Sarvajanik College of Engineering & Technology

Basic Electronics
BE II: ECC/CO/IT/EL, 3rd Sem
List of Practicals
Sr.
No

AIM

1.

(a) Study of different basic Electrical/Electronic components like resistor,

capacitor, inductor, potentiometer, Diode, LED, Zener Diode, Transistor, IC etc.
(b) Study and measurement of different devices like CRO, Function Generator,
Power Supply, Digital multi-meter etc.
2. To measure the phase difference between two signals using RC Phase shifting
Network of same frequency. Hence realize its operation as a filter circuit.
3. To study and implement the forward and reverse characteristics of a p-n junction
diode. Hence find the forward resistance.
4. To implement Diode as a Clipping Circuit using series and shunt configurations.
Also perform clipping at two independent levels.
5. To study Full-wave Bridge Rectifier circuit and to measure ripple factor for
different cases: viz (a) Without filter, (b) C Filter, (c) L-C Filter, (d) L Filter and
(e) Filter.
6. To study and draw reverse characteristics of a Zener diode and to study Zener
diode as a voltage regulator for (a) Supply Voltage regulation and (b) Load voltage
regulation.
7. To implement diode as a clamper circuit for different cases with and without
battery.
8. To study and plot input and output characteristics for a Common Emitter Transistor
Configuration. Measure the value obtained from the graph.
9. To study different biasing circuits for BJT.
10. To Find: (a) Q Point, (b) Voltage gain, (c) input and output impedance of a C-E
Single stage Transistor Amplifier.
11. To study and plot input and transfer characteristics for a Field Effect Transistor.
Also find the value of the trans-conductance and drain resistance from the same.
12. To study Class A power Amplifier. Hence find its efficiency.

Electronics & Communication Dept. SCET, Surat

EXPERIMENT NO. 01
Basic Electronics Component
Aim: Study of Basic Electronics Components like resistor, capacitor, Inductor, diode, Zener diode,
LED (light emitting diode), transistor etc. & Study of Instruments like Multimeter,
Breadboard, power supply, signal generator, CRO (cathode ray oscilloscope)

Apparatus: Multimeter, Power supply, CRO, signal generator, Resistor, capacitor, inductor,
diode, zener diode, transistor.

Introduction:
The most commonly used passive circuit components in electronic circuits are resistors, capacitors
and inductors.

Resistor:
A resistor is an electrical component with a known specified value of resistance. The two main
characteristic of a resistor are its resistance and power rating. It is used to establish proper valued of
circuit voltage due to IR drops, to limit current and to provide load.
Symbol:
Equation:

L
R ( )
A

Where is resistivity

The resistance R of a given material is proportional to its length L and inversely proportional to its
area of cross section A.

Resistor
Type

Fixed
Resistor

Carbon
Composition

Variable
Resistor

Carbon
Film

Potentiom
eter

Rheostat

Trimmer

In the case of variable resistor, its resistance can be changed between zero and a certain fixed value.
Potentiometer is a variable resistor either of carbon or wire wound type. It is smaller in size
compared to a rheostat. They have three terminals, the center one being connected to the variable
arm which is used for varying voltage. Rheostat is a wire wound pot that can dissipate more than
5W. It is used to control motor speed, wedding current, ovens etc. the resistance element of rheostats
is made of high resistance wire; it has two terminals and is connected in series with a circuit for
adjusting the amount of current flowing through it. They are usually large in size because they

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posses much higher power rating. Trimmer is used where the resistance must be adjustable but not
continuously variable, in which the resistance can be adjusted by a screw driver.
Value of Resistor: See the resistor given to you. It is made up of high resistivity material like carbon
spread or wound on a ceramic material and then coated by color which is non-conductive. You can
see two terminals for connection. You can also see different color strips on it. They indicate values
of resistor Different colours are assigned different digits.

The value is determined like this: If there are 4 strips of color, first 2 strips should be for mantissa:
first color digit is most significant bit. Third strip is tenth power of that colors digit and this is to be
multiplied to 2 digit number to get resistance value in . Fourth color shows tolerance for silver,
tolerance: +/- 10% and for golden, tolerance +/- 5% Absence of fourth color shows that tolerance is
not specified.
For example the resistor with 1 st, 2nd, 3rd, color band as brown, black & red and fourth band (
Tolerance band ) as Gold then the resistor value is 10 and multiplier band is 10e2 i.e. 100 so the
resistor value is 1000 % tolerance value

Capacitors:
It is a device which has the ability to store charge, to oppose any change of voltage in the circuit &
to block the direct current through it.A capacitor consist of two conducting plates separated by an
insulating medium called dielectric, it could be air, mica, ceramic, paper etc.Capacitance is the
measure of capacitor ability to store charge. The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the plate area
(A), plate separation (D) & on the type of dielectric

0 *r * A
D

farad

Where r , is relative permittivity of dielectric and

8.854*10-12 f/m.

0 So

is absolute permittivity of vacuum

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If we give a coulomb of charge to one of the two plates of a capacitor and if a potential difference of
V volts is established between them, then its capacitance is

Q
farad (F )
V
CapacitorType

Fixed Capacitor

non-electrolytic

Variable Capacitor

electrolytic

Non electrolytic type capacitors include paper, mica and ceramic capacitor such capacitor has no
polarity requirement i.e. they can be connected in either direction in a circuit
Electrolytic capacitor consist of a positive plate of aluminum and negative plate of an
electrolyte(borax or a carbon salt)material with extremely thin insulating film of aluminum
oxide(Al2O3) because of which such capacitor possess very large capacitance ranging from f to
10,000 f in very compact size.

LED (Light Emitting Diode):

It is a special type of PN junction diode which emits visible light when energized. When LED is F.B
electrons from higher conduction band of N side combines with holes in the lower valance band on
the P side, during which some of this energy difference is given up in the form of heat and light, for
Si and Ge junctions greater percentage of this energy is given up in the form of heat whereas in the
case of semiconductor like gallium arsenoid (GaAs), gallium phosphide (GaP), a greater percentage,
of energy is given out in the form of light. It operates at voltage level from 1.5V to 5.3V. LEDs are
available in different colors like red, green, amber as well as different sizes like 3mm, 5mm, 10 mm.
See the terminals: longer terminal is Anode and shorter one is Cathode.

Transistor:
It is a three terminal device available as PNP or NPN type. The terminals are emitter, base and
collector. Transistor can be used in common base, common emitter or common collector
configuration in the circuit.

Breadboard:
It is used to form circuit using discrete components Horizontal and vertical slots are available for the
grip of terminals, of electronic components.

Multi meter
Voltmeter is used to measure voltage between two points Ammeter is used to measure current
through any branch and Ohmmeter is used to measure resistance between two points in a circuit. See
different range of above meters available in the laboratory. They are analog meters and D' Arsonval
movement is used for the pointer movement. Necessary changes are made in the basic galvanometer
to construct above meters. Multimeter is having voltage, current and resistance measurement, all in
one apparatus. It is a multipurpose instrument, with a current meter, a voltmeter and an ohmmeter
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placed inside. It is provided with batteries (for making it an ohmmeter), with shunt resistance (for
making it multi range current meter) and with high series resistance (for making it multi-range
voltmeter). in all three cases the detection occur due to current, in resistance measurement this
current is inversely proportional to resistance, in voltage measurement current is proportional to the
voltage. These meters change input analog quantity into digital number and displays on LED or LCD
displays they are more readable compare to analog type. Digital multimeters are also has facility of
measurement of hfe of transistor, capacitance of capacitor etc.

Power supply:
It is used to provide desired supply voltage in the circuit for its functioning. 230 volt signal phase
50Hz supply is converted to DC voltage using step down transformer and bridge rectifiers using
diodes. This voltage is filtered using fitters to make it smooth DC voltage. This voltage is regulated
against supply voltage and load current variations using regulators. See the "front panel of the power
supply available in the laboratory. It can offer constant or variable voltage. For variable voltage Fine
and course knobs are available on the front panel. Even there is a knob to select voltage range.

Function (Signal) Generator:

It generates standard voltage signals like sinusoidal, square and triangular waveforms of different
frequencies and amplitudes. You can provide input to your circuit using signal function generator
with the BNC connector. In BNC connector the inner core wire is "high" in potential and outer one
is ground or "low". You can select sine, rectangular, triangular or pulse shape by selecting the
waveform from front panel control of function generator. You can change frequency as well
amplitude using knobs on front panel.

CRO (Cathode ray Oscilloscope):

This instrument is called an "eye" to see what is happening in the electrical and electronics circuit.
The oscilloscope is using cathode ray tube a heart of it. It can convert kinetic energy of electron
striking the phosphor screen into visible light. The position of the electron beam generated from the
electron gun is determined by the magnitude and polarity of voltage applied to horizontal and
deflection plates. In CRO horizontal deflection plates are provided external signal which we want to
observe. Due to internal ramp waveform, electron beam travels from left to right with constant speed
in a straight line and quickly returns to left again and repeats. Now in the presence of Input signal
Beam gets deflected in vertical direction also, thereby displaying input signal. The frequency of saw
tooth is so high that input signal being displayed looks stationary. You can select appropriate voltage
scale using volts/div and time scale using time/div so that displayed signal fits into the screen size. If
your CRQ is a dual trace, you can simultaneously see two waveforms provided both of them have a
common ground The time scales for both are same but voltage scales can be set independently.

Conclusion:

Electronics & Communication Dept. SCET, Surat

EXPERIMENT NO. 02
RC Phase Shift Network
Aim: To Study RC Phase Shift angle measurement
(A)Measurement of frequency of applied signal on CRO
(B)Phase angle difference between two signals of having same frequency

Apparatus: Potentiometer, function generator, CRO, CRO probe, connecting wires

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:FOR MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY

1. Give sinusoidal signal from function generator to input CH-1 of CRO.
2. Adjust appropriate value of input signal amplitude & frequency from function generator.
3. Observe the waveform on CRO CH-2 and measure time period (T) of one complete cycle and
calculate frequency=Reciprocal of Time (1/T).
4. Repeat above procedure for various frequency signals given to the CRO, with help of function
generator

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For Measurement of Phase

Difference between Two Signals
of Same Frequency
First Method:
1. Measure difference between two
signals in terms of time t as shown
in fig above and also measure total
time period T.
2. Calculate Phase Difference as
follows

Second Method:
1. Keep Setup as it was.
2. Set CRO on X-Y Mode, in this mode CH-1signal will be plotted on X axis and CH-2 signal will
be plotted on Y axis of CRO panel and hence resultant pattern called lissejjouse diagram will
displayed on CRO as shown in figure.
3. Phase difference between two signal can be found out by =Sin-1A/B
4. Repeat same by using different frequency given to Phase shifting network, find out
corresponding phase shift, and compare it with actual phase difference.
Note:
For second Method, in X-Y mode first set both channel ground there you will get a Dot, make sure
that dot is in center.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:
SR
NO

I/P
Freq
f

Time
Period
T=1/f

Time
Shift
t

Intercept Maximum
Phase Shift
with
value of
=(t/T)x360
O/P
O/P
axis(Y)
axis(Y)
A
B

Phase Shift
=
Sin-1A/B

CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO. 03
P-N Junction Diode Characteristics
Aim: To study and implement the forward and reverse characteristics of a p-n
junction diode. Hence find the forward resistance.

Apparatus: Diode characteristic kit, Variable multi output DC Power supply, Voltmeter,
Ammeter, connectors.

Theory:
This is an electronic component made up of p type and n type materials combined together hence
making a PN junction diode. This device allows current to pass only in one direction when Anode (P
type material) is made positive with respect to cathode (N type material) and does not allow current
to flow in the opposite condition. This way, it works as valve for the current flow. Observe the diode
available in the lab. It is a black colored two terminal device. The silver strip show that the nearing
terminal is Cathode and opposite terminal is Anode.

P-N junction diode

Forward biasing.
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When external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that it cancels the potential
barrier, thus permitting current flow, it is called Forward biasing. Positive terminal of the power
supply is connected to the p-type and negative to the n-type. The applied forward potential
establishes an electric field which as against the field due to potential barrier. As potential barrier
voltage is very small, therefore, a small forward voltage is sufficient to completely eliminate the
barrier. Once the potential barrier is eliminated by the forward voltage, junction resistance becomes
almost zero and a low resistance path is established for the entire circuit. Therefore, current flows in
the circuit. This is called forward current. In short, diode acts as a short circuit when it is in forward
direction.

Reverse biasing:

When the external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that potential barrier is
increased, it is called reverse biasing. Negative terminal of the power supply is connected to the ptype and positive terminal to n-type. Applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts
in the same direction as the field due to potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field at the junction
is strengthened and the barrier height is increased. The increased potential barrier prevents the flow
of charge carriers across the junction. Thus, a high resistance path is established for the entire circuit
and hence current does not flow.

Procedure:
Forward Bias Configuration:
1. Connect circuit to form forward bias of diode, as shown in figure. Connection of millimeter
should be in series with diode so that current passing through diode can be measured, Similarly
Voltmeter should be connected across diode so that voltage across diode be easily measured
2. Connect DC power supply at the input terminal.
3. Vary input voltage and note down voltage across diode and current through it.
4. Plot graph of IF - VF, which will give forward bias characteristic of diode.

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Reverse Bias Configuration:

1. Once again connects circuit for reverse biased diode configuration as shown in figure. Use
micrometer instead of millimeter, in series, for measuring small current passing through diode
when configured as reverse biased diode. Also connect voltmeter across diode.
2. Vary DC input voltage and tabulate changes in voltage across diode and current through it.
3. Plot graph of IR VR on same graph paper, but in third quadrant, that means taking both current
and voltage value negative.

Model Graph:

V-I characteristics

Observation:
FORWARD CHARACTERISTIC:
Sr No Input voltage Vi
Forward
Forward
Volts
voltage across current through
diode VF volts diode IF mA.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS :
Sr No Input voltage Vi
Reverse
Reverse current
Volts
voltage across through diode
diode VR volts
IR (J.A.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

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Conclusion:

EXPERIMENT NO. 04
Clipping Circuit
AIM: To study diode Clipper circuit and observe the output of different combination
of series and shunt clipper using diode, resistor and appropriate DC source.

Apparatus: Frequency generator, CRO, DC source, diode and resistor.

Theory:
Clipping circuit is used to select for transmission that part of an arbitrary waveform which lies above
or below some reference level. Clipping circuit clips some portion of the waveform .Clipping
circuit are also referred to as voltage limiters. Clamping circuit preserves shape of the waveform
while clipping circuit does not preserve shape of waveform. Clipping circuits are also known as
voltage limiter or amplitude limiter or slicers. Some clipper circuits are explained here.

Positive cycle clipper circuits:

Positive cycle clipper circuits are shown in the figure with series and shunt diode. Transfer
characteristics and output wave form for sinusoidal input is shown.

For series diode:

1. When vi(t )<0 , Diode D is in ON condition , input waveform is available at the output.
2. When vi(t )>0 , Diode D is in OFF condition , input waveform is not available at the
output and output remains zero.

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For shunt diode:

1. When vi(t )<0 , Diode D is in ON condition which bypass the signal to the ground and
hence input wave form is not available at the output .
2. When vi(t )>0 , Diode D is in OFF condition and acts like a OFF switch , input waveform
is available at the output .
For negative cycle clipper, polarity of diode is reverse.

Series diode positive clipping with positive reference:

In the circuit shown in the following figure, DC reference voltage is used. This is useful of we
do not want to clip entire positive cycle but some portion of positive half cycle.

1. When vi(t )<VR, Diode D is in ON condition , input waveform is available at the output.
2. When vi(t )> VR, Diode D is in OFF condition , input waveform is not available at the
output and output remains zero. Thus portion of out put cycle clips as shown in the
waveform .

Series diode positive clipping with negative reference:

If want to clip entire positive half cycle along with some portion of the negative cycle
then negative DC reference can be used as shown in the following figure .In this case
only some portion of negative cycle passes to the output .

1. When vi(t )> -VR, Diode D is in ON condition, input wave form is available at the output.
2. When vi(t )< -VR, Diode D is in OFF condition, input waveform is not available at the
output and output voltage remains constant which is equal to VR.

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Series diode negative clipping with reference:

Negative clipping can be achieved by changing polarity of the diode. Negative clipper with
negative reference voltage is shown in the following figure. This will clip some portion of
negative cycle.

1. When vi(t )>-VR, Diode D is in ON condition , input waveform is available at the output .
2. When vi(t )< -VR, Diode D is in OFF condition , input waveform is not available at
the output and output voltage remains constant which is equal to -VR.

Shunt diode positive clipping with negative reference voltage:

Shunt diode positive clipping with negative reference voltage is as shown in the following circuit.
This will clip entire positive cycle and some portion of negative cycle as shown in the
waveform .

1. When vi(t )<-VR, Diode D is in OFF condition (open circuit ) and input waveform is
available at the output .
2. When vi(t )> -VR, Diode D is in ON condition , input waveform is not available at
output and negative voltage VR is extended to the output . Output voltage remains
constant equal to VR. Thus entire positive cycle and some portion of negative cycle below VR
clips.

Shunt diode negative clipping with negative reference:

Negative clipping with negative reference voltage can be achieved by reversing polarity of the diode. Some
portion of negative cycle clips.

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1. When vi(t )>-VR, Diode D is in OFF condition (op e n cir cu it ) a n d input waveform is
available at the output.
2. When vi(t ) < -VR, Diode D is in ON condition , input waveform is not available at
the output and negative voltage VR is extended to the output. Output voltage remains
constant equal to VR. Thus entire positive cycle and
some portion of negative cycle below
VR clips.

Double Diode Clipper Circuit:

Experiment Procedure:
1. Connect function generator with CRO. Set sine wave with 6 V peak to peak.
2. Connect the function generator at the input of the clipping circuit.
3. Observe output waveforms on the CRO for different clipping circuits and draw output
waveforms.

Conclusion:

Electronics & Communication Dept. SCET, Surat

EXPERIMENT NO. 05
Bridge Rectifier Circuit
AIM:- To study Full-wave Bridge Rectifier circuit and to measure ripple factor for different cases:
Viz (a) Without filter, (b) C Filter, (c) L-C Filter, (d) L Filter and (e) Filter.

Apparatus: Full Wave Bridge Rectifier Kit, CRO, CRO Probes, Multimeter, Connector,
Inductance Box, Capacitance Box

Introduction:
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration that
provides for the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most common
application, conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into direct current a (DC) output, it is
known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC
input. The output of Bridge Rectifier Without filter is Pulsating DC. To obtain Pure DC Different
filter is used. In Different filter C, LC and Pi filter is used. Among them Pi Filter is good because it
give less ripple factor.

Circuit Diagram:-

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Full-wave Bridge Rectifier Without filter

Full-wave Bridge Rectifier With Cfilter

Full-wave Bridge Rectifier with L-C filter

Full-wave Bridge Rectifier with filter

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Procedure:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Connect circuit as shown ion Figure. Eliminating all Filters that are kept already on board.
Connect transformers low potential terminals at AC input.
Observe output Waveform at Output Terminal, which will be Full wave rectified sinusoidal type.
Measure corresponding peak to peak Voltage and hence calculate RMS value.
Find DC component of Full wave rectified waveform and Hence. Ripple factor for the case
without filter that is given by
RMS Value of AC Signal / DC Component
6. Configure Circuit such way that Capacitive Filter C is introduce across Load,i.e.in parallel with
load resistance and output.
7. Again observe waveform that is filtered due to capacitive filter and find out DC and Ac
component in observed Waveform.
8. Calculate Ripple factor as per shown above formula.
9. Repeat for L-C and Filter and Calculate ripple factor for each case.
10. Observe the Effect on shape of waveform when load resistance is being varied.

Observation Table:
Sr. No

Types of
Filters

Without Filter

C Filter

L-C Filter

Filter

AC Component of
output in Volts
Peak to
RMS
Peak
Value
Value

DC Component
of output volts

Ripple Factor
Theoretically (RMS Value of
AC)/(DC
Value)

Calculation:
C Filter

f=100 Hz,C=Capacitance in farad,RL=Load Resistance

L-C Filter

=2f f=100Hz L=Inductance in Henry

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 Filter (Full Wave Rectifier)

Expected Wave form:-

Full-wave Bridge Rectifier Without filter

Full-wave Bridge Rectifier with Cfilter

Full-wave Bridge Rectifier with L-C filter

Full-wave Bridge Rectifier with filter

Conclusion:
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EXPERIMENT NO. 06
Zener Diode
AIM: a) To study reverse characteristics of a Zener diode
b) To study Zener diode as a voltage regulator
i.Supply (Line) Voltage regulation
ii.Load voltage regulation.

Apparatus: D.C Power Supply, Zener Diode, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Resistor, Connecting Wires
Introduction:
The Zener diode is designed to operate in reverse breakdown region. Zener diode is used for voltage
regulation purpose. Zener diodes are designed for specific reverse breakdown voltage called Zener
breakdown voltage (Vz). The value of Vz depends on amount of doping. Breakdown current is
limited by power dissipation capacity of the zener diode. If power capacity of the Zener is 1W and
Zener voltage is 10V, highest reverse current is 0.1A or 100 m A. If current increases more than this
limit, diode will be damaged. Forward characteristics of the Zener diode are similar to normal PN
junction diode.

Circuit diagram (Reverse bias)

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Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator (Regulated power supply) may be defined as an electronic circuit, which
maintains an almost constant voltage across its output terminals irrespective of variations in the load
current or in the supply voltage. A Zener diode can readily be used as voltage regulator element to
maintain constant voltage at the output. When a zener diode operates in zener breakdown region
(under reverse bias condition), the voltage across it is constant for a large change in current through
it. Therefore as long as the input voltage is greater than the zener voltage, it operates in breakdown
region and maintains constant voltage across the load resistor even there is a change in input voltage
or in load current. A series feedback voltage regulator employs feedback to hold the voltage almost
constant despite changes in line voltage and load current.

Experiment Procedure:
Reverse Bias
1. Connect the power supply, voltmeter, current meter with the diode as shown in the figure for
reverse bias. You can use two multimeter(one to measure current through diode and other to
measure voltage across diode )
2. Increase voltage from the power supply from 0V to 10V in step as shown in the observation
table
3. Measure voltage across diode and current through diode. Note down readings in the observation
table.

Regulation for Input (Supply/Line) Voltage Variation:

1. Connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Here resistance of the load is constant. Input supply voltage is varied and corresponding total
current, load current, ammeter readings & output voltage, voltmeter readings are noted and
tabulated.
3. Calculate Supply Voltage Regulation given by

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Where VNL =O/P voltage for Normal

VFL =O/P Voltage for Max. Supply Voltage.

Regulation for Load Variation:

1. Connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.
2. In this fixed supply voltage is given and load resistance is varied and Corresponding total
current, ammeter readings are noted and tabulated.
3. Calculate Load Voltage Regulation given by

Where VNL =No Load (Open- Circuited) O/P Voltage.

VFL =Full Load O/P Voltage.

Model Graph:

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Graph:
Regulation for Input Voltage (Supply) Variation:
Graph is drawn by taking VL (Vo) in y-axis and Vin in x-axis.
Regulation for Load Variation:
Graph is drawn by taking VL (Vo) in y-axis and Rv (Load) in x-axis.

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Conclusion:

EXPERIMENT NO. 07
Clamper Circuit
AIM: To implement diode as a clamper circuit for different cases with and without Battery.
Apparatus: D.C Power Supply, Function Generator, CRO, P-N Junction Diode, Resistor,
Capacitor, Connecting Wires, CRO Probes

Introduction:
Diodes are widely used in clipping and clamping circuits. Clamping circuits are used to change DC
level (average level) of the signal which adds or subtracts DC value with the signal. In clamping,
shape of waveform remains same only offset value (DC level) will change. Positive clamping adds
positive DC level in the signal while negative clamping adds negative DC level in the signal.
Capacitor is widely used in the clamping circuit. Typical clamping waveforms for the sinusoidal
signal is shown below for positive clamping and negative clamping.

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Clamping circuit is used in video amplifier of television receiver to restore DC level of video signal
to preserve overall brightness of the scene. Clamping circuit is also used in offset control of function
generator. Zero offset means no DC value is added in the AC signal.

Circuit operation:
Typical circuit operation of the positive and negative clamping is given below.

Positive Clamping:

Consider that 2Vm peak to peak signal with zero offset is applied at the input of the clamping
circuit. On the first negative half cycle of the input signal, diode D turns ON because anode voltage
is greater than cathode voltage. Capacitor charges to the negative peak voltage let us say -Vm in our
example. The value of R should be high so that it will not discharge the capacitance. After
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completion of negative cycle, positive cycle starts and diode turns OFF. Capacitance voltage is in
series with the input voltage. As per the Kirchhoffs law output voltage will be add it ion of input
voltage and capacitance voltage. Input signal is positive swing of Vm and capacitor voltage is Vm.
Thus during the positive peak of the input voltage total output voltage will be 2Vm. We can consider
that during the positive cycle capacitor acts like a battery and add Vm in the input. Waveforms are
drawn here considering ideal diode, no leakage in the capacitance under ideal situations which will
be different in practical situations.

Negative clamping:

In a negative clamping circuit polarity of diode is reverse than in positive clamping. In our signal
input swings from -Vm to +Vm (peak to peak 2Vm). Diode turns ON during the positive cycle and
charge is stored in the capacitor. Capacitor will charge up to Vm in our example. During the
negative cycle this voltage will be in series with the input voltage and gives total output -2Vm
during negative peak of the input signal.

Experiment Procedure:
1. Connect function generator with CRO. Set sine wave with 2Vm peak to peak. Ensure that
offset voltage is 0.
2. Connect the function generator at the input of the clamping circuit
3. Observe output wave forms on the CRO for different clamping circuits and draw output
waveforms.

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Conclusion:

EXPERIMENT NO. 08
CE Characteristic
AIM: To obtain common emitter characteristics of NPN transistor.
Apparatus: Transistor, Resister, DC power supply, Voltmeter, Ammeter
Introduction:
Transistor is three terminal active device having terminals collector, base and emitter.
Transistor is widely used in amplifier, oscillator, electronic switch and so many other
electronics circuits for variety of applications. To understand operation of the transistor, we use
three configurations common emitter, common base and common collector. In this practical, we will
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understand common emitter configuration. As the name suggest, emitter is common

input and output. Input is applied to base and output is taken from collector.

between

We will obtain input characteristics and output characteristics of common emitter (CE)
configuration. We will connect
variable DC power supply at VBB and VCC to obtain
characteristics. Input voltage in CE configuration is base-emitter voltage Vbe and input
current is base current Ib. Output voltage in CE configuration is collector to emitter
voltage VCE and output current is collector current Ic. We will use multi-meter to
measure these voltages and currents for different characteristics. Collector to emitter junction is
reverse biased and base to emitter junction is forward biased. The CE configuration is widely
used in amplifier circuits because it provides voltage gain as well as current gain. In
CB configuration current gain is less than unity. In CC configuration voltage gain is less than
unity. Input resistance of CE configuration is less than CC configuration and more than CB
configuration . Output resistance of CE configuration is more than CC configuration and
less than CB configuration.

Circuit setup for input characteristics:

Experiment Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Connect circuit as shown in the circuit diagram for input characteristics.

Connect variable power supply 0 -3 0 V at base circuit and collector circuit.
Keep Vcc fix at 0 V (Or do not connect Vcc)
Increase VBB from 0 V to 20 V, note down readings of base current Ib and base to
emitter voltage Vb e in the observation table.
5. Repeat above procedure for Vcc = +5 V and Vcc = +10 V
6. Draw input characteristics curve. Plot Vbe on X axis and Ib on Y axis.
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Observation table:

Circuit setup for output characteristics:

Experiment Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Connect circuit as shown in the circuit diagram for output characteristics.

Connect variable power supply 0 -30 V at base circuit and collector circuit.
Keep base current fix (In itially 0).
Increase VCC from 0V to 30 V, note down readings of collector current Ic and collector
to emitter voltage Vce in the observation table .
5. Repeat above procedure for base currents Ib = 5 A, 50 A, 100 A. Increase base
current by increasing VBB.
6. Draw output characteristics curve. Plot Vce on X axis and Ic on Y axis

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Observation table:

Conclusion:

EXPERIMENT NO. 09
Transistor Biasing Circuit
Aim: To study different biasing circuits for Transistor.
Apparatus: Given circuit board, dc power supply(10v dc), ammeters and voltmeters.
Introduction:
Transistors are used in digital and linear circuits. Linear circuits use transistor as a current source.
One such example is an amplifier where the idea is to put a small ac signal into a transistor and get
out a large signal of the same frequency. However before the ac signal can be coupled into a
transistor we have to set up a CQ' point of operation, typically near the middle of dc load line. For the
circuits to remain linear, the emitter diode must stay forward biased and the collector diode must
stay reverse biased. The fluctuation in the current and voltage must not drive the transistor into either
saturation or cutoff. Biasing means setting up a 'Q5 point near the middle of the DC load line. Four
different methods of biasing - fixed bias, emitter feedback bias, Collector feedback bias and voltage
divider bias are studied in this experiment. Base bias or fixed bias has a large variation in collector
current with variation in temperature and it is virtually impossible to setup a stable Q point. Base
bias is normally not used in linear circuits. However it is widely used in digital circuits Emitter
feedback bias relies on increased collector current producing more voltage across the emitter resistor
which reduces the base current which in turn reduces the collector current. However the circuit does
not work very well for practical values of the resistance. As to be effective the emitter resistance has
to be large, however to avoid collector saturation the resistance is to be small. In collector feedback
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bias the base resistance returned to the collector. When the temperature increases causing more
collector current, decreasing the collector-emitter voltage. Thus there is less voltage across the base
resistor which caused reduction in base current, which offsets the original increase in collector
current. This biasing method is used in practice and has advantage of simplicity and improved
frequency response. The last method is voltage divider bias, which is widely used in linear circuits as
temperature variations have very little effect on Q-point.

Procedure:
FIXED BIAS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Connect 10 volts DC supply properly. (Vcc=10V)

Connect ammeter (0-50mA) between T4 and T5 terminals, to measure Ic.
Connect ammeter(O-lmA) between Ti and T2 to measure IB
Switch on the power supply.
Measure IB and Ic.
Measure voltage with the help of DMM between T 5 and T6, which is VCE.
Calculate Ic = (VCC~VCE)/RC where Rc = 330Q.
Verify with the measured Ic.
Calculate current gain=Ic/LB.

COLLECTOR FEEDBACK BIAS

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1. Connect 10 volts DC supply properly (Vcc^lOV).

2.
3.
4.
5.

Connect ammeter(0-50mA) between T4 and T5 terminals to measure IcConnect ammeter(O-lmA) between T2 and T3 terminals to measure IB.
Switch ON the power supply.
Measure IB and Ic.
Measure voltage with the help of DMM between T5 and T6 which is VCE6.
7. Calculate Ic = (VCC-VCE)/RC, where Rc = 330Q.
8. Verify with the measured Ic.
9. Calculate current gain = Ic/IB.
EMITTER FEEDBACK BIAS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Keep the switch in position 1.

Connect 10V DC supply properly (V cc = 10V).
Connect ammeter (0 - 25mA) between T9 and T10 terminals to measure Ic.
Connect ammeter (0 - 1mA) between T7 and T8 terminals to measure IB.
Switch ON the power supply.
Measure IBand Ic.
Measure voltage with the help of DMM between T10 and Tn which is VCE
Calculate Ic= (Vcc- VCE)/(RE + Rc) where Rc = 470Q and RE = 3300.
Calculate current gain = IC/IB

VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Keep the switch in position 2.

Connect 10V DC supply properly(Vcc=10V).
Connect Ammeter(0-50mA) between T9 and T10 terminals to measure Ic
Connect Ammeter(0-1mA) between T7 and Tg to measure IB.
Switch on the power supply.
Measure Ic and IB.
Measure voltage with the help of DMM between T H and T12 which is VCE. Also measure VBE
between Tn and T8.

Calculation:
VTh=R2/(Ri+R2)*Vcc
Where, R2=1K and R=3.3K
IE=(VTH-VBE)/RE
where RE=3300 and VBE=0.7V IE=IC
Compare with measured lc.
To find Q point for voltage divider bias:
Q point is given by VCEIC

Conclusion:

EXPERIMENT NO. 10
CE Amplifier
AIM: To study the Common Emitter Amplifier and to Evaluate Operating Point,
Voltage Gain, Input and Output Impedance.

Apparatus: Analog Board of AB-15,DC power Supply +12V external source,Multimeter,2mm

Patch cords.

Introduction:
Amplification is the process of increasing strength of signal. An Amplifier is a device that provides
amplification (increase voltage or current or power of signal)without appreciably altering the
original signal. BJT are frequently used as amplifier. A bipolar Transistor is a current amplifier,
having three terminals Emitter, Base, Collector. A Small current in to base controls a large current
flow from the collector to emitter. The large current flow is independent of voltage across the
transistor from collector to emitter this makes it possible to obtain large amplification of voltage by
taking the output voltage from resistor in series with the collector.

Circuit:

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Electronics & Communication Dept. SCET, Surat

Transistor as an Amplifier in CE Configuration:

1. The conditions for which transistor is always forward biased.
2. Collector Base Junction is always reversed biased.
A input circuit has low resistance, therefore a small change in signal voltage causes a appreciable
change in emitter current, this causes almost same change in collector current is flowing through
high load resistance Rc produces a large voltage across it, thus weak signal is applied in the input
circuit appears in the amplified form in collector circuit.
Current relations in CE configurations
IE=Ic+IB
Ic= IE+ICEO
Ic= IB
Where,
Ic=Collector current
ICEO = current through collector to emitter when base is open
= common emitter DC current gain

Operation of Common Emitter amplifier:

In order to get faithful Amplification, the transistor is properly DC biased. The purpose of DC
biasing is to obtain a certain DC collector current (I c) at a Certain DC Collector Voltage (VCE).These
values of current and voltage are called operating point (Quiescent point). To obtain DC Operating
point some biasing methods are used called Biasing circuits are used called biasing circuits.
The Most commonly used Biasing circuits is voltage divider method. In this method two resistances
R1 and R2 are connected across the supply Voltage Vcc and provide proper biasing. A voltage
divider formed by R1 and R2 and voltage drop across R2 forward biased the base emitter Junction
this causes the base current and hence current flow in zero signal condition. Resistance R E provides
stabilization. If this circuit is used to amplify AC Voltages, some more component must be added.
Coupling Capacitor (C1): They are used to pass AC signal and block the DC voltage from the
preceding circuit. The coupling capacitor also blocks the bias of transistor from reaching the input
signal source. It is also called blocking capacitor.
Bypass Capacitors (C3):-It bypass all the AC current from the emitter to the ground. If the capacitor
CE is not put in the circuit, the AC voltage developed across RE will affect the input AC voltage,
such a feedback is reduced by putting capacitor C3.

Characteristics of Common Emitter Amplifier:

1. It produces phase reversal of input signal i.e., input and output signals are 180 out of phase with
each other.
2. It has very high voltage gain.
3. It has moderately low input impedance.
4. It has moderately large output impedance
5. It has high current gain ().

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Characteristic

Types of Amplifier Circuit

CB

Phase Reversal
Voltage Gain
Input Impedance
Output Impedance
Current Gain

No
High
Lowest
Highest
Nearly unity

CE
Yes
Highest
Moderate
Moderate
High()

CC
No
Nearly unity
Highest
Lowest
Highest (+1)

Procedure:
1. Connect Test point 2 and Test point 3, Test point 4 and Test point 5, Test point 6 and Test
point 7,using 2 mm patch cords.
2. Connect +12 V DC power supply at their indicated position from external source or ST-2612
Analog Lab.
3. Switch ON the power supply.
4. For the measurement of Quiescent Point measure the VCE by connecting Voltmeter between
Test point 4 and Test point 6.Measure collector current(Ic) by connecting Ammeter between
Test point 4 and Test point 5.
5. Connect sinusoidal signal of 20mV (p-p) at 25 KHz frequency at the Test point 1 (Input of
amplifier) from external source or ST-2612 Analog Lab.
6. Observe the amplified output on oscilloscope by connecting Test point 8(output of amplifier)
to oscilloscope.
7. Calculate Voltage gain of amplifier. Connect Load resistor of 1 K ohms at the output and
find voltage gain of amplifier with load resistor.
8. Calculate input impedance, output impedance, and current gain of amplifier using the
mentioned formulas with resistance 1 K.

Observation Table:
Input Voltage
(Peak to Peak) (Vin) ..
Frequency
(Hz)

Output Voltage
(Vout)

Gain Av=(Vout/ Vin)

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dB=20log(Av)

Result:
Operating Point of the Common Emitter Amplifier.
Ic= ----------------------mA
VCE=---------------------V
Input Impedance of amplifier = ----------------------ohm.
Output Impedance of amplifier = ---------------------ohm.

Expected Waveform:

Graph:Draw frequency response between Gain in dB and frequency.

Conclusion:-

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EXPERIMENT NO. 11
JFET Characteristics
AIM: TO Study JFET Characteristics
a) To draw the drain and transfer characteristics of a given FET.
b) To find the drain resistance (rd) and Tran conductance (gm) of the given FET.

APPARATUS: FET (BFW-11) Regulated power supply, Voltmeter (0-20V), Ammeter (0100mA), Bread board, connecting wires.

Introduction:
FET is the Field Effect Transistor. It is 3 terminal, unipolar, voltage controlled device having high
input impedance and less noise. Its terminals are drain, source and gate. Gate is the controlling
terminal, the Gate to Source junction of the FET s always reverse biased. Consider an n
channel device. At zero gate voltage there is no reverse voltage at the channel. So as Vds (drain
source voltage) increases, current Ids also increases linearly. As the voltage is increased, at a
particular voltage, pinch off occurs .This voltage is known as pinch off voltage. After pinch off drain
current remains stationary .If we apply a gate voltage (negative voltage) the pinch off occurs early.

CIRCUIT:

PROCEDURE:
Drain Characteristic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

To plot the drain characteristics, keep Vgs constant at 0V.
Vary the VDD and observe the values of Vds and Id
Repeat the above steps 2, 3 for different values of Vgs at 1V, 2V,3v.
All the readings are tabulated.
From drain characteristics, calculate the values of dynamic resistance (rd) by using the
formula Rd= Vds/ Id

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Observation Table:
SR

VGS=

NO

VDS(v)

VGS=
ID(mA)

VDS(v)

VGS=
ID(mA)

VDS(v)

ID(mA)

Drain Characteristic Curve

Transfer Characteristic
1.
2.
3.
4.

To plot the transfer characteristics, keep Vds constant at 1V.

Vary VGG and observe the values of Vgs and Id
Repeat steps 6 and 7 for different values of Vds
The readings are tabulated.

1) From transfer characteristics, calculate the value of transconductace (g m) by using

the formula GM=Id/Vds

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Observation Table:
SR

VDS=

NO

VGS(v)

VDS=
ID(mA)

VGS(v)

VDS=
ID(mA)

VGS(v)

Transfer Characteristic curve

CONCLUSION:

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ID(mA)

EXPERIMENT NO.12
Class A power Amplifier
Aim: To study Class A power Amplifier. Hence find its efficiency.
Apparatus: Class A power amplifier kit(AB 21), Power supply, Function generator, CRO,
CRO Probes.

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connect +12V variable DC power supplies at their indicates position from exernal source or
ST-2612cAnalog Lab.
2. Connect 1Vp-p AC signal (1KHz) at the Vin input of the AB-21.
3. Connect Oscilloscope at the output terminal of AB-21 and observe the output waveform.
4. Gradually increase the input signal up to the value before the signal just get clipped or
decrease the DC supply voltage to the value before the signal just get clipped. This is the
maximum amplification of Class A Amplifier AB-21.

Observations:
Vin = ___________V (p-p).
Vout = __________V (p-p).
Gain of the amplifier

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Expected Waveforms:
Input signal:

Distorted output:

Output Signal:

I/P and O/P on dual channel:

Final amplified waveform:

Conclusion:

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