construction of all types coupled with a tight monetary supply has
provided the construction industry with a big challenge to cut cost.
According to Mendelson and Greenfield (1996) the remaining part of the twentieth
century would involve corporations, institutions and government in a race to survive. The
attendant dwindling economic fortune of nations economies around the World have
geared up the participant in these sectors (the client in particular) to take up the challenge
of ensuring efficient use of their resources to obtain value for money in terms of
performance.
The total cost of construction in normal circumstances is expected to be the sum of the
following cost: Materials, Labour, Site Overheads, Equipment/Plant, Head office Cost
and Profit but in many parts of the world particularly in Nigeria, there are other costs to
be allowed for.
These costs according to Mbachu and Nkado (2004) have obvious negative implications
for the key stakeholders in particular, and the industry in general. To the client, high cost
implies added costs over and above those initially agreed upon at the onset, resulting in
less returns on investment. To the end user, the added costs are passed on as higher
rental / lease costs or prices. To the consultants, it means inability to deliver value - for money and could tarnish their reputation and result in loss of confidence reposed in them
by clients. To the contractor, it implies loss of profit through penalties for non-

completion, and negative word of mouth that could jeopardize his/her chances of winning
further jobs, if at fault.
The proposed work will investigate and report the other costs to be allowed for, which are
the basic factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria and also proffer solutions to how
construction cost can be minimized.

1.1

Statement of the Problem

The demand for more construction of all types, coupled with a tight monetary supply has
provided the construction industry with a big challenge to cut costs. The problem of high
contract costs of all aspects of construction is becoming obvious. Consequently,
substantial increases are being observed in projects.
This substantial increase has brought about loss of client confidence in consultants, added
investment risks, inability to deliver value to clients, and disinvestment in the
construction industry.

1.2

Aim and Objectives of the study

The aim of the study is to find out the factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria and
proffer solutions to how construction cost c an be minimized.
The objectives of the study are as follows:
1. To identify the main factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria.
2. To determine the severity rank of the factors amongst clients, consultants and
contractors.
3. To determine the agreement ranking factors between clients, consultants and
contractors.
4. To proffer solutions on how to minimize construction cost in Nigeria.

1.3

Research Hypotheses

To test the hypothesis:

1 (a). Ho: Contractors and Clients do not generally agree on the severity rank of the
factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria
1 (b). H1: Contractors and Clients generally agree on the severity rank of the factors
affecting construction cost in Nigeria
2 (a). Ho: Clients and Consultants do not generally agree on the severity rank of the
factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria
2. (b)

H1: Clients and Consultants do not generally agree on the severity rank of the

factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria

3. (a) Ho: Consultants and Contractors do not generally agree on the severity rank of the
factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria
3. (b) H1: Consultants and Contractors generally agree on the severity rank of the factors
affecting construction cost in Nigeria
1.4

Significance of the study

An assessment of the study would enable Clients, Contractors and Consultants give an
economic approach to construction work such that they would be able to identify the
dominating factors leading to high construction cost in Nigeria.
The application of the solutions proffered to minimizing construction cost would restore
clients confidence in consultants, reduce investment risks, and generally boost the
viability and sustainability of the industry

1.5

Scope and Delimitations

The scope of this research is limited to identification of essential factors affecting

construction cost and proffering solutions on how to reduce construction cost in Nigeria.
The study is limited to projects in the Lagos metropolis of Nigeria because there is easy
access of information in the Lagos metropolis by the researcher.
Target respondents for this study are the principal actors in the construction industry
namely: the Client, the Consultant and the Contractor.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0

Introduction

This chapter looks at a review of relevant literatures that give a background of the
Nigerian construction industry, the challenge of high construction cost, the factors
affecting construction cost and the solutions on how to minimize construction cost.

2.1

The Nigerian Construction Industry

In Nigeria, like most developing countries, the construction industry plays a dominant
role in the economic activities of the country. According to Olowo Okere (1988) the
construction industry accounts for about 60 percent of the Nations capital investment
and 30 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P)
Furthermore, the construction industry is said to have contributed about half of the total
stock of fixed capital investment in the Nigeria economy (Olaloku, 1987).The industry
also generates employment opportunities which place it second to the Government in the
employment of labour (Husseini, 1991).
When the construction industry was booming in the 1970s, the countrys economy
experienced similar effects during that period. However, from early to mid 1980s, the
industry experienced a jolt and its effect was felt in all spheres of national life
(Isiadinso, 1988).

Buhari (1991) reported that the lull in construction of early 80s was not limited to
Nigeria alone. The lull also occurred in Western Europe and America. But the parent
companies of these big timers in our midst were not only able to stay afloat the stormy
ocean but were able to expand their sales. They were able to do this by initiative,
creativity and research.
Consequently, the Federal and State governments resorted to taking foreign loans as a
quick solution to the problem. However, some of the measures taken by Government in
order to revitalize the economy have further aggravated the situation.
One obvious implication of this development is that the cost of imported raw materials
and subsequently of the finished products has substantially increased (Husseini, 1991).
These substantial increases as reported by Mbachu and Nkado (2004) have obvious
negative implications for the major players and the industry; undermining the viability
and sustainability of the industry.

2.2

The Roles of Construction Actors in Construction cost

There are diverse interests in the construction industry. The principal interest or actors in
the construction industry are:
2.2.1 The Client
2.2.2 The Consultant
2.2.3 The Contractor

2.2.1 The Client

The Client is, by far, the single most important member of the construction team. He is
the initiator and financier of all the projects.Omole (1986) noted that the major
contribution the client can make to the successful operations of the construction industry
lies in his skill in specifying his needs prior to the preparation of the design. It is also
important for the client to set cost limits of the project at the briefing .He should also
ensure that adequate financial provisions are made prior to the commencement of any
project.

2.2.2 The Consultant

Cost considerations are among the most important and basic considerations that
Consultants must deal with. It is essential to see that projects are contained within the
clients budget and cost forecasts. Cost has the final control over virtually every project.
Accurate cost analysis and control is one of the necessary services the client requires
from the consultants (Omole, 1986).

2.2.3 The Contractor

Omole (1986) further reveals that the major task of Contractors is to assemble and
allocate the resources of labour, equipment and materials to the project in order to
achieve completion at maximum efficiency in terms of time, quality and cost.

2.3 Construction Cost Factors

A review of literature reveals that there are several factors affecting construction costs for
large buildings.
In a study of the Nigerian Construction Industry, Omoregie and Radfort (2005) sampled
the opinions of Contractors, Consultants and Clients and they discovered 15 factors
responsible for project delays and construction cost escalation in Nigeria. Their survey
revealed price fluctuation as the most severe cause of project cost escalation which is
attributed to the limitation in exchange rate which in turn affects construction material
prices and general price level.
In another study, Elinwa and Silas (1992) identified 31 essential factors causing High
Cost of Buildings with fraudulent practices and kickbacks ranking second (2 nd) most
important factor in Nigeria. Hussain (1999) noted that fraudulent practices and kickbacks
occasioned by greed are perpetuated by some major players in the construction industry.
Frimpong, Oluwoye and Crawford (2003), in a review of developing countries such as
Ghana identified some factors as underlying causes of delay and cost over runs in ground
water construction projects. The five most important factors agreed by Clients,
Consultants and Contractors were monthly payment difficulties from agencies, poor

10

contract management, material procurement, poor technical performances and escalation

of material prices.
Furthermore, a study of the relative weight of ten major causes of business failure in the
United States of America revealed construction cost related factors as mostly contributing
to business failure. (Kangari,1989). They include: Bad profit, management incompetence,
lack of experience, inadequate sales, loss of market and economic decline.

These factors are combined into one uniform list arranged alphabetically in the table
below.
Table 2. 1

Construction Cost Factors in alphabetical order

Construction Cost Factor

References

1.Absence of construction cost data

Elinwa and Silas (1993)

AL Khaldi (1990)

2.Additional work

Mansfield,Ugwu and Doran (1994)

Elinwa and Silas (1993)

3.Bureaucy in tendering method

Elinwa and Silas (1993)

4. Contractors cartel

Omole (1986)

5.Contract management

Mansfield ,Ugwu and Doran(1994)

Ogunlana, Krit and Vithool (1996 )

6.Contractual procedures

Elinwa

and Silas (1993)

AL Khaldi (1990)
7. Cost of materials

Elinwa and Silas (1993)

8.Currency exchange

AL Khaldi (1990)

11

9.Disputes on site

Aibinu and Jagboro (2002)

10.Duration of contract period

Aibinu and Jagboro (2002)

11.Economic stability

Elinwa and Silas (1993)

12.Fluctuation of prices of materials

Omoreigie and Radford (2005)

13. Fraudulent practices and kickbacks

Hussain (1999), TELL (2002)

14.Frequent design changes

Asamoah (2002)

15. Government policies

Omole (1986)

16. High cost of labor

Elinwa and Silas (1993)

17. High cost of machinery

Elinwa and Silas (1993)

18. High cost of machinery maintenance

AL Khaldi (1990)

19.High cost of transportation

Elinwa and Silas (1993)

20. High interest rates charged by banks

AL Khaldi (1990)

21.Inadequate labor availability

Elinwa and Silas (1993)

AL Khaldi (1990)

22.Inadequate production of raw materials

Eyo Ita Eyo (2001)

23.Incorrect Planning

Elinwa and Silas (1993)

24. Insurance cost

AL Khaldi (1990)

25.Labour nationality

AL Khaldi (1990)

26.Lack of coordination between designers AL Khaldi (1990)

and contractors
27.Lack of productivity standard

AL Khaldi (1990)

28.Level of competitors

AL Khaldi (1990)

29.Long

period

between

design

and Elinwa and Silas (1993)

12

tendering time
30. Mode of financing bond and payments

Frimpong Oluwoye and Crawford (2003)

31.Number of competitors

AL Khaldi (1990)

32.Number of construction going on at the

Elinwa and Silas (1993)

same time
33.Previous experience of contractor

AL Khaldi (1990)

34. Political interferences

Omole (1986)

35.Poor financial control on site

Ogunlana, Krit and Vithool (1996)

36. Relationship between management and Elinwa and Silas (1993)

labour
37. Social and cultural impacts

AL Khaldi (1990)

38. Supplier and cultural impacts

Manavazhi and Adhikari (2002)

39. Supplier manipulation

Elinwa and Silas 1993)

40. Wrong method of estimation

Mansfield ,Ugwu and Doran (1994)

Some of the factors are highlighted in the following paragraphs:

2.3.1 Effects of weather
Weather is the most uncontrollable factor amongst the other variables considered.
Temperature and humidity affect productivity of workers. If the temperature and
humidity are high, workers feel lethargic and lose physical coordination (Frimpong,
Oluwoye and Crawford, 2003)

13

2.3.2. Inadequate production of raw materials by the country

Ogunlana, Krit and Vithool (1996) noted that the reason for shortage of materials could
be the defective supply of materials occasioned by general shortages in the industry, poor
communication amidst sites and head office, poor purchasing planning and materials
coordination. Nigeria still imports cement when her cement production potentials surpass
any other African country except Egypt and that the 100 % raw materials required for
cement production, is readily available in Nigeria (Eyo -Ita - Eyo, 2001)
In another development, Makoju (2000) observed that 90% of the aggregate components
for production and delivery of electricity in the country still depends on other developed
countries because of incessant supply of electricity.
2.3.3. Supplier manipulation
The major reasons for this factor as observed by Manavazhi and Adhikari (2002) are
monopoly control of the market by some suppliers, work stoppages in factories, lack of
industrialized materials, fluctuating demands forcing suppliers to wait for accumulation
of orders and difficulty in importing raw materials from other countries.
2.3.4. Government policies
Aibinu and Jagboro (2002) revealed that Government deregulation policies aimed at
liberalizing the economy since 1986 are responsible for the instability in prices. It is
therefore not surprising that fluctuation claims during these periods contribute
significantly to additional cost.

14

2.3.5. Contractors cartel

According to Omole (1986), the major projects like heavy engineering, super highways
and general infrastructure can only be undertaken in Nigeria by a few contractors. These
contractors know themselves and therefore an indirect cartel is formed. The contractors
on tendering are in a vantage position to decide amongst themselves who gets which
contract and at what price. What appears on tendering to be the lowest tender may be
over 20% - 30% above the actual value of the job.
2.3.6. Incorrect planning
Incorrect planning is one of the most important factors that affect cost of construction.
Contractors must be aware of all resources that he might need for any project. The
contractors, also, should utilize all resources in an efficient manner. Proper scheduling is
the key to utilizing project resources, if not, the project cost will increase.
2.3.7. Fraudulent practices and kick backs
This factor was the second most important factor affecting construction cost in Nigeria as
noted by Elinwa and Silas (1993). Hussein (1999) also noted that fraudulent practices and
kick backs occasioned by greed are perpetrated by some major players in the construction
industry. The perpetrators of this act in the industry are predominantly found within the
rank and file of contractors, consultants and public clients as evident from the report
published by TELL (2002).
TELL (2002) also revealed that there were verifiable cases of corruption in the execution
of some of the contracts awarded by the Petroleum (Special) Trust Fund (PTF). The
Interim Management Committee (IMC) set up by President Obansanjo found that of the
total 181.8billion naira that accrued to PTF for the three years it operated, as much as

15

25.6 billion naira was wrongly paid to contractors. These include inflated contracts,
fraudulent over payment of contractors by some of the agency officials and undue
receipts of interest on funds placed in banks by the agencies.
2.3.8. Design Change
This problem arose form inadequate project planning and management of the design
process. A quite distinctive example is the progress of West African Gas Pipeline
(WAGP). Asamoah (2002) reported that WAGP project has suffered a number of
setbacks, culminating in the escalation of its cost from an initial US $500 million. One of
the problems includes the changing of the initial plans to lay the pipeline offshore to an
onshore configuration.
2.3.9. Political Interference
Omole (1986) reveals that 80 percent of the contractors in Nigeria are indigenous
companies. The government agencies, in most cases are teleguided by the political heavy
weight to award contract to party stalwarts at very high prices.
The consultants estimates are disregarded in most cases when awarding contracts and
where possible manipulated. It is a general knowledge that governments and parastaltals
particularly during the last political era give a very short time to consultants to prepare
contract document for tender purposes.
2.3.10.

Relationship between management and labour

There is always a gap between the project management and labour.This gap should be
kept as small as possible, so that the relationship between management and labour may
be strengthened. They should work as a team to build a project with minimum cost. If the

16

relationship between management and labour is bad the morale of the laboures will
decrease and production will decrease leading to increased project cost.
2.3.11.

Contract Management

Poor contract could be attributed to the manner in which contracts are awarded. In most
cases projects are awarded to the lowest bidder (Mansfield, Ugwu and Doran, 1994).
Some of these low bidders may lack management skills and have less regard for contract
plans, cost control, over all site management and resource allocation. As we know in the
case of Nigeria, contracts are usually awarded to politicians and well connected
individuals irrespective of the apparent deficiencies in their relevant delivery potentials.
Accordingly, Frimpong et al (2003) observed that most contractors in Sub Saharan
African are entrepreneurs who are in the business of making money at the expense of
good Management. Consequently, they pay low wages, submit very low bids and have
very little, if any ability to plan and coordinate contracts.
2.3.12. Lack of coordination between designers and contractors
Contractors construct the project according to the project design. Normally, if the design
has any mistakes, the contractors may apply the mistakes without knowing there are
mistakes or without notifying and coordinating with the designer or the client.
Implementing designs with mistakes obviously costs a lot of money.
2.3.13.

Cost of materials

Material price is subject to supply and demand and is affected by many other things,
including quality, quantity, time, place, buyer and seller.
Other factors affecting material cost include: currency exchange, low or high demand,
material specification, inflation pressure and availability of new materials in the country.

17

2.3.14.

Additional Work

Additional work is related to design changes, which is due to lack of detailed briefing on
the functional and technical requirements of the projects by the clients (Mansfield et al,
1994).
2.3.15. Poor Financial control on site
Controlling the project financially on site is not an easy task .All resources need to be
controlled: labour productivity, material availability, material waste, good and effective
methods, using effective tools, equipment, good project planning and scheduling.
Project management should therefore be aware of all those factors in order to achieve
better financial control on site.
2.3.16.

Disputes on site

Dispute is a major obstacle for any project. Normally disputes will exist if work does not
match the contract document or if work is not included in the contract document. Any
dispute will eventually delay the project and increase project cost.
2.3.17.

Fluctuation of prices of materials

Omoregie and Radfort (2005) surveyed contractors, consultants and public clients and
revealed price fluctuation as the most severe cause of project cost escalation in Nigeria.
This could be attributed to the limitation in exchange rate which in turn affects
construction materials prices and the general price level.
Another factor is the unstable inflationary trend in Nigeria which is a result of demand
exceeding supply, creating a scarcity of goods which in turn leads to escalation of the
goods.

18

2.3.18. Contract procedure

The contract document is the ground rule between all parties (contractors, consultants and
clients).One part of the contract document is the contract procedure.
The contract procedure shows the type of contract, payment procedure constraints and
regulations within the contract. The type of contract affects the projects because of the
risk involved in some types of contract(i.e. lump sum).Unclear contract procedures will
lead to disputes, project delay and cost overrun (Fisk ,1997)
2.3.19. Wrong method of estimation
This factor could be attributed to the unpredicted inflationary trend, lack of adequate
training and experience at the senior management level, and fraudulent practices
Mansfield et al (1994)
2.3.20.

Waste on site

It seems that the little waste of construction material on site should have a very minor
effect on the total material cost. However, this minor effect can reach up to 50 % of the
total material margin of a project. So waste on site has to be considered on tendering any
project (Elinwa and Silas, 1993)
2.3.21.

Transportation cost

As the government increases the price of fuel, transportation companies raise the cost of
their services to cover the fuel increase and that obviously translates to an increase in
transportation cost.

19

2.3.22.

Duration of contract period

Usually the longer the duration of the contract the more resources will be put into the
project. Any delay to a project will lead to an increase in the project cost. If the delay
comes from the contractors, the project owner will lose the opportunity to invest in the
project earlier. Also, if the cause of the delay is the client, the contractor may lose the
opportunity to win other projects or suffer from the non utilizing the full resources.
2.3.23.

Equipment cost

Equipment cost becomes more expensive as new technology or special equipment is

requested. Most heavy equipment run by diesel fuel and the price of diesel fuel has
increased significantly.
2.3.24.

Mode of financing bonds and payments

Ogunlana et al (1996) reported that financing and payment of completed works is

responsible for cost escalation in Nigeria. Generally, contractors are sometimes not paid
in accordance with the contract conditions. There are cases where clients fail to honour
Architects certificate of payment for up to 6 months or more whereas the contact
conditions, in most cases stipulates about 28 days .
Most contractors when preparing their tenders make allowance for partial financing of the
project. They charge the clients for payments of interests and bank charges on moneys
they anticipate to borrow from the banks to finance these projects (Omole, 1986)
The irregular financing of public projects is a major cause of liquidity problem for
contractors: however, contractors can be paid in accordance with the contract agreement
if clients can generate the availability of adequate funds before the project commences
(Mansfield et al, 1994).

20

2.4

WAYS OF MINIMIZING COST

There are several ways in which cost of construction can be minimized. Fisk (1997)
reveals two cost reduction measures. The first is the application of a value engineering
concept, which aims at a careful analysis of each function and the elimination or
modification of anything that adds to the project cost without adding to its functional
capabilities. He argues that by carefully investigating costs, availability of materials,
construction methods, procurement costs, planning and organizing, cost / benefit values
and similar cost influencing items, an improvement in the overall cost of project can be
realized. The second is to provide comprehensive and error free designs and
specifications to avoid misinterpretations by the contractor or delay due to missing
details.
According to Cooke and Williams (2003) recommended as cost reduction measures the
elimination or minimization of design / specification, delivery and site wastes through the
formulation and implementation of effective material policy and material management.

In addition, Ashworth (2000) observed that profitable firms may be generating their
revenues from the elimination of waste at both professional and trade practice levels.
Cost reduction measures also include: establishing firmly the requirements and features
of the project at the onset before getting started, preparing the project team to do its best
by getting members to sign off on capabilities and responsibilities, staying diligent about
keeping the project the project on the right path through contract clauses that disallow
significant changes once the project is underway, effective human resource management

21

through effective motivation, and project tracking involving discerning early what area or
paths are leading to dead ends and applying early corrective actions.

2.5

SUMMARY

In summary, high construction costs have obvious negative implications for the major
actors in particular, and the industry in general. Project abandonment, drop in building
activities, bad reputation and inability to secure project finance are all implications of
high construction cost. However, an application of the proffered solutions would restore
clients confidence in consultants, reduce investment risks and generally boost the
viability and sustainability of the industry.

22

CHAPTER THREE

3.0

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1

Introduction

Sequel to the obvious problem of high cost of construction, the aim of this study is to
identify the factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria and also to proffer solutions on
how this escalating cost can be minimized. In achieving the above, the following steps
were followed:
1. Identification of the problem
2. Definition of the problem
3. Delimitation of the problem
4. Analysis of the problem
5. Deduction of the problem

3.2

Restatement of the research objectives and hypothesis

The objectives of this study are:

1. To identify the main factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria.
2. To determine the severity rank of the factors amongst clients, consultants and
contractors.
3. To determine the agreement ranking factors between clients, consultants and
contractors.
4. To proffer solutions on how to minimize construction cost in Nigeria.

23

The research also aims to test the hypothesis that:

1. Contractors and Clients generally agree on the severity rank of the factors affecting
construction cost in Nigeria
2. Clients and Consultants generally agree on the severity rank of the factors affecting
construction cost in Nigeria
3. Consultants and Contractors generally agree on the severity rank of the factors
affecting construction cost in Nigeria

3.3

Research Design

The research design for this work is cross sectional survey design.

3.4

Study Area

The study area for this research is Lagos state a metropolitan city in western Nigeria.
The choice of Lagos as the study area is because since the creation of the state in 1967
and in spite of the movement of the nations capital to Abuja, it has never ceased to be
the center of the countrys economy, commerce and power; coupled with its highest
population next to Kano, it naturally enjoys the benefits of being the fulcrum of the
nation.Lagos is a relatively built up environment with many infrastructures like
roads, bridges, skyscrapers, estates ,government establishments, all kinds of private
developments, schools, hospitals, theaters, cinemas, shopping malls to mention a few. All
these infrastructures are the handiwork of construction. As such there cannot be a better
place to obtain data for this study.

24

3.5

Characteristics of the study population

The population of the study consisted of clients, consultants and contractors in Lagos,
western Nigeria.

3.6

Sampling design and procedures

Having identified clients, consultants and contractors as the target groups for the effective
conduct of this research, seventy respondents comprising of sixteen clients, twenty two
consultants and thirty two contractors were randomly selected using stratified random
sampling technique as a type of probability sampling in order to give everyone that falls
into any of these identified target groups equal and independent chance of being included
in the sample.

3.7

Data collection instrument

Two sets of data were identified as being relevant to the effective conduct of this research
namely primary and secondary. The primary data which refers to field data were obtained
through the use of well structured questionnaire developed from the initial identification
of likely factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria and solutions to minimizing same.
The questionnaire was designed to elicit information on the following:
(a) The respondents role in construction
(b) The respondents professional background (for consultants and engineers
only)
(c) How long the respondent has been in construction

25

(d) An assessment of the severity of likely factors affecting construction cost

from not severe to extremely severe. See appendix for list of factors affecting
construction cost.
(e) An evaluation of the effectiveness of proffered solutions to minimizing
construction cost from not effective to very effective. See appendix for list of
proffered solutions to minimizing cost of construction.

Secondary data through the review of various relevant literatures were also used in the
course of carrying out the research.
Generally, the scales of the variables were nominal and ordinal scales.
The questionnaire was validated by my supervisor before its administration.

3.8

Administration of the data collection instrument

The questionnaires were delivered by hand to the various target groups.

3.9

Statistical tools for data analysis

The descriptive survey method was used, where seventy well structured questionnaires
were distributed among the principal actors in the construction industry namely: the
client, the consultant and the contractor. Frequency and percentages were used for the
descriptive data. Coded broad sheets were thereafter used for extracting data from the
returned questionnaires. These were analyzed by SPSS (Statistical Package for Social
Science) having carefully completed the variable view and imputed the extracted data

26

appropriately on the data view. Mean score, standard deviation and spearman rank order
correlation was used to achieve the stated objectives.
3.9.1 Spear man rank order correlation
It is a non parametric statistic with the following advantages:
1. Its use is not restricted and its chances of being used improperly is minimal
2. It can be effectively used even when the data are measured on weak
measurement scales.
3. It is easy to compute and interpret.

3.10

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The major limitation of this study was the reluctance of some of the respondents in
finding time to complete and return the questionnaires even after persuading them to do
so.

27

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1

Introduction

This chapter focuses on the analysis of the various responses from the administered
questionnaires and deductions made from the analysis.

4.2

Analysis and presentation of descriptive data

4.2.1 Survey responses

Seventy questionnaires were randomly administered (Twenty two to Consultants, Thirty
two to Contractors and Sixteen to Clients). As at the time of compiling this report, a total
of fifty two usable responses were received, representing 74.29% effective response rate.
The maximum responses from each sampling frame are shown in table 4.2.1

Table 4.1 Response Rate

Clients

No. Distributed
No. Received
Percentage

Consultants

Contractors

Total

16

22

32

70

15

28

52

68.18%

87.5%

74.29%

56.25%

N = 70

28

4.2.2 Respondents role in construction

Table 4.2 Respondents role in construction

Frequency

Percent

Cumulative Percent

17.3

17.3

Consultant

15

28.8

46.2

Contractor

28

53.8

100.0

Client

N = 52

The demographic profiles of the respondents in table 4.2.2 above show that 17.3% were
in the Client category, 28.8% in the Consultant category and 58.8% in the Contractor
category.

29

4.2.3 Respondents Role in construction

Fig. 4.1

Respondents' professional background

It is obvious from the figure 4.2.3 above that Quantity surveyors make the largest chunk
of consultants for this research with 46%.Architects are next with 27%, followed by
Electrical Engineers accounting for 13% .Mechanical and Structural engineers both
represent 7 %.

30

4.2.4 Respondents years of experience

Respondents' years of experience

Frequency

0
5 - 10 years

10 - 20 years

Respondents' years of experience

Fig. 4 .2.4

Respondents' professional background

Figure 4.2.4 show that most of the respondents possess a working experience ranging
from five to twenty years. However, those in the five to ten years category are more. This
period is relatively long enough to provide a reliable data.

31

4.3
Data presentation, analysis and discussion of findings in respect of stated
objectives

Table 4.1

Identification of the main factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria.

Cost of materials
Incorrect planning
Wrong method of estimation
Contract management
Fluctuation of prices of materials
Previous experience of contractor
Absence of construction cost data
Additional cost
Project financing
High cost of transportation
Poor financial control on site
Economic stability
Fraudulent practices and kickbacks
Inadequate labour availability
High cost of machinery
Inadequate production of raw materials
Contractual procedures
High cost of machinery maintenance
Bureaucracy in tendering method
Duration of contract period
Supplier manipulation
Disputes on site
High cost of labor
Government polices
Relationship between management and labour
Currency exchange
Frequent design changes
High interest rate charged by banks
Social and cultural impacts
Lack of coordination between designers and contractors
Long period between design and tendering time
Contractor's cartel
Mode of financing bond and payments
Political interferences
Number of competitors
Lack of productivity standard
Number of construction going on at the same time
Level of competitors
Insurance cost
Labour nationality
Valid N (list wise)

32

N
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52
52

Mean
3.90
3.73
3.23
3.00
2.75
2.75
2.73
2.60
2.56
2.54
2.52
2.50
2.44
2.44
2.42
2.40
2.40
2.40
2.38
2.37
2.37
2.35
2.33
2.27
2.19
2.19
2.17
2.17
2.13
2.13
2.08
2.04
2.02
1.92
1.87
1.83
1.79
1.71
1.71
1.50

Rank
1
2
3
4
5
5
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
13
15
16
16
18
19
20
20
22
23
24
25
25
27
27
29
29
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
38
40

Table 4.1 shows that cost of materials (3.90), Incorrect planning (3.73), wrong method of
estimation (3.23), contract management (3.00) and fluctuation of prices of materials
(2.75) are the five most important factors affecting cots of construction .The table also
reveal labour nationality as the least factor affecting cost of construction in Nigeria. This
is likely since a good proportion of labour in the Nigerian construction industry is
indigenous especially (unskilled) labour which is locally sourced as such this factor does
not have any significant effect on the cost of construction.
4.3.2. Determination of the severity rank of the factors among clients, consultants
and contractors.
Table 4.2 shows the 15 most important factor affecting construction cost as perceived by
clients, consultants and contractors. They all rank cost of materials (3.67, 4.00, 4.00
respectively) as the most important factor affecting cost of construction. Clients and
contractors ranked incorrect planning (3.44, 3.89 respectively) as the second most
important factor affecting construction cost. Consultants ranked wrong method of
estimation (3.73) as the second most important factor. There was also a difference in the
third most important factor as perceived by the three parties. It was poor financial control
on site (3.33), incorrect planning (3.47) and contract management (3.54).
When the overall averages of the groups were taken, cost of materials came first followed
by incorrect planning and wrong method of estimation.
For a complete representation of the numerical ranking for all the factors, refer to
appendix.

33

Table 4.2

Mean score and rank for the 15 most important factors affecting

construction cost as reported by the different groups.

Average
Factors Affecting Construction cost
Mean Rank
Cost of materials
3.90
1
Incorrect planning
3.73
2
Wrong method of estimation
3.23
3
Contract management
3.00
4
Fluctuation of prices of materials
2.75
5
Previous experience of contractor
2.75
5
Absence of construction cost data
2.73
7
Additional cost
2.60
8
Frequent design change
2.56
9
Inadequate raw materials
2.54
10
Poor financial control on site
2.52 11
Economic stability
2.50 12
Fraudulent practices and kickbacks
2.44 13
Supplier manipulation
2.44 13
Currency exchange
2.42
15

Client
Mean Rank
3.67
1
3.44
2
2.56
6
2.56
6
2.78
5
3.22
4
2.33
8
2.33
8
2.11
13
2.33
8
3.33
3
2.33
8
2.11
13
2.11 13
2.22
12

Consultant
Mean Rank
4.00 1
3.47 3
3.73 2
3.13 4
3.07 6
2.60 9
3.13 4
2.73 7
2.60 9
2.27 14
2.53 11
2.33
13
2.40 12
2.27 14
2.68 8

Contractor
Mean Rank
4.00
1
3.89
2
3.25
4
3.54
3
2.93
6
3.07
5
2.61
15
2.86
8
2.86
8
2.68
12
2.79
11
2.82 10
2.89 7
2.64 14
2.68 12

4.3.3 TEST OF HYPOTESES

Table 4.3

Test of agreement on the severity rank of the factors affecting construction

cost
Stakeholder

Rs

t cal

t tab

Accept Ho

P value

Contractors/ Clients

0.46

2.38

1.38

Yes

< 0.05

Clients/Consultants

0.36

1.73

1.38

Yes

< 0.05

Consultants/Contractors 0.59

3.29

1.38

Yes

< 0.05

Rs - Spearman rank order correlation, T cal t calculated, T tab t tabulated, Ho null hypotheses, P- value probability that rejects null hypotheses wrongly.

The hypotheses was set up to test if there is any agreement on the severity rank of the
factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria as opined by the different groups. Table 4.3

34

shows the result of the computation of Spearmans rank correlation coefficient, the tvalues, and the decision rule of rejection of null hypotheses for the severity rank of the
factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria by the different groups in the construction
industry.
Table 4.3 reveals that t cal 2.38, 1.73, 3.29 are greater than t tab of 1.38 with 39
degrees of freedom at p < 0.05 significance level, hence acceptance of the null
hypotheses and rejection of the alternative hypotheses.
It can be concluded that there is a general agreement between the different groups i.e.
clients, consultants and contractors with respect to their perceptions of the severity rank
of the factors affecting construction cost in Nigeria. However, in the ranking of the
important factors there were minor differences; clients rated the three most important
factors in the following order of severity: cost of materials, incorrect planning and poor
financial control on site. Consultants opinion were in the following order: cost of
materials, wrong method of estimation and incorrect planning while contractors
perception were in this order: cost of materials, incorrect planning and contract
management.

4.4.

Minimizing construction cost in Nigeria

N

Ensure efficient time management through proper

resource planning, duration estimation and schedule
development and control.
52
Ensure adequate site supervisions to minimize poor
quality workmanships and idle times
52
Hire and motivate experienced and qualified workforce to
improve productivity and quality of workmanship
52
35

Mean

Rank

4.03

3.92

3.71

Select suitable contractors not only on the basis of price

and time offerings, but also in experience, financial
standing, capacity and expertise
52

3.69

3.67

3.67

3.65

3.34

3.63

3.61

10

52

3.57

11

52

3.51

12

52

3.46

13

52

3.40

14

52

3.38

15

52

3.38

15

52

3.34

17

52

3.30

18

Ensure realistic estimates through proper resource cost

studies
52
Allow sufficient time for feasibility studies, design,
planning and tender submission.
52
Minimize propensity for late changes by ensuring a
holistic assessment of client real and stated needs.
52
Aim at the economy in design by exploring alternatives
and doing detailed investigations and analyses.
52
Ensure comprehensive articulation and communication of
own and end - user needs and requirements during
briefing sessions
52
Minimize conflicts with subcontractors, which could
undermine onsite productivity and progress of work
52
Provide comprehensive information required for easier
interpretation of drawings and setting out of the works.
Provide adequate and comprehensive details and
specifications as needed by the contractor
Cross check design calculations and detailing to eliminate
errors.
Adopt effective and efficient material management policy
and practices to minimize on site material waste.
Consider contractors input on alternative workable and
cost effective designs, materials and construction
methods.
Clients should fulfill contractors obligations, especially
as regards to payment of contractors work duly executed,
or settlement of consultants fees.
Adopt a computerized and design detailing approach to
ensure speed and more efficient management of client
changes.
Ensure accurate load estimation and structural analyses
and designs that are founded on correct assumptions
Valid N (list wise)

52

36

Table 4.4 reveal a general view of all the three parties on the most effective ways of
reducing cost of construction. The ten most effective measure of minimizing construction
cost are:
1. Ensure efficient time management through proper resource planning, duration
estimation and schedule development and control.
2. Ensure adequate site supervision to minimize poor quality workmanship and idle
times.
3. Hire and motivate experienced and qualified workforce to improve productivity
and quality of workmanship.
4. Ensure realistic estimates through proper cost studies.
5. Allow sufficient time for feasibility studies, design, planning and tender
submission.
6. Minimize propensity for late changes by ensuring a holistic assessment of client
real and stated needs.
7. Aim at the economy in design by exploring alternatives and doing detailed
investigations and analyses.
8. Ensure comprehensive articulation and communication of own and end user
needs and requirements during briefing sessions.
9. Minimize conflicts with subcontractors, which could undermine onsite
productivity and progress of work.
10. Provide comprehensive information required for easier interpretation of drawings
and setting out of the works.

37

DISCUSSIONS AND FINDINGS

All three parties are of the opinion that cost of material is the most important factor
affecting cost of construction in Nigeria. This is in consonance with the findings of
Abdulaziz and Al Juwairah (2002) about the factors contributing to construction cost in
Saudi Arabia.
Consultants rank wrong method of estimation second. This is anticipated since they are
more aware of different methods, accuracy and precision of estimating. The same factor
was ranked fourth by contractors. However, it was not in the top five factors in the client
rankings. Consultants rank Incorrect planning as the third most important factor affecting
construction cost in Nigeria. It was however ranked second by both Contractors and
Clients. These findings are also similar to those of Abdulaziz and Al Juwairah (2002)
about the factors contributing to construction cost in Saudi Arabia.
Clients believe that fluctuation of prices of materials also have a very significant effect on
the cost of construction. They rank it fifth most important factor. Omoregie and Radfort
(2005) came to the same conclusion after they studied the factors responsible for project
delays and construction cost escalation in Nigeria. Although their survey revealed price
fluctuation as the most severe cause of project cost escalation which they attributed to the
limitation in exchange rate which in turn affects construction material prices and general
price level.
Contractors are of the opinion that poor contract management will affect cost of
construction. Kangari (1989) calls it management incompetence. Contractors rank it third
most important factor.

38

Since contractors depend on their Quantity Surveyors for reliable estimates, they can
be severely affected by any wrong method of estimation. They rank it fourth most
important factor.
The three parties do not generally agree in the ranking order of factors affecting
construction costs.
There is a higher agreement between contractors and consultants than between the
others. This supports the findings of Abdulaziz and Al Juwairah (2002).
The most effective method of minimizing cost of construction in Nigeria as perceived
by the three parties is ensuring efficient time management through proper resource
planning, duration estimation and schedule development and control This is similar to
recommendations of Ashworth (2000) where he observed that profitable firms may be
generating their revenues from the elimination of waste at both professional and trade
practice levels. He recommended cost reduction measures including: establishing
firmly the requirements and features of the project at the onset before getting started,
preparing the project team to do its best by getting members to sign off on capabilities
and responsibilities, staying diligent about keeping the project the project on the right
path through contract clauses that disallow significant changes once the project is
underway, effective human resource management through effective motivation, and
project tracking involving discerning early what area or paths are leading to dead
ends and applying early corrective actions.

39

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1

Conclusion

Conclusively, the main factor affecting cost of construction as opined by the three key
players in the construction industry is cost of materials. Since Quantity Surveyors are cost
experts they are in the unique position to examine these factors and take care to estimate,
include contingencies in the budget, plan for, and mitigate the adverse effects of these
factors on the project cost. Clients, Contractors and Consultants should give an economic
approach to construction work such that they would be able to identify the dominating
factors leading to high cost of construction in Nigeria and apply the proffered solutions to
minimizing same so as to restore clients confidence in consultants, reduce investment
risks, and generally boost the viability and sustainability of the industry.

5.2

Recommendations

The following recommendations are deduced from this study:

1.

Much focus should be placed on the major factors affecting construction

cost in order to reduce the cost of construction cost, enhance construction
performance and generate confidence within the construction industry.

2.

Quantity Surveyors should become more alive to their responsibilities as

cost experts ensuring that they make use of correct estimation methods.

3.

There should be thorough crosschecking of estimates based on updated

price information in order to avoid any wrong estimation.

40

4.

Clients should clearly identify their requirements and needs, whether they
are able to achieve them with their financial capability in order to reduce
payment problems.

5.

There should be proper coordination and communication among various

parties working on the project in order to improve management, control
problems and reduce any avoidable delay.

6.

Contractors should come up with a clear plan and strategy before starting a
project. Early project planning and scheduling of labour, equipment and
cash, combined with a good bidding strategy, will help to obtain efficient
work at a proper price.

7.

Since Contractors and Consultants generally agree on the severity rank of

the factors affecting construction cost, they should work together to ensure
that they give the Client quality for his money without exceeding the
contract sum.

8.

All parties should take responsibility to make use of the proffered

solutions to minimizing cost of construction.

41

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44