An Inside-Outside Approach To IMC

Kerr.
qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 511
An inside-out approach to
integrated marketing
communication
An international analysis
Gayle Kerr
School of Advertising, Marketing and Public Relations,
Queensland University of Technology
Don Schultz
The Medill School, Northwestern University
Charles Patti
University of Denver
Ilchul Kim
School of Communications, Dongeui University
The ‘inside-out’ approach used in this paper describes the implied educators’ percep-
tions of integrated marketing communication (IMC). From an analysis of 87 IMC course
syllabi from six countries, and in-depth conversations with IMC programme directors and
developers, we sought to determine whether those who teach IMC have reached a con-
sensus on what IMC is; whether they embrace, reject or simply tolerate this new disci-
pline area; and, specifically, how they are presenting IMC to the next generation of
practitioners and scholars.
The findings suggest that what is being taught around the world continues to be what
would traditionally be considered promotions strategy, advertising management or mar-
keting communication with minor IMC theory or content. For the most part, the syllabi
we evaluated neither drew from the key constructs of IMC, nor were the key writers and
published disciplinary research included in the course offerings. This gap – between
what IMC writers have put forth, the established industry practices and what is being
taught to the next generation of practitioners and academics – presents a significant chal-
lenge. This is a particular challenge to the scholars and teachers who are charged with the
responsibility of encouraging best practices, presenting the most current and relevant
applications and research approaches, and including the most current theory in their
course delivery.
International Journal of Advertising, 27(4), pp. 511–548

© 2008 Advertising Association
Published by the World Advertising Research Center, www.warc.com
DOI: 10.2501/S0265048708080098 511
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 512
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING, 2008, 27(4)
Introduction
For the past decade, academics and practitioners alike have looked to
research, textbooks, shared knowledge through conferences and seminars
and field practice to define and apply integrated marketing communica-
tion (IMC) – that is, what it is, how it works in practice, and what it might
most contribute to marketing communication and brand development in
the future. Descriptive studies have investigated practitioner perceptions
of IMC, organisational structures and challenges in implementation of
IMC in the US and in other parts of the world (Duncan & Everett 1993;
Petrison & Wang 1996; Kitchen & Schultz 1999; Swain 2004). Process
models have been developed and theory drawn from these observations in
an attempt to better understand the foundations of IMC and to identify
future research directions (Schultz et al. 1993; Moriarty 1996; Hartley &
Pickton 1999; Low 2000; Zahay et al. 2004). In more recent years, various
writers have analysed and put forth alternative definitions of IMC, includ-
ing attempts to identify its constructs (Kitchen et al. 2004; Schultz &
Schultz 2004; Kliatchko 2005).
While these streams of research and documentation have been taking
place, the number of university-level courses – as well as executive edu-
cation programmes – have increased substantially, reflecting the growing
interest in IMC academically, as well as recognition of its importance in
practical marketing strategy and brand building. To date, our understand-
ing of the field has been based primarily on the perceptions and practices
of practitioners. This has largely ignored an important stakeholder group
who are not only charged with the education of the next generation of
practitioners and academics, but who also define the discipline by what
they teach. This study looks at educators to determine whether those who
teach IMC have reached a consensus on what IMC is; whether they
embrace, reject or simply tolerate this new discipline area; and, specifi-
cally, how they are presenting IMC to the next generation of practitioners
and scholars. By doing this, we hope to identify the gaps between IMC
theory and classroom content, and to help guide the creation of IMC
course content that will inspire productive, creative research that will fur-
ther advance the field.
512
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 513
AN INSIDE-OUT APPROACH TO INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION
The inside-out approach and its importance to the

future of IMC
To use the IMC vernacular, this study examines whether IMC courses are
built inside-out – that is, by agglomerating traditional advertising manage-
ment, promotion management and marketing communication approaches
inherent in university curricula and country of origin, and presenting them
as integrated marketing communication, or whether a new field of study
and teaching is developing. An ‘inside-out’ approach is the traditional
teaching methodology in marketing communication. It begins with plan-
ning that takes place ‘inside’ the organisation, and identifies what it hopes
to achieve. This is commonly based on what has always been done
‘inside’, before trying to sell it ‘outside’ to the customer. In terms of IMC
education, this might mean taking an existing advertising or promotion
management course, adding some IMC terminology along with some
additional marketing communication concepts, and presenting it as IMC,
seemingly ignoring the research base and extensive writings that have pre-
viously been developed.
The opposite of ‘inside-out’ is a concept of IMC planning first proposed
by Schultz (Schultz et al. 1993) called ‘outside-in’. In this approach, edu-
cators would look outside the established disciplines to begin with what
marketing organisations are trying to achieve – that is, a total customer
focus that provides a new, relevant and very different view of planning,
developing and implementing a marketing communication programme,
typically called an ‘integrated marketing communication’, or IMC,
approach. Using that methodology, material would then be internalised in
IMC courses, and developed and extended as IMC theory.
Whether the approach being used is ‘inside-out’ or ‘outside-in’ is impor-
tant for future curriculum development. It is also important for the devel-
opment of IMC theory and practice. In much IMC research, academicians
and researchers alike have traditionally looked at what has been practised
in the field by professionals, rather than what has been taught in the class-
room. Thus, this study offers a different and relevant alternative analysis.
This study is also important because it identifies what the next genera-
tion of practitioners and scholars are learning about IMC. Unless an
informed and consensual understanding of what makes IMC unique – or
at least different – is imparted in the classroom, the quality of IMC
513
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 514
scholarship and practice will continue to encounter implementation obsta-

cles and the disciplinary area will not reach the next level of theory
development.
Before we can teach it, we need to agree on what it is
Integration
The concept of integration has existed in advertising and marketing liter-
ature for many decades, but the practice appears to have been minimally
implemented. As early as 1930, the need for integration in marketing was
recognised by Converse (in Spotts et al. 1998), who urged greater cooper-
ation between the sales team and advertising to optimise results (a subject
that is still being debated today). Levitt, in 1960 (in Spotts et al. 1998), also
proposed that the entire business process should be an integrated effort.
Many others have ‘preached’ integration, but few followers have devel-
oped. This is clearly evident from the continuation of the functional silos
found in almost all advertising, communication, promotion and marketing
practices, educational courses and academic journals.
The concept of integration has also been recommended for promotion.
Davis (1966, in Spotts et al. 1998, p. 214) stated, ‘To achieve the optimum
return from promotional expenditures, there is a need to integrate the con-
tribution of each of the various forms of promotion, the allocation of funds
among them, their respective messages, timing and format.’ Sound advice,
but marketing communication organisations at all levels, at the beginning
of the 21st century, are still struggling with resource allocation, and how to
budget for and measure the impact of traditional marketing and market-
ing communication programmes, separately and individually, not from an
integrated or holistic viewpoint.
By the early 1990s, the integration concept had become a new discipline
area. At least, it was proclaimed new, as Northwestern University aban-
doned its three-track promotional marketing communication curriculum
and adopted an integrated approach. In their 1993 report, Preparing
Advertising and Public Relations Students for the Communication Industry in the
21st Century, Duncan et al. (in Duncan & Caywood 1996) considered the
terms integrated communications, total communications and IMC to
describe this new discipline. The name that has become adopted, IMC,
514
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 515
has since been defined in many ways and by many people, with no clear
consensus evident. There is deserved concern among academics that this
lack of agreement upon a universal definition of IMC has weakened its
emergence as a new discipline (Kitchen & Schultz 1999; Low 2000;
Duncan & Mulhern 2004) and certainly challenged the development of a
relevant theory base. Table 1 presents a number of the most commonly
proposed definitions.
These definitions demonstrate an evolution in our understanding of the
concept of IMC. The original AAAA definition (developed in cooperation
with the Northwestern faculty) is still widely used today, even though it
focuses mainly on the process of IMC and the tactical integration of the
Table 1: Definitions of IMC
Writer Date Definition
American Association 1989 A concept of marketing communications planning that recognises the added
of Advertising Agencies value in a programme that integrates a variety of strategic disciplines –
e.g. general advertising, direct response, sales promotion and public relations –
and combines these disciplines to provide clarity, consistency and maximum
communication impact.
Schultz 1991 The process of managing all sources of information about a product/service to
which a customer or prospect is exposed, which behaviourally moves the
customer towards a sale and maintains customer loyalty.
Keegan et al. 1992 The strategic coordination of all messages and media used by an organisation
to collectively influence its perceived brand value.
Kotler et al. 1999 IMC is the concept under which a company carefully integrates and coordinates
its many communications channels to deliver a clear, consistent and compelling
message about the organisation and its products.
Duncan 2002 A cross-functional process for creating and nourishing profitable relationships
with customers and other stakeholders by strategically controlling or influencing
all messages sent to these groups and encouraging data-driven purposeful
dialogue with them.
Schultz & Schultz 2004 IMC is a strategic business process used to plan, develop, execute and evaluate
coordinated, measurable, persuasive brand communication programmes over
time with consumers, customers, prospects, and other targeted, relevant external
and internal audiences.
Kliatchko 2005 IMC is the concept and process of strategically managing audience-focused,
channel-centred and results-driven brand communication programmes over time.
Source: Compiled by the authors for this research
515
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 516
four main disciplines. Since this landmark definition, the concept of audi-
ence has been expanded from consumers to all stakeholders, and long-
term outcomes such as brand and relationship building have been
introduced. Strategy has been stated as a vital component in almost all def-
initions, yet the applications focus almost entirely on tactical activities.
Further, the scope of the communication has been broadened to include
all messages or sources of information a customer or consumer might
receive from the marketing organisation. This is an attempt to bring a cus-
tomer-orientated view to the IMC approach.
The concept of communication as dialogue is an important part of this
evolution, Commonly, this is extended internally through various forms of
cross-functional cooperation. This appears to reflect the major impact
electronic communication – primarily the World Wide Web, the internet
and now mobile telephony – has had on how communication occurs.
Behavioural outcomes are another major development. These are sought
and measured through data-driven communication made possible by the
diffusion of various forms of technology.
This continual redefinition of IMC reflects little more than a decade of
research and practice of the IMC concept. The growing body of literature
has addressed issues of concept definition, such as explanations of IMC,
stages of IMC and message typologies, as well as implementation issues
such as structure, organisational responsibility, attitudes towards IMC and
integration of IMC disciplines. As such, IMC theory has largely emerged
from observations of IMC practice, as reported by a host of researchers and
writers (Duncan & Everett 1993; Hartley & Pickton 1999; Kitchen &
Schultz 1999; Low 2000; Swain 2004).
The ambiguity over definitional issues and lack of a theoretical base has
caused many writers to question whether IMC is a new concept at all or
simply an updated version of what communication practitioners have
always tried to do, arguably with limited success. While some writers point
out IMC’s lack of academic content and rigour, its simplification and pre-
scriptive solutions, and its use of rhetoric as justification (Cornelissen &
Lock 2000), others claim that this is not uncommon for many new man-
agement or marketing concepts (Gould 2000).
Gould (2000, p. 22) suggests that:
516
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 517
IMC as a major strategic concept is not much different from other marketing or
management concepts, methodologies or strategies that have arisen (e.g. the
marketing concept, the product lifecycle, brand equity, or total quality man-
agement). All have an evolutionary, discursive and behavioral history in which
the particular concept is defined and redefined, often many times. Never is
there complete agreement on the meaning or value of any single concept.
Even proponents of IMC, such as Duncan (2002) and Hartley and

Pickton (1999), declare that IMC is not a new concept. However, they
contend that integration has never been achieved previously because the
processes and technology have not facilitated it or have not been available
to facilitate it. Duncan (2002, p. 25) notes that, ‘Although the concept of
IMC – managing customer relationships – is not new, the processes used
in managing IMC are new.’
The development of IMC as a discipline is reflected in the division of
opinions, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: The development of IMC as a discipline
IMC is a new discipline IMC is nothing new
Similar to other new disciplines which define and Ambiguous definition and lack of rigorous theory
redefine themselves (Gould 2000) (Cornelissen & Lock 2000)
All new disciplines evolve from other disciplines Repackaging of existing marketing concepts
(Gould 2000) (Spotts et al. 1998; Cornelissen & Lock 2000)
The concept of IMC is not new, but the processes of The concept of IMC is not new (Cornelissen & Lock
managing it are (Hartley & Pickton 1999; Duncan 2002) 2000)
Strategy is what separates IMC – marketing Advertising agencies have always coordinated other
communication in past not strategically coordinated marketing communications
(Duncan & Caywood 1996; Schultz 1996)
Result of changes in communication, technology, Result of economic imperative by advertising agencies

consumers and the marketplace (Schultz et al. 1993) to address the shift of marketing communication dollars
and expansionist move by Schools of Mass
Communication (Spotts et al. 1998)
IMC can use financial value and behavioural measures Marketing communication is traditionally evaluated
to evaluate performance (Zahay et al. 2004) through attitudinal and communication measures
(Keller 1996)
Source: Developed for this research from Keller 1996; Schultz 1996; Spotts et al. 1998; Hartley & Pickton 1999; Cornelissen & Lock
2000; Gould 2000; Duncan 2002; Zahay et al. 2004
517
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 518
In addition to those ‘for’ and ‘against’ the new discipline, there is per-
haps a third group of academics who are conspicuous by their absence.
Some well-respected scholars have seemingly avoided the entire IMC
debate. A failure to acknowledge IMC suggests that they may consider the
debate and the discipline irrelevant, or that it does not conform to or sup-
port their own presumptive, largely functional, methodologies and
approaches. For example, an advertising scholar would have little reason
to embrace IMC, which might broaden his or her perspective on that func-
tional speciality. Such a recognition might either make his or her research
and areas of expertise redundant or irrelevant, or both, in the current world
of communication.
Others, however, consider the debate irrelevant, but the discipline
important. Hutton (1996) contends that few scholars or practitioners
would argue in favour of non-integration. Schultz goes further, to suggest
that the intent of the marketer is irrelevant, as consumers naturally inte-
grate messages from different sources:
The question of integration or not is moot. It is not a question of whether the

marketer or advertiser should integrate his or her communication programs.
The fact is, it doesn’t really matter. The consumer integrates the marketer’s and
advertiser’s communication, whether the marketing or advertising organization
does or not. (Schultz 1996, p. 139)
In summary, the literature presents a diversity of definitions, experi-

ences and opinions on IMC. As Phelps et al. (1996, p. 219) note, ‘The lack
of an agreed upon definition reduces the ability to develop valid and reli-
able measures of IMC.’ One could also add that it impedes the progress of
a sound educational and learning platform. The literature also raises a
number of questions that led us to the research questions explored in this
study.
Issues in IMC curriculum development and diffusion
Curriculum development
The development of curricula is one of the most important tasks of edu-
cators. It brings vitality to the programme, attracts students, determines
the level of financial support, shapes the future of the professions, and
518
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 519
helps identify the main areas for research and theory development (Mayo
& Miciak 1991). Despite the care and professionalism with which educa-
tors undertake curriculum development, it is not without considerable
criticism from students and the business community (Cannon & Sheth
1994).
The main criticisms revolve around the areas of curriculum content,
teaching methods, and the pedagogy and relevance of academic research.
Many critics believe educators are too slow in introducing innovative man-
agement practices and relevant research into the classroom. Clearly, there
is a failure to integrate courses across functional areas (Mayo & Miciak
1991; Cannon & Sheth 1994), much of which is dictated by the functional
structure of educational institutions into departments, schools and col-
leges. But perhaps the most difficult curriculum decision, and the one
most relevant to the emergent discipline of IMC, appears to be balancing
the education of the discipline and the practice of it (Mayo & Miciak 1991;
Smith & Razzouk 1993). Faculty members, through their curriculum
choices, make a contribution to the future of the profession and to the dis-
cipline area’s research agenda, either good or bad, based on what they
present to students, for that identifies how they feel about the topic.
The syllabus is the key manifestation of these curriculum decisions.
The syllabus has been an important guide to university courses since the
19th century. Its purpose is three-fold: (1) as a contract, specifying grading
and administrative procedures; (2) as a permanent record of how the
course was structured and run with credit hours earned, date of offer, pre-
requisite courses, course objectives and content; and (3) as a learning
guide, offering planning and management skills, access to course and cam-
pus resources, etc. (Parkes & Harris 2002). The second of these functions
has been studied by many researchers to identify what is being taught in
the classroom and how content is organised and, it is hoped, delivered
(Smith & Razzouk 1993; Baecker 1998; Bain et al. 2002).
Diffusion of the IMC curriculum

While the syllabus is a permanent record of the individual faculty and unit
curriculum decisions, it is unique to the particular institution. Diffusion is
the process by which the IMC concepts and curriculum spread across aca-
demia. As such, it represents the acceptance and perception by the
519
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 520
academic community of the new discipline, and thus offers an insight as to

its importance and vitality.
The rate of diffusion of any subject is considered to be explained by five
characteristics: complexity, compatibility, relative advantage, observability
and trialability (Rogers 1995). Table 3 demonstrates how these character-
istics of diffusion may be applied to the development of the IMC curricu-
lum, drawing from both the literature on diffusion and curriculum
development.
Table 3: Diffusion and IMC curriculum development
Product characteristic Relation to IMC curriculum Indicators of characteristic
Complexity Degree of difficulty in understanding • Structure and processes of universities

and adopting IMC courses – difficulty in introducing new courses
• Availability of dedicated IMC texts and
instructor resources
• Models of IMC courses and
programmes in other universities
• Academics’ knowledge of IMC
Compatibility Degree to which IMC curriculum is • Fit with disciplinary structure

consistent with existing values, • Fit within programme structure
experience and needs • Expertise and values of staff –
IMC champions
Relative advantage Degree to which IMC curriculum is • Attract students

perceived as superior to existing courses • Attract staff
• Enhance existing programmes
• Tie in with research interest
• Determines level of financial support
• Position university as innovator
• Shapes future of professions
Observability Degree to which the benefits of • Enrolment figures

adopting IMC curriculum can be • Graduate destinations
observed by others • High profile of IMC champions
• Academic papers
Trialability Degree to which IMC curriculum • Course vs programme

can be trialled on a limited basis • Executive education
• Visiting professors bring IMC expertise
Source: Developed for this research based on Mayo & Miciak 1991; Cannon & Sheth 1994; Rogers 1995; Summers et al. 2003;
Muk 2007
520
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 521
The rate of diffusion of a concept or practice gives rise to five categories

or kinds of adopters. These have been conceptualised as innovators, early
adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards (Summers et al. 2003).
The innovators are generally thought to be the first 2.5% of adopters, and
are the champions of the IMC concept and curriculum. Following them,
the early adopters are the next 13.5% to adopt the IMC curriculum. These
are the opinion leaders and have closer affiliation with other groups. The
early majority are the next 34% to adopt. They seek information, evaluate
and ask their friends, the opinion leaders. The late majority are the next
34% to adopt, mainly because of peer pressure. The laggards are the final
16% to adopt, tied very much to the traditions of the past.
No matter when or how they adopt an idea, any change, whether it be
an academic concept, course or field of study, inevitably involves more
work for the faculty member and his or her associates. Curriculum changes
are lengthy and often ponderous processes requiring substantial support
and documentation for both the individual faculty member and the group
as a whole. Therefore, any decision to adopt, or even adapt to, an IMC cur-
riculum must be based on an assessment of the potential benefits and
rewards of innovation, as well as an intention to adopt, and the stamina to
see the changes through the process. The theory of reasoned action (Ajzen
& Fishbein 1980) proposes two factors that affect this behaviour: the per-
sonal factor (personal interest) and the subject norm (social influence). In
the case of IMC curriculum development, personal interest in IMC may
be a result of research, study, interest or external pressure from practition-
ers in the area. Don Schultz, for example, would have greater personal
interest in teaching IMC, as he has spent the last decade researching it.
Schultz would fit into the innovator category.
Likewise, social influences are also an important source of information
about innovation. In the academic world, this social influence is empowered
by academic journals, special features, academic associations and academic
conferences such as the American Academy of Advertising Conference in
the US or Corporate and Marketing Communication Conference in
Europe. The word of mouth of colleagues in their university departments
or in social networks may also be an important contributor to the decision
whether or not to adopt an IMC curriculum. In addition, practitioners may
support the development and teaching of IMC as they move towards the
concept and seek qualified graduates for positions in their firms.
521
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 522
In summary, the development and diffusion of the IMC curriculum is

based on the characteristics similar to all innovation (complexity, compat-
ibility, relative advantage, observability, trialability), as well as the personal
interests and social influences of those academics who may be in a posi-
tion to adopt an IMC curriculum.
For these reasons, a review of the syllabi, a published record of how the
academic community has accepted, adopted and/or implemented IMC is
just as important a method of documenting the growth of the field as are
studies of practitioner acceptance and implementation.
Methodology
The methodological approach of this syllabi analysis is based on the flow-
chart shown in Figure 1. It begins by demonstrating the link between the
gaps in knowledge highlighted in the literature review, and formulating
the hypothesis and research questions.
Development of hypotheses and research questions

The literature review affirms the widespread belief that after more than a
decade of IMC research and theory building, there is still no universal def-
inition of IMC. Much of our understanding of IMC has come from
research into the perspectives of practitioners, the study of their practice
and the content of relevant texts and business books. Faculty members,
who help define the discipline through what they teach, seemingly have
not been consulted on their perspectives and practice of IMC theory, or at
least there is no published documentation of these attitudes and beliefs.
Yet, it is the faculty who teach and research IMC, playing a significant role
in shaping what future practitioners and other researchers believe are the
most relevant theories, concepts, models and management processes.
This research seeks to address this gap by looking at how educators
define IMC through the development and publishing of their syllabi. We
hypothesise that IMC courses worldwide are created using an inside-out
approach. That is, educators begin with an existing course or series of courses
and modify it or them, if only slightly, to present what might be an accept-
able IMC focus. In this way, the academician can be perceived as being
current with external trends, with relatively little intellectual effort required.
522
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 523
Figure 1: Methodological process
Specify hypothesis or research

questions
Develop operational definition of

sample universe
Specify sampling plan
Obtain syllabi
Develop category system
Train coders
Pretest and revision
Code materials and

assess reliability
Analyse and interpret data
Apply findings
Source: Davis (1997)
The adoption of an ‘inside-out’ approach can be explained by the fact

that university structures and processes, and even academics themselves,
are not conducive to change. Over the years, we have seen the IMC dif-
fusion process championed by a small group of innovators, most likely
those with a personal interest and an established record of research in the
IMC area. However both diffusion and curriculum development theory
would suggest that the majority of academics are not innovators since they
are encumbered by university structure and process. Therefore, it would
seem more likely that the IMC curriculum would be adapted from or
within existing courses, rather than being introduced as a new course or a
523
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 524
new curriculum. It is therefore hypothesised that IMC courses worldwide

are created using an inside-out approach. That is, educators begin with an
existing course and modify it slightly to take an IMC focus. To test our
hypothesis, this research asks three questions.
RQ1: What curriculum choices have educators made that help define
and teach IMC? Specifically, this question examines IMC cur-
riculum structure, name, disciplinary home, degree level, teach-
ing mode, assessment items and textbook.
RQ2: What is being taught? Do IMC syllabi encapsulate the key IMC
constructs and research developed over the past decade? Is this a
reflection of the diffusion of research and practice?
RQ3: Are these true IMC courses or simply adaptations of existing
courses? To what extent do IMC courses and subjects differ from
their predecessors – namely advertising and promotion manage-
ment and marketing communication – are we seeing an inside-
out approach? Is it adaption, rather than adoption?
To answer these questions, this study looks to the syllabus as an instru-

ment of analysis. This is supported by the main function of the syllabus,
which Parkes and Harris (2002) identified as a contract between the uni-
versity and its students and a permanent record of how the unit was struc-
tured and run, including its content and textbook support. In addition, the
syllabus is a widely accepted unit of analysis that has been used to evalu-
ate curricula as diverse as interpersonal communication, research methods
units, spirituality in counselling, agriculture, e-commerce and interna-
tional marketing. It has been applied at the undergraduate, graduate and
doctoral level, with the number of syllabi analysed ranging between 10
and 100 (Stephens & O’Hara 2001; Sullivan & Maxfield 2003; Cashwell &
Young 2004; Crittenden & Wilson 2005; Rezaee et al. 2006).
Operational definition of sample universe

A previous study by Kerr et al. (2004) also used the syllabus as an instru-
ment of analysis to examine how IMC was taught in Australia and New
Zealand. This study expands upon that work, widening the scope of
524
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 525
Table 4: Population, sample and analysis rate
Total population of IMC courses Number of IMC courses analysed Analysis rate (%)
Australia 39 32 82
Korea 14 7 50
New Zealand 6 5 83
Taiwan 13 5 38
United Kingdom 11 10 90
United States 51 28 54
Total 134 87 65
investigation to US, UK, Taiwanese and Korean universities. In this study,

a course is defined as one unit or one subject in the IMC area. Groups or
sequences of these courses form majors or programmes in the disciplinary
area. The sample universe for this study is all identifiable and available
IMC courses, graduate and undergraduate, offered by universities in
Australia, Korea, New Zealand, Taiwan, the UK and the US. The total
population, number of syllabi analysed and the response rate are sum-
marised in Table 4.
Sampling plan
The sample countries were chosen from a preliminary study of IMC edu-
cation in 17 countries, which involved data gathered by a group of gradu-
ate students, under the direction of the authors of this study. A subset of
six countries was chosen for this study on the basis of: (1) the location of
recognised leading professors in IMC; (2) the research quantum in those
countries; (3) the number of enrolled students in IMC programmes;
(4) the attendance of faculty at IMC conferences; and (5) the results of a
special session paper on IMC education at the AAA Asia-Pacific
Conference, 2005.
Universities for the sample were identified through government listings
and other sources. The websites of those schools were then searched for
courses called IMC or any of IMC’s associated titles, such as marketing
communications, promotions management or communication, or promo-
tions strategies. The syllabi were downloaded from the sites and screened
525
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 526
to ensure that they covered the broader area of marketing communication

and were not purely advertising courses.
Those universities that did not post a syllabus, or who restricted access
to it, were contacted by email with a request to submit their syllabi. In
total, 87 course syllabi were analysed (approximately 65% of the total) in
terms of discipline home, title and level; mode of teaching; content and its
relationship to IMC theory. These dimensions are consistent with the
three-function syllabi concept suggested by Parkes and Harris (2002).
Development of a category system

The category system was borrowed from a previous study of IMC syllabi
in Australia and New Zealand (Kerr et al. 2004). This category system was
adopted for a number of reasons. First, the category system developed was
comprehensive, and clearly related to the hypothesis under study and the
three research questions identified in this study. Second, the category sys-
tem was nominal, whereby the dimensions of each category were defined
and then counted. This was considered most appropriate for the nature of
the research. Third, the dimensions nominated in each category were
mutually exclusive and exhaustive, providing a clear picture of IMC edu-
cation. For example, in terms of the category ‘Level of education’, three
dimensions were used: undergraduate, graduate and executive. In each
category, the number of dimensions was considered sufficient to detect
meaningful differences across dimensions. Finally, the category system
was found to work effectively in the previous study, discriminating
between dimensions in each category and categorising all required
information.
In adopting this category system, this research further clarified it by
developing a coding dictionary to clearly define categories and the dimen-
sions within categories, as well as to assist with the training of coders.
While the previous study had employed two coders, this study employed
a larger team (six) of coders, making a coding dictionary essential. It also
helped enhance the validity of the study, by further defining key terms.
526
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 527
Training of coders
A team of six coders from two large, comprehensive universities was
recruited for this research, based on their independence from one another,
their similar backgrounds and previous research training (Davis 1997).
The coders met as a group and were briefed on category definition,
dimensions and process. Following this verbal instruction, the coders were
given a pre-coding exercise to identify any potential coding issues and to
clarify the coding instructions. A debriefing session between the coders
and the principal researchers confirmed understanding of the task and res-
olution of questions.
Pretest and pre-coding exercise

A pretest was not considered necessary as the previous study (Kerr et al.
2004) had uncovered any difficulties with the coding definitions, instru-
ments and procedures. Also, the above-mentioned pre-coding exercise
served as a proxy for a pre-test.
Code materials and assessing reliability

Individual coders were assigned to categorise data from Korea, Taiwan,
the UK and US, as well as one coder who worked with both the Australian
and New Zealand data. Where possible, coders tabulated and evaluated
the syllabi on the basis of their national background. This assisted with
coders’ understanding of the syllabi, especially in some Asian universities
that offered both the native language and English translation versions of
the syllabi.
To ensure reliability, a sixth coder coded the same syllabi for all six
countries. Intercoder reliability, calculated by Holsti’s formula (Davis
1997), was 82.35%. An inter-coder reliability score of between 0.80 to
0.89 is considered ‘excellent agreement’ (Altman 1991) or ‘almost perfect
agreement’ (Landis & Koch 1977).
527
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 528
Findings
Research question 1: What curriculum choices have educators

made that help define and teach IMC?
IMC is taught under many different names, structures and educational
levels, and incorporates different content across the world. We discuss two
areas: (1) instances in which only one course was found in the overall cur-
riculum and (2) instances where more than one IMC course or a series of
courses are offered.
Name of course
(1) A single IMC course
Where only one course is listed or only one syllabi is used, the course is
largely known as IMC in the US (79% of courses), Taiwan (60% of courses)
and Korea (40% of courses). A course with similar IMC-type content is
called marketing communication in 75% of courses in the UK, 57% of
courses in Korea and 50% of courses in Australia. It is also known by other
names, such as promotion management or advertising management, in
80% of courses in New Zealand and 34% of courses in Australia.
It is interesting to note that the single course is most likely to be called
IMC in the US. Many IMC champions, who were the early adopters of
IMC or IMC-type curricula, were US-based professors such as Schultz and
Duncan. The initial choice of course title and content were possibly dif-
fused to the early adopters and opinion leaders through the social net-
works that abound in the US, such as the American Academy of
Advertising or American Marketing Association or Association for
Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, along with the highly
developed marketing, advertising and communication journals such as the
Journal of Advertising Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Advertising
and the like.
(2) IMC programmes

All programmes in Australia and the US were known as IMC programmes.
This may suggest that these programmes are new and have been deliber-
ately constructed according to the personal interest of the IMC champion
528
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 529
or the social influences of the university faculty or broader academic or

practitioner community.
Courses or programmes?
Only 6% of universities analysed in Australia and one-quarter in the US
offered what could be described as IMC programmes – that is, more than
one course and more than simply a survey of IMC principles. Most IMC
offerings across the six countries were stand-alone courses. This reflects
two of Rogers’ (1995) characteristics of diffusion: its complexity and trial-
ability. Courses require less investment in faculty time and effort than
developing an entire IMC programme, which often requires school or uni-
versity approval. Also in support of this single course offering is that 21%
of courses in the US were at the executive education level. These shorter,
professionally focused courses are also possible evidence of IMC being
trialled in universities initially before being brought into the overall
curriculum.
The higher percentage of IMC programmes in the USA could also
attest to the growing maturity of IMC curricula in the US. Certainly, this
supports the idea that IMC is being diffused across the academic spectrum
in much the same manner that has been observed with other curriculum
concepts.
Undergraduate or graduate?
(1) A single IMC course
The IMC course is taught mainly at the undergraduate level in Korea,
Australia and New Zealand. The focus of IMC teaching is at the graduate
level in the UK, Taiwan and the US. For example, 46% of IMC courses in
the US are taught at a graduate level in either a Master’s or MBA pro-
gramme.
(2) IMC programmes

The IMC programme is taught at both the undergraduate and graduate
level in Australia, and predominantly at the graduate level in the US. Also
worthy of note here is the large number of executive education certificate
programmes in the US. This second graduate market was not observed in
529
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 530
the other countries investigated, although it is known that executive edu-

cation is often run by industry bodies. In the UK, for example, the
Chartered Institute of Marketing has offered a Diploma in IMC, and the
Institute of Direct Marketing also offers an IMC curriculum at the gradu-
ate level.
Disciplinary home
For both single IMC courses and IMC programmes, IMC is taught almost
exclusively in business schools in Australia, New Zealand and the UK. It
is housed in communications schools in Korea, and split between business
and liberal arts (commonly journalism) in Taiwan. In the US, IMC’s disci-
plinary home is divided among business (58%), communications (29%)
and liberal arts (generally schools of journalism) (13%). This predominant
residence of IMC in the business faculty is perhaps a reflection of the the-
ory of IMC, which describes it as a business function, rather than a com-
munication, creative or media task.
Table 5 details the structure, disciplinary home, title and level of course
in the six countries investigated.
Table 5: Structure, discipline home, title and level of course as a percentage of IMC
courses in six countries
Structure Discipline home Title Level

Communications
Undergraduate
Programme
Liberal Arts
education
Executive
Graduate
Business
Marcom
Course
Other
IMC
Country
Australia 6 100 100 16 50 34 94 6

Korea 100 100 43 57 100
New Zealand 100 100 20 80 80 20
Taiwan 100 60 40 60 40 40 60
United Kingdom 100 100 11 78 11 33 67
United States 25 100 13 58 29 79 8 13 33 46 21
530
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 531
Teaching mode
Regardless of where IMC is taught, the content is delivered almost
entirely face to face. There is evidence of some online tutorial work and
some flexible delivery online as well, including two new online IMC
degree programmes in the US.
Assessment instruments
Another similarity across the courses is the instrument of learner assess-
ment. Final exams and assignments, especially group IMC plan develop-
ment, tend to account for most of the assessment in IMC courses. In
addition, presentations are also used in most countries, except Korea, and
class participation marks are awarded in the US and Taiwan.
Textbooks
Academics also define the discipline by the textbooks they adopt. World-
wide, Belch and Belch is the most used text, adopted by 50% of Australian,
40% of Taiwanese, 20% of New Zealand and 17% of US professors. Yet,
upon review, this text is essentially an advertising-dominated book, used
primarily in undergraduate advertising principles courses. Integration, in
the form of an additional few chapters, has been added over the past few
years. The Belch and Belch text is a good example of what we have
termed an inside-out approach to IMC textbook development. In this
case, an existing advertising text has simply included a few overview chap-
ters on IMC and been retitled seemingly to appeal to a broader audience.
The adoption of textbooks often has a homegrown bias. Marketing
communication courses in the UK, for example, prefer Fill, or Pickton and
Broderick. Lee and Kim are common in Korea. In the US, a range of texts
are used, including Belch and Belch, Shimp, Clow and Baack, Schultz and
Barnes, and Duncan. Australia is the exception, where more than half
(53%) of IMC courses are based on the Belch and Belch text, with a fur-
ther 22% opting for Shimp. This means that 75% of IMC courses in
Australia use one of two texts. This raises important questions for curricu-
lum design since neither book is specifically focused on IMC or has been
purpose-built for an IMC curriculum.
531
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 532
Research question 2: What is being taught?

In this research question, the single IMC course was the unit of analysis.
The content of the IMC identified course was tabulated across the six
countries. It was then further broken down into content modules by course
and by country. These are reflected in Tables 6–8 and Figure 2. Tables 6–8
summarise the content of the IMC course across the six countries. To pro-
vide an easy basis for comparison, the number of courses in those countries
that offered a particular topic of content (such as ‘Role of IMC’) was cal-
culated as a percentage. This percentage was then assigned one of four
ratings, from Few (where 1–33% of courses included the content topic)
to Some (where 34–66% of courses included the content topic) to
Most (where 67–99% of courses included the content topic) and
All (where 100% of courses included the content topic).
As a result of the analysis, groupings of content were developed by the
researchers. These have been modularised under subject headings and are
presented in Table 6.
Table 6: Modularisation of IMC content
Major IMC area Topics within area Major IMC area Topics within area
Marketing • IMC in marketing Planning • Objectives

• Consumer behaviour components • Budget
• Situation analysis • Creative
• Segmentation, targeting • Media
and positioning • Measurement
• Product life cycle
Marketing • Advertising
IMC • Role of IMC communication • Public relations/publicity
• Perceptions of IMC tools • Direct marketing
• Organisation of IMC • Sales promotion
• Planning and • Personal selling
implementing IMC • Internet communication
• Database marketing • Sponsorship
• Branding • Conferences/trade shows/
exhibits
Communication • Communication theory
• Ethics and social
responsibility
• International perspective
To compare the IMC content across countries, the IMC modules for
each country are presented in Figure 2. The large modules represent a
532
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 533
Table 7: Rating of IMC content across six countries
Country
Topic Aus Korea NZ Taiwan UK USA
Role of IMC

IMC in marketing
Perception of IMC
Consumer behaviour
Organisation of IMC
Situation analysis
STP
Product life cycle
Communication theory
Branding
Database
How IMC works
Plan/develop IMC
Implementation
Objectives
Budget
Creative
Media
Measurement
AdRes/testing
Ethics/social
Legal
International
Advertising/corporate advertising
PR
DM
Sales promo
Personal selling
Internet interactive
Sponsorship
Conference
Word of mouth
Future challenges
Key: All courses have content topic: 100%
Most courses have content topic: 67–99%
Some courses have content topic: 34–66%
Few courses have content topic: 1–33%
533
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 534
Figure 2: Modularising the content of IMC courses by country
Marcom tools
25% Marcom tools Marketing
Marketing 25% 25%
15%
Communication
30%
Planning Communication Planning
30% 25% 25%
Australia Korea
Marcom tools
25% Planning
33.3%
Marketing
15%
Marcom tools
Communication 33.3%
30%
Planning Communication
30% 33.3%
New Zealand Taiwan
Planning
Planning 40%
20%
Marketing
20%
Communication
80% Marcom tools
40%
United Kingdom United States
534
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 535
Table 8: Modularising the content of IMC courses by country
Country
Module topic Australia Korea New Zealand Taiwan UK US
Marketing X X X X
Communication X X X X X
Planning X X X X X X
Marcom tools X X X X X
major content area. For the purpose of this study, a major content area was
defined as being represented in more than 50% of the IMC courses in that
country. Minor content, as indicated by the smaller block, was evident in
between 25% and 50% of all IMC courses in that country. Missing mod-
ules indicate that the content area is taught in less than 25% of IMC
courses in that country.
Research question 3: Are these true IMC courses?

This module approach makes it easy to compare similarities and differ-
ences in IMC content in courses across the various countries. IMC content
in Australia and New Zealand is very similar. If one were to add a com-
munications module and IMC content to the courses in the US, it would
also look the same. Neither Korea nor Taiwan has a major area of content,
but each has similar minor content areas. The UK shows the greatest dif-
ference from the other five countries; here, the focus is on communication
and planning.
It is important to note the complete absence of the IMC module in all
courses studied. Australia was the only country to teach all content in the
IMC module as outlined in Table 6, but the percentage of IMC courses
taught in these areas was very low – from 3% on perceptions of IMC and
how IMC works, to 31% on the organisation of IMC.
The content was also compared with the key constructs of IMC, as
identified through the literature and the research streams. Table 9 begins
the description, looking at key constructs as defined in the literature.
The key constructs of IMC are more often represented in the sampled
syllabi as existing constructs from marketing, advertising and public rela-
tions theory. For example, creative development is a component of most
535
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 536
Table 9: A comparison between the key constructs of IMC and what is being taught
Key constructs of IMC What is being taught
Strategic integration Largely neglected, although some content in UK, US and Australia. Unclear
whether planning component reflects strategic integration.
Message integration Creative component generally strong in all countries except UK and Korea.
Unclear whether messages are integrated.
Synergy No evidence of this as content. May be incorporated in other content. For

example, some UK and Australian courses look at how IMC works.
Brand equity Branding is strong in US, Taiwan and NZ. Minor content area in Korea, UK and
Australia.
Multiple audiences No evidence of this as content. May be covered in media, creative or

planning.
Managing contact points Media planning taught in majority of courses in all countries except UK and
Taiwan. Unclear whether this includes all contact points.
Relationship building No evidence of this as content. May be part of PR or DM, which is widely
taught in all countries except UK.
Continuous, circular, responsive Database strong in Korea and Taiwan. May be taught in communication
theory.
IMC courses, but whether this is taught in a similar way to advertising

planning or whether it takes a message integration perspective is some-
thing that cannot be determined from an analysis of syllabi. Likewise, rela-
tionship building could be covered in content related to public relations or
direct marketing, but relationship building as an IMC construct is not evi-
dent in the weekly outlines. Therefore, there is little evidence of the key
constructs of IMC being taught in what are termed IMC courses. Clearly
there is much borrowing of traditional marketing communication theory
and practice, which one would assume has been recast as an integrated
approach. This, however, is not known.
Similarly, current IMC research and key IMC writers do not appear on
the syllabi of most courses. However, much of the curriculum design is
devoted to the strategic and tactical decisions facing practitioners, which
are a vital area of IMC research. Two courses in Taiwan and the UK also
include the semiotics of IMC, and could possibly benefit from research on
IMC as information. There are also two courses in the UK and Australia
536
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 537
that consider how IMC works. The syllabi analysis also revealed a number
of books of readings, reference lists and literature reviews required by
courses in Australia, the UK and the US. This suggests that research is
being incorporated in the overall curriculum or through assignment work,
although that is not featured in the syllabi.
Discussion
How do educators define IMC?

Critics who declare that IMC is not a new discipline could surely look to
this syllabi analysis for support. Apart from some initial championing of
the IMC discipline by key writers in the US, there is little evidence of aca-
demic leadership, or even acceptance, in the development of an IMC dis-
cipline. The weekly syllabi outlines show little coverage of definitional
issues, discussion of key constructs, strategic and tactical issues surround-
ing practitioner implementation, or the embodiment of research. One can
argue that educators should define IMC through their curriculum and
what they teach. If the faculty cannot tell the difference between IMC
and advertising management or promotional strategy, there is little hope
that future practitioners will have much understanding of the IMC con-
cepts, much less be able to advance the current state of knowledge.
Are educators taking an inside-out approach to IMC?

The evidence from this study suggests that many IMC courses are simply
reincarnations of previously existing promotional strategy or advertising
management courses. In the US, it often appears that what is called IMC
is simply a restructured advertising management course with a few termi-
nology changes. Indeed, some IMC courses are still labelled as such, even
though they claim to be a new view of the promotional topic. In Australia
and New Zealand, some IMC courses are former promotion strategy or
management courses, with the name often being the only change. There-
fore, there is considerable evidence that many educators are building IMC
courses from existing courses, and incorporating substantial amounts of
traditional marketing communication content into these courses while
proffering them as IMC in a bid to appear current and up to date.
537
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 538
This lack of dedicated IMC courses and programmes may be due to

university policy, which makes it difficult to introduce new courses or even
make major changes to existing courses. It is also perhaps due to faculty
familiarity and comfort levels with the material in the existing course and
a reluctance to change material that has taken years to develop and con-
solidate. The other challenge is the content and structure of current IMC
texts. Many of these – for example, Belch and Belch – are former adver-
tising principles or promotion management texts, which have simply been
updated and enhanced to give them an IMC orientation and ‘look’. Since
faculty often rely heavily on the text as the basis for the course outline and
content, the lagging of IMC-specific texts continues to be a problem. Only
Duncan, and Schultz and Schultz have offered totally dedicated texts in
the US.
This inside-out approach is balanced by some innovative IMC courses
and programme building. For example, the only course to be called IMC
in the UK is offered by the University of Lancaster. Its syllabi show a new
look at IMC and involve students with much of the research informing the
discipline.
Do different countries define and teach IMC differently?

An analysis of the syllabi suggests that countries that have a common edu-
cation heritage, such as the UK, Australia and New Zealand, have greater
similarities in IMC content – strong in communication theory and the eth-
ical and social considerations of marketing and communication. A point to
consider here is the content taught within the core course on which the
IMC course builds. In the US, for example, ethics and communication are
often taught in the business core as part of AACSB (The Association to
Advance Collegiate School of Business) accreditation requirements, and
thus are often not evident in IMC syllabi.
Korea and Taiwan, although very different Asian countries, share a
strength in database and statistical analysis. It is a vital part of 57% of IMC
courses in Korea and 50% of IMC courses in Taiwan, compared to just 6%
of Australian and 5% of US courses. It is completely absent from syllabi in
New Zealand and the UK. However, where Korea has more marketing
content in IMC courses, Taiwan is stronger in communication theory.
538
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 539
In Korea, there is also evidence of new university-originated depart-

ments of advertising and public relations emerging to accommodate IMC.
However, Korea’s top schools of journalism and mass communications
have shown little interest in IMC, although a number of conferences and
seminars have been held in the country. This may well present a barrier to
the credibility of the development of IMC in that country.
The UK – with a strong tradition in research, teaching and practice of
corporate communication and corporate identity – seems to adopt more of
a communication approach to IMC. Here, marketing communication is
generally not a part of the core or even offered as an elective course in
Masters or MBA programmes. It is embedded across other marketing
courses, rather than presented as a stand-alone course. It is also interesting
to note the absence of marketing communication tools – apart from adver-
tising, which is taught in 75% of IMC courses. It is the only country not to
include other marketing communication tools such as public relations,
direct marketing and sales promotion. One could perhaps make the case
that the courses being taught in the UK are essentially advertising courses,
although they carry an IMC title. Courses such as public relations could,
however, be taught from a management perspective as part of the strong
corporate communication focus that is evident in the UK.
In Australia, like New Zealand, IMC courses appear to have developed
or evolved primarily from a traditional promotion management course.
They still bear a similar structure and content, and even prefer a former
promotion management book as the key text. The content focuses on
some marketing, communications, planning and marketing communica-
tions tools. However, there is evidence of the adoption of IMC theory and
research into this curriculum with the inclusion of content such as how
IMC works, perceptions of IMC, organisation of IMC and planning,
developing and implementing IMC, and so on. Australia also offers the
only IMC programme outside the US. Thus, development of a distinct
IMC curriculum is evident in Australia, albeit in embryonic form.
The US also appears to draw upon its strengths in education when for-
mulating the IMC approach. Looking at the IMC content modules in
Table 6, one could easily mistake the courses offered for those fitting into
an advertising management or marketing communication curriculum.
With major content areas in marketing, planning and marketing commu-
nication tools, the syllabi reflects the historical position of the US as the
539
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 540
world’s leading advertising and marketing communication educator.

Anecdotal evidence from educators also reinforces this position of
building IMC from advertising courses. This is also reflective of IMC
industry practice, where IMC agencies generally developed or evolved
from former advertising agencies.
Is there a sharing of syllabi ideas?

The syllabi of Australia and New Zealand reflect the greatest similarities
in discipline home, level, delivery, assessment and content. As mentioned
earlier, there is a shared educational tradition from the UK. However, the
greater similarity between these two countries in particular may be also a
function of their geography, the movement of faculty between the two
countries and the sharing of academic ideas through regional conferences
such as the Australia and New Zealand Marketing Academy Conference
and those run by the Australia and New Zealand Communication
Association.
Other conferences, such as the Asia-Pacific special meeting of the
American Academy of Advertising Conference held in Hong Kong in
2005, have had special sessions on IMC education to encourage the inter-
change of ideas. Likewise, a special IMC edition of the Journal of
Advertising, focused on integrated marketing communications, was pub-
lished in 2006 (Duncan et al. 2006). That publication has provided much-
needed dissemination of leading IMC research from a global perspective.
The interest appears to be there from academics and the willingness from
academic journals and conferences to support IMC collaboration, even
though results have been patchy.
The sharing of curriculum and teaching ideas can also be facilitated
through the use of staff and student exchange programmes. Northwestern
University in the US and the Queensland University of Technology in
Australia have an active programme in which faculty from both universi-
ties spend time teaching and learning about IMC from the other univer-
sity’s perspective. Students are also being enriched through the
educational exchange.
A further point of discussion is the large number of IMC courses cur-
rently being offered and taught in international settings. With such a new
discipline, it is unlikely that many educators offering these courses have
540
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 541
been formally trained in IMC and even fewer are actively researching in
the area. Where, then, is the knowledge coming from? Who has the
responsibility to evaluate and accredit IMC programmes in the various
countries? Answers to these questions remain unknown.
What should be taught in the ideal IMC course?

While this section of the discussion may be speculative, it draws from the
syllabi analysis, and a comparison of the inherent strengths and weak-
nesses of the identified IMC courses. However, it seems that a critical look
at IMC curriculum development and diffusion also warrants speculation of
what might be considered ideal. This would seem important in aligning
current curricula more closely with the research, thinking and the direc-
tion of IMC found in the literature.
In doing so, it should be noted that each course is different and what
goes into each course is a product of what has previously been taught, as
well as the content that follows. It also indicates how the instructors
believe the discipline will develop in the future. In this sense, all the mod-
ules identified in this analysis should be taught at some stage in the stu-
dent’s learning. Whether basic marketing theory – such as consumer
behaviour or segmentation, targeting and positioning – is part of the IMC
course clearly depends on what has been taught in previous courses. While
the researchers often noted the presence of prerequisite courses, such as
an introductory marketing course on IMC syllabi, in other cases there were
no prerequisite courses. This raises the question of what background stu-
dents and faculty bring to the classroom on which IMC can or should be
built.
It seems clear that a vital element in IMC development and instruction
requires that IMC students proceed from a basic knowledge of marketing,
consumer behaviour and communication. It is important they understand
the planning process, which is similar in marketing, advertising, public
relations and IMC. Some fundamental understanding of the different mar-
keting communications tools is also desirable. Unfortunately, it appears
that these tool and tactic elements often dominate the overall IMC
curriculum.
To distinguish the course as an IMC course, there needs to be unique
IMC content; yet Figure 2 shows this to be almost completely absent.
541
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 542
Figure 3: Ideal IMC curriculum
Marketing
12.5%
IMC
Communi- 25%
cation 12.5%
Planning Marcom tools

25% 25%
Even a well-researched area of IMC – such as perceptions of IMC – is

being taught as content in only 11% of courses in the UK and 3% in
Australia. As the syllabi analysis so clearly shows, IMC is not even a minor
content area in the syllabi of any of the six countries. To address this bal-
ance, Figure 3 shows the importance of fundamentals such as marketing
and communication theory, practical applications such as planning and
marketing communication tools, as well as the vitality of unique IMC con-
tent to define the discipline.
Limitations
A limitation of this study is that the syllabi might not accurately represent
what is actually being taught on the course. One would hope this is not
true but it sometimes may be the case. The researchers were, in some
cases, refused syllabi for analysis for this reason. It was pointed out that
many lecturers include additional content or content that is spontaneously
inserted, often because the process of changing the syllabi is a long and
complicated one, or because new ideas have just been discovered. In addi-
tion, minor content may not be included in the syllabus. However as
Parkes and Harris (2002) point out, the syllabus is a contract with students
and a permanent record of what is supposedly being taught on the course.
542
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 543
This makes it still the best instrument for analysis of the structure, con-
tent and procedure of IMC course development.
A second limitation is the fact that not all syllabi requested were made
available for analysis. There are likely exceptions to the examples pre-
sented in this analysis based on all courses and programmes being taught
across the world and even in the six countries on which this report is based.
While some universities make syllabi freely available over internet sites,
others regard them as proprietary information. Thus, this study is limited
to the syllabi that could be obtained with a concerted effort, but it must be
understood that it is not complete.
Language also posed a problem in collecting syllabi from Korea and
Taiwan. Although the researchers were enthusiastically assisted by the
graduate students (many of whom were from the represented countries),
only English-language versions of the syllabi were considered for this
analysis. Thus, the syllabi developed in these two countries are likely to
be biased towards the more sophisticated faculty and courses.
Further research
This is the start of a longitudinal study to plot the shift towards a more
IMC-focused curriculum (or not). As researchers and educators, we have a
responsibility to compare what is being taught with what is being
researched and established as IMC theory, and with what is being prac-
tised by industry. Our goal is alignment and enlightenment, both of which
seem to be in short supply given the findings of this study.
A more in-depth analysis of commonly used textbooks would also be
useful. That would help in understanding how IMC theory and research
is being delivered by textbook authors, as these are often the drivers of
curriculum content. Indeed, in many cases, the content of the syllabus
reflects the outline of the text being used.
While the syllabi analysis shows what is being taught, it is also impor-
tant to understand the intentions of those who teach it. It could be that
there is no real intention by educators to move towards an integrated
approach and that IMC is simply being added as a ‘current interest’ based
on developments in the field and among practitioners. This cannot be
known from our analysis but is an eminently researchable area.
543
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 544
Conclusion
What is being taught internationally in IMC is generally not what the
authors would consider to be the real crux of the concept. It commonly
appears to be a promotions strategy or advertising management or mar-
keting communication course or curriculum under the guise of an IMC
approach. For the most part, the syllabi we evaluated neither draw from
the key constructs of IMC, nor are the key writers and disciplinary
research considered or found in them.
It seems evident that many current IMC courses are primarily reworks
of an existing course. Therefore, they frequently reflect what has always
been taught in the area of marketing communication management. This
aligns with many textbook perspectives of the new discipline, which are
inherently advertising texts with IMC subtitles. It is obvious that the
course must also fit in with established programmes and university policy,
and is shaped by the quality of faculty available to teach it. And although
we find similarities that appear to come as a result of an inherited educa-
tional tradition or geographic proximity or staff and student exchange,
each country is different in the way it has embraced and taught IMC. In
an obvious comparison with IMC planning theory, one could describe this
as an inside-out approach, something that has been extensively discussed
in the IMC literature.
There are moves towards implementing more theory and research into
the curriculum, as well as evidence of the development of some exem-
plary IMC programmes. While the US appears to have been the innovator
and IMC champion because many of the key writers in the discipline are
American, other countries, such as the UK and Australia, are building
strong IMC courses and curricula as well.
A number of obstacles have been identified, such as the need to include
prerequisite marketing and communication material, the lack of authentic
IMC texts and the shortage of appropriately qualified faculty to teach the
courses. All these obstacles appear to be hindering the development of the
IMC concept at the university level. Certainly, it appears that little mean-
ingful IMC research will flow from these types of curricula.
If IMC is to mature as a discipline, educators need to define it as such
through the syllabi and content of the courses they deliver. Faculty need
to look outside the way marketing communications concepts and
544
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 545
approaches have always been taught. It would seem important to grow and
develop IMC as a unique and important discipline through academic con-
sensus. The academic community needs to practise what it has long
preached, and hopefully taught: an outside-in approach to IMC education.
Acknowledgements
The authors of this manuscript acknowledge the assistance and enthusi-
asm of the following Northwestern and Dongeui University graduate stu-
dents: Katie Hulgrave, Cindy Wu, Alice Lin, Narie Kim, Jihyun Kim, Kyle
Parker, Jimin Lee, Carrie Lin, Sylvia Chou, Madison Lee, Norio Imai,
Fengxia Young, Lily Li, Alison Masters, Kerry Lenahan, Pamela Davis.
References
Altman, D.G. (1991) Practical Statistics for Medical Research. London: Chapman & Hall.
Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (2000) Attitudes and the attitude-behavior relation: reasoned
and automatic processes. European Review of Social Psychology, 11, pp. 401–415.
Baecker, D.L. (1998) Uncovering the rhetoric of the syllabus: the case of the missing
I. College Teaching, 46(2), pp. 58–62.
Bain, C.E., Blankley, A.I. & Murphy Smith, L. (2002) An examination of topical
coverage for the first accounting information systems course. Journal of Information
Systems, 16(2), pp. 143–164.
Belch, G. & Belch, M. (2007) Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing
Communication Perspective. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Cannon, J.P. & Sheth, J.N. (1994) Developing a curriculum to enhance teaching of
relationship marketing. Journal of Marketing Education, 16(2), pp. 3–14.
Cashwell, C.S. & Young, J.S. (2004) Spirituality in counselor training: a content
analysis of syllabi from introductory spirituality courses. Counseling and Values,
48(2), pp. 96–110.
Clow, K. & Baack, D. (2007) Integrated Advertising, Promotion and Marketing
Communication. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Cornelissen, J.P. & Lock, A.R. (2000) Theoretical concept or management fashion?
Examining the significance of IMC. Journal of Advertising Research, 40(5), pp. 7–15.
Crittenden, V.L. & Wilson, E.J. (2005) Content, pedagogy and learning outcomes in
the international marketing course. Journal of Teaching in International Business,
17(1), pp. 81–87.
Davis, J. (1997) Advertising Research: Theory and Practice. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Duncan, T.R. (2002) IMC: Using Advertising and Promotion to Build Brands. Boston:
McGraw-Hill.
Duncan, T.R. & Caywood, C. (1996) The concept, process, and evolution of
integrated marketing communication, in Thorson, E. & Moore, J. (eds) Integrated
545
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 546
Communication: A Synergy of Persuasive Voices. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates, pp. 13–34.
Duncan, T.R. & Everett, S.E. (1993) Client perceptions of integrated marketing
communications. Journal of Advertising Research, 33(3), pp. 30–39.
Duncan, T.R. & Mulhern, F. (2004) A White Paper on the Status, Scope and Future of
IMC. USA: McGraw-Hill.
Duncan, T.R., Schultz, D.E. & Patti, C. (eds) (2005) Special issue on integrated
marketing communications. Journal of Advertising, 34(4, Winter), pp. 5–118.
Fill, C. (2007) Simply Marketing Communications. London: Pearson Education.
Gould, S.J. (2000) The state of IMC research and applications. Journal of Advertising
Research, 40(5), pp. 22–23.
Hartley, B. & Pickton, D. (1999) Integrated marketing communications requires a
new way of thinking. Journal of Marketing Communications, 5(2), pp. 97–106.
Hutton, J.G. (1996) Integrated marketing communications and the evolution of
marketing thought. Journal of Business Research, 37(3), pp. 155–162.
Keller, K. (1996) Brand equity and integrated communication, in Thorson, E. &
Moore, J. (eds) Integrated Communication: A Synergy of Persuasive Voices. New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 103–133.
Kerr, G., Patti, C. & Chien, M. (2004) Integrated marketing communication: new
discipline with an old learning approach: a syllabi analysis. Conference Proceedings
Australia and New Zealand Marketing Academy, New Zealand.
Kitchen, P.J. & Schultz, D.E. (1999) A multi-country comparison of the drive for
IMC. Journal of Advertising Research, 39(1), pp. 21–38.
Kitchen, P.J., Brignell, J., Li, T. & Spickett Jones, G. (2004) The emergence of IMC:
a theoretical perspective. Journal of Advertising Research, 44(1), p. 19.
Kliatchko, J. (2005) Towards a new definition of integrated marketing
communications. International Journal of Advertising, 24(1), pp. 7–34.
Landis, J.R. & Koch, G.G. (1977) The measurement of observer agreement for
categorical data. Biometrics, 33, pp. 66–72.
Lee, Doohee (1997) Integrated advertising, in Parkyoung-Sa & Ilchul Kim (eds)
(2001) IMC Seminar, Korea.
Low, G.S. (2000) Correlates of integrated marketing communications. Journal of
Advertising Research, 40(3), p. 27.
Mayo, M.A. & Miciak, A. (1991) The decision-making process underlying curriculum
revision. Journal of Marketing Education, 13(3), pp. 21–32.
Moriarty, S. (1996) The circle of synergy: theoretical perspectives and an evolving
IMC research agenda, in Thorson, E. & Moore, J. (eds) Integrated Communication:
A Synergy of Persuasive Voices. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Muk, A. (2007) Consumers’ intention to opt in to SMS advertising. International
Journal of Advertising, 26(2), pp. 177–198.
Parkes, J. & Harris, M.B. (2002) The purposes of a syllabus. College Teaching, 50(2),
pp. 55–61.
Petrison, L. & Wang, P. (1996) Integrated marketing communication: examining
planning and executional considerations, in Thorson, E. & Moore, J. (eds)
Integrated Communication: A Synergy of Persuasive Voices. New Jersey: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
546
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 547
Phelps, J., Harris, T. & Johnson, E. (1996) Exploring decision-making approaches and
responsibility for developing marketing communications strategy. Journal of
Business Research, 37(1), pp. 217–223.
Pickton, D. & Broderick, A. (2004) Integrated Marketing Communications. London:
Prentice Hall.
Rezaee, Z., Lambert, K. & Harmon, W.K. (2006) Electronic commerce education:
analysis of existing courses. Accounting Education, 15(1), p. 73.
Rogers, E. (1995) Diffusion of Innovations (4th edn). New York: The Free Press.
Schultz, D.E. (1996) The inevitability of integrated communications. Journal of
Business Research, 37(3), pp. 139–146.
Schultz, D.E. & Barnes, B. (1996) Strategic Brand Communication Campaigns. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Schultz, D.E. & Schultz, H. (2004) IMC: The Next Generation. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Schultz, D.E., Tannenbaum, S. & Lauterborn, R. (1993) The New Marketing Paradigm:
Integrated Marketing Communications. Illinois: NTC Business Books.
Shimp, T. (2007) Advertising, Promotion and other aspects of Integrated Marketing
Communications. Ohio, USA: Thomson South-Western.
Smith, M.F. & Razzouk, N.Y. (1993) Improving classroom communication: the case of
the course syllabus. Journal of Education for Business, 68(4), pp. 215–221.
Spotts, H.E., Lambert, D.R. & Joyce, M.L. (1998) Marketing déjà vu: the discovery
of integrated marketing communications. Journal of Marketing Education, 20(3),
pp. 210–218.
Stephens, C. & O’Hara, M. (2001) The core information technology courses at
AACSB-accredited schools: consistency or chaos? Journal of Education for Business,
76(4), p. 181.
Sullivan, C. & Maxfield, M.G. (2003) Examining paradigmatic development in
criminology and criminal justice: a content analysis of research methods syllabi in
doctoral programs. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 14(2), p. 269.
Summers, J., Gardiner, M., Lamb, C., Hair, J. & McDaniel, C. (2003) Essentials of
Marketing. Victoria (Australia): Thomson.
Swain, W.N. (2004) Perceptions of IMC after a decade of development: who’s at the
wheel, and how can we measure success? Journal of Advertising Research, 44(1),
p. 46.
Zahay, D., Peltier, J., Schultz, D.E. & Griffin, A. (2004) The role of transactional
versus relational data in IMC programs: bringing customer data together. Journal
of Advertising Research, 44(1), p. 3.
About the authors

Gayle Kerr (PhD, Queensland University of Technology) is Senior
Lecturer, School of Advertising, Marketing and Public Relations,
Queensland University of Technology.
547
Kerr.qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 548
Don Schultz (PhD, Michigan State University) is Professor Emeritus-

in-Service, The Medill School, Northwestern University.
Charles Patti (PhD, University of Illinois) is James M. Cox Professor of
Customer Experience Management and Director, IMC Program,
University of Denver.
Ilchul Kim (PhD, Hanyang University Seoul) is Professor of Advertising
and Public Relations, School of Communications, Dongeui University.
Address correspondence to: Dr Gayle Kerr, Senior Lecturer in
Advertising and IMC, School of Advertising, Marketing and Public
Relations, Queensland University of Technology, GPO Box 2434,
Brisbane Qld 4001 Australia
Email: gf.kerr@qut.edu.au
548

An Inside-Outside Approach To IMC

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

An Inside-Outside Approach To IMC

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

An Inside-Outside Approach To IMC

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Kerr.

qxp 21/08/2008 15:42 Page 511

International Journal of Advertising, 27(4), pp. 511–548

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING, 2008, 27(4)

AN INSIDE-OUT APPROACH TO INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION

The inside-out approach and its importance to the

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING, 2008, 27(4)

scholarship and practice will continue to encounter implementation obsta-

Before we can teach it, we need to agree on what it is

AN INSIDE-OUT APPROACH TO INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION

Table 1: Definitions of IMC

Writer Date Definition

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING, 2008, 27(4)

AN INSIDE-OUT APPROACH TO INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION

Even proponents of IMC, such as Duncan (2002) and Hartley and

Table 2: The development of IMC as a discipline

IMC is a new discipline IMC is nothing new

Result of changes in communication, technology, Result of economic imperative by advertising agencies

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING, 2008, 27(4)

The question of integration or not is moot. It is not a question of whether the

In summary, the literature presents a diversity of definitions, experi-

Issues in IMC curriculum development and diffusion

AN INSIDE-OUT APPROACH TO INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION

Diffusion of the IMC curriculum

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING, 2008, 27(4)

academic community of the new discipline, and thus offers an insight as to

Table 3: Diffusion and IMC curriculum development

Product characteristic Relation to IMC curriculum Indicators of characteristic

Complexity Degree of difficulty in understanding • Structure and processes of universities

Compatibility Degree to which IMC curriculum is • Fit with disciplinary structure

Relative advantage Degree to which IMC curriculum is • Attract students

Observability Degree to which the benefits of • Enrolment figures

Trialability Degree to which IMC curriculum • Course vs programme

AN INSIDE-OUT APPROACH TO INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION

The rate of diffusion of a concept or practice gives rise to five categories

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING, 2008, 27(4)

In summary, the development and diffusion of the IMC curriculum is

Development of hypotheses and research questions

AN INSIDE-OUT APPROACH TO INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION

Figure 1: Methodological process

Specify hypothesis or research

Develop operational definition of

Specify sampling plan

Develop category system

Pretest and revision

Code materials and

Analyse and interpret data

Source: Davis (1997)

The adoption of an ‘inside-out’ approach can be explained by the fact

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING, 2008, 27(4)

new curriculum. It is therefore hypothesised that IMC courses worldwide

To answer these questions, this study looks to the syllabus as an instru-

Operational definition of sample universe

AN INSIDE-OUT APPROACH TO INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION

Table 4: Population, sample and analysis rate

investigation to US, UK, Taiwanese and Korean universities. In this study,

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING, 2008, 27(4)

to ensure that they covered the broader area of marketing communication

Development of a category system