11.

3 PROTOCOLS
Now let us see how the data link layer can combine framing, flow control, and error control
to achieve the delivery of data from one node to another.

Stop-and-Wait Protocol: We send a Single Frame, and wait for ACK

If data frames arrive at the receiver site faster than they can be processed, the frames
must be stored until their use. Normally, the receiver does not have enough storage
space, especially if it is receiving data from many sources. This may result in either the
discarding of frames or denial of service.
There must be feedback from the receiver to the sender.
The protocol we discuss now is called the Stop-and-Wait Protocol because the
sender sends one frame, stops until it receives confirmation from the receiver (okay to
go ahead), and then sends the next frame.

Analysis
Here two events can occur:
a request from the network layer or
an arrival notification from the physical layer.
The responses to these events must alternate. In other words, after a frame is sent, the algorithm must
ignore another network layer request until that frame is acknowledged.

Efficiency
The Stop-and-Wait ARQ discussed in the previous section is very inefficient if our channel

is thick and long. By thick, we mean that our channel has a large bandwidth; by long,
we mean the round-trip delay is long. The product of these two is called the
bandwidthdelay product

Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request We send Multiple Frames, and

wait for ACK
To improve the efficiency of transmission (filling the pipe), multiple frames must be in
transition while waiting for acknowledgment.

In other words, we need to let more than one frame be outstanding to keep the channel busy
while the sender is waiting for acknowledgment. In this section, we discuss one protocol that
can achieve this goal; in the next section, we discuss a second.
In this protocol we can send several frames before receiving acknowledgments.
we keep a copy of these frames until the acknowledgments arrive.
Sequence Numbers
Frames from a sending station are numbered sequentially.
we need to set a limit. If the header of the frame allows m bits for the sequence number, the
sequence numbers range from 0 to 2m 1. For example, if m is 4, the only sequence
numbers are 0 through 15 inclusive. However, we can repeat the sequence.
So the sequence numbers are

In other words, the sequence numbers are modulo-2m.

Sliding Window
In this protocol (and the next), the sliding window is an abstract concept that defines the
range of sequence numbers that is the concern of the sender and receiver. In other words,
the sender and receiver need to deal with only part of the possible sequence numbers. The
range which is the concern of the sender is called the send sliding window; the range that
is the concern of the receiver is called the receive sliding window.

The send window is an imaginary box covering the sequence numbers of the data
frames which can be in transit.

Acknowledgment
The receiver sends a positive acknowledgment if a frame has arrived safe and sound

and in order. If a frame is damaged or is received out of order, the receiver is silent (send
any frame).
This, in turn, causes the sender to go back and resend all frames, beginning with the one
with the expired timer.

Go-Back-N ARQ Versus Stop-and-Wait ARQ

We can say that the Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol is actually a Go-Back-N ARQ
in which there are only two sequence numbers and the send window size is 1. In other
words, m = 1, 2m 1 = 1. In Go-Back-N ARQ, we said that the addition is modulo-2m; in
Stop-and-Wait ARQ it is 2, which is the same as 2m when m = 1.

Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request

Go-Back-N ARQ simplifies the process at the receiver site. The receiver keeps track of
only one variable, and there is no need to buffer out-of-order frames; they are simply
discarded. However, this protocol is very inefficient for a noisy link. In a noisy link a
frame has a higher probability of damage, which means the resending of multiple frames.
This resending uses up the bandwidth and slows down the transmission. For noisy links,
there is another mechanism that does not resend N frames when just one frame is
damaged; only the damaged frame is resent. This mechanism is called Selective Repeat
ARQ.

HDLC
High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented protocol for communication
over point-to-point and multipoint links. It implements the ARQ mechanisms we discussed
in this chapter.

Configurations and Transfer Modes

HDLC provides two common transfer modes that can be used in different configurations:
1. normal response mode (NRM) and
2. asynchronous balanced mode (ABM).
Normal Response Mode
In normal response mode (NRM), the station configuration is unbalanced. We have one
primary station and multiple secondary stations. A primary station can send
commands; a secondary station can only respond. The NRM is used for both point-to-point
and multiple-point links, as shown in Figure 11.25.

Asynchronous Balanced Mode

In asynchronous balanced mode (ABM), the configuration is balanced. The link is
point-to-point, and each station can function as a primary and a secondary (acting as
peers), as shown in Figure 11.26. This is the common mode today.

Frames
HDLC defines three types of frames:
1. information frames (I-frames),
2. supervisory frames (S-frames), and
3. unnumbered frames (U-frames).
Each type of frame serves as an envelope for the transmission of a different type of
message.
I-frames are used to transport user data and control information relating to user data
(piggybacking).
S-frames are used only to transport control information.
U-frames are reserved for system management. Information carried by U-frames is intended
for managing the link itself.
Frame Format
Each frame in HDLC may contain up to six fields, as shown in Figure 11.27: a beginning
flag field, an address field, a control field, an information field, a frame check
sequence (FCS) field, and an ending flag field.
In multiple-frame transmissions, the ending flag of one frame can serve as the beginning flag
of the next frame.

Fields
Let us now discuss the fields and their use in different frame types.

Flag field. Is an 8-bit sequence that identifies both the beginning and the end of a
frame and serves as a synchronization pattern for the receiver.

Address field. The second field of an HDLC frame contains the address of the
secondary station. If a primary station created the frame, it contains a to address. If
a secondary creates the frame, it contains a from address.

Control field. The control field is a 1- or 2-byte segment of the frame used for
flow and error control.

Information field. users data from the network layer or management information. Its
length can vary from one network to another.

FCS field. The frame check sequence (FCS) is the HDLC error detection field. It
can contain either a 2- or 4-byte ITU-T CRC.

Control Field
The control field determines the
1. type of frame and
2. defines its functionality.

Control frames for I, S, U frames:

Usage

I frame
1) To carry user data
from the network layer.
2) They can include
flow and error control
information
(piggybacking).

S Frame
Supervisory frames are
used for flow and error
control whenever
piggybacking is either
impossible or
inappropriate.
S-frames do not
have information fields.

Bit
Description:

1st Bit
Type: specifies control
frame

Bit
Description:
Next 3 Bits

N(S),
define the sequence
number of the frame.

Bit
Description:

Last 3 Bits
N(R), correspond to the
acknowledgment
number when
piggybacking is used

If the first 2 bits

of the control field is 10,
this means the frame
is an S-frame.
Code bits:
00- Receive ready
(RR).
01- Receive not
ready (RNR)
02- Reject (REJ)
03- Selective reject
(SREJ).
The last 3 bits, called
N(R), corresponds to the
acknowledgment number
(ACK) or negative
acknowledgment number

U Frame
Unnumbered frames
are used to exchange
session management
and control
information
between connected
devices
U-frames contain an
information field,
but one used for system
management
information, not user
data

See below table

See below table

(NAK) depending on the

type of S-frame.
P/F field

Poll or final

POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL: for point to point Access

Although HDLC is a general protocol that can be used for both point-to-point and multipoint
configurations, one of the most common protocols for point-to-point access is the
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP).
PPP is a Byte Oriented Protocol.
Today, millions of Internet users who need to connect their home computers to the server of
an Internet service provider use PPP.
The majority of these users have a traditional modem; they are connected to the Internet
through a telephone line, which provides the services of the physical layer.
But to control and manage the transfer of data, there is a need for a point-to-point protocol at
the data link layer.
PPP provides several services: frame, device, link
1. PPP defines the format of the frame to be exchanged between devices.
2. PPP defines how two devices can negotiate the establishment of the link and the
exchange of data.
3. PPP defines how network layer data are encapsulated in the data link frame.
4. PPP defines how two devices can authenticate each other.
5. PPP provides multiple network layer services supporting a variety of network layer
protocols.
6. PPP provides connections over multiple links.
7. PPP provides network address configuration. This is particularly useful when a home
user needs a temporary network address to connect to the Internet.

On the other hand, to keep PPP simple, several services are missing:
1. PPP does not provide flow control. A sender can send several frames one after
another with no concern about overwhelming the receiver.
2. PPP has a very simple mechanism for error control. A CRC field is used to detect
errors. If the frame is corrupted, it is silently discarded; the upper-layer protocol
needs to take care of the problem. Lack of error control and sequence numbering
may cause a packet to be received out of order.
3. PPP does not provide a sophisticated addressing mechanism to handle frames in a
multipoint configuration.

Framing
PPP is a byte-oriented protocol. Framing is done according to the discussion of byteoriented
protocols at the beginning of this chapter.

Protocol. The protocol field defines what is being carried in the data field: either
user data or other information. We discuss this field in detail shortly. This field is
by default 2 bytes long, but the two parties can agree to use only 1 byte.

Transition Phases
A PPP connection goes through phases which can be shown in a transition phase
diagram (see Figure 11.33).

Remember: no commn, start of Commn, negotiation, data transfer, termination

of connection.

 Dead. In the dead phase the link is not being used. There is no active carrier (at
the physical layer) and the line is quiet.

Establish. When one of the nodes starts the communication, the connection goes
into this phase. In this phase, options are negotiated between the two parties. If the
negotiation is successful, the system goes to the authentication phase (if authentication is
required) or directly to the networking phase.

Authenticate. The authentication phase is optional; the two nodes may decide,
during the establishment phase, not to skip this phase. However, if they decide to
proceed with authentication, they send several authentication packets, discussed
later. If the result is successful, the connection goes to the networking phase; otherwise,
it goes to the termination phase.

Network. In the network phase, negotiation for the network layer protocols takes
place. PPP specifies that two nodes establish a network layer agreement before data at
the network layer can be exchanged. The reason is that PPP supports multiple protocols
at the network layer. If a node is running multiple protocols simultaneously at the
network layer, the receiving node needs to know which protocol will receive the data.

Open. In the open phase, data transfer takes place. When a connection reaches
this phase, the exchange of data packets can be started. The connection remains in
this phase until one of the endpoints wants to terminate the connection.

Terminate. In the termination phase the connection is terminated. Several packets

are exchanged between the two ends for house cleaning and closing the link.

Multiplexing
Although PPP is a data link layer protocol, PPP uses another set of other protocols to
1. establish the link, (LCP)
2. authenticate the parties involved (AP), and
3. carry the network layer data. (NCP)
Three sets of protocols are defined to make PPP powerful:

(Remember Control, Authentication, Network)

1. the Link Control Protocol (LCP),
2. two Authentication Protocols (APs), and
3. several Network Control Protocols (NCPs).
At any moment, a PPP packet can carry data from one of these protocols in its data field, as
shown in Figure 11.34. Note that there is one LCP, two APs, and several NCPs. Data may
also come from several different network layers

Link Control Protocol

The Link Control Protocol (LCP) is responsible for establishing, maintaining, configuring,
and terminating links. It also provides negotiation mechanisms to set options
between the two endpoints. Both endpoints of the link must reach an agreement about
the options before the link can be established. See Figure 11.35.
All LCP packets are carried in the payload field of the PPP frame with the protocol
field set to C021 in hexadecimal.
Authentication Protocols
Authentication plays a very important role in PPP because PPP is designed for use over
dial-up links where verification of user identity is necessary. Authentication means
validating the identity of a user who needs to access a set of resources. PPP has created
two protocols for authentication:
1. Password Authentication Protocol and
2. Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol.
Note that these protocols are used during the authentication phase.
Network Control Protocols
PPP is a multiple-network layer protocol. It can carry a network layer data packet from
protocols defined by the Internet, OSI, Xerox, DECnet, AppleTalk, Novel, and so on.

Multilink PPP
PPP was originally designed for a single-channel point-to-point physical link. The availability
of multiple channels in a single point-to-point link motivated the development of
Multilink PPP.
In this case, a logical PPP frame is divided into several actual PPP frames.
A segment of the logical frame is carried in the payload of an actual PPP frame,
as shown in Figure 11.40. To show that the actual PPP frame is carrying a fragment of a

logical PPP frame, the protocol field is set to 0x003d. This new development adds
complexity.
For example, a sequence number needs to be added to the actual PPP frame to
show a fragments position in the logical frame.