Anatomy

For the anatomy of humans, see Human anatomy. For the

anatomy of plants, see Plant anatomy. For other uses, see
Anatomy (disambiguation).
Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the

volves the use of optical instruments in the study of the

tissues of various structures, known as histology and also
in the study of cells.
The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and
structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of
animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers (corpses)
to 20th century medical imaging techniques including Xray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging.

1 Denition

Human compared to elephant frame

Derived from the Greek anatemn I cut up,

cut open from ana up, and temn I
cut,[5] anatomy is the scientic study of the structure of
organisms including their systems, organs and tissues. It
includes the appearance and position of the various parts,
the materials from which they are composed, their locations and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy
is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which
deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the
chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist
is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure,
blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver;
while a physiologist is interested in the production of bile,
the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions.[6]

One of the large, detailed illustrations in Andreas Vesalius's De

humani corporis fabrica, 1543, marking the rebirth of anatomy

study of the structure of organisms and their parts;[1] it

is mainly divided into zootomy and phytotomy.[2] In
some of its facets, anatomy is related to embryology and
comparative anatomy, which itself is closely related to
evolutionary biology and phylogeny.[3] Human anatomy
is one of the basic essential sciences of medicine.[4] The
discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and
microscopic anatomy. Macroscopic anatomy, or gross
anatomy, is the examination of an animals body parts
using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the
branch of supercial anatomy. Microscopic anatomy in-

The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy
and microscopic anatomy.[7] Gross anatomy is the study
of structures large enough to be seen with the naked
1

2 ANIMAL TISSUES

A diagram of an animal cell

2 Animal tissues

Anatomical chart by Vesalius, Epitome, 1543

eye, and also includes supercial anatomy or surface

anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features.
Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, including histology (the study of tissues),
and embryology (the study of an organism in its immature
condition).[3]

The kingdom Animalia, also called Metazoa, contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and
motile (although some have secondarily adopted a sessile
lifestyle). Most animals have bodies dierentiated into
separate tissues and these animals are also known as
eumetazoans. They have an internal digestive chamber,
with one or two openings; the gametes are produced
in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a
blastula stage in their embryonic development. Metazoans do not include the sponges, which have undierentiated cells.[12]
Unlike plant cells, animal cells have neither a cell wall nor
chloroplasts. Vacuoles, when present, are more in number and much smaller than those in the plant cell. The
body tissues are composed of numerous types of cell, including those found in muscles, nerves and skin. Each
typically has a cell membrane formed of phospholipids,
cytoplasm and a nucleus. All of the dierent cells of
an animal are derived from the embryonic germ layers. Those simpler invertebrates which are formed from
two germ layers of ectoderm and endoderm are called
diploblastic and the more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are
called triploblastic.[13] All of a triploblastic animals tissues and organs are derived from the three germ layers of
the embryo, the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.

Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and noninvasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs and
systems.[3] Methods used include dissection, in which a
body is opened and its organs studied, and endoscopy, Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types:
in which a video camera-equipped instrument is in- connective, epithelial, muscle and nervous tissue.
serted through a small incision in the body wall and
used to explore the internal organs and other structures.
Angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance angiog- 2.1 Connective tissue
raphy are methods to visualize blood vessels.[8][9][10][11]
The term anatomy is commonly taken to refer to human
anatomy. However, substantially the same structures and
tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term zootomy is also sometimes used to specifically refer to animals. The structure and tissues of plants
are of a dissimilar nature and they are studied in plant
anatomy.[6]

Connective tissues are brous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called the extracellular
matrix. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds
them in place. The main types are loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, brous connective tissue, cartilage
and bone. The extracellular matrix contains proteins, the
chief and most abundant of which is collagen. Collagen plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tis-

2.3

Muscle tissue

3
body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form
of a cuticle. In simple animals this may just be a coat of
glycoproteins.[13] In more advanced animals, many glands
are formed of epithelial cells.[17]

2.3 Muscle tissue

Hyaline cartilage at high magnication (H&E stain)

sues. The matrix can be modied to form a skeleton to

support or protect the body. An exoskeleton is a thickened, rigid cuticle which is stiened by mineralisation,
as in crustaceans or by the cross-linking of its proteins
as in insects. An endoskeleton is internal and present in
all developed animals, as well as in many of those less
Cross section through skeletal muscle and a small nerve at high
developed.[13]
magnication (H&E stain)

2.2

Epithelium

Gastric mucosa at low magnication (H&E stain)

Epithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells,

bound to each other by cell adhesion molecules, with little intercellular space. Epithelial cells can be squamous
(at), cuboidal or columnar and rest on a basal lamina,
the upper layer of the basement membrane,[14] the lower
layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the connective
tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial
cells.[15] There are many dierent types of epithelium,
modied to suit a particular function. In the respiratory
tract there is a type of ciliated epithelial lining; in the
small intestine there are microvilli on the epithelial lining
and in the large intestine there are intestinal villi. Skin
consists of an outer layer of keratinised stratied squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the vertebrate
body. Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the cells in the
skin.[16] The epithelial cells on the external surface of the

Muscle cells (myocytes) form the active contractile tissue

of the body. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and
cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile laments
and is separated into three types; smooth muscle, skeletal
muscle and obliquely striated muscle. Smooth muscle
has no striations when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over a wide
range of stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as sea
anemone tentacles and the body wall of sea cucumbers.
Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range
of extension. It is found in the movement of appendages
and jaws. Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the other two. The laments are staggered and this
is the type of muscle found in earthworms that can extend slowly or make rapid contractions.[18] In higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to
provide movement and are often arranged in antagonistic
sets. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the uterus,
bladder, intestines, stomach, esophagus, respiratory airways, and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is found only in
the heart, allowing it to contract and pump blood round
the body.

2.4 Nervous tissue

Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known
as neurons which transmit information. In some slowmoving radially symmetrical marine animals such as
ctenophores and cnidarians (including sea anemones and
jellysh), the nerves form a nerve net, but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In

3 VERTEBRATE ANATOMY

simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause

a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialised receptor cells such as chemoreceptors
and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in ganglia.[19]
In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of
sense organs and there is a central nervous system (brain
and spinal cord) and a peripheral nervous system. The
latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information from sense organs and motor nerves that inuence
target organs.[20][21] The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle, and the autonomic
nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle, certain glands and internal organs, including the
stomach.[22]

and is above the notochord and the gastrointestinal tract is

below it.[23] Nervous tissue is derived from the ectoderm,
connective tissues are derived from mesoderm, and gut is
derived from the endoderm. At the posterior end is a tail
which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the
gut. The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal,
and the anus at the base of the tail.[24] The dening characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column, formed
in the development of the segmented series of vertebrae.
In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus
pulposus of the intervertebral discs. However, a few vertebrates, such as the sturgeon and the coelacanth retain
the notochord into adulthood.[25] Jawed vertebrates are
typied by paired appendages, ns or legs, which may be
secondarily lost. The limbs of vertebrates are considered
to be homologous because the same underlying skeletal
structure was inherited from their last common ancestor.
This is one of the arguments put forward by Charles Darwin to support his theory of evolution.[26]

Vertebrate anatomy
3.1 Fish anatomy

See also: Comparative anatomy

All vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at some Main article: Fish anatomy
The body of a sh is divided into a head, trunk and tail,

The three germ layers

Skeleton of a buttery sh showing the vertebral column and n

rays

Mouse skull

point in their lives, (mostly in the embryonic stage), share

the major chordate characteristics; a stiening rod, the
notochord; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material, the
neural tube; pharyngeal slits; and a tail posterior to the
anus. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column

Organs of a sh

although the divisions between the three are not always

externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support
structure inside the sh, is either made of cartilage, in

3.2

Amphibian anatomy

cartilaginous sh, or bone in bony sh. The main skeletal

element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs
attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles.
The main external features of the sh, the ns, are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with
the exception of the caudal ns, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles
which compose the main part of the trunk.[27] The heart
has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the gills and on round the body in a
single circulatory loop.[28] The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an
inner ear but no external or middle ear. Low frequency
vibrations are detected by the lateral line system of sense
organs that run along the length of the sides of sh, and
these respond to nearby movements and to changes in wa- Skeleton of Surinam horned frog
ter pressure.[27]
(Ceratophrys cornuta)
Sharks and rays are basal sh with numerous primitive
anatomical features similar to those of ancient sh, including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies
tend to be dorso-ventrally attened, they usually have ve
pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside
of the head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal
placoid scales. They have a cloaca into which the urinary and genital passages open, but not a swim bladder.
Cartilaginous sh produce a small number of large, yolky
eggs. Some species are ovoviviparous and the young develop internally but others are oviparous and the larvae
develop externally in egg cases.[29]
The bony sh lineage shows more derived anatomical
traits, often with major evolutionary changes from the
features of ancient sh. They have a bony skeleton, are
generally laterally attened, have ve pairs of gills protected by an operculum, and a mouth at or near the tip of
the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping scales.
Bony sh have a swim bladder which helps them maintain
a constant depth in the water column, but not a cloaca.
They mostly spawn a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into the water column.[29]

3.2

Amphibian anatomy

Main article: Amphibian anatomy

Amphibians are a class of animals comprising frogs,
salamanders and caecilians. They are tetrapods, but the
caecilians and a few species of salamander have either no
limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their main
bones are hollow and lightweight and are fully ossied and
the vertebrae interlock with each other and have articular
processes. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused
to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short,
and are often incompletely ossied. Their skin contains
little keratin and lacks scales, but contains many mucous
glands and in some species, poison glands. The hearts
of amphibians have three chambers, two atria and one
ventricle. They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous

Anatomy of frog 1 Right atrium, 2 Lungs, 3 Aorta, 4 Egg mass,

5 Colon, 6 Left atrium, 7 Ventricle, 8 Stomach, 9 Liver, 10 Gallbladder, 11 Small intestine, 12 Cloaca

waste products are excreted primarily as urea. Amphibians breathe by means of buccal pumping, a pump action
in which air is rst drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the
air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat.[30]
They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin
which needs to be kept moist.[31]
In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are
much longer and stronger than the forelimbs. The feet
have four or ve digits and the toes are often webbed for

6
swimming or have suction pads for climbing. Frogs have
large eyes and no tail. Salamanders resemble lizards in
appearance; their short legs project sideways, the belly is
close to or in contact with the ground and they have a long
tail. Caecilians supercially resemble earthworms and
are limbless. They burrow by means of zones of muscle
contractions which move along the body and they swim
by undulating their body from side to side.[32]

3 VERTEBRATE ANATOMY
is long and exible and the head and the legs can be drawn
back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians and the
typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny
plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are modied into
ippers.[34]

Tuataras supercially resemble lizards but the lineages

diverged in the Triassic period. There is one living
species, Sphenodon punctatus. The skull has two openings (fenestrae) on either side and the jaw is rigidly attached to the skull. There is one row of teeth in the lower
3.3 Reptile anatomy
jaw and this ts between the two rows in the upper jaw
when the animal chews. The teeth are merely projections
Main article: Reptile anatomy
Reptiles are a class of animals comprising turtles, of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down.
The brain and heart are more primitive than is the case
in other reptiles and the lungs have a single chamber and
lack bronchi. The tuatara has a well-developed parietal
eye on its forehead.[34]

Skeleton of a snake, drawn by Richard Lydekker, 1896

tuataras, lizards, snakes and crocodiles. They are

tetrapods, but the snakes and a few species of lizard either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in
size. Their bones are better ossied and their skeletons
stronger than those of amphibians. The teeth are conical and mostly uniform in size. The surface cells of the
epidermis are modied into horny scales which create a
waterproof layer. Reptiles are unable to use their skin for
respiration as do amphibians and have a more ecient
respiratory system drawing air into their lungs by expanding their chest walls. The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams.
The reproductive system is designed for internal fertilisation, with a copulatory organ present in most species.
The eggs are surrounded by amniotic membranes which
prevents them from drying out and are laid on land, or
develop internally in some species. The bladder is small
as nitrogenous waste is excreted as uric acid.[33]
Anatomy of a snake. 1 esophagus, 2 trachea, 3 tracheal lungs, 4 rudimentary left lung, 5 right lung, 6
heart, 7 liver, 8 stomach, 9 air sac, 10 gallbladder, 11
pancreas, 12 spleen, 13 intestine, 14 testicles, 15 kidneys.
Turtles are notable for their protective shells. They have
an inexible trunk encased in a horny carapace above and
a plastron below. These are formed from bony plates embedded in the dermis which are overlain by horny ones
and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The neck

Lizards have skulls with only one fenestra on each side,

the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having
been lost. This results in the jaws being less rigidly attached which allows the mouth to open wider. Lizards
are mostly quadrupeds, with the trunk held o the ground
by short, sideways-facing legs, but a few species have no
limbs and resemble snakes. Lizards have moveable eyelids, eardrums are present and some species have a central
parietal eye.[34]
Snakes are closely related to lizards, having branched o
from a common ancestral lineage during the Cretaceous
period, and they share many of the same features. The
skeleton consists of a skull, a hyoid bone, spine and ribs
though a few species retain a vestige of the pelvis and
rear limbs in the form of pelvic spurs. The bar under
the second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have
extreme exibility allowing the snake to swallow its prey
whole. Snakes lack moveable eyelids, the eyes being covered by transparent spectacle scales. They do not have
eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through the
bones of their skull. Their forked tongues are used as
organs of taste and smell and some species have sensory
pits on their heads enabling them to locate warm-blooded
prey.[35]
Crocodilians are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with
long snouts and large numbers of teeth. The head and
trunk are dorso-ventrally attened and the tail is laterally
compressed. It undulates from side to side to force the animal through the water when swimming. The tough keratinised scales provide body armour and some are fused to
the skull. The nostrils, eyes and ears are elevated above
the top of the at head enabling them to remain above the
surface of the water when the animal is oating. Valves
seal the nostrils and ears when it is submerged. Unlike
other reptiles, crocodilians have hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.[36]

3.5

3.4

Mammal anatomy

Bird anatomy

uropygial gland near the base of the tail. This produces

an oily secretion that waterproofs the feathers when the
Main article: Bird anatomy
bird preens. There are scales on the legs, feet and claws
Birds are tetrapods but though their hind limbs are on the tips of the toes.[37]

3.5 Mammal anatomy

Main article: Mammal anatomy
Mammals are a diverse class of animals, mostly terres-

Bird parts

Skeletons of a Great Dane and a Chihuahua

Part of a wing-drawn by Drer

trial but some are aquatic and others have evolved apping or gliding ight. They mostly have four limbs but
some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs modied into ns and the forelimbs of bats are modied
into wings. The legs of most mammals are situated below the trunk, which is held well clear of the ground.
The bones of mammals are well ossied and their teeth,
which are usually dierentiated, are coated in a layer of
prismatic enamel. The teeth are shed once (milk teeth)
during the animals lifetime or not at all, as is the case in
cetaceans. Mammals have three bones in the middle ear
and a cochlea in the inner ear. They are clothed in hair
and their skin contains glands which secrete sweat. Some
of these glands are specialised as mammary glands, producing milk to feed the young. Mammals breathe with
lungs and have a muscular diaphragm separating the thorax from the abdomen which helps them draw air into the
lungs. The mammalian heart has four chambers and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept entirely separate. Nitrogenous waste is excreted primarily as urea.[38]

used for walking or hopping, their front limbs are wings

covered with feathers and adapted for ight. Birds are
endothermic, have a high metabolic rate, a light skeletal
system and powerful muscles. The long bones are thin,
hollow and very light. Air sac extensions from the lungs
occupy the centre of some bones. The sternum is wide
and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are fused.
There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are adapted into
a horn-covered beak. The eyes are relatively large, particularly in nocturnal species such as owls. They face forwards in predators and sideways in ducks.[37]
Mammals are amniotes, and most are viviparous, givThe feathers are outgrowths of the epidermis and are ing birth to live young. The exception to this are the
found in localized bands from where they fan out over egg-laying monotremes, the platypus and the echidnas of
the skin. Large ight feathers are found on the wings Australia. Most other mammals have a placenta through
and tail, contour feathers cover the birds surface and ne which the developing foetus obtains nourishment, but in
down occurs on young birds and under the contour feath- marsupials, the foetal stage is very short and the imers of water birds. The only cutaneous gland is the single mature young is born and nds its way to its mothers

INVERTEBRATE ANATOMY

pouch where it latches on to a nipple and completes its learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from
development.[38]
anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials, and in addition, medical
students generally also learn gross anatomy through prac3.5.1 Human anatomy
tical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers.
The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology) can
Main article: Human anatomy
be aided by practical experience examining histological
Humans have the overall body plan of a mammal. Hu- preparations (or slides) under a microscope. [40]
Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally
taught to medical students in their rst year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally
or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy
by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specic systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems.[3] The major anatomy textbook, Grays
Anatomy, has been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods.[41][42] A thorough working knowledge of
anatomy is required by physicians, especially surgeons
and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such
as histopathology and radiology. [43]
Academic human anatomists are usually employed by
universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals. They
are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into
certain systems, organs, tissues or cells.[43]

Sagittal section of the head as seen by a MRI scan

4 Invertebrate anatomy
Invertebrates constitute a vast array of living organisms
ranging from the simplest unicellular eukaryotes such
as Paramecium to such complex multicellular animals
as the octopus, lobster and dragony. They constitute about 95% of the animal species. By denition,
none of these creatures has a backbone. The cells of
single-cell protozoans have the same basic structure as
those of multicellular animals but some parts are specialised into the equivalent of tissues and organs. Locomotion is often provided by cilia or agella or may
proceed via the advance of pseudopodia, food may be
gathered by phagocytosis, energy needs may be supplied
by photosynthesis and the cell may be supported by an
endoskeleton or an exoskeleton. Some protozoans can
form multicellular colonies.[44]

In the human, the development of skilled hand movements and

increased brain size is likely to have evolved simultaneously.[39]

mans have a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax

and abdomen), two arms and hands and two legs and feet.
Generally, students of certain biological sciences,
paramedics, prosthetists and orthotists, physiotherapists,
occupational therapists, nurses, and medical students

Metazoans are multicellular organism, dierent groups

of cells of which have separate functions. The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue, both of which are present in nearly
all invertebrates. The outer surface of the epidermis
is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an
extracellular matrix which provides support to the organism. An endoskeleton derived from the mesoderm is
present in echinoderms, sponges and some cephalopods.
Exoskeletons are derived from the epidermis and is composed of chitin in arthropods (insects, spiders, ticks,

9
three distinct parts, a head, a thorax and an abdomen.[48]
The head typically bears a pair of sensory antennae, a
pair of compound eyes, one to three simple eyes (ocelli)
and three sets of modied appendages that form the
mouthparts. The thorax has three pairs of segmented
legs, one pair each for the three segments that compose
the thorax and one or two pairs of wings. The abdomen
is composed of eleven segments, some of which may be
fused and houses the digestive, respiratory, excretory and
reproductive systems.[49] There is considerable variation
between species and many adaptations to the body parts,
especially wings, legs, antennae and mouthparts.[50]
Spiders a class of arachnids have four pairs of legs; a
body of two segmentsa cephalothorax and an abdomen.
Spiders have no wings and no antennae. They have
mouthparts called chelicerae which are often connected
to venom glands as most spiders are venomous. They
have a second pair of appendages called pedipalps attached to the cephalothorax. These have the same segmentation as the legs and function as taste and smell organs. At the end of each pedipalp is a spoon-shaped cymbium that acts to support the pedipalp.

5 Other branches of anatomy

Daphnia a planktonic crustacean

shrimps, crabs, lobsters). Calcium carbonate constitutes the shells of molluscs, brachiopods and some tubebuilding polychaete worms and silica forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic diatoms and radiolaria.[45] Other
invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the
pinacoderm of sponges, the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians (polyps, sea anemones, jellysh) and the collagenous
cuticle of annelids. The outer epithelial layer may include
cells of several types including sensory cells, gland cells
and stinging cells. There may also be protrusions such as
microvilli, cilia, bristles, spines and tubercles.[46]

4.1

Arthropod anatomy

Supercial or surface anatomy is important as the

study of anatomical landmarks that can be readily
seen from the exterior contours of the body.[3] It enables physicians or veterinary surgeons to gauge the
position and anatomy of the associated deeper structures. Supercial is a directional term that indicates
that structures are located relatively close to the surface of the body.[51]
Comparative anatomy relates to the comparison of
anatomical structures (both gross and microscopic)
in dierent animals.[3]
Artistic anatomy relates to anatomic studies for
artistic reasons.

6 History
Main article: History of anatomy

Main articles: Arthropod, Insect morphology and Spider

6.1
anatomy

Ancient

In 1600 BCE, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, an Ancient

Arthropods comprise the largest phylum in the ani- Egyptian medical text, described the heart, its vessels,
mal kingdom with over a million known invertebrate liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus and bladder,
species.[47]
and showed the blood vessels diverging from the heart.
Insects possess segmented bodies supported by a hard- The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) features a treatise on
jointed outer covering, the exoskeleton, made mostly of the heart, with vessels carrying all the bodys uids to or
chitin. The segments of the body are organized into from every member of the body.[52]

10

6 HISTORY

The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described

in the Hippocratic Corpus, an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors.[53] Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on animal dissection.
Praxagoras identied the dierence between arteries and
veins. Also in the 4th century BCE, Herophilos and
Erasistratus produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on vivisection of criminals in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic dynasty.[54][55]
In the 2nd century, Galen of Pergamum, an anatomist,
clinician, writer and philosopher,[56] wrote the nal and
highly inuential anatomy treatise of ancient times.[57]
He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy
through dissection of animals.[56] He was one of the rst
experimental physiologists through his vivisection experiments on animals.[58] Galens drawings, based mostly
on dog anatomy, became eectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years.[59] His work
was known to Renaissance doctors only through Islamic
Golden Age medicine until it was translated from the
Greek some time in the 15th century.[59]

6.2

Medieval to early modern

Engraving from a picture by Tintoretto of Andreas Vesalius,

about 1540

Michiel Jansz van Mierevelt Anatomy lesson of Dr. Willem

van der Meer, 1617

Anatomical study of the arm, by Leonardo da Vinci, (about

1510)

as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500 is

startlingly rapid.[59]:120121 Between 1275 and 1326, the
anatomists Mondino de Luzzi, Alessandro Achillini and
Antonio Benivieni at Bologna carried out the rst systematic human dissections since ancient times.[60][61][62]
Mondinos Anatomy of 1316 was the rst textbook in the
medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes
the body in the order followed in Mondinos dissections,
starting with the abdomen, then the thorax, then the head
and limbs. It was the standard anatomy textbook for the
next century.[59]

Anatomy developed little from classical times until the Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) was trained in anatomy
sixteenth century; as the historian Marie Boas writes, by Andrea del Verrocchio.[59] He made use of his
Progress in anatomy before the sixteenth century is anatomical knowledge in his artwork, making many

6.3

Late modern

11

sketches of skeletal structures, muscles and organs of hu- noticed that the frequently fatal fever occurred more ofmans and other vertebrates that he dissected.[59][63]
ten in mothers examined by medical students than by
Andreas Vesalius (15141564) (Latinized from Andries midwives. The students went from the dissecting room
van Wezel), professor of anatomy at the University of to the hospital ward and examined women in childbirth.
Padua, is considered the founder of modern human Semmelweis showed that when the trainees washed their
anatomy.[64] Originally from Brabant, Vesalius published hands in chlorinated lime before each clinical examinafever among the mothers
the inuential book De humani corporis fabrica (the tion, the incidence of puerperal[77]
could
be
reduced
dramatically.
structure of the human body), a large format book in
seven volumes, in 1543.[65] The accurate and intricately
detailed illustrations, often in allegorical poses against
Italianate landscapes, are thought to have been made by
the artist Jan van Calcar, a pupil of Titian.[66]
In England, anatomy was the subject of the rst public
lectures given in any science; these were given by the
Company of Barbers and Surgeons in the 16th century,
joined in 1583 by the Lumleian lectures in surgery at the
Royal College of Physicians.[67]

6.3

Late modern

Further information: History of anatomy in the 19th

century
In the United States, medical schools began to be set up
towards the end of the 18th century. Classes in anatomy
needed a continual stream of cadavers for dissection and
these were dicult to obtain. Philadelphia, Baltimore
and New York were all renowned for body snatching
activity as criminals raided graveyards at night, removing newly buried corpses from their cons.[68] A similar
problem existed in Britain where demand for bodies became so great that grave-raiding and even anatomy murder were practised to obtain cadavers.[69] Some graveyards were in consequence protected with watchtowers.
The practice was halted in Britain by the Anatomy Act
of 1832,[70][71] while in the United States, similar legislation was enacted after the physician William S. Forbes
of Jeerson Medical College was found guilty in 1882
of complicity with resurrectionists in the despoliation of
graves in Lebanon Cemetery.[72]
The teaching of anatomy in Britain was transformed by
Sir John Struthers, Regius Professor of Anatomy at the
University of Aberdeen from 1863 to 1889. He was
responsible for setting up the system of three years of
pre-clinical academic teaching in the sciences underlying medicine, including especially anatomy. This system lasted until the reform of medical training in 1993
and 2003. As well as teaching, he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum of comparative anatomy,
published over 70 research papers, and became famous
for his public dissection of the Tay Whale.[73][74] From
1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy in medical schools.[75] Medical museums
provided examples in comparative anatomy, and were often used in teaching.[76] Ignaz Semmelweis investigated
puerperal fever and he discovered how it was caused. He

An electron microscope from 1973

Before the era of modern medical procedures, the main

means for studying the internal structure of the body were
palpation and dissection. It was the advent of microscopy
that opened up an understanding of the building blocks
that constituted living tissues. Technical advances in the
development of achromatic lenses increased the resolving
power of the microscope and around 1839, Matthias
Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann identied that
cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things. Study of small structures involved passing
light through them and the microtome was invented to
provide suciently thin slices of tissue to examine. Staining techniques using articial dyes were established to
help distinguish between dierent types of tissue. The
elds of cytology and histology developed from here in
the late 19th century.[78] The invention of the electron microscope brought a great advance in resolution power and
allowed research into the ultrastructure of cells and the
organelles and other structures within them. About the
same time, in the 1950s, the use of X-ray diraction for
studying the crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids
and other biological molecules gave rise to a new eld of
molecular anatomy.[78]

12

8 NOTES

Short wavelength electromagnetic radiation such as X- [9] Benson KG, Forrest L (1999). Characterization of
the Renal Portal System of the Common Green Iguana
rays can be passed through the body and used in medical
(Iguana iguana) by Digital Subtraction Imaging. Journal
radiography to view interior structures that have dierent
of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 30 (2): 235241.
degrees of opaqueness. Nowadays, modern techniques
such as magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomog[10] Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA)". Johns Hopraphy, uoroscopy and ultrasound imaging have enabled
kins Medicine.
researchers and practitioners to examine organs, living or
dead, in unprecedented detail. They are used for diagnos- [11] Angiography. National Health Service. Retrieved 29
April 2014.
tic and therapeutic purposes and provide information on
the internal structures and organs of the body to a degree
[12] Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). Zoolfar beyond the imagination of earlier generations.[79]
ogy. Saunders College Publishing. pp. 547549. ISBN
978-0-03-030504-7.

See also
Aclands Video Atlas of Human Anatomy
American Association of Anatomists

[14] Dorlands (2012). Illustrated Medical Dictionary. Elsevier

Saunders. p. 203. ISBN 978-1-4160-6257-8.

Anatomical terminology

[15] name=Dorlands|pages=1002

Anatomical terms of location

[16] McGrath, J.A.; Eady, R.A.; Pope, F.M. (2004). Rooks

Textbook of Dermatology (7th ed.). Blackwell Publishing. pp. 3.13.6. ISBN 978-0-632-06429-8.

Anatomical terms of motion

Foundational Model of Anatomy
Human body
List of human anatomical features
List of human anatomical parts named after people
Outline of human anatomy

[13] Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D.

(2004). Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition. Cengage Learning. pp. 5960. ISBN 81-315-0104-3.

Notes

[17] Bernt, Karen (2010). Glandular epithelium. Epithelial

Cells. Davidson College. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
[18] Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D.
(2004). Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition. Cengage Learning. p. 103. ISBN 81-315-0104-3.
[19] Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D.
(2004). Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition. Cengage Learning. p. 104. ISBN 81-315-0104-3.
[20] Johnston, T.B; Whillis, J, eds. (1944). Greys Anatomy:
Descriptive and Applied (28 ed.). Langmans. p. 1038.

[2] Wikipedia article on plant anatomy

[21] Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D.

(2004). Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition. Cengage Learning. pp. 105107. ISBN 81-315-0104-3.

[3] Introduction page, Anatomy of the Human Body.

Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918. Archived from the
original on 16 March 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.

[22] Moore, K.; Agur, A.; Dalley, A. F. (2010). Essesntial

Clinical Anatomy. Nervous System (4th ed.). Inkling.
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[4] Arrez-Aybar et al. (2010). Relevance of human

anatomy in daily clinical practice. Annals of AnatomyAnatomischer Anzeiger, 192(6), 341-348.

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Holt Rinehart & Winston. ISBN 978-0030584466.
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978-0-03-030504-7.

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[28] The sh heart. ThinkQuest. Oracle. Retrieved 27 June

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[30] Stebbins, Robert C.; Cohen, Nathan W. (1995). A Natural
History of Amphibians. Princeton University Press. pp.
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[31] Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). Zoology. Saunders College Publishing. pp. 843859. ISBN
978-0-03-030504-7.
[32] Stebbins, Robert C.; Cohen, Nathan W. (1995). A Natural
History of Amphibians. Princeton University Press. pp.
2635. ISBN 0-691-03281-5.
[33] Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). Zoology. Saunders College Publishing. pp. 861865. ISBN
978-0-03-030504-7.
[34] Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). Zoology. Saunders College Publishing. pp. 865868. ISBN
978-0-03-030504-7.
[35] Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). Zoology. Saunders College Publishing. p. 870. ISBN 978-003-030504-7.
[36] Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). Zoology. Saunders College Publishing. p. 874. ISBN 978-003-030504-7.

[47] Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia 2007

[48] O. Orkin Insect zoo. Mississippi State University. 1997.
Retrieved 23 June 2013.
[49] Gullan, P.J.; Cranston, P. S. (2005). The Insects: An Outline of Entomology (3 ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
pp. 2248. ISBN 1-4051-1113-5.
[50] Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D.
(2004). Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition. Cengage Learning. pp. 218225. ISBN 81-315-0104-3.
[51] Marieb, Elaine (2010). Human Anatomy & Physiology.
San Francisco: Pearson. p. 12.
[52] Porter, R. (1997). The Greatest Benet to Mankind: A
Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present.
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Antileptospiral activity in lower-vertebrate sera. Infect.
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Bibliography

Main article: Bibliography of anatomy

Anatomy of the Human Body. 20th edition. 1918.
Henry Gray

EXTERNAL LINKS

10 External links
Anatomy at DMOZ
Anatomy, In Our Time. BBC Radio 4. Melvin
Bragg with guests Ruth Richardson, Andrew Cunningham and Harold Ellis.

15

11
11.1

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11

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