Symposium

MUSEOLOGY AND IDENTITY

LA MUSEOLOGIE ET L'IDENTITE
Buenos Aires, October/octobre 1986 .

Acknowledg~nents

The Swedish Mountain and Saami Museum arranged, in cooperation

with the Swedish Commission for Unesco and the International
Council of Museums, an International Conference on Museums and
the Continuity and Identity of Indigenous Peoples in Jokkmokk,
Sweden, in June 1986.
Three of the participants: Poka Laenui (Hayden F. Burgess) Hawaii, Te Warena Taua - New Zealand, and Hugues de Varine Paris, were invited to participate in the ICOFOM symposium 1986
on Huseology and Identity and kindly sent the papers of their
spoken contributions made in Jokkmokk.
We thank them
organisors of
Engstrom, the
production of

warmly for their stinulating ideas, as well as the

the Jokkmokk Conference, in particular Dr. Kjell
Chairman of the Conference, for allowing the rethese texts in this issue of ISS.

The Chairman of ICOFOM

This issue of ISS

has been prepared
by Vinol Sofka, Chairman of ICOFOM
with the assistance
of the Museum of National Antiquities
Stockholm, Sweden
Closing date: Stockholm - September 30, 1986

Contents
Identity in time, in space - and in ICOrOM
by Vinal'; Sofka

Identity
Reflections on a crucial problem for museums
by Tomislav 501a

15

list of the contributors to the symposium

23

Contributions to the symposium

27

Barros de Taramasco, Isabel - Bahia Blanca, Argentina

Bellaigue, Mathilde - Pnris, France 33
Benel';, Josef - Praha, Czechoslovakia 45
Chacon, Alfredo - Caracas, Venezuela 53
Clementi, Hebe - Buenos Aires, Argentina 57
Deloche, Bernard - lyon, France 65
Desvallees, Andre - Paris, France 73
Evrard, Marcel - Le Breuil, France
85
Flou, Bjarne - Grenaa, Denmark 93
Ganslmayr, Herbert - Bremen, FRG
101
Gluzinski, Wojciech - Wroclaw, Poland 107
Gregorova, Anna - Bratislava, Czechoslovakia
115
Grote, Andreas - Berlin(West), FRG
129
Hawes, Edward l - Springfield, Illinois, USA
135
Ilerreman,
Yani - Mexico D.F., Mexico 145
Huchard Sow, Ousmane - Dakar, Senegal
147
Jelinek, Jan - Brno, Czechoslovakia
161
Laenui, Poka - Waianae, Hawaii, USA
163
Laumonier, Isabel - Buenos Aires, Argentina
169
Ley ten, Harrie M - Amsterdam, Netherlands
173
Maranda, Lynn - Vancouver, B.C., Canada
177
Maroevic, Iva - Zagreb, Yugoslavia 183
Martin, Carol A - Tucson, Arizona, USA 189
Maure, Marc - Lommedalen, Norway 197
Mensch, Peter van - leiden, Netherlands
201
Miquel, Dom~nec & Morral, Eul~lia
- Sant Cugat del Valles, Spain 211
Nair, S M - New Delhi, India 227
Nicolas, Alain - Marseille, France 229
Oberti, Luis Jeremias - Caracas, Venezuela 237
Pil';culin, Jurij - Moskva, USSR 243
Rlissio Guarnieri, Waldisa.- Sao Paulo, Brazil 245
Scheiner, Tereza C - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 257
Schreiner, Klaus ... Alt Schwerin, GDR 265
Singleton, Raymond - Hinckley, Leicestershire, UK 271
Spielbauer, Judith K - Oxford, Ohio, USA 273
5ulei", Petr - Brno, Czechoslovakia 282
Swiecimski, Jerzy - Krak6w, Poland 293
Taua, Te Warena - Auckland, New Zealand 309
Tripps, Manfred - Heilbronn-Bockingen, FRG 315
Varine, Hugues de - P"ris, France 323
Whitlock, John J - Carbondale, Illinois, USA 335
Zouhdi, Bachir - Damascus, Syria 339

IcorOH

publications

345

Rl!lIIerciements
Le Musee suedois de la montagne et des Saamis a organise, en
collaboration avec la Commission nationale suedoise pour l'Unesco
et Ie Conseil international des musees, une Conference internationale sur les Husees et la continuite et l'identite des peuples
indig~nes a Jokkmokk, Su~de, en juin 1986.
Trois des participants, Poka Laenui (Hayden F. Burgess) - Hawaii,
Te Warena Taua - Nouvelle Zelande, et Hugues de Varine - Paris,
etaient invites a participer egalement au symposium de l'ICOFOM
1986 sur la Huseologie et l'identite, et ont aimablement envoye
Ie texte de leur intervention orale faite a Jokkmokk.
Nous les en remercions chaleureusement, ainsi que les organisateurs de la Conference de Jokkmokk, en particulier Dr. Kjell
Engstrom, Ie Presidnet de la Conference, qui ont permi la reproduction de ces textes dans ce numero de 1'155.
Le President de l'ICOrOM

Ce numero de 1'155
a He prepare
par Vino Sofka, President de l'ICOrOM
avec l'aide
du Musee des antiquites nationales
Stockholm, Su~de
II a ete acheve

Stockholm, Ie 30 septembre 1986

Sommaire

"

l'identit~
dans Ie temps, dans I'espace et dans j'ICOfOM
par Vinas Sofka

11

l' identit~
Rdflexions sur un
par Tomislav Sola

19

probl~me

crucial pour les musdes

"

liste des contributeurs au colloque

23

"

Contributions au colloque

27

Barros de Taramasco, Isabel - Bahia Blanca, Argentine

Bellaigue, Mathilde - Paris, france 39
Benes, Josef - Praha, Tchecoslovaquie 49
Chac6n, Alfredo - Caracas, Venezuela 53
Clementi, Hebe - Buenos Aires, Argentine 57
Deloche, Bernard - Lyon, france 65
Desvallees, Andr~ - Paris, france 79
Evrard, Marcel - le Breuil, france 89
flou, Bjarne - Crenaa, Danemark 93
Canslmayr, Herbert - Bremen, RfA 101
Gluzinski, Wojciech - Wroclaw, Pologne 107
Gregorov', Anna - Bratislava, Tchecoslovaquie 125
Grote, Andreas - Berlin(Ouest), RfA 129
Hawes, Edward l - Springfield, Illinois, USA 135
Herreman, Yani - Mexico D.f., Mexique 141
Huchard Sow, Ousmane - Dakar, Senegal 147
Jelinek, Jan - Brno, Tchdcoslovaquie 161
laenui, Poka - Waianae, Hawaii, USA 163
laumonier, Isabel - Buenos Aires, Argentine 16~
ley ten, Harrie M - Amsterdam, Pays-Bas 173
Maranda, lynn - Vancouver, B.C., Canada 177
Maroevic, Ivo - Zagreb, Yougoslavie 183
Martin, Carol A - Tucson, Arizona, USA 193
Moure, Marc - lommedalen, Norv~ge
197
Mensch, Peter van - leyde, Pays-Bas 201
Miquel, Dom~nec & Morral, Eulalia
.. Sant Cugat del Valles, [spagne
219
Nai r, S M - New Delhi, Inde 227
Nicolas, Alain - Marseille, france 229
Oberti, luis JeremIas - Caracas, Venezuela 237
PiSculin, Jurij - Moskva, URSS 243
RGssio Guarnieri, Waldisa - Sao Paulo, Brdsil 245
Scheiner, Tereza C - Rio de Janeiro, Bresil 257
Schreiner, Klaus - AlL Schwerin, RDA 265
Singleton, Raymond - Hinckley, leicestershire,
Royaume-Uni 271
Spielbauer, Judith K - Oxford, Ohio, USA 273
Suler, Petr - Brno, Tchdcoslovaquie 287
Swiecimski, Jerzy - Kl'ak6w, Pologne 293
Taua, Te Warena - Auckland, Nouvelle lclande 309
Tripps, Manfred - Heilbronn-Bockingen, RfA 31)
Varine, Hugues de - Paris, france 323
Whitlock, John J - Carbondale, Illinois, USA 335
louhdi, Bachir - Damas, Syrie 339

ICOfOH publications

345

Identity In space, in time - and in ICOFOM

by Vi nos Sofka
In the histor~: of man each sequence of his presence on earth has had its
distinctive features, problems and ideas, too.
Among other things. of
course. Life's daily pleasures and troubles are not to be forgotten.
For different reasons, some of these features. and above all ideas. became
so great that they constitute characteristics of the time when they arose.
They moved the world, man's world. forward.
Sometimes not seldom
backward.
At le"st th",y - or thos', whe sto"d for them - seem. or try to
appear. to have don" so.
Only if the results wera beneficial - in our
present conception of the lwrd - to mankind, of course.
Neither the problems, nor the ideas, were always new. Sometimes they just
came up again - in another shape. another context, or just another part of
the world at another ~ime.
Stated or proclai~ed by man. they related to all that surrounded him,
framed and formed his life, were his ecological and spiritual space to live
in.
Used, or just interpreted. by some other man. and in some other time,
they often received another concept or meaning. The reasons, the needs. the
space. were just changed.
The attention given to the "great ideas" varied at different times too.
Some of them have become big movements. Others not at all. In early times
they were as we know them today - limited for practical reasons to the
"world" as it was perceived.
The more communications developed and increased, the more the world, now greater. became closer. and the knowledge
about - and the persuasive power of - great ideas wider.
But have the great ideas always expressed the little ordinary man's
bles, thoughts, and desires? Have these ever been revealed?

trou-

There are these and many other thoughts swarming in one's mind
when
Even
looking around in our own time. and l.ooking back on other's times.
great thinkers have tri.ed to find the answer to these questions - and they
are still far from giving it.
There is no ambition to preseI't a solutiC'n in these few lines. Nor to give
an exhaustive. comprehensive theoretical description of the question at
issue of the complicated pattern to be taken into consideration.
The
unpretentious modest intention was to bring to l.ight thoughts relevant to
one of our time's "gre e,t ideas lt

~nd

to our own symposium.

III recent times - not only the last few days or months or years - one of
the great concepts coming up again and again in different situations and
contexts is that of identi t y:- Or identities.
Depending on where in the world and under what conditions it is used it
takes very different shapes. and conceptions too. It can comprise man
and/or nature.
It can mean the individual in relation to the collective
body. collective bodies in relation to other collectives. It can relate to
race. nation. religion, ideology or other con~on interests. It can touch
on man as a social being, and nature as man's environment. Or both of them
in aboslute terms.
7 .

For natural reasons, muse~~ are the places where the identity complex
plays an important role. They glance back and preserve the past - and they
have the ambition, recently more and more expressed, to participate in
forming the future of their communities.
Sometimes they show what kind of
identity they stand for, but very often they present some overall society
and its nature. They have their internal organisational structures as well
as external ones.
They are public and private; they are organisations of
the state, of communities, of societies. They do not stand alone. Their
position towards identity/ies va~ies: registering only - or struggling for
some or several of them.
Who decides about the position to be taken,
and about the concept of the identity to be handled which varies too.
In our world of accelerated development - both positive and negative - and
of an enormous flow of information and dis information too, at least in some
parts of it, with intercontineutal migrations, multinational projects, etc.
the ordinary man's identity is exposed to ~train. Sometimes the very original one has not yet matured that another one intrudes.
The role of museums, whether they represent one or several identities or
none at all, is evident. Museums observed identity before, and they do now
is
too.
Their responsibility for whatever they do .. or do not do
enormous.

But what is the role of museology?

There is Ii lot to be done:
an inventory of positions to and concepts of identity applied in museums and an
analysis of them; a study of approaches towards identity in those sciences
where identity is "at home"; an elucidation of the identity issue on the
basis of museology, which takes into consideration the museum's positions
and experiences, as well as, on an interdisciplinary level, the results of
other sciencen.

The question always arises in this type of discussion: how much can an
interantional volunteer body, when approaching such an enormous complex,
manage and fulfil?
ICOFOM has tried to do ",hat is nec"ssary and possible.
!ill!! Ident i ty is :a\idence of tl;L.

The 1986 Symposium

2!! Museology

- We took up the topic and we did it in an open way, giving ample scope
for a definition of identity to the d:i.scussions.
Those who think that
museums should not be actively engaged in problems of identity nlay say so and

those

who

assert the opposite may do so too.

All are

expected

develop their position and what sho. Id be done in the museum of today
of the future

to

and

- We initiated a world wide inventory of concepts, gathered basic papers

on them, reproduced the papers in their original form and without any
editorial encroachment in this issue of ISS, and sent them to all writers
for comments
- We will discuss the concepts as well as the comments on them
symposium hearing in Buenos Aires
8

in

our

We will publish tile conclusions of the Buenos Aires symposium

- We do not close the door with that. We hope that discussion on the
topic will continue. In the ICOFOM prints first of all . and we invite all
interested) es~eciRlly musel~i people in museums, and also reseurchers in
departments of musewn studies at universities as well as researchers from
other rel~te~ branches to take part in the work.
The solution to this intricate problem can not be given by a symposium.
ICOFOM has just brought the ",sue further into the daylight, will carry
through the approaching symposium and publishing project, and is ready to
support all endeavours wich can advance i t further.
The readiness with whic.h the: invited experts were willing to write for the
symposium is more than s&tisfying.
We have 42 basic papers with ideas and
reflections from the major ",reas of the world to base our discussions on.
It shows that the choice of the topic was right, as was the need of dis
cussing it.

All of those whose papers follow in tllis ISS issue have made a valuable
contribution to museological research and deserve our warm thanks.
Should
the comments on the basic papers be as numerous and the hearing in Buenos
Aires as lively as it promises to be, then ICOFOM can be satisfied with its
first efforts in the field of identity.
Stockholm, September 1986
Vinas Sofka

L'identite dans Ie temps, dans I'espace - et dans I'ICOFOM

par Vi nos Sotka
Dans l'histoire, chaque sequence de J.a presence de l'homme sur la terre
avait ses traits particuliers, ses problemes et des idees.
II ne faut
evidemment pas oublier - entr'autres - les joies et les difficulites de la
vie q\lotidienn~.
Pour des r~iscns diverses, cert&ines de ces traits, et surtout certaines de
ces idees, prirent tant d~impcrtance qufils c-onstituerent des caracteristiques de :1.' epoque dans laquelle Us surgirent.
lIs ebranlerent Ie monde,
Ie Jnonde de Ifhomme, Ie firent progresser - regresser parfois, Ie cas ne

fut pas rare.

Tout au mains est-ce ce que l'on fait apparaitre de ces
idees par ceux qui les soutinrent. Mais naturellement seulement si les
consequences furent benefiques - selon notre accept ion du terme - pour
l'hummanite.
Les

p~oblemes

et les idees

n'et~ient

pas toujours nouveaux.

faisaient qUE reapparaitre - sons une autre forme,

ou dans une autre partie du monde

Parfo.is ils ne

dans un autre contexte,

un autre moment.

Constates ou proclames par l'homme, ils se rapportaient a tout ce qui l'entourait,

structurait

et formait sa vie,

ils en constituaient son

espace

ecologique et spirituel.
Utilises ou simplement interpretes par quelqu'un
d'autre, a une autre epoque, ils etaient alars souvent porteurs d'une autre
signification.
Simplement c'etaient les raisons, les besoins, ou l'espace
qui changeaient.
L'attention

qu'on portait aces grandes idees variait selon

.Certaines donnerent naissance

les

epoques .

de grands mouvements. dtautres pas du tout.

Au depart elles etaient - comme fiOUS Ie savons aujourd'hui - limitees, pour

des raisons pratiques - au monde tel qu'on Ie connaissait alors.
Plus les
communications se multipliaient et se developpaient, plus Ie monde - maintenant plus vaste - se retrecissait et plus la connaissance et Ie pouvoir
persuasif des grandes idees se t'epandaient.
Mais les grendos idees ont-elles toujours exprime les peines,
et les desirs modestes de l'homme ordinaire?

les pensees

Ainsi ces pensees et tant d'autres se pressent-elles a l'esprit lorsqu'on

regarde sa propre epoque et celIe des autres.
Bien des hommes, et meme de
grands penseurs, ant essaye de trouver la reponse a de tels problemes et
n'ont pu la donner.
Nous n'avons pas l'ambition d'apporter une solutiion en si peu de lignes.
Ni de donner une description theorique exhaustive et globale de cette
question et des difficiciles problemes impliques. Notre intention, modeste
et sans pretention, est de mettre en 1umiere quelques reflexions concernant
l'une des plus "grandes idees" de nott'e temps - et celIe de notre
symposium.
Recemment - et pas seulement ces derniers hours, n\ois au annees - l'un des
grands concepts a surgir de facon repetee et dans differents contextes est
celui d'identite.
Ju d'identites.
Selon Ie lieu et les conditions dans
lesquels il e3t utilise, il recouvre des formes et des significations tres
differentes. II peut concerner l'homme et/ou la nature. II peut concerner
l'individu dans sa relation a la collectivite, la collectivite dans sa
relation a cl'autres collectivites.
II peut concerner la race, 1a nation,
la religion, l'ideologie ou d'autres interets communs.
II peut concerner
l'homme en tant qu'etre social et la nature en tant qu'environnement de
11

l'homme.

Ou taus les deux, en termes absolus.

Pour des raisons bien nattlrelles, les musees sont les lieux ou Ie complexe
d'identite joue un role important.
Les musees se retournent vers Ie passe
pour Ie contempler et Ie preserver ee ils ont l'ambition - qui s'exprime
dernierement rie plus en plus - de participer a l'elaboration de l'avenir de
leur communaute. Parfois ils dasignent I'identite qu'ils soutiennent. mais
tres souvent ils presentent une sorte de societe standard et sa nature.
Ils ont leurs structures d'organisation internes aussi bien qu'externes.
Ils sont publics et prives, ils sont organisations de I'Etat, des collect ivites, d'associations. Ils ne subsistent pas par eux-memes. Leur position
a I'egard de I'identite - ces ~dentites - varie: la consignant seulement
ou se battant pour elle.
Celui qui decide de Ia position a adopter et du
concept d'identite a exposer varie egalement.
Dans notre monde de developpement accelere - developpement positif ou
negatif - avec Ie flot de I'information - et de des information - dans ce
monde et tout au moins dans certaines parties, avec Ies migrations intercontinentales, les projets multinationaux etc. l'identite de l'horon>e est
soumise a des tensions.
Parfois l'identite originale n'est pas encore
arrivee a maturite qu'il s'en presente une autre.
Le role des musees, qu'ils temoignent d'une ou de plusieurs identites, ou
d'aucune, est evident.
Auparavant les musees etudiaient I'identite; iis
font de merne maintenant.
Leur responsabilite quant a ce qu'ils font - on
ne font pas - est enorme.

Mais quel est Ie role de la museologi~? II y a fort a faire: L'inventaire

des positions et des concepts de I'identite teis qu'ils sont appliques dans
les musees et leur analyse; l'app~oche de l'identite telle qu'etudiee dans
les sciences ou elle sa tro've "chez elle"; l'elucidettion du probleme
d'identite sur la base de la r.luseologie, en cOllsiderant les positions et
les eperiences des musees auto:nt qu1au niveau i.nterdisciplinaire les resuI tats des autres sciences.

Dans ce genre de dislOussion surgit toujol1.rs une question:

organisme international benevole par rapport a quelque-chose
tant et d'aussi complexe?
L'ICOFOM a tente ce qui etait necessaire et possible.
la Museologie et l'identitc en est la preuve.

qc:e

peut un
impor-

d'aus~i

Le symposium

1986

Nous avons aborde ce theme de facon ouverte, en propos ant a la discussion un champ large pour la definition de l'identite.
Ceux qui pensent
que les musees ne doivent ras s'engager activement dans les problemes
d'identite peuvent Ie dire - et ceux qui affirment Ie contraire peuvent Ie
dire aussi.
On attend que chacun developpe sa position ainsi que ce qui
devrait etre fait dans les musees d'aujourd'hui et de demain.
les
12

- Nous avons lance au plan international un inventaire des concepts et

avons rassembles, sous forme de memoires de~, reproduits dans ce

numero de 1158 et ceci sans aucunc intervention dans la redaction des

textes, et envoyees a tous les auteurs afin de susciter des commentaires.
- Nous discuterons de ces concepts aussi bien que des commentaires dans
notre symposium de Buenos Aires.
- Nous

pu~lierons

les conclusions du colloque de Buenos Aires.

Et nous ne refermons pas la porte pour autant.

Nous esperons continuer la discussion sur ce th~~e.
D'abord dans les publications de
1tlCOFO~~
- aussi invi~ons-nous a prendre part a ce travail tous ceux qui
sont interesses et specialement les nroseologe~ en activite; egalement les
chercheurs des musees et des universites ainsi que ceux d'autres disciplines pouvant s'y rapporter.
La solution de ce probleme complexe ne saurait etre donnee par un symposium.
L'ICOFOM met seulement la question davantage en lumiere. l'etudiera
lors du colloque et dans ses publications; il est pret a soutenir toutes
tentatives pouvant faire progresser cette question.
La promptitude avec laquelle les experts invites ont accepte d'ecrire pour
Ie symposium est plus que satisfaisante.
Nous avons 42 contributions en
provenance de toutes les regions du monde sur lesquelles nous fonderons nos
discussions.
Cela prouve que Ie theme est bien choisi et qu'il y a un
besoin de cette discussion.
Tous ceux dont les papiers suivent dans ce numero d'ISS ont apporte une
contribution valable a la recherche museologique; qu'ils soint ici chaleureusement remarcies.
Si les commentaires sur les memoires de base sont
aussi nombreux ~t 1a discussion a Bueons-Aires aussi vivante qu'an peut sly
attendre. alors l'ICOFOM pourra se rejouir ses premiers efforts dans Ie
domaine de l'ider.tite.

Stockholm, septembre 1986

Vino~

Sofka

13

Identity
Reflections on a crucial problem for museums
by Tomlslav Sola - Zagreb, Yugoslavia
Identity, as any serious analysis would show, is a complex matter. It may
be easily a true name for the object of museums. The traditional museum
piece, an item, a three-dimensional fact, is only a data of a complex of
museum information, of a message. We do not have museums because of the
objects they contain but because of the concepts or ideas that these objects
help to convey. We are lately rather successful in getting rid of professional myths and prejudices, so there is hope again for museums to survive
through the inevitable conceptual, technological and informational transformation.
The majority of the problems of the contemporary world, as has been the
case many times before, can be regarded as identity problems. The era of
Great Transition or of the Great Anxiety (as A. Toffler would say) is era
of change. There is no easy way to live out the changes, to catch up with
them, to rationalize them, as we were trying to do so far. The result of
these powerful forces of change is the total identity crisis. Totality
indeed means that the crisis does not leave out anything: there is no area
of theory or pr~tice that is not constantly shaken under the pressure of
fundamental changes. We were accustomed to accept the warning within so
called cultural identity because it seems to be the essential part, at
least the most tender one within the psycho-sphere. But what about nature?
Changes happen day arler day in front of our eyes and we seem to cope with
them; the question is, however, do we agree with them, can we agree with
them and what do we do if the answers are "no" as one can presume. To put it
in the most simple way - the identity we should be speaking about can be
divided into those two categories, that of culture and that of nature. When
trying to define the relationship between identity and museology. we must
take both phenomena in their widest scope in order to arrive at relevant
conclusions. In our sense, identity is anything that contains enough
centripetal, cohesive forces, anything that has enough arguments to be
regarded as a whole. Now, the difficulty arises from the fact that museology
is not a defined science or, more clearly, there are a few definitions but
no consensus. That is why I think we shall again have difficulty in progressing towards defining any further relation of museology
phenomena.

to other

It is clear, however, that after a hundred years, we are still speaking of

the "status nascendi" of museology. It is clear that museology is still too
15

much tied up by its very name. It should be clear that this is not inherent
only to traditional museums: if we narrow its scope it becomes sort of
museography; if we widen its scope it will certainly surpass the ,traditional museum. So if we accept the risk of making museology a theoretical
body that covers diverse agents of the similar area of human activity,
we may arrive at defining, not the institution, but the phenomenon that is
the basis of museology. I would call it the total heritage, the total
identity. Museology is not about techniques but concepts, it must be a
philosophy and by the nature of the contemporary museum venture - museology
is also cybernetical.
The message of museums is to prove that we are not connected to the past
onl y through myths and mementos - that the past is the soil ,from ,,which any
identity 9~ows. It also demonstrates that the consciousness of the past is
by itself the form of affirming identity, and therefore the form of a
survival model. The predominant feature of the museum mission is the defence
of identity, but in the continuity of identity. If the museum treats only
the past without linking it to the present, the pejorative name of morgue
suits it well. Museums of the past with dead objects in them do not serve the
cause of life but of death. Since the fate of museums from their very
beginning is technological, it will be most interesting to see how far, we
can get in restoring museum objects to life.
A Mexican writer, Carlos Fuentes, was asked in an interview what problem
he thinks would be central to Latin America. He did not answer that it was
democracy, economic difficulties or political dependency. He clearly stated
that the problem is: "to create the national identity", claiming that there
were too many imitations in their history, too many of those imposed from
the outside. It is not a mere coincidence that by 'the same source of
inspiration one of the best museums in the world has been created - the
Anthropological Museum in Ciudad de Mexico - as a'magnificent metaphor of
national Mexican identity. So, what do we finally have? As always, a number
'of questions to be answered, or at least, to be posed.
Again, hOl.ever paradoxical, I see this occasion as one more in I.hich we
try to define museology itself, this time by confronting it with identity.
If we succeed to do so in a satisfactory way, we shall have to admit that
museums, especially if we take them in their traditIonal sense, are not the
only institutions within the field of heritage: the necessary definition
of museums might still cover traditional museums but must allow the
incorporation of all a diversity of agents whose field of work is the
transfer of the human experience of nature and culture.
16

At the end of this paper, which those who think along the same lines
would not find provocative, I would like to draw your attention to the
fact that topic number one is about defining identity, and that topic
number b'io i:3 In facL at:out (jef j n tog museu,lIs. i f

\\"t~ <~~:('ept

th,d

the

field of museums is identity and i f we are analyzing its approach LO thot,

we shall be actually trying to define the contemporary museum; the definition will certainly be more tuned to Russelsheim, Le Crel/sot and Haute Benl/ce
than to the Louvre. To;>ic No. 3 actually says that. between the two there
has to be a theery tnat pould define the pllilosophical ,,,,radigma, that
would fix the a!.ms and clarify the motives_ Due also to the lack of thnt
theoretical basis, to the Jack of the philosophical essence of our work,
we have highly bureaucratic and monetarized museums; the only side of them
partly opened to advanecoent is technological: they are sinqing the same
old tune but in a much clearer voice. So - to say what the role of museol09Y
is "ill mean deciding what museology is.
Clearly understood"the symposium upon "Museology and identity" is there
to clarify what museums can do about the endangered Planet of Earth
(Spaceship Earth, as Buckminster fuller would put it): it is being transformed drastically and dramatically in front of our eyes. The crucial
question arises whether the (lost) harmony between man and nature can ever
be gained back. Identity is "vis vitalis" of things and humans, that is
what made the entire environment and brought us here through time: are .,e
commiting suicide by the mere disregard for its vital importance? Besides
being a part of a 'iearch for the survival model, the protection of identity
has become very much a fundamental ethical issue.
The growing interest in museums, a boom indeed, is not the success of our
policy as much as it is the effect of the global' identity crisi for .,hieh
a counter-productive means is searched. If you seek a good provocation to
motivate JOur. contribution, just rerr,ember that most of the .,orld is
suffering a despqir of aculturation: Africa,

A3i~,

South America ... There

are numerous nations and regions, even in Europe, subdued by other, bigger
nations and

~heir

culture. Neocolonialism starts by conquering the soul,

by subjugating the local culture and then progressing towards economic

and political issues. Just remember China, India, the Second World War,
Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Afganistan . We were only counting the dead
but what about identity loss, what about people without a past, deprived
of their collective memory: can we do more for refugees than just saving
physical lives? What phould museology say and museums do about the elimination of indians? Still speaking about identity, let us contemplate the
horror of the drama of the world of nature. Nature cannot fight back, it

17

can only be spoiled and ruined, it can become a hostile, unhealthy environment and that is exactly what is happening_ Can we tolerate that some ten
thousand species are irreversibly disappearing each year from our planet?
Can we accept that nature is be,ing pushed into reservations? Should we
tolerate that bioengineering interferes with the natural

o~der

(if it

exists any more)? Does our professional and ethical concern end up in the
proud possession of the last specimen of the exterminated species? Are
museums here to document passively the

~isastrous

trends, or to do some-

thing about them? Museology is dealing very much with the future of our
past, the future 01- cur identity - aUf future.

Zagreb - Yugoslavia, June 1986

18

L'identite
Reflexions su~ un probleme crucial pour les musees
par Tomislav Sola - Zagreb, Yougoslavie

L'identite est un sujet complexe, toute analyse serieuse Ie montre.

Ce peut ~tre facilement un vrai nom pour l'objat de musee. La piece
traditionnelle oe munee, un objet, un fait tridimensionnel, n'est
Qu'une donnee dans un complexe d'information museale, de message.
Ce n'est pas pour ~es objets Qu'ils contiennent Qve nous avons des
musees _, mais pour les concepts ou les idees dont ces objets sont
porteurs.

Ae~emment

nous avons reussi a nous debarresser des mythes

P.t prejuges traditionnels, si bien Qu'on peut esperer voir les musEes
survivre a l'inevita Ie transformation conceptuelle, technologiQue
et mediatique.
On peut considerer que, comma souvent auparavant, la nlunart des nroblemes du monde contomporain sont des problemas d'identite. L'ere de
la Grande Transition, ou de la Grande Anxiete (comme dirait A.Toffler)
est une ere rle changement. II n'y a pas de voie facile pour vivre Ie
changement, Ie suivre, Ie rationaliser, comme nous avons tente de
Ie faire jusqu'a presenr. De ces forces de changement puissantes,
11 resulte une crise de la totalite de l'identite, totalite signifiant
que cette crise n'epargne rien : pas de lieu, pas de theorie, pas de
pratique Qui ne soit constamment ebranle sous la pression des changements
1'ondamontaux. Nous avions l'habitude d'"ccepter l'avertissement " l'interieur de ce qu'on appelle l'identite culturelle parce Qu'elle paratt
la partie essantielle, tout au moins la nlus

s~nsible

de la psycho-

sphere. Mais Qu'en est-il de la nature? Ues changements se nroduisent

jour apres jour sous nos yeux et nous semblons nous en accommo<k,La Question

pourt~nt

est: sommes-nous d'accord avec

CBS

changements,

pouvor.s-nous ~tI:"'e d'accord - at, 51 la reponse est Pnon" -comme on peut

S')'

attendre que facisona-noua?

En termes .,lus simples, l' identite

dont nous parlons peut se diviser eb deux categories: la culture et

1a nature._ Quend nous esssyons de definir Is relation p.ntre identite
et museologie, ces deux phenomenes doivent
la plus large afin d'arriver

~tre

pris dans leur acception

des conclusions pertinentes. Selon

naus, l'idantite c'est tout ce Qui possede assez de force centripete,

sssez de force de cohesion, tout ce qui comportesuffissmrnent d'arguments pour

~tre

considere comma un tout. Or la difficulte nait du fait

que Is mUS6010gie n'est pss une sciencp. definie au, plus clairp.ment,
Qu'il en existe Quelques definitions mais Qu'il n'y a pas de consensus
R ce sujet. C'est pourQuoi je pense Que nous surons encore des di1'fi19

cultes pour progresser vers la definition d'una relation plus poussee

entre la museologie et les autres phenomenes.
'~anlf8.ster:8nt

01. COn!itBte Qu'au bout do cr:nt ans on parle tnujocrs du

"status nascRndi" de la museologie ; que cel1e-ci est toujours entravee

per son nom

m~me.

Soyons clair: ceci n'est pas Ie fait que des musees

traditicnnels : dans une perspective etroita, cela ressort

la musee-

graphie ; dens une perspective large, cela depasse certainement Ie

mus8e trsditionnel. 5i donc nous accaptons Ie risqua de faire de Ie
museolog:!.", un r:orps theorique prenant en compte divers agents d'un

Domaine similaire d'activite humeine, nous parviendrons peut-@tre

definir non pas l'institution, mais Ie phenomene qui est

la base

de la mus8010g1e. J'appellerai ce php.nomene Ie patrimoine total, l'identit8 totale. La museologio ne concerne pas des techniques mais dee
concepts, oe doit

~tre

une philosophie et, de par la nature

I

m~me

de

l'aventura contemporeine du musee, la museologie est egalement

cybernetique.
Le message des musees est de prouver que nous ne nous rattachons pas
au PBSSe seuloment par des mythes et de ssouvenirs, mais Que Ie passe
est Ie terreau sur lequel se developpe toute identite. Cela demontre
aussi Que la conscience du pasae est en

elle-m~me

une force d'affir-

mation de l'identit8, et danc la forme d'un modele de survie. ae trait

prp.dominant de la mission du musee sst la defense de l'identite mais
dans la continuita de l'identite. Si Ie musee traite seulament du
passe sans Ie relier au present il me rite alors l'appellation
pejorative de "morgue". Les musees du passe, pleins d'objets morts,
ne servent pas la cause de la vie mais servent la cause do la mort.
Gamme, depuis leur origine, Ie destio des musees est technologiqua,
i1 sera fort interessant de voir jusqu'ou l'on paut al1ar en rendent

Ie vie les objets du musee.

Un ecrivain maxicain, Carlos Fuentes, auquel on demandait ce qu'il

nensait

~tre

Ie problema central de

l'Ameri~ue

Latine, ne n;pondit

pas que c'etait la d8mocratie, au les difficultes economiques, ou Ie

dr-pendancR politique. II affirma clairement que Ie probleme etait de
"creer l'identite nationale", proclamant qu'il Y flvait cu danS l'histoire
trop d'imitatians,et

dont bien trap etaient imposeas de l'ex-

teriaur. Et ce n'est pas pure ea!nc1dence que, per la

m~me

source

d'inspiretion, fut cree l'un des meilleurs musees du monde, Ie Musee

d'Anthrapologie de Mexice, suparbe image de l'identite nationale
maxicaine. Done, en definitive devant quai nous trouvons-nous 7
20

Comma toujours davant nombre de questions sans reponsp. au. tout au

moins, nombre da questions
A nouveau et

m~me

poser.

si c'est paradoxal, je vois 16 l'occasion de tenter

de derinir 1a museologia, an 1a confrontant catte fois 6 l'identite, 5i

l'on y parviant, il faudra adma t tre qua 1es musees, surtout s1 on las
prend au sens traditionne1, ne sont pas las saules insti tUti'1OS dans
le domaine du patrimoine : 1a necessaire derinition des musees pouvait
encOJ"" prendre en compte 1es musees tradi tionne1s, mais doi t desormais
incorporer toute une divarsite d'agents

dont Ie domaine d'activite

est la communication dp. l'experience humaine da la nature et de la

culture,
En terminant La papiar - qua caux qui partagant ces ideas na

tl~uveront

pas provocateur - j'simerais attirar votre attantion sur Ie rait que

1a theme 1 concerne la d8rinition de l'identit6 at qua Ie theme 2
concerna en rait la dsrinition du musse, 5i nous convenons qua Ie domaine
du mUSee est l'identite et si nous ana1ysons la demarche du musee 6
cet egard, nous essaiarons elors d" derinir 1e musee contemporain
la dcrinition s'sccordera cartainamant miaux
et

Ausselsheim, au Creus,t

1a Haute-Beauce qu'au Louvre, Le theme 3 montre en fait qu'entre

les deux il faut une theorie qui definisse 1es paradigmes philosophiques,
fixe 1es objectirs at claririe les motifs, C'est par manque de
cette base theorique, de fondement philosophique

notre travail,

Que ncus avans des musses tellement bureaucratiques nt "monl'tariscs";

Ie seul cOte des musees actuelle~nt ouvert au progres est Ie cOte
technn10gique : tous chantent le m/\me vieux refrain mais sur un tnn
plus clair. Aussi dire ce qu'es t

1e rOle de la muse"loaie revient

decider ce qu'est la museologie,

8ien compris. Ie symposiam ""usso1ogip. et identite" sert

mieux per-

cevoir ce Que les musees peuvent Faire pour 1a planete Terre en peril
(Ie "vaisseau spatial Terre" comme dirait 8uckminster Fuller) :
celle-ci

58

transforme de

fa~on

radical.. et dramatique sous nos

yeux, La question cruciaqui se pose est de savoir si l'on pourra

jama's reconquerir l"harmonie -perdue- entre l'homme et la nature,
L'identite est Ie.. "vis vitalis" des choses et des hommes, c'est cn
qui a

ra~onne

tout l'environnemp.nt nous amenant jusQu'ici

travers Ie

temps : allons-nous, par simple mepris de son importance vitale, nous

suicider 7 Outre qu'el1e fait partie de notro

qu~te

d'un modele pour

survivre, la protection de l'identits est reel1ement devenue uno issue

~thique

fondamenta1e.

21

L'inter@t croissant que connaissent les museea

-veritable bourn-

ne constitue pas Ie succas de notre politique, car c'est un affet

de la criss globale d'identite contre laquelle on recherche une contreproduction. Si vous cherchez une provocation efficace pour motiver
votre contribution, rappelez-vous seulement Que la plus grande partie
du monde souffre desesperement pour son acculturation: l'AfriQue,
l'Asie,

l'Am~rique

du Sud De nombreuses nations et regions, m@me

en Europe, sont opprimees par d'autres nations plus grandes et par leur
culture, La neo-colonialisme commence par conr;u6rir l'3ms, par dominer la
culture locale, puis il progresse vers des resultats economiques at
politioues. Qu'on se souvienne de la Chine, de l'Inde, de Ie Deuxieme
Guerre

f~ondiele,

de la COrBe, du Vietnam, du Cambodge, de l'Afghenistan

Nous n'avons fait que danombrer les morts, mais la perte d'identitt,
mais les gens privas de leur passe, depouillss de leur memoirs collective , 1 Que dirait la museologie, qUA feraient les musees per repport

n l'elimination

des indians 1 Toujours

a propos

d'identite, contemplons

Ie tragedie du milieu naturel. La nature ne peut se battre en retour, elle

ne peut qu@tre ab1mse, ruinse, elle peut devenir un

environnl~ment

hostile, malsain at c'est exactement ce qui sa produit I Pouvons-nous

tolerer que nuelque 10 000 especes dispsraissent irreversiblr!ment do notre
plenete chaque annes ? Pouvons-nous accepter de voir la nature repoussee
dans des reserves? Devrions-nous tolerer que l'ingenierie biologique interfere avec l'ordre nature1 (s'il exists encore) 1 Notre preocc"pation
professionnelle et ethique se limite-t-elle

la possession orgueilleuse

du dernier specimen d'une espece exterminne ? Les musees sont-ils la

pour infonner passivement sur les orientations dp.sestreusp.s, ou pour
agir en consequence? La museologie s'occupe du futur de notre passe,
du futur de notre identite - de notre futuro

Zagreb - Yougoslavie, Juin

.22

1966

List of the contributors to the symposium

Liste des contributeurs au colloque
- - - -------- ---- -------

BARROS de TARAMASCO, Isabel

Subsecretaria de Cultura de la Municipalidad de Bahia Blanca Argentina
BELLAIGUE. Mathilde
Chef ~u C0n~re de documentation du Laboratoire de recherche des Musees
de Franee -

Pa:is,

France

BENES, Josef
Museologist, former Secretary of the division of cultural heritage at
the Ministry of Culture of the CSR - Praha. Czechoslovakia
CHACON, Alfredo
Sociologist, university professor and writer - Caracas. Venezuela
CLEMENTI. Hebe
Professor, Directora
Aires, Argentina

Nacional de Libro,

DELOCHE. Bernard
Maitre de conferences

Direcci6n de

Libro

Buenos

l'Universite Jean-Moulin - Lyon, France

DESVALLEES, Andre
Directeur du Musee national des techniques -

Paris,

France

EVRARD, Marcel
Philosophe et ethnologue, Charge de mission pour l'anthropologie
industrielle par Ie Ministere de la Culture - Paris, France
YLOU, Bjarne
Director of the Djurslands Museum og Dansk Yiskeri Museum - Grenaa,
Denmark
GANSLMAYR, Herbert
Chairman of the Advisory Committee of ICOM,
Obersee-Museum - Bremen, FRG
GLUZINSKI, Wojciech
Curator at the Muzeum Narodowe -

Director of the

Wroclaw, Poland

GREGOROvA, Anna
Research assistant at the Ustredna sprava muzei a galerii (Central
Office of Museums and Picture Galleries) - Bratislava, Czechoslovakia
GROTE, Andreas
Director of the Institut fur Museumskunde - Berlin (West). FRG
HAWES, Edward L.
Professor at the Sagamon State University -

Springfield, Illinois, USA

HERREHAN, Yan i
Architect, Executive Secretary of the Secretariado permanente para
paises de America Latina y el Caribe;
Museo de Historia Natural,
Instituto de Ecologia - Mexico DY, Mexico
23

HUCHARD SOW. Ousmane

Conservateur du Musee Dynamique - Dakar. Senegal
JELiNEK. JAN
Director of the Anthropos Institute in Brno. former President of rCOM
and Chairman of ICOFOH - Brno. Czechoslovakia
LAENUI, Poka (BURGESS. Hayden F.)
Vice-President of the World Council of Indigenous People / Conseil
mondial des peuples indigenes - Waianae, Hawaii, USA
LAUMONIER. Isabel
Professor of anthropology at the University of Buenos Aires ,Buenos Aires. Argentina
LEYTEN. Harrie M.
Curator at the Tropenmuseum and Lecturer of museology at the
University of Amsterdam -Amsterdam, Netherlands
MARANDA. Lynn
Curator of ethnology at the Vancouver

Muse~

- Vancouver, BC, Canada

MAROEVIC, Ivo
Professor at the Filozofski fakultet - Zagreb. Yugoslavia
MARTIN, Carol A.
Manager. National Parks Service; Western Archaeological and
Conservation Center - Tucson, Arizona, USA
MAURE. Marc
Museologue. membre du Bureau du Mouvement international pour une
nouvelle museologie. Telemark Distrikthogskole - Bo i Telemark, Norvege
MENSCH. Peter van
Lecturer of museology. Reinwardt Academie - Leiden,

Netherlands

MIQUEL i SERRA. Domenec

Collaborator at the Museo d'historia de Sabadell (Barcelona) Sant Cugat del Valles. Spain
MORRAL i ROMEU. Eulalia
Curator, Museu Textil de Terrassa - Spain
NAIR, S. M.
Director of the National Museum of Natural History - New Delhi, India
NICOLAS, Alain
Conservateur. Charge de mission du patrimoine culturel. Office regional
de la culture - Marseille. France
OBERTI. Luis Jeremias
Anthropologist. Direcci6n de Asuntos Indigenas. Ministerio de Educaci6n,
- Caracas. Venezuela
PISCULIN, Jurij
Editor in Chief of Sovetskij Muzej - Moskva,

USSR

RUSSIO GUARNIERI. Waldisa

Lecturer at the Instituto de Museologia de Sao Paulo - Sao Paulo,
Brazil

24

SCHEINER, Tereza C. M.
Assistant Professor of museology at the University of Rio de
Janeiro - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
SCHREINER, Klaus
Director of the Agrarhistorisches Museum Democratic Republic

Alt Schwerin,

German

SINGLETON, Raymond
Former Director of the Department of Museum Studies at the
University of Leicester - United Kingdom
SOLA, Tomislav
Director of the Muzejski dokumentacioni centar - Zagreb, Yugoslavia
SPIELBAUER, Judith
Lecturer of anthropology and museology at Miami University - Oxford,
Ohio, USA
SULE~, Petr

Museologist at the Department of museology at the Moravske Muzeum Brno, Czechoslovakia

SWIECIMSKI, Jerzy
Lecturer of museology at the Jagiellonian University in Krakow and
Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun; Head of the exhibition section
of the Institut of Systematic and Experimental Zoology of the Polish
Academy of Sciences - Krakow, Poland
TAUA, Te Warena
Ethnologist, Auckland Institute and Museums - Auckland, New Zealand
TRIPPS, Manfred
Professor at the Padagogische Hochschule -

Ludwigsburg, FRG

VARINE, Hugues de
Ancien Directeur de l'ICOM, Charge de mission a la Commission Nationale
pour Ie Developpement Social des Quartiers - Paris, France
WHITLOCK, John J.
Professor of museology and Director of the University Museum at the
Southern Illinois University - Carbondale, Illinois, USA
ZOUHDI, Bachir
Conservateur en Chef du Musee national de Damas - Damas, Syrie

25

Symposium
Museology and identity
La museologie et I'identite

Basic papers -

Memoires de base

1 Definition of identity
2 Approach of museums to identity
3 Role of museology
1 La definition de I'identite
2 L'identite et demarches des musees
3 le role de la museologie

Isabel Barros de Taramasco - Bahia Blanca, Argentina

r,lo pod'?G1OS aislar el r'~USEO del tema

CULTUI1A y debemils pl'3ntear c'lal es 10 mision 5:1cial del ~IUSE(j
cor~o forma acti va de Ius paises Latinoamericanos en una poli tica cultural.Por 10 tanto, hablar de una politico de MUSEOS implica pensar en una POLITICA CULTURAL,en la cual aquella debe
estar inserta,pues solo uno politico cultural referida a los Museos,sera positiva en cuanto concientice y palie las necesidades de todos los 1'1useos del Pais t permi tiendo el desarrollo positivo de estas entidades.

El Museo debe aparecer com/} el ambito

en el que se expresan las vislcitudes de los hombres y de los
pueblos que construyen su futuro.Aunque se apoye en el pasado
debe irradiar cultura demostrando que ella no es algo muerto
pcrque mantiene el sentido de ese pas ado en un m~vimlento hacia
el futuro,es decir,que el Museo mas que un dador de respuestas
al pas ado es el que plantea interrogante,Es el recepta~~lo del
saber acumulado que se proyecta temporalmente.
El Nuseo aparec'e hoy, en nuestros paises como la institucion 0 ente cultural mas importante destina
do a afirmar 10 que reconocemos como Itconciencio de pertenencia"
Entendiendo por Itconciencia de pertenencia" al claro sentido
que una comunidad tiene de su pasado cornun al que Ie concede la
importancla vital por la cual mantedra viva su idiosincracia y
su autonomia.
Afirmar esta conciencia no se nos pre
senta como tarea facil pero debe haber asurncion pOl' parte del
Estado para integrar a 1a planificaclon integral del pais la Fo
litica Cultural,es decir,una .interrelacion de todas las areas de
Gobierno que n cesariamente deben sustentarse en e11a,solo de este modo se apuntara a una democracia cultural, logrando que ca':' a
persona,y las Instituciones por las que trabaja posean las herra
mientas necesarias para que con responsabi1idad,1ibertad y autonomia puedan desarrollar SU vida cultural.
La Cultura comprende las esferas,socio
logica,economica,politica,tecnologica,cientifica,espiritual,de
alIi la imposibilidad de aplicar una Politica Cultural Universal,valida para todos los paises.
La Cultura se vincula a la vida social
en sus m~ltiples aspestos,P9r ello su politica debe definirse
en funcion de 10 accion rec1proca que existe entre ella y las
plarlificaciones que se realicen en materia de educacion,ciencia
tecnologia,medio ambiente y comunicacion.
Esa es la idea clave que debemcs tener del compcnente cultural del desarrollo.
El conocimiento de la intervenci6n huQana en el medio ambiente debe formar parte de la educaci6n de
los ninos y a 105 Poderes PUblicos compete formar especia1istas
en desarrollo cuI tural, capaces de evaluar LA::> CONCC:CUa;CI:.:; l:Lii':
29

PUEDAN TEHEf1 SUS DESICIUNES EN ES EflAS I~UE t\ 3U JUICIO SON TOTAL ENTE DISTINT.1\3 OE LA CULTU'lA.s61o teniendo muy presente es
to,la continuidad historica de nuestro naises Doseera un foco

de cuI tura propia en torno al clleJ. t"e ,....~.ors~ni2.a t~ e i:-Jterpre-

tara el uni ve so de la cuI tura ajar.a.

Cultura Propia,es el ambito de 10. creatividad en todos los ordenes y es capac dad de respuesta autonoma nate las opresiones,la dominacion,y 10. espE'ranza.
Un pueblo que se sabe PAflTICIPE DE UN
DESTINO COMUN es capaz de formular un propo~ito soc al;pero,para que exista llna politica de democracia cultural,lo esencial
es que se creen las condiciones para que cada cOI:lunidad construyan nuevos patrcnes culturales en las relaciones con el medio natural 0 social ya sea a traves del trabajo cotidiano,o,
las obras artisticas.
De all:: que,2.a organizacion )' puesta
en practica de una politica de ~luseos que refleje nuestras propia identidaces,debe exiglrnos una objet iva interpretacion de
la realidad,de las necesidades y de los medios con que contaffios.
El Congreso de Museos del Interios de
la Provincia de Buenos Aires,realizado en Bahia ,Blanca en el mes
de octubre de 1984,nos ha permitido in~erir que los Museos Arsentincs,inmerscs en una sociedad en crisis,patentizan esas brectns~pues son receptores de la sensibilidad 10cal.Sin recurs os
econ6micos,sin aslstencia tecnica necesaria,se han mantenidc
por el esfuerzo personal de aleunos pac os que han recon cide en
ellos los valores que nos identifican culturalmente.Pero las
buenas intenciones no bastan y no siempre se heredan,por elle
se requiere una tona de conaienaia de esta .ealidad.
Cada Museo de nuestro pais es una indiv
vid'.Ialidad q'_le requlere a mas del paliamiento de necesidades basicas con~nes,el tratameinto especializado que reclame el patrimonio que pcsee .Cada uno de ellas,es irreplanzable y merece el
respeto de todes los demas pues en la estructura total ocupan sole el lugar q'le les corresponde.
Cada Museo es un problema especifico
ha resolver,sin embargo 1a Nuseclogla es un a~bito ~ue se desarro
lla mediante IlrlO sistematica,que conoce y ~ue debe poner en practieD soluciones viables para 10 h~terogeneidad de todas estas entidades y lanzarlas a la concresian de una idea modelo.
I!o de~emos l&norar que es el mcmento
para desarrcllClr '_!Da indispensable polltica de animacio0 cultu ral ~letpermita a los individuos y a los grupos descubrlr sus
prcble!nas para ;,oder hacerles freate.
El proyecto del Estado Democrat~co va
consubstaneiado con Ie. necesidad de plantear un movimiento cultural prod:.lcto de la libre di[l,sion de las ideqs que arraic;uen
en la rea.lidad sccial del pais a1 que se pertenece .Cuando un pue
blo logl-a poseer una conciencia. bistl)rica que se a1'lrme en la

30

idea de pertenencia comun, poseer4 una I DENTIDAD CULTUnAL PHOPIA, ral como .10 afrimara el antro;'oloeo africano Anton 13iop:
"La conciencia historiea es el baluarte mas solido que un puebIn puec.e erigi.:' :ontra toe's forr;a de agr'?sior. ex; ::rior".

El aceeso a la cultura,no significa

pues,la aceptacion de un producto cultu al acabado,sino la participacion activa de la c munidad en el hecho cultural.
Cada Museo debe conocer,como fuerza
social de la ciudad los intereses culturales de la region.Es su
tarea,no quedarse en el contexto de coleccionista,ya sea desde
el punto de vista antropolcgico 0 de las bellas artps.De be 0frecer un numero restringido de las piezas de sus colecciones
y valorarlas en su precise contexto,insertadas con manifestaciones culturales contemporaneas.A pnrtir de aqul,el publico podra empezar a crearse un mundo mas rico al que apcrtara la renovacion de sus valores regionales.
El H'lseo asomido por la comunidad
como algo propi~,puede ser ~l elemento dinamizador. de la sociedad y el responsable de la formacion de Ie conci.encia 0 memoria
historica en las jovenes nac:i.ones americo.no.s del sur.
La identidad Cultural que en pa.lses desarrollados pa~ece ser t~n clara en el nu~stro se plantea
aun como interrogante.Una naciono.lidad asumida tardiamente,una
extension territorial ino.bo.rcable y con escasa poblacion,tres
vertientes culturales distintas-ind.lgena,criolla,e inmif,ratoriasumado al constante enfretamiento pollt co e ideo.logico,no nos
han permitido afianzar nuestra prop2~ identi ad.
Es to.reo. de hOj',intentar determinar esta identidad, atenli:mrlon "c' eST)ecial:nen'~e a aquellos que,
por diversas razones cebcmos 6E;sar~o.!.la~~ nuo;stra act vidad en e1
campo de 10. Cultura,
I_a aveptacior. de 10. diversidad
cuItur'll en el ser.o de una comunidp,d, j' 10. cOr's:i.liacion entre pl'.lralismo cuI tur81 Y 'lr.idad nac i nal consti toy =11 uno de los mo.tores
desafir)s que ha.bl,an dO'! afrcntar las P'lli ticas CuI tu:-a] es en el
porvenir.
~u

nueva Poli. tica :,fuse01ogica de-

bera tener prl~;1e:lte 1[\ intenrac:'6~ de los na.c.~()nal.lsmo en el ser

nacional y Jeberd ser uno ~p sus m's caros objetivDs.
For 10 tanto,una Politica de Museos
tener en cuenta la Mision social que e1 Museo cump1e ccfuerza activo. en e1 planteo politico de ur pals,colaborando en
una tranformC!cion so.;:io-cul tl1r'll que per.mi to que 19 CuI tura se
convierta en el 2rivilegio de tad? 18 comuni.dad.
deber~

C0n3iderar que el patriMonio Cul-

31

tural no 5010 el conjunto de les I-lonumentos Ilistoricos,sino

1a to!:nl1dad viva. y dillClmica de 1'1 exiatQnc1<l hl.1mana debe ser
otro de It)" por,tulariDs que se debeT! tener <)11 cuenta.
:,":cn0cer qu"" e1 f.'luseo es el e.'~
ponente de un lJIomento h.istor.tco encaden1ldo 19 futllros camb.ios
y punta cte pnrtida para afrontal' 1m3 51 tU<1cion real que 10 ::oit~a entre l~ trodie.i6n y c1 progreso.
I\firmar que los nuseos SOil 11tDes
para encaus<'r '11 desarraigo qLIC se prodne' cuando 1", r",rS0'1'l
no so s.tente enraizada en una c':lmunidad COli la qLlo no se identifies p1en<1mcnte.

La importancia ele los 111.lseos se

prcsenta c1aramcnte en J.8 labor educativa 'lue 1013 mismos cum.plen, y e:1 Sll pare1 eOr.1Q transmisores de una tradicion c 1)1 tural
de los puebbos, 'I'Je les permi te de este modo loc;rar SIl f'nOFlf\
J DENTI DM).

32

Mathilde Bellaigue - Paris, France

a and, finally,your aim is that

people be persons. 1I

(MIle A., user of the Ecomuseum)

In this last third of the XXth century, politic and also scientific
authorities so often refer to the notion of identity, that one cannot
help:

fcreseeing some extenuating effect as a result. Besides, such

a situation would tend to make idp.ntity - or identities - appeer aa

something once and cor all dafinite, easily perceivable and
translatable

co~nunicable,

then everything would be easy f'r museums; ethnographical

museums have bp.en multiplicated i we have seen - not always for the
best - the successive generations of local museums, homeland mustJums,
.,'

"heimatmusaums", the flowering of any type of ecorrouseums up to nonS[Jnse.

l'f course that may come as answars to the actual need of"roots" , to real
identity crises, producted by wars, colonialism, neo-colonialism, total itarism, economic powers ruling over poor countries, classes disparities
inside nations - whether "developed" or not - ; those identity crises
being sometimes so desperate that they have no other escape than guerilla
or terrorism

+
+

"How do museums look behind forms to make indigef10us values appear 1"
(Hayden BUAGESS, Jakkmokk Conferenca, May 1986)
In France, now for about fifteen years, identity matters have been a theme
of reflexion - heritage being a support to them - to all kinds of
varfgatad and successing ministries (Culture, Sc~ntific Research, Environment, Industry, Social Affairs etc.), research organisations, social
leaders, and, more recently, companies directors. Everything regarding
scientific, technique and industrial culture (Centres
fique

d"

Culture scienti-

et techniquB , Cite das Sciences et de l'Industrie -La Villette -,

33

~~see

du XIXeme siec:e - 6rsay -, ecomusees ) has resulted ~rom the

necessity

o~

~inally

taking into account the labour society which, until

then,and since the industrial revolution,had no recognized culture,

identity and dignity. As always when starting, such movements, more or
le~-con~idential,

experimental and innovating, are real moving ferments,

then, as always, institutionalizing comes end, for various reasons end

in different ways , makes innocuous practices that were until then
spontaneous, passionate and effective.
Nothing is more complex than identity upon which the ecomuseum bases its
existence and to the growing of which it works, for, every day, identity
takes its shape from history -one history-, evoluticn,through its
relation to the lived time,to actual experiments in a precise space,
being also plural, multiple, swarming with contradictions; an identity
to be searched for, or to be rejected by its owners always wavering
from pride to modesty, sometimes to shame. To the person responsible for
the ecomusaum, identity represents tha core of his museel acivitr and,
still more, the core of the autonomy and development of the community
he serves.

This paper is based upon an example I thoroughly know, for a nine years'
experience there, that
!(ontceau-les-~ines.

o~

the Ecomuseum

o~

the Community Le Creusot-

Tha Ecomuseum was created in the seventies, on the

territory where lived a labouring minority, secluded an~ith no recognised

identity: a small area where immigrated people had been altogether
educated and subjugated for more than one century by the industrial
Schneiders' dynasty. Would then that ecomuseum be a possible tool to help
those people towards self-recognition, to acknowledga the existence and
the vRlue of their own workers' CUlture, to express their history and
identity, understand their present situation in its full complexity
50

as to be able of mastering their own future development ? The local

reality which was to be studied, elucidated and communicated was daily,

wholly and actually lived by those people~)Therefore it could not be the
task o~ a traditil!lnal museum, set away in;ts own cultural garden, it
had to be an organism's,permanently inserted in labour, leisure, ways of
life and traditions/a; well as in various buildings actually lived in
and, if possible, especially representative and symbolical, That is why,
naturally, logically, the museum came to be "out of walls" (through some

34

modest, decentralised "outposts"}, acted by people, wi th their own environment, their own things, their memory, their imagination. It could not
be either a spectacular action through mass media and pUblicity, it was
to consist'of a succession of cultural acts, led by specific groups,
about the matters of their occupations, of their preoccupations, of their
memories, of their dreams, in their chosen places, at preciee moments
in the course of a long process of self and mutual education, Expression
and communication are difficult things to people feeling at the same time
both proud and somewhat reticent upon their history and heritage : proud
of that big XIX;XXth century adventure through which the~ere attributed
the best technical

achi~ements,

the best know-hows in metallurgy, proud

and secure in the bosom of the perfect Schneiders' system (education,

health, social care, fame etc ), as well as feeling confusedly guilty
for having bean subdued and attached through these advantages ; sometimes
proud, sometimes ashamed for the ancient industrial halls, still standing in
the middle of the city

and where , for years, they had been toiling,

and which they now estimeted obsolete, decayed ':and even ugly, compared
to the modern ones - and which are in fact astoundingly esthetic in their
architecture, and also historical and symbolical monuments, the testimonies
of an authentic technical workers' culture. All that does coeaist in
,the reality of minds, history and landscapes So, what has to be
told 7 Who has to tell it 7 How 7 Which image for which identity 7
Generally, curators make ethnographical museums from their own scientific
researches and enquiries among Bnd about people, from their observation of
them, and then they display exhibitions on the matte~n that horribly
I

"objective" way (that makes the other an "object" 7), that is to say
with no involved SUbjectivity, neither the researcher's, nor the
peoples' ; a museum made once and for all and which those who have been
"interpreted" there cannot grasp , The identity of a group, the identity
of a people, there, definitely shut inside walls
Who speaks the speech 7
As the museum aims at reflecting an identity (the "mirror" said by

Georges-~enri'Riviere), who can do it 1 Expressing himself about his own

culture being interpreted in the museum, a Maori says: "The biggest
fault that I see is that museums which proudly show examples of indigenous

35

art are run by members of the other culture - that is of the dominant
Western group" (2) ; and about '.'aori artefacts which, for most of them,
have been acquired as a result of fighting and domnating : "P!useums
suffer to-day from ,a legacy of guilt which the present generation of
curators find difficult to contend with w It is not just the "taonga" of
the past that are in museums to-day: the guilt is there, too, and the
pain of the Maori people as well" (2) ; and he expresses through that
terrible image : "The people whose blood is being studied have tended to be
of less interest than their "blood" or their culture"
done so that curators and -

mor~

(2).

What cen be

generally - research-workers be more

numerous to acknowledge the right and ability of others to speak for

'their own inside the cultural institution; so that they accept to
be the "facilitators" (2) of those speakers, bringing their speech
towards fullness and complexity; so that they consider as one of their
main tasks to convey that mass of subjectivities through the material
mediation of those people's heritage - even if people sometimes care
for it and sometimes reject it 1 "Workers, egineers,
can and must be allowed to stand on an eQWal

te~hnical

designers

foot with the research-

worker or the curator. Indeed the formers do know the matter,they have
technical and(ultural ability 'n their own sphere of action, and, last
but not leest, they are, or have been living in synergy with the heritage.
It is for feiling to recognise that basic ethic principle about respecting
real lived knowledge that the universitary specialists of workers'
memory fell into difficulty when, at

~e

Creusot, they had to face an

audience of local workers, many of them trede-unionists. To the scientists' paternalist attitude of experts
of their discoveries to a

~nw!na

"public", the

and agreeing to account

others opposed their collective

cleiming to be the real collective owners of true knowledge, of direct

or passed experience, gestures and know-haws, the memory of inElustrial
deeds". (3)

+
:I:,

"Who looks now at the gothic statues 1 we do

them." (4)

,36

Now we are led to ask a second question : is the museum artefact the
sufficient carrier of identity? We know that the Object, as it is
integrated in the museum, is changed in its nature, in its significance,
in its value, even if it has been brought by those who were related to
it and to whom it refers,' Being a testimony

ofo~~historical

stage of

evolution, how could it now be an exact "proof" ? " Processes of

preservation , come to a deadlock, for nothing alive, nothing symbolic
can resist being shut in and isolated, and resist artificiality ,
social space is both too saturated with normalisation anti too pound to
the law of valuing to be anything else but a

!r~~fr~a!in,

appearance of words and fronts, preservation is in fact the

Beyond the
~a~s_p~o~u

!na f_s~ml~ne~ out of a Tew relics whose function is to legitimate

the authenticity of the whole ", (5) As opposed to the fixness of the
object, there ,is the dynamism of being - whence the necessity of
"shattering" the museum through all kinds of actions such as autonorr,ous
working groups- researching for museum creation, exhibitions - meetings,
symposia, during which, in between "actors" and,:'researchers, experiments
may be elucidated and communicated, through a process of mutual education,
where theory and practice, memory and present experience, science,
knowledge and know-haws,

differ.~t

identities can be confronted and can

meet. It is one posS/ible way of escaping out of the museum, it is also

one possible way for tnsmuseum to escape from its own death,

+
+

If ever such en experiment has prooved possible on that path, it has

also pointed out ,the dangers of giving importance to identity

this

underlines the Tact that any living being is always imperiled

If the

need 01" finding one's own roots may be a dynamic force Tor striving
towards Treedom, it may at the same time be a possibility 01" selfsatisfaction, of conservatism, 01" rejecting alterity,

a paradoxically

reactionary force, The finality of herltege preservation is conflicting

-sometimes even physically - with the ineluctable changing. But what
would be the

interest of that kind of museum if it were not the mus;;um

of changing - as well as the testimony and the Factor of it ? Ooes not

identification need taking a distance 7 Which searching fm' dignity
could go along with a museal vision of things? Which respect of

37

authenticity
to entertain
upset mental
i f it is not

could exist without

such uncertainness,
acquisitions in the
to make it an exact

reject1ng nostalgias ?

~hat

1s our right

such permanent questioning, able to

interlocutors-actors of that .useum,
"proof" of a living identity 7

,.'

(1) "The object 1n ,an ecomuseum is reality" (5. TSURUTA, ICOFO/,!,

Zagreb, 19A5).
(2) S.~.~EAD. Concepts and models for Maori museums and culture centres.
Agrnanz Journal 16, 1985 (3). Communicated by Peter van ~ensch.
(3)

!'arcel EVRARD, foundator of the Ecomuseum of the Community Le Creusot~'ontceau-les-Mines. Lecture in Montreal, february 1985.

(a)

~eurice

(s)

Marc GUILLAUr"IE; La Polit1que du Patrimo1ne. Galilee, 19AO.

38

ALANCHOT. L'Amit1e, p. 25. Gallimard, 1971.

Mathilde Bellalgue - Paris, France

"Au fond, ce que vous voulez, c'est que

les gens soient des gens"
(~lle

R., usager de l'Ecomusee, Le Creusot)

Dans ce troisiame tiers du xxeme siacle, Ie pouvoir politique, les

instances scientifiques font si souvent reference

tite qu'on ne peut

s'emp~cher

la

notion

d'idon~

d'entrevoir quelque effet edulcorant

de

recuperation. Cette situation

tendrait par ailleurs

faire apparattre l'identite - ou les

identit~s

- comme quelc:uecho-

se de defini une fois pour toutes, aisement cernable, communicable,

traduisible ; tout deviendrait facile elors pour les musses : les
musees d'ethnographie se sont mUltiplies, on a vu se succeder -pas
toujours pour Ie meilleur - les generations des ~JSeeS do terroir,
des musses d'identite (regionale), des musees de pays, des Nheimatmuseum", fleurir jusqu'a l'absurdite des ecomusees de tous types.
Certes eela repond

l,actuel "besoin de recines",

de reelles

crises d'identite, produits des guerres, du eolonialisme et du neocolonialisme, de certains totalitarismes, de la domination de puissances economiques sur des pays pauvres, des inegalites de classes

l'interieur des nations -"developpees" ou non - , crises d'identite

parfois si desesperees qu'elles n'ont elors d'eutre issue que la

guerilla ou Ie terrorisme

ff,

+
+
~Quel

re~rd,les

musses

portent~iJ8

sur

les formes pour fairs

epparaHre les- veleurs indigenes q~fell'i ./(ss; ... "I.,,/;", (H_yc:lel1

"1I~e;;&{ I ;7ok!<t1,.,kl< ec,,~~eMe,

",... i rqfG).

En France, c'est depuis quelque 15 ans qu'on se preoccupe particulierement des problemes d'identite' et,

l'appui de cette derniere,

du patrimoine : toutes sartes de ministeres successiTS et divers

39

(Culture, Recherche, Environnement, Plan, Industrie, Affaires sociales)

les instances de recherche, les acteurs sociaux (syndicats particuliRrement)

et, plus recemment , les chefs d'entreprise. Tout ce qui

concerne la culture scientifioue, technique et industrielle (Centres

de culture scientifique et technique, Cite des Sciences et de l'Industrie - La Villette, Musee du XIXeme siecle - Orsay , ecomusees)
est issu de la necessite de prendre enfin en consideration Ie monde
du travail sans identite reconnue, sans dignite admise depuis la revolution industrielle. Comme toujours les debuts de tels mouvelr,ents,
plus ou moins conridentiels, experimentaux, novateurs,sont les
ferments vrais, mobilisateurs, puis, comme toujours, vient Ie temps
de l'institutionnalisation qui/pour des raisons at par des biais divers)
rinit par rendre "inorr('!nsives" des pratiques anterieurement spontanees
passionnees et efficaces.
Rien n'appara!t plus complexe que l'identite sur laquelle un ecomusee
fonde Bon existence et

l'emergence de laquelle il

tr~~eille,

car

c'est tous les jours qu'elle se fagonne, historique, evolutive,

liee au temps vecu,

l'experience presente, localisee dans un cer-

tain eApace, et aussi plurielle, multiple, fourmillant de contradictions ; objet de

qu~te

et parfois de rerus pour ses detenteurs qui

oscillent entre fierte et pUdeur, honte parfois I pour Ie responsable de l'ecomusee enjeu non pas de ses activites museales, mais
plutOt de l'autonomie et du developpement de la communaute qu'il sert.
Pour m'eppuyer sur un exemple que je connais bien, celui de l'Ecomusee
du Creusot-~ontceau-Ies-mines,

~pelons qu'il fut cree sur un terri-

toire ou vivait une population

marg~nalisee

et sans identite reconnue :

petite region ou des gens, immigres des provinces voisines puis de

l'etranger, avaient ete "eleves" et soumis pendant plus d'un siecle
par la dynastie industrielle Schneider. L'Ecomusee voulait ~tre un
instrument

leur disposition pour la reconnaissance par

eux-m~mes

et par les Butres de leur histoire et de leur culture, pour la comprehension de leur situation presente et leur possible me!trise de
leur developpement. La realite locale

etudier, elucider et communi-

quer etait quotidiennement vecue par ces gens (I). C'est pourquoi
il ne pouvait s'agir d'un musee traditionnel, retire dans son Jardin
culturel, il fallait un organisme inSer8 de fagon permanente dans

40

Ie travail, lenloisirs, les modes de vie, dans divers lieux vecus

et, si possible, representRtifs et symboliques ( de la, tout naturnllilment et logiquement,le musee "hors les murs", "agi" par les gens
a l'aide de leur propre environnement, de leurs proprea objets, de
leur memoire, de leur imaginaire. II ne pouvait OlJn plus s'agir
d'une action culturelle spectaculaire a coup. de media et de publicite,
c'etait en fait un encha1nemant d'actes cultur~l" , conduits par des
groupes specifinues, sur les sujets de leur occupation, de leur
preoccupation, de leurs souvenirs, de leurs r@ve, en des lieux
qu'ils choisissaient,

des moments determines d'un long processus

d'auto-education. L'expression et la communication sont difficiles

s'agissant de gens ~i eprouvent des" sentiments melang~s

l'egard

de leur histoire et de leur patrimoine : fiers de cette grande aventure

industrielle des XIXeme et XXeme siecles qui leur attribua les meilleurs savoir-faire de metallurgistes et les meilleures performances
techniques; fiers et en securite au sein du parfait systeme Schneider
(education, sante, aides sociales, logement, renommee etc.), mais
ressentant confusement "leur assarvissement par ces avantages

m~mes

parfois fiers, parfois h~nteux pour les anciens ateliers industriels

toujours dresses au centre de la ville, ou ils ant tant "misere"
et qU'ils jugent obsoletes, laids quelquefois.compares aux espaces
modernes - ces ateliers que l~ur architecture a fait cependant tellement esthetiques et dont l'histoire a fait les monuments symboliques
d'une culture technique et ouvriere authentique. Tout cela coexiste
dans la realite des mentalites, de l'histoire, des paysages
Alors que faut-il montrer, raconter 7 Qui peut Ie faire et comment 7
Qualle image pour quelle identite 7
Habituellement, les museologues font les musees ethnographiques
d'apres leurs propres

enqu~tes

de terrain, d'apres leur observation

de la population conceroee, et de cette fac;on horriblement "objective"

("jui fait de l'autre un "objet" 7) generalelllent preconisee, c'est-adire ou nu~e subjectivite -oi celIe du chercheur, ni celIe de la
population- n'est impliquee, musee realise une fois pour toutes
et sur lequBl ceux qui s'y trouvent "interpretes" ne sa sent,mt"
eucuns prise. Identite d'un groupe, d'une peuplade, d'un peuple,
enfermee dans des murs

41

Qui est "Ie Parleur de la Parole" ? (Maurice BLANCHOT)

5i Ie musee prp.tend vraiment refleter une identite (Ie "miroir de
G.-H. Riviere), qui peut Ie Faire ? Par1ant de l'interpretation de
sa propre culture au musee, Un Meori aces Formu1es percutantes
~Pour

moi la plus grande Faute c'est que les musees qui montrent

Fierement des exemples de l ' art indigene sont Ie Fait de gens de

l'autre CUlture, c'est-a-dire du groupe occidental dominant" (2)

a .propos

des objets maori dont beaucoup ant ete acquis

1a suite de

1uttes et de 1a domination: "les musees souFFrent aujourd'hui de

l'heritage de 1a cUlpabilite que la generation de conservateurs

;e1ctuel:.s a du mal

combattre. I I n'y a pas que Ie "taonga" du passe

dans Ie musee aujourd'hui, il y e la culpabilite aussi, et il y a

egalement 1a douleur du peuple maori" (2) ; et cette image terrible
"Les gens dont on etudie Ie sang ant tendance

devenir mains interes-

sant que leur "sang" ou que leur culture" (2). Que Faut-il pour que,
plus nombreux, les conservateurs et ,plus generalement,les scientiFiques, reconnaissent Ie droit et 1a competende des autres
d'eux-m~mos

parler

l'interieur de l'institution culturelle ; pour qu'ils

acceptent d'~tre les "Faciliteteurs" (2) de cette parole, la menant

simplement

son aboutissement, dans sa complexite ? pour qu'ils consie

derent avoir pour.

une de leurs taches de rendre corrmuniuable cette

masse de sUbjectivites
de ces gens -

m~me

travers la mediation materiel1e du patrimoine

si ces derniers tour

tour l'estiment et Ie re-

jettent? "Le travailleur, ingenieur, des!linateur ou ouvrier paste

peut et doit

~tre

mis sur un pied d'egelite avec l'universiteire

ou Ie conservateur de musee. 11 possede en eFFet Ie cOnnaiSiance du

sujet, il a la competence technique et culturelle dans sa sphere
d'action, enFin il vit au a vecu en synergie avec Ie patrimoine
considere. C'est pour avoir meconnu ce principe ethique Fondamental du
respect de la vraie connaissance vecue, que les specialistes universitaires ca la memoire ou~riere ~e trouverent en serieuse diFFiculte
lorsqu'ils Furent confrontes, au Creusot,

un auditoire compose

largement de travailleurs locaux, militants syndicaux notamment. A leur

attitude paternaliste de grands experts qui

rendre compte de leurs dec'Juvertes

~R~e~t

et qui consentent

un"public", Fut opposee la re-

vendication des travail leurs de detenir collectivement la connaissance

42

reelle, l'experience directe ou transmise, les gestes et les savoirf'aire, la memoire du f'ait industriel" (3).

"Qui regarde les statues gothiquas 7 ""us

les autres les invoquaient"(4)

tout cela nous conduit e poser la seconde question: I'objet de musee

est-il Ie vecteur suf'fisant de l'idantite ? L'on sait qu'integre au
musee I'objet change de natura, de sens, de valeur, m@me s'il est
apporte par ceux-le

m~mes

qu'il concerne ou qu'il devra designer.

Temoin d'un stade historique de l'evolution, comment serait-il alors

encore une "preuve II exacts? " las dispositifs de conservation .

se heurtent a une impasse car rien de vivant, rien de symbolique ne

resiste

l'enFermement, a l'islllement et il l'artif'iciel L'espace

social est a la fois trop sature de normalisation et trop soumis

loi

d~

la

"

valeur pour que la conservation puisse @tre autrechose qu'une

!r~~f'2~a!in.

Au-dels de l'apparence des mots et des fagades, la con-

servation c'est la e~d~c!i2n_d~ ~a~s~

quelques restes dont la f'onction est de

~a~ ~i~ul~r~s_a
legitime~

partir de
l'authenticite de

l'ensemble" (5).
Au f'ixisme de llobjat s'opposa en af'fet Ie dynamisme de

l'~tre

- d'ou

la necessite d'''eclater'' Ie musee par toutes autras actions comma

groupes autonomes de recherche prealables a la creation du museettdes
expositions, rencontres , colloques au cours desquels s'elucide et se
~n

communique l'experience dans

processus de formation mutuelle con-

frontant theorie et pratique, memoire at experience presente, science

savoirs et savoir-faire, identites diffsrentes. Ainsi s'echappe-t-on
du musee, ainsi Ie musee echappe-t-il lui-mAme

sa propre mort.

5i l'experience a ,prouve que quelquechose stait possible dans cette

voie, elle a egalement montre tous les scueils de la mise en valeur
de l'identite : ils ne font que confirmer que ce qui est vivant est
constamment en peril : si Ie besoin de trouver ses racines peut @tre

43.

une force de lutto at de liberation 11 est dans Ie m~me tnr~s la possibilite d'auto-satisfaction, d'immobi11sma et de refus de l'alterite,
force paradoxalement conservatricB et reactionneire: 'L'immobilit" de
la conservation du patrimoinB est en conflit -souvent physique m~rne avec l'ineluctabilit& du c~angement. Mais quel est l'inter~t de cetta
sorte de musee sinon d'@tre Ie musee - temoin et facteur - du changement 7 Puelle identification nB necBssite pas la distanciation 1
Quelle qu@te de dignite pourrait s'accomoder d'une vision museale des
choses ? Quel respect de l'authenticite ne s'accompagne pas du rejet
des nastalgies ? Cette incertitude, ce questiannement permanent qui
peut bouleverser les acquis mentaux, de quel droit les entretenir
chez les interlocuteurs-acteurs du musee, sinon afin que celuici soit la "preuve" exacte d'une identite vivante 1

(1) "L'objet, dans un ecomusee, c'est la rea11te" (S. TSURUTA,

ICOFm:., Zagreb, 1985)
(2) S.Il.!AD. Concepts and models for Maori museums and culturR centres.
Agmanz Journal 16, 1985 (3). Communique par P. van Mensch.
"arcel EVRARD, fondateur de l'Ecomusee de la Communaute.
Conference a t.IJtreal, fevrier 1')85.

(4) Maurice BLANCHOT. L'Amitie, p. 25. Gallimard,1971.

(5) I,'arc GUILLAUME. La Politique du Patrimoina. Galilee, 19AO.

44

Josef Benes - Praha, Czechoslovakia

Before we start investigating the relation between identity
and museology it is necessary to define what museology exactly
is. Museology is the theory of activities and means through
which the society, with the help of special institutions,
chooses, preserves and utilizes authentic objects illustrating
the development of nature and human society. There is a system
of such special cultural, scientific anC educational institutions
responsible for this in each state. i'i:useology as a theoretical
basis for a group of important cultural activities should
be a complex of philosophical principles helpins to solve
as efficiently as possible individual problems appearing in
everyday museum work.
1/ Identity in museology can be defined as the subst[mce
derivable from a complex of chosen products illustrating life
and work of people within a certain territory in their
develop~ent up to the present by reflecting substantial and
pecmanent features of a national culture. Acci(1ental ond changing
featul'es of a culture do not break its identity because it is
only forc,ed by the substantial phenomena, whic!l r:take one
nation's cultural heritage different from any other .
an exactl;}' defined cOlllplex of
In other words, identity. 1,S
features and values existing in material fonn and
characterizing reality by grasping its individuulity, the
indivicuality so important for distinguishing one notion
feom all the others. The term reality means here the development
of nature and society within a certain territory in not only
national, but also regional or even looal sense, for each nation
is a largely varied unit with man,y diff"erent naturel1
surroundings as Vlell as ways of people's life and l"Iork.
All this must be seen in the nation's dev<olopment in which
the national identity, endangered by vnrious forces fc03
outside ond by the trend towards unification, is kept
through people's awareness of being representatives of one
nation. The ;i.denti ty would disappear if all people for'got
their past, since the past keeps them aware of their nr~tiono.lity.
2/ l'he importance of identity in museum work is
AI in its definition /scientific asnect/
r/ in its documentation by keeping a selection of Quthentic
objects representing the nation's culture in the museum
45

/cultural aspect/
C/ in using all this for i.1aking people more mvare of their
nationality, more patriotic and more human /educationcl aspect/.
1'l:us in muzeology identity is first defined, then doctl!:!cnted
and finally utilized for the development of the society
by linkint; the future with the past, which is so important
for the social awareness of people. Being a reflection of
the national identity a museum collection cannot be an
arbitrary collection of anything. In fact identity is in
a ce~tain relati0n to each object of the collection,
each object is a unique piece of evidence of what hap~ened
in the past, and as such cannQt be replaced by any other
object of the same kind. This is where a museum collection
differs from school visual aids: the latter are supposed
to show the differences of one type of objects in comparison
to the other types, without emphasizing individual values
of the object. Fach object exhibited in a museum in fact has
its own identity having its own individual features, its
oriein and its function in a ce~tain place and time, all 1hiS
carefully documented. Not only the material existence of
the object but also its relations to a place and time make
its account of something existing in the past unreplaceable,
convincingly true and any time verifiable. This is why museum
collections are means of studying national, regional or local
icentity, means of investigating its structure with all its
inner and outer relations, and means of defining the features
forming the identity, their roles and relations they enter
in the system. Different types of museums /historical museums,
art museums, cuseums of natural sciences, technical museums!
contribute to evidencing identity dif:!'erently, but their
cooperation brings a complex view of natural and social processes.
A complex ~ype of museum is advantageous for this because the
cooperation within one organization is easier. The basic
~useological approach to reality is based on the orientation
towards the present and the future, for the main contribution
of muscu;ns to the devel3pment of' the society is incoroorating
cultural values to .our present life. Euseu!Jl therefore cannot
be a store of' dead, even if valuable things. This would re~uce
its function to a mere decorative one,which would be of no
importance for the development of culture. The need for
showing notional identity can b~ seen not only with developing
countries quickly building national museums to prove they have
46

their own identity, but also with developed countries with

rich and long cultural traditions, which have museums to
show their cultural continuity and national inrJivi.c.uality.
No nation, however rr.uch it adopts all sorts of technical
achievements, wants to lose its individuality of national
traditions and cultural products, which not only represent
the particular nation but also contribute to the cultural
wealth of the whole world. To show to people cultures of
other nations means not only to let them lmow more from the
rational point of view," but also to help them better experiGnce
enotionally their o\vn culture through comparison with other
cultures. All this also helps nations to understand one
another better.
3/ The basic ob5ective of museolog.y is to for:!1ulate the role
of identity in museum work on the basis of both existing and
desirable ways of presenting natural anc social orocesses to
the public. ";'his theory will make the contl'ibution of musemlS
to the development of culture, science and ecJuc<ition optimum.
The general iGsas can then easily be deveioped in different
types of museums and adapted to make the best use of their
specialized colections. The contribution of museums to the
development of the society being improved1the prestige of museum
work will raise too. The theory mentioned above corresponds
with the present trends towards saving the world's environment
and developing peaceful cooperation among nations, which are the
two essential concitions of further existence of life on this
planet. This is where specialists from different branches of
culture and science can find common basis for solving many
of their problems. And it is lTIuseology as a COI~!TIOn theoretical
basis for many different branches of science and culture
that could help here. Thus museology appears to be f'ar more
important than many people working in museums think, satisfied
with old methods and unwilling to make the effort of finding
new ways, ways fundamentally important for the future position
of museums in social life.

47

Josef Benes - Praha, Tchecoslovaquie

Pour ecleircil' 16 relation de 18 museologie et de l'identi te, i1 faut d' aoord preciseI' Ie conception de Ie museologie.
Celle-ci doit ~tre la theorie de tous les moyens et activites
dont se eert la societe pour aelectionner, preserver, utiliseI' et exploiter des documents authentiques de-l'evolution de
la nature at dela societe dans Ie reseau des institutions
specialisees. Cette theorie constitue dans chaque pays un
systeme de la division rationnel1e du travail dans la cuI ture,
science et education d'apr~s Ie profil et type des musees
perticuliers. Comme il s'agit de la base theorique des ectivites specifiques et par Ie irremple98bles dans Ie domaine
de la culture, la museologie doit etre developpee comme un
complexe des principes philosophiques dont la pratic,ue ffiU,
seale deduit les manieres optimales de la realisation des
"
,
taches
concretes.
1. La notion de l ' identi te sere con<;.ue,
dans Ie cadre de
..
la museologie, comme subatance de l'ensemble des creations
choisies illustrsnt Ie vie et Ie travail des gens sur Ie territoire donne dans leur evolution et refletant les traits
essentials de la culture netionale comme une composonte eternellement valable du petrimoine culturel. Les signes fortuits
change ant au cours de l'evolution ne corrompent pes l'identite culturelle, ear celle-ci n'est ddterminee que per les
signes essentiels qui 1'ont du patrimoine culturel un phenomene specificue different de tous les autres. Dans Ie sens
museologique, l'identite est donc un ensemble de signes et de
valeurs reconnu et delimite scientifiquement, exist&nt dl;ns
une forme Jllaterielle authentique qui caracterisent Ie reelite
donnee de 1'e<;on univoque en soulignant son c~ractere specifique, unique et irrenlpla<;able comme at tribut necessc.ire de
l'existence de toute nation. La reelite signifie ici l'evolution de la natur'e e. de Ie societe sur Ie territoire donne au
niveau national de meme que regional et local, car il s'agit
a'un ensemble di~ferencie, forme par des conditions veriees
de l'environnement et du travail et du mode de vie des gens.
II faut Ie voir dens la continuite de l'evolution fixec per
Ie conscience nationale COmIne moyen de la conservation de
l'identite menecee par les forces externes de la tendonce
,
d unification effs9ant les signes secondaires. Ia disparition
de l'identite culturelle aignifierait la perte de tous lea
49

liens avec Ie passe comme memoire collective maintenant le

conscience de l'appartenance de l'individu
Ie societe et
Ie con~cience collective de la coherence de Ie societe.
2. L'importonce de l'identite pour Ie traveil musesl
consiste en premier lieu dens sa conneissance et Ie determination de ses signes Il'aspect scientifique/, dons Se documentation (. l'aide de l'ensemble des temoignages authentiques
d~ns les collections IDuieales comme partie du petrinoine culturel et representation"nationale 11'aspect culturell et dans
twn exploitation dans Ie but de la formation des rnemhres du
col] ectif donr~e dens Ie sens du petriotisme et l'humanisme
Il'aspect educatifi. II s'egit done, dans Ie musee, du processus de musealisation qui d'ahord determine l'identitc,
puis la documente ~ l'aide des collections et enfin s'en sert
pour Ie developpement de la societe comme d'une partie des
liens intentionnelleIIient maintenus avec Ie passe, compos8nte
necessaire de Ie conscience sociale. La collection museale
est par sa composition Ie reflet et modele scientifique de
l'identite nationale, elle ne peut done pas ~t~e seulement
un ensemhle fortuit des objets ressembles arbitreirement.
Dans Ie sens restraint, l'identite co~cerne cheque objet de
Ie colle~tion museele car il est l'unique et irrempla9able
temoin des evenements passes qu'on ne peut, par principe,
re~plecer per aucun autre exemplaire du merne genre. ~ar cela,
la collection museele se distingue de l'ensemble des moyens
didectiQues dont l'aspect externe doit faciliter Ie differenciation de l'espcce donnee deG autres sans pourtant souligner
Ie valeur individuel1e de la creation en question. La docu,
ment musesl p0snede une propre identite dans ses traits individuels attestes dans Ie dossier de sa naissance et son
fonctionnement dans Ie milien et Ie temps donnes. ee n'est
"
,
pes sF.ulement danCl 1!;l preserv&tion de sa matiere Buthentique
mais Bussi dans la fixation des liens et des rapports anvers
l'environnement que son temoignage est irrempls9sb1e, prouve
veridique,
tout moment verifiable. C'est pour cette raison
,:ue les collections museeles sont Ie supposition et Ie moyen
de verifier l'identite
l'echelle nationale, regionele et
localel, d'etudier "sa structure Ises liens intelnes et externesl et d'evaluer les signes particuliers du point de vue
de leur r3le et de leura relations envers d'autres elements
du systeme ce qui permet de formuler l'essence de l'identite.
La participation des musees des types differents varie Imusees hietoriques et techniques, musees d'art, des sciences

"

Ie

.50

natureIIes/, I'approche complexe au processus naturel historique etant assuree par la cooperation des musees specialises. Dans ce sens on juge aventageux Ie type du musee complexe, p.ex. dans Ie cadre d'une region comme partie specifique de l'ensemble de la nation, om 18 collaboration est
assuree par Ie contact direct de differentes disciplines et

,
1\

de leurs collectlons dans Ie cadre d une meme organ1sat10n.

Un des aspects fondamentaux de l'approche
Ie realite est
l'orientation sur Ie present et Ie futur, car il s'agit de
contribuer
l'evolution de Ie societe par I'introduction des
valeurs culture lIes dans Is vie d'aujourd'hui. Le rousee ne
peut done pas etre un cimetiere des objets morts meme si pre,
cieux, car il se situerait a la marge de la vie sociale comme
une simple decoration, sans apport sensible ~ Ie vie des generations futures. Le besoin de prouver l'identite culturelle
peut etre observe no~ seulement dans les pays en voie de developpement qui s'efforcent de creer Ie plus vite possible un
musee national comme incarnation de l'identite nationale malS
aussi dans les pays develcppes avec une Ipngue tradition culturelle qui voient dans lee musees l'instrument de prouver Ie
continuite culturelle en soulignant la specificite de la culture nationale. Aucune nation ne veut - tout en adoptant les
conquetes techniques de la civilisation - perdre son propre
visage, renoncer aux traditions national~specifiques, ses
manifestations culterelles important non seulement pour
elle-meme mais aussi pour Ie culture de l'humanite tout entiere. La connaissance des pultures des autres nations ne
signifi8 pas seulement l'elergissement des horizonts des
gens dans Ie sens rationnel mais elle leur permet de vivre
emotivement les qualites sp~cifiques de leur propre patrimoine cultlITel, decouvertes par la comparaison avec les cultures des !mtres nations dans Ie cadre du .'approchement
comme moyen de comprehension et collaboration inte,rnationales.
3. Le devoir de la museologie est de delimiter Ie role
et l'importance de l'identite dans Ie travail museal, c'est,
,
,
-a-dire de formuler, a la base de 1 analyse des approches
existentes e1; souhai tables ~ la documentation et presentation des processus naturels historiques, la construction
theorique de l'exploitation de l'identite dans les musees.
Ceci est souheitable pour assurer l'apport optimal des musees
au developpement de la societe qui se sert des musees comme
<i'un instrument specifique et irrempla.,able de son develop-

51

pernent ulterieur dans Ie domaine de la culture, de la science

et de l'education. A la base de cette construction generale,
les museologues specialises des disciplines scientifiques
Clifferentes representees par leurs collections aux musees
vont etudier et pre~iser les possibilites concretes, conditionnees par la ,specificite de leurs .collections. En general,
on peut attendre de 1a solution de ce probl~me theorique une
participation plus large et plus importante des muse~s
l'evolution de 1e societe, c'est-a-dire l'augmentation du prestige des musees et de la profession museale. Et ceei est important non seulement de notre point de vue professionnel .
mais avant tout de celui des tendances sociales dsns Ie monde,
car la solution des problemes toujours grandissants de la
sauvegarde de l'environnement naturel et Ie developpement de
la collaboration pacifique entre les peuples sqnt la condition-meme de l'existence ulterieure de la vie sur notre planete. II ne s'agit done pas seulement du developpement de Is
culture et de la science dans la conception bien limitee des
specialistes des disciplines particulieres qui trouvent souvent
peine un lang age commun et un point de depart pour la
solution des problemes. La museologie comme base theorique
commune de toutes les disciplines devrait Ie rendre possible.
Sous cette lumiere, la creation de la theorie museologique
est un apport beaucoup plus important qu'il ne paralt aux
travailleurs pragmatiques des musees qui se contentent avec
les procedes traditionnels et ne veulent pas rendre leur
travail complique par la recherche des voies nouvelles qui
decideront du role des musees dans Ie futuro

52

Alfredo ChacOn - Caracas, Venezuela

El MUSED EN LA ORB ITA DE LA IDENTIDAD CULTUPJlL

La

Identidad
..

lHasta qu~ punto el t6pico de la 1dent1dad cultural se ha transformado. dentro

de los pafses 1atinoamer1canos en un problema real para e1 pensamiento y 1a ..indagaci6n? En todo caso. la pregunta por 1a identidad latinoamericana encierra
una cuesti6n. 0 por 10 menos una preocupaci6n con sent1do, que cuando no se 1a 1ntenta sat1sfacer desde e1 supuestode que ella serfa una especie de engendro natural 0 de una cierta h1storia m1t6mana convert1da en naturaleza. encierra hasta un desaffo que no deja de ser atrayente.
Tal como ocurr16 durante unos cuantos anos de los decenios sexto y septimo, 1a
pa1abra identidad. despues de ser recurso intelectual y obses16n poli'tico-cultlJral de las autoproclamadas mlnorfas crft1cas. se ha vuelto de uso corriente en la mayorfa de los ~fses latinoamer1canos. En este uso profundo de 1a noc16n de 1dent1dad cultural. encuentro algunos rasgos que me parecen preocupantes.
cuando no ~implemente decepcionantes. Por una parte, parece haber poco interes
en ac1arar 10 que se qu1ere decir cuando se habla de identidad cultura1, ademas
de que todo e1 mundo parece querer decir demasiadas Cosas'a Ta vez cuando hab1a de esta presunta identidad. Por otra parte. la mayor parte de 10 que en real idad
sedlce sobre 1a identidad term1na por sign1f1car1a como algo. en primer lugar,ya dado. rea11zado. cump11doj en segundo lugar. como algo que esta a punto de. perderse y en tercer lug~r. como algn moy valioso y por t~nto ~igno 4e ~er cefe~
dido. rescatado. Finalmente. hay una segunda efectuaci6n 1deo1ogica de 1a no
c16n de 1dent1dad cultural. que despu~s de haberla reduc1do a 10 ya realizado. restr1nge 10 realizado a s610 uno de sus componentes 0 5610 una de las epocas de
su histor1a. Y asf vemos con la mayor frecuencia que a los latinoamericanos se
53

los asume 0 define en funcian de la autentfcfdad ~tniea y de los indigenas, 0

de los afro-amerieanos, 0 de los euro~8merieanos, 0 de un mestizaje eoneebido
como una especie de t~rmino medio adornado con la ffetfcia virtud de un absoluto estad1stico. Igualmente encontramos afirmaciones mas 0 menos tacitas s~
gun las cua1es la identidad cultural de- lod latinmmericanos s610 se cumple en
una de las ~pocas de su histor1a: la Prchlspaniea para aigwlos, la Colonial
para otr s. 1a de la Gesta Emancipadora para 1a mayoriaj aunque. POI' supuesto.
no fa1tan los que 10ca1iza" esta esencialista y reductiva identidad en el cru
ce de uno de sus componentcs ~tnico-socia1es con una de las fases de la hist~
ria: al11 y s~ amente al11
POI' mi parte, pienso que mas merece ser tornado como fundamental todo 10 que para los latinoamericanos y para el mundo. en todos los espacios geograficos
y sociales, se hace para avanzar en la cualificaci6n mas altamente humana del proceso hist6ricoj entendiendo que esta perspectiva s~-opone tanto a la
que niega la validez de las particularizaciones socio-culturales de la vida hist6rica, desde el poder dominante 0 desde sus efectos entre la debilidaddominada, como a 1a que pretende ilusoriamente ais1ar 0 preservar estas particularidades de la confrontaci6n planetaria en la cual se decide, neeesariamente. su capacidad de particfpar en el futuro dialogo universal de los pu~
blos. Quiero decir que en esta perspectiva el concepto de identidad cultural
debe ser definido. en principia. como una-autentica reivindicaci6n de 10 que
es. de los que son. pero no para fijarlos en un estatismo sin futuro 0 sin otro futuro que su inerte repetici6nj ni para aceptarl0 incondicionalmente y
en bloqu~. con todas sus insuficiencias y atrocidadesj sino para conocerlos
sin vac:l1aci6n C/)l!lO un p'mtQ ell! partida y un impulso entrailahle hacia 1a ere.!!.
ci6n de una subjetividad valientemente abierta a las opciones mas valiosas y
deseables para la realfzaci6n del mundo humano. Vale decir: la identidad cuI
tural como vn~ fuerza Vital. reflexiva e imaginativa de la identificaci6n con 10 mejor que se qufere y necesita ser.

54

E1 Huseo y la Identidad
Si pienso a l~ identidad (cultural) de este modo, es porque al mismo tiempo. en
tiendo a 1a cu1tura como e1 conjunto de los sistemas de mensajes, artefactos y
comportamientos en los cuales . los miembros de una sociedad, enrelaciiin coco SI!
posicion estructural en ella, expresan y actuan sus experiencias y las expectat1vas que los cond1c10namientos de esa realidad les motivan. El Museo, por su
parte lque es y que puede pretender ser en la perspectiva de estas concepciones?
Acordemonos en que el Museo -es una forma determinada de mediacion, genericamen
te socio-cultural y muy especificamente 1nstitucional, entre unos mas 0 menos determinados sectores de la soc1edad y a traves de figuraciones culturales emitidas como mensajes por unos y recibidas por otros de estos sectores.
Asf, reconocerle al Museo sucaracter de mediacion institucional de lei cilcllla c10n soc1al de la cultura, es doblemente importante ~.significativo pues de
ella depende la calidad alcanzable tanto en la ejecucion de la labor museistica
en cada una de sus vers10nes histor1cas como en 10 que hace al proposito de
transformarla, pensando en su perfeccionam1ento. Acercandonos un poco mas a la
especificidad de nuestro problema, los promotores y profesionales de la Instit~
cion Museo son los m&s d1rectos responsables y los mas interesados en asumir que la mediac10n cultural museft1ca se singu1ariza en la elaboracion de una cl~
se de mensaje especffica (museolog1ca y museografica) como relativamente variada (par su concepcion cultural y comunicacional, su espec1alizacion tem4tica y
su ca1idad expresiva); asi como tambien en la vinculacion de este mensaje con
los m1embros de otro y otros sectares sociales cuya amplitud socia-cultural
solo raramente trasciende, en los paises de hondas y extensas desigualdades so
cio-cultura1es -como los latinoamericanos-, aquel10s estratos de la sociedad ya inc1uidos en los circuitos de la educacion y 1a difusion cultural formalizadas. Esto es importante saberlo y~umirlo plenamente como responsabi1idad prQ
fesional e historica, a 1a hora de desempenarse 10 mejor posible dentro de las
de1imitaciones y alcances en cada casa vigente.

55

Pero,obviamente. comprender y responder a las exigencias cualitativas de esta

responsabil1dad es aun mas importante en aquellas coyunturas que permiten.
aunque s610 sea ideal y proposicionalmente, enriquecer el campo de su cumplimiento. Entonces. cuando ya no se trate de ajustarse a los supuestos ideo16gicos de la relaci6n musefticia establecida con la sociedad, se hace impresci~
dible re-definir tales supuestos en el sentido, nada menos, de respetar las
limitac10nes consciEntes y programaticas que e1 Museo no puede dejar de tener.
al mismo tiempo que se amplfe el horizonte'de comprensi6n de 10 que se entie~
de por culturalmente v41ido en el d1nam1smo de cada configurac16n socio-hist6
rica. Es sabre todo en este caso cuando hay que recurrir a una concepci6n de
la cultura .que no excluya nada de 10 creado por todos los hombres en e1 curso de su hazafta de existencia y~brevivencia, a 1a vez que autorice con legitimidad a escoger de todo ello 10 que en cada caso va a ser objeto de su pro
pio trabajo.cultural. Es tambi~m en esta situaci6n cuando,puede cobrar validez
y realidad el reclamo por atender, como un problema abierto' y no como una nueva
imposici6n, la dogmatica, la cuesti6n de la identidad cultural; 0 sea, el dere
cho que tienen todo~ los ~~bres, ind1vidua1 y colcctivamentc con~iderGdo" a
enfrentarse con su rea1izaci6n y la de su mundo, concediendole e1 debido valor a 10 que existe y otong4ndole el maximo valor al designio de escoger s.er
10 mas plenamente humano que se 11egue a concebir.

56

Hebe Clementi -

Buenos Aires, Argentina

Latin America's concern over its natural identity is showing

progress in the historical conscience of these nations,which
is both trying to gather facts that will allow the understaD~
ing of the past and to re-examine what has been taught and even
revise thei~ own beliefff.
This complexity derives from the complexity of these countries'
formatio.; countries, which, although young in their integration, reveal a diversity of origins. and a distortion and C08cealment of their historical processes that hinders a clear understanding.
This hasn't always been the case and one should learn to consider this difficult and often desintegrating search. as real pr
gress which has a lot to do with the democratization of Latin
American societies. A very brief ~ackward synthesis of Argent!
na's history calls for reflection and is part of the analysis
of these peculiarities, which, although comparable to other
American countries, keep a specific character.
The main role of space. a key to so many American histories is
also present in Argentina's. The Spanish conqueror and later
the Spanish settler, entering from the north as a consequence
of Peru's Viceroyship imposed territorial arrangements dependent of Lima's rule. On the other side, another current coming
directly from Spain, searching for a road to Asia. explores the
coasts, enters the Rio de la Plata and the continent from what
will later be the port of Buenos Aires. Between both currents,
colonial history is inserted and it excludes huge empty spaces
which leave the inhabitants as unsafe,defenseless islands that
narrow their interaction. facing the desert, eventually dangerous due to hostile indians. All of the Jes~it'B Paracuaria,ineluding the undefined Chaco Gualaaba--alBo frontier land for
the Incas--whichalso includes what we call today the large
Basin of the River Plate plus all of the Patagonia stretching
to the Sounth of Rio Colorado--called the Damn~d Land by the
Araucanos themselves--have been empty lands through the centuries, even until very recently. However, the name empty is
false,becau8e they are certainly not empty, but unexplored,with
Indian population moving around inside these lands.
The greater or lssser contact with these areas, the resulting
tension between inhabited and desert lands (or inhabited by
Indians) Illay be considered a valid key to the development of
all America's history, eultiplied in each American village and
at a certain moment, oommon, in general, to all of America. including different colonizations.
But the Argentine case, i~~ch as the Indian population was
de!'!ni tel,. e.all-I refer to '''INDIOS DE RAZON"who bec_e an
essential element for the e.tab11ehaent of Indian citie8--will
show a definite Spanish eetablishaent with clearly defined fe!
tures, markedly frugal since economical and administrative manage.ent was noticeably mode8t; the communal life was ruled by
the Town Council(Cabildo) and by religious presence; a Jesuit
university in C6rdoba, strongly inclined to theological studie8
57

and a city, Buenos Aires--opened to European influence-- and

also the only and deficient port which was always ready to
adopt all kind of excuses to evade the Viceroyship'e controls.
The different towns were isolated by uncertain communications
and inex~ent roads, risks of pirates on the East. continued
attacks of BraZilian adventurers (Bandeirantes) from the No~
east and Araucanos on the west and the Jesuit mission wedge,isolating the scarcely populated villages froa each other.The
ruralization of life, aonastic influence and poverty were the
most common indicators of the Colonial age. Also and maybe for
the same reason, the revolutionary ideals of equality and dem2
cracy grew With a zeal that resulted in struggles for indepe~
dence, finally conquered after fifteen years of confrontations
and upheavals.
However, the road to a true republic was slow and difficult,
although certainly aggressive. through civil struggles and co~
frontations. very often theoretically explained. where Buenos
Aires appears as the focal point in its capacity to centralize
and shape the new nation. The struggles during the first half
of the century determine the privilege of the littoral area and
the 30 years follOWing the 1853 constitution reveal difficulty
to reach the unity anticipated by treaties. The capitalization
of Buenos Aires is a reluctantly adaitted committment and the
current growth of this city indicates the deficiency in applying that committ.ent.
Anyway, the definite adoption of a liberal constitution opens
the way to governments willing to let in foreiglJ' capital,
European immigrants, railroads and other technological advanc~
mente and above all, willing to produce grain and meat for the
European market. The country enters a very strong immigrational
phase. changing the population structure especially in the lil
toral area where the majority of immigrants flowed. Although
immigrants reached a maximum of 6 million people, more than
half of them returned. Nevertheless, we face a dynamic.differentiated.upstart group which will soon demand participation
in government and will fight for it. with political struggles
starting through political parties that bring modernity to this
approach.
Almost at the same time. the modernized State,strengthened by
the contribution of foreign financing, and also imported technology, is ready to overcome the frightening frontiers and in
fact starts to set foot in the South and North. The problem is
what to do with the Indian communities that have persisted in
the area. This problem continues. but we are more conscious of
it, bringing about a reflexive atmosphere which is, however,
distorted by past accusations and dissimilar vindications.
Certainly. social anthopology bas largely contributed to awaken that sensitiveness which is nevertheless full of irrelevan
ces and declamations. because it is being confused with real crossbreeding, more accentuated now due to indians,living in
cities, who adopt the corresponding culture, while the true i~
dian population would only reach JOO.cOO.
Whatever the case, 'this variety of cultures and social values
reveal an uneven population and requires clarification and ca
pability of analysis. all the more difficult when historicalculture is not reached by a method or an appropiate sensitiveness,but, more frequently by slander, judgments and rash stand
pointe.
Hence, the MUSEUM ie, in our culture, a place of study.reflec58

tion, preservation and testimony which cannot be 6ubstituted

and is basically needed. However, it is plagued by flaws of
origin which lie in overestimations of different sorts and
consequently it must work on the interpretation of its contents and the opening to the community, 80 that the Muse~m
may beco~e the ~d~ca~ivnal and representative pace t claims
to be.
'fhis may be dif!lcul t to understand for those who are unaware
of how uncertain a genuine sense of democracy has been and
still is in Argentine 80ciety, where pseudo ariHtocratic values have prevailed as well 8S a persistent, although slYt
di8crimination resting upon rlisd~in for mestizoa(halfbred;and
colored people. The presence of immigrants,aleo Jiecriminated
in their low strata, contributed to increase confusion in the
many existing prejudices which through ~ealth, found the way
to ommiesion and oblivion. The persistence of t~aditional values in an agrarian oriented society has made it difficult to
perceive the existence of organized la~or in epite of progressive laws.
The virtual suspen8ion of democratic institutions haa lead to
a deceitful hi~tory, sometimes believed and others deformed,
This resulted in ~xtremes and Qisundoratanding3 which renew
the need to return to sources. Writton and material sources,
such as only a mu~eum can offer.
But then it is absolutely necessary to transform the spirit of
Museums, that i8, the way in which Museum object! are presented, approaching the~ to history, fusinithem with the events
themselves. integr~ting them to everyday history, even though
the difference is l~beled. the un1quone8~ distinguished and
the character ide~titied.
For thie, ~e must expect a true revolution of consciences;hard
work on inve~t~gation and ~ccoss; a new manner of teaching and
displaying thro~~h Yhich the ~xpres8iv6 er.d pedagogic needs
prevail over the aesthetic or heuristic perc-,ption even if at
first one oxperiences it as a d08t~lction or as a mutilating
leveling. If :.L MUSEUM c:mnot be a divulgar, a sponsor of enlight~ni~e. debates ADd a provi1er oI ~1tur~1 el~ments that
build i'.lt'lntity, it i8 bound to heco::le n clC8fld building. America ne~rts ~Q ccmpenonte centurieo of mlu,md~~standing and i~
justice, of ~ducationol ?blt~ion and careless integration.The
democratj.c 80ciety of these countries i~ date~Mined to carry
out thie job; th030 who do not participat~ have no future,
becauB3 ~h~ Bisn that zi~ee identity to ~cerica, due to its
origin and dQll~:in:. iii the recovl!ry f)f 1>11':1'" ~ di811i ty. Nobody
muet b~ left out.
The cotli;lr.uity ofculturl\, the exif:'tence of F.l legitimate and
pre8e~vert orde~, the will to bring Museums nearer to people,
without any differetlce are the muB~S of MUlleu~~ today, a~ well
as their sonae of onnipreeence in all cultures of th~ world.
In this country an~ in ~l America. whe~e testimoniea have
been practically destroyed due to unculture, negligence or ignorance, the Muneum has ~ difficult job ahead and a pilgrimage
to its sources in order to become a cultural ylace. free from
the barrenness of 6helves and showca~es.
The search of identity for Argentines will ha'lll rea), meaning
only when the Docial psrepective includae everybody, that ia,
towards an equalitarian society, Without deprived O~ forgottm
cltizeno,expressly or tacitly. It ill a).s.:> the futur'J of the M~
seum,ae long as its contenta have clear meaning for all groups
in society.
59

Hebe Clementi - Buenos Aires, Argentina

La actual preecupacion americana por la identidad nacional
esta mostrando el progrese de la cenciencia historica de
estes pueblos, que si por un lado est a precurando tener
datos concretes para entendar su pasado, par el otro encuentra
que tiene que entrar a revisar mucho de 10 que se Ie ha
ense~ado y buena parte de sus miamas creencias.
Esta complejidad deriva de la misma complejidad de formacien
de estos paises, que si bien son jovenes en su integraci6n
acusan una diversidad de or!genes, y una distorsi6n y ocultamiento de sus procesos, que par cierto no contribuye rara nada
a una inteleccien clarificadora.
No siempre ha sido as! par cierto, y esta busqueda dificil y
muchas veces desintegradora, hay que s~ber verla coma un
verdactero progreso, que hace tambi~n a la democratizaci6n de
las sociedades americanas.
Una brev1sima sintesis de la
trayectoria argentina hacia atras, convoca a la refle~ion e
integra el analisis de estas peculiaridades, que si bien no
dejan de ser comparablas a las demas americanas, retienen un
caracter espec1fico.
El protagonismo del espacio, clave en tantas histJrias americanas, se da tambien en la ar~entina. El conquistador, y luego
el colonizador espanol, penetrando desde el norte como sacuela
del establecimiento en el Oirreinato del Peru, desciende a est3s
tierras e impone una erdenaci6n territorial dependiente del
distante poder limeno.
por otro lado, la corriente que proviene
directamente de Espana, y que esta buscando afanosamente el
paso al Asia, e~plora sus costas, entra en el Ria de la Plata,
y penetra al interior del continente des de 10 que sera la ciudad
puerto de Buenos Aires.
Entre ambas corrientes,
se enmarca
buena parte de la historia colonial, que e~cluye enormes espacios
vacios que dejan a los habitados como precarias islas indefensas
que aprietan su interacci6n, frente al desierto eventualmente .
peligroso por la presencia de indigenas no pac!ficos. Toda la
Paracuaria de ~os je~Jitas, que incluye la indefinici6n del
Chaco Gualamba - que por su parte fuera tambien tierra de
Frontera para los Incas -, y que incluye asilnismo 10 que hoy
rotulamos como la inmensa Cuenca del Plata, mas toda la Patagonia
que se extiende al sur del rio Colorado - calificada como
tierra maldita por los mismos araucanos -, son tierras vacias
a 10 largo de siglos, hasta ayer mismo. La misma designacion
es falaz.
Porque por cierto no son vacias, sino ine~ploradas,
y circulan en elIas poblaciones indigenas.
La
mayor 0 menor frecuentacion de estas areas, el establecimien
to, de una tension entre tierras pobladas y tierras desier~as
(0 de indios), puede ser considerada una clave valida para
el desarrollo de toda la historia americana, que se centuplica
para cada poblado americano, y que en lineas generales en un
ciarto momento es comun a toda America, incluyendo todas las
procedentes de las diversas c~lenizac10nEs.
~ero el cago argen~ln~ en la menlna que la pOblacion indigena
es decidi:lamente escasa - me refiero a los indies de razen que
se censtituyen en elemento indispensable para el establecimiento

61

de las ciudades indianas, mostrara una definida instalsci6n

espanola de rasgos bien deFinidos, de acentuada Frugalidad
en la medida que la cupula afministrativa y economica Fueron
senaladamente modestas, y una vida comunal regida par la
institucion del cabildo y la presencia religiosa.
Una universidad jesuita en Cordoba resueltamente inclinada a los
estudios teologales, y una ciudad abierta a 10 que viniera
de Europa, Buenos Aires, que ademas es un unico y mal puerto
presto a adoptar todos los subterfugios posibles para eludir
los controles que la deoendencia del Virreinato de Lima Ie
Fija.
Una articulacion dificil de las diversas regienes
aisladas par comunicaciones precarias y camines inexistentes,
riesgos de piratas al este y de perpetuos avances de los
bandeirantes peruleros en el noreste, un detenimiento de la
instalacion par la perseverancia del ataque araucano al oeste,
y la GUna de las misiones jesuiticas , aislando entre si los
diversos pueblos escasamente poblados. La ruralizacion de
la vida, la influencia monastica, y la pobreza, Fueron los
indicadores mas comunes de los siglos coloniales. Tambien
y quiza por esa misma razon, prendio aqui el ideario
Fevolucionario de la igualdad posible y la instalaci6n
democretica, generando un fervor del que son tEstimonio las
luchas por la independencia que llevaron par 10 menos quince
anos de enfrentamientos y conmoci6n hasta la definitiva
independencia.
Sin embargo, el transito hacia una verdadera republica fue
lento y dificultoso, aunque por cierto muy beligerante y
combativo , expres2do en luchas intestinas, en enfrentamientos
muy explicados te6ricamente, y en los Que Buenos Aires aparece
como un eje configurador en su papel nucleador y en su
capacidad de nucleamiento y vertebracion del nuevo pais.
Las luchas de toda la primera mitad del siglo definen esa
prerrogativa del ares litoral, y los treinta anos que siguen
a la aceptaci6n constitucional en l85~, revelan las dificultades de alcanzar esa unidad prevista en los tratados.
La
misma capitalizacion de la ciudad de
Buenos Aires, es
ape~s uncompromiso
admitido a duras penas, y el actual
crecimiento de esta misma ciudad senala las deFiciencias
de aplicacion de Ese compromiso.
Como quiera que sea, la adopcion definitiva de una constitu
cion liberal, abre las puertas del pais a Is instalacion
de gobiernos dispuestos a abrirse a la entrada de capitales
extranjeros , de inmigrantes europeos, de ferrocarriles y
otros pvances tecnologicos, y sobre todo, a encarar la
producci6n de granos y carnes para el mercado europeo.
El pais entra en una faz aluvional en
10 Que a poblamiento
ge refiere, Que cambia la estructura poblacional, sabre
todo del area litoral, en donde se inserta la
mayor parte
de la afluencia inmigrante, Que si bien llego a tener un
pica de seis millones de personas, acusa tambien un regreso
de mas de la mitad de esa cifra. De todos modos, se eata
Frente a un nucleo dinamico, diferenciado, advenedizo,
Que a poco exigira participacion en el gobierno y hara
fuerza para lograrla, iniciandose las luchas pol{ticas
a travEs de partidos politicos y dendole una notaria
modernidad a este enfoque.

62

Casi al mismo tiempo, e~ ebta~o mode.~izado, robustecido por

el aporte de
financiarriento exterior, y tecnologia taml'ien
importada, encara la superacion de las fronteras temibles,
y de hecho impone su presencia en las franteras del sur y del
norte, can 10 cual se Ie plantea que hacer con las comunidades
i ndIg enas que han persistido en el area. Prablema qu,; nos
alcanza hasta hoy, y cuyo grado de canciencia va siEndo cada
vez mas alerta, produciendo un clima reflexivo aunque tambien
deformado por las acusaciones hacia 21 pasado y las reivindicaciones de variJdo cuno.
Par cie=to ue Is antrapolog!a social, ha contribufdo en mucho
a des per tar esa sensibilidad, que sin embargo esta llena de
inconsecuencias y declamaciones, porque se confunde can el
mestizaje real que cada vez 5~ va acentuando mas, debido a la
presencia del indigena aculturado en las mismas instalaciones
urbanas, yale eSC8sa representatividad numerica de las
poblaciones indigenas propiamente dichas, que todas sumadas
alcanzarian a los 300.000 personas.
Como quiers que sea, este mosaico de culturas y de val ores
sociales que acusa un poblamiento tan desparejo,(y en
presencia) requiere una capacidad de analisis, y un esclarecimiento, tanto maS difIcil, cuanto que la cultura historica no
es 10 mas corriente, y todavIa mas, tampoco se accede a ella
a trav8s de un metoda y una sensibilizacion adecuada, sino
que 10 mas frecuente es la diatriba, el enjuiciamiento, y la
t oma de posicion inconsulta.
De ahi entonces que el MUSED viene a ser en nuestra cultura
un ambito de estudio, de reflexion, de preservacion y testimonio, que nada puede 5ustituir, y que tiene una necesarieaad
basica. Sin embargo, esta igualmente acosado par sus vicios
de origen que muchas veces radican en sobrestimaciones
de una u otra suerte, y que par tanto, deben trabajar la
interpretacion de sus contenidos y la apertura a la comunidad
de una suerte tal que sean el ambito educativo y representativo
que aducen ser.
Esto quiza sea difIcil de entender para quienes desconocen
como ha side y sigue siendo precaria Is legitimacion de un
sentido realmente democratico de la sociedad argentina,
en la que han prevalecido valores aristocratizantes, y
una solapada pEro persistente discriminacion apoyada en el
desden par el ~Estizaje y el color. La presencia del inmigrante, a su vez discriminado en sus sectores bajos, no nizo
mas que confundir m's todavia este mapa de prejuicios,
que solo encontro el' la posesion de riqu2za la puerta ancha
de Ie amisian y el olvido. La persistencia de valores
tradicionales en una socledad orientada hacia la explotacion
de la tierra, ha dificultado la percepcion de la fuerza
del trabajo organizado, a despecho de una logislacion
a vanzada.
Par otra parte, la virtual cesantia de instituciones democr~
tices ha inducido a una t1istciria de t"alaz memoria de la
que se descree, por LIn lade, y par el otro se la det'orma.
Con el resultado de que triunran las ant~nom~as , y las
incomprensiones, renovando la necesidad de acudir a las

63

Fuentes. Fuentes escritas y Fuentes materiales, com8 las que

solo un museo puede ofrecer.
Pero entonces es imperiosa una transformacion del espiritu de
los museos, es decir, de la forma de presentar los ohjetos
muse!sticos, de acercarlos a Is historia, de confundirlos con
la gestion de los hechos, dE integrarlos con la historia
cotidiana, aun cuando se marque su diferencia, se distinga su
unicidad, se i~entifique su car'cter.
Para ella, solo cabe esperar una verdadera revolucion de las
conciencias, un trabajo !mprobo de indagacion y acercamiento,
una reconstrucci6n de la modalidad de ense~ar y mostrar
que el Museo debera adoptar, en donde prime sobre la oercepci6n
estetica 0 heurIstica, la necesidad expreEiva y pedagogica,
aun cuanda en un primer
momenta se la sienta como un
a rrasamiento,
0 como una
niv elaGi on mutiladora.
Si el ~lusea
no alcanza ese nival de ambito difusor, de
propiciador de
debate y esclarecimiento, de provisor de elementos culturales
para la construcci6n de
la identidad que se busca, el Museo
se condena.' a ser un recinto cerrado.
En America hay que
bubrir siglos de dEsentendimiento y marginaci6n, de
olvido
educativo y de integraci6n desprejuiciada.
Es una tarea en
la que esta empenada la sociedad democratica de estos paises,
y el que se excluye no tendra futuro, porque el signa que
da identidad a America toda, par su arigen y par su destino,
es el de la recuperaci6n de Ie dignidad del hombre, para 10
cuel nadie podre marginarse a considerarse exento.
Le

continuidad de cultura,
el imperio del orden praservado
leg!timo, le voluntad de acerearl0 al pueblo sin diferencias,
son imperativos de la existencia de un Museo hoy, y su
sentido omnipresente,
en todas las cJlturas del univErso.
Le toea en este
pais, y en America tOda, en donde los
testimonios han sido objeto de verdadero arrasamiento, par
incultura, par desidia, por ignorancia~ al MUSED, una tarea
dificil y un peregrinaje a sus fuentes, para ser el ambito
cultural que 10 redima de la esterilidad del anaquel a le
vitrina.
y

La busaueda de
la identidad de
los argentinos, s610
tendra 'verdadero sentido en la medida que Ie perspectiva
social los incluya a todos, ee decir, en la verdadera
marcha hacia una sociedad igualitaria, sin desposeidos ni
marginados, tacitos a expresos. Es tambien el futuro que
tiene el Museo, en lamedida que sus contenidos tengan
algun sentido expresa para todos los sectores de su
socieded.

64

Bernard Deloche - Lyon, France

---------

Le musee et les ambiguItes de l'identite patrimoniale

C'est bien de l'identite patrimoniale qu'il s'agit, et non de l'identite individuelle. Or, la question de l'identite patrimoniale (c'est-a-dire
de l'identite conferee par 1 'heritage d'un patrimoine, et en l'occurrence
d'un patrimoine culturel voire spirituel) se trouve ~tre, pour de multiples
raisons, au coeur des probl~mes de la museologie. II semble m~me que toute
l'histoire du musee - sans doute aussi sa prehistoire et sa protohistoire depuis la Renaissance se soit elaboree autour du .concept d'identite. Le
musee est aujourd'hui Ie lieu d'une crise, qui a pour objet precisementl'image de l'homme. Certaines des transformations du musee, la creation des
ecomusees notamment, sont a comprendre comme une reprise et une recomprehension de la notion d'identite, comme la substitution d'une identite
ethnique a une pseudo-identite universelle. C'es~-a 1 'explication du r6le
de l'identite patrimoniale dans la mission du musee et a l'ambiguite meme
de cette notion que je voudrais m'attacher dans les lignes qui suivent.
5'il faut distinguer entre l'identite individuelle et l'identite patrimoniale, l'une et l'autre sont pourtant indissociables. Disons d'abord
que notre identite peut ~tre comprise comme 1 'ensemble des caracteres qui
nous definissent et nous distinguent d'autrui en tant que personne individuelle; l'homme sans identite, aUene au amnesique, est une sorte de "voyageur sans bagage" (J. Anouilh), transparent et deracine. La psychologie
montre tr~s bien comment 1 'enfant constitue sa personnalite au moment au,
se reconnaissant dans un miroir, i l devient capable de dire "moi" et de
distinguer l'image de soi de la realite tout entiere. Cette conscience de
notre identite apparalt comme l'un des traits fondamentaux de I'humain. On
comprend que Ie musee ne puisse ~tre etranger a une pareille idee, il s'est
d'ailleurs fait en un sens Ie garant d'une certaine image de l'homme. La
question est toutefois d'estimer Ie bien fonde de cette mission.

LE MU5EE, DEfEN5EUR D'UNE IMAGE IDOLATRE DE L'HOMME

Nous connaissons Ie rOle que joue _1 'image, en Occident tout au mains,

dans la constitution de la personnalite individuelle: en permettant l' identification, elle favorise 1 'emergence de l'identite. C'est dans Ie mi1'oir,
disions-nous, que l'enfant realise son unite, c'est dans l'identification
au mod~le du p~re qu'il resout son Oedipe et devient homme.
Or, l'acc~s a la culture, dans-la civilisation europeenne, se fait
precisement par Ie biais d'une double identification, fondatrice d'une
identite elle-meme inseparable d'une image de l'h~~e:
1. Identification de l'homme a sa culture dans laquelle les oeuvres accomplies deviennent Ie miroir du sujet, Ie monde materiel symbole du monde
spirituel. En faisant (dans l'art et dans Ie travail), chaque sujet se
fait. II fa~onne son identite propre en s'alienant dans une mati~re ~
laquelle il donne une forme et qui subsistera independamment de lui. Ce
processus d'objectivation dans l'alienation, qui est Ie processus m~me de
la culture, a fort bien ete analyse par Hegel et par Marx. En modelant la
65

matiere, l'etre humain soumet 1" nature d sa volonte et "revAille les puissances endormies en lui" (Marx). L'oeuvre de l'homme devient "insi Ie signo
visible, sensible et durable de l'esprit:, la marque obj"ctivp. de notre
identite propre.
2. Identification aussi de chaque individu a l'homme universel, car l'oeuvre accomplie n'est rien tent qu'elle s'isole dans une irreductible individualite. Precisement, notre humenite s'enra~ine dans Ie depassement de
notre individualite, et l'on ne devient homme que par l'education et la
reappropriation de l'heritage univ"rsel. La donc, notre identite se complique puisqu'elle result3 de cette tension entre notre individualite propre
et l'homme universel. A ce titre, par exemple, la celebre antinomie du gout
presentee par Kant dans la Critique sl,,- jugement (1790) manifeste Ie constant va et vient entre l'appreciation subjectiue et la pretention a l'universalite, plutat qu'elle ne revele, comme on l'a oru trop souvent, l'insondable mystere du Beau. Tout est con9u pour que chacun de nous se reconnaisse comme etre spirituel dans l'oeuvre de tout homme. Bref, nous sommes
indissociablement nous-memes et l' homme uni ,'ersel.
Le musee s'est trouve spontanement associe a ce processus, Malraux l'a
bien montre. On peut meme dire qu'il s'ost canstruit comme 1 'institution de
notre identite spirituelle. En penetrant au musee, chaque visiteur vient
chercher sa plenitude d'humanite et essumer, en se l'appropriant, Ie patrimoine collectif de la culture. En tant qu'il reunit, copserve et protege
les archives de la culture, Ie musee est Ie lieu privilegie de l'identite.
Ce role de sauvegarde se traduit par deux operations simultanement entrecroisees et antagonistes:
1. D'abord, Ie musee s'efforce de dupliguer, c'est-a-dire de reproduire
aussi fidelement qu'il est possible la realite, afin de renvoyer a l'homme
1 'image la plus complete de lui-meme, l'image d'une humanite se soumettant
la nature tout entiere. C'est 13 Ie phenomene general d'acculturation par
lequel l'homme annexe toute chose a l'image do soi. D'oG cette incessante
proliferation des musees dans laquelle se melent la nature (museums d'histoire naturelle, parcs et sites proteges) et la culture sous ses formes les
plus diverses (l'art, l'histoire, les metiers, les techniques, la vie
quotidienne), tissant ainsl un fin reseau de rationalite. Aussi l'eventail
des musees apparait-il d'une multiplicite et d'une diversite considerables:
musees de la peche, du vin, de l'aviation, de la poste, de ]a coutellerie,
etc.,

mais

aussi musces des grands hommes,

evenements politiques. La liste est

~Bns

des

faits

historiques,

des

fin.

2. Mais, d'un autre cote, Ie musee tend sans cesse a separer, a distinguer
ce qui est digne de representer l'homme de tout ce qui est vulgaire,
prosalque, profane au banal. Car l'autre fonction du musee - complementaire
et antinomique de la precedente - est d'instaurer et de maintenir coote que
coOte une frontiere entre Ie sacre et ]e profane, entre ce qui peut "faire
imagen et ce qui ne doit pas "faire image".

Complementaires en apparence, les deux mouvements (dupliquerlseparer)

sont contradictoires: la duplication tente de ne rien laisser echapper,
conquerante, el]e reduit infatigablement Ie champ d'indetermination qui
l'entoure, pour cela e]le va jusqu'a recuperer Ie prosaique et Ie trivial,
Ie gadget et l'image publicitaire; tandis que la separation s'efforce
desesperement
de
maintenir les frontieres,
elle s'insurge
contre

.66

l'indifferencation qui menace en permanence Ie musee. O'un cote donc Ie

narcissisme triomphant (tout annexer a l'image de soil, de l'autre Ie
formalisme malthusien de la separation (separare pour separer, parce que
tout ne peut etre eleve a la dignite d'objet de musee). Reveler ce paradoxe
n'a sans doute pas ete la moindre des le90ns des ready-made de Marcel
Duchamp, puisqu' Us ont mis au jour Ie grand ressort qui commande la
distribution des musees. De ces deux exigences croisees resulte une typologie des musees par reference a deux axes perpendiculaires l'un a l'autre:
l'axe culture/nature (vertical) et l'axe sacre/profane (horizontal) selon
Ie schema sllivant.

Nature

Culture
des
Musees
d'histoire
locale

Musees
Beaux-Arts

Musees de la
prehistoire
!
!
!

Tresors des
eglises

Musees du
sport !

Sites proteges
Musees de la
belle nature
Museums
d'histoire
naturelle

Musees des
grands hommes

Musees d'arts
decorati fs

Musees des faits

historiques
Musees du

!
!
!

Musees de
l'air

Musees
naval

!
!
!

folklore

Musees de la mer

!*********************~****************

,liE-*******il:*********il*******************
Mus~es

des
techniques
industrie/artisanat

~lusees

Musee de
la banque

de!**************************************
1a peche ! **X-j(-*******oj(****-**X-*lf*)lo*******il *11:.*****
!*****************il********************
!*******************"*******************

Musees de
la poste

Musees des
produits
alimentai res
Musees de
gadgets

!**********~***************************

!**il***********************************
!************ LE NON-MU5EAl. ***********
!**************************************

jl;**lHHIi(*************** *.M--*** **** ***.lE-* .Ji.*

! ** ** ** ********-X--JHI* ****"* ***-11"* ******.lE-***

!**************************************
!**************************************
! **********-)(-***************.11'**********-11.
! -1(-**********'*** ****'1(.,)(.****.1(-*** ****** ****
! *****-********** IHt*ll- *.)(-*** -If*********lt-*"* ..

(ssal de typologie critique des musees traditionnels.

N.B.
tres

- Le tabeau ci-dessus est fort incomplet, il ne donne qu'une esquisse

sommaire du fin reseau des musees, mais en revanche il s'efforce de

67

situer les foncl ons-clus. On relevera par exemple 1 'importance des

extremes dans chacun des quartiers (muoees des beaux-arts, sites proteges,
musees des gadgets), de meme que celIe des deux grands postes-charnieres
entre culture et nature et entre sacre et profane (musees de la prehistoire
et musee du folklore). L'ecomusee ne trouve pas sa place ici, car il
investit simultanement tous les champs et, par la, brise les lignes de
partage classiques.
si l'axe nature/culture, fondamental dans la civilisation occidentale,
connalt une frontiere souple et mobile du fait du principe d'acculturation
incessante,

en

revanchL'

1 f axe sacre/profane - marque en ses orIgines

de

platonisme et de christihnisme - forme une ligne rigide destinee il remplir

une fonction de sauvegardt:. Quant a l'angle inferieur droit, i l designe ce
qui dans la nature est profane, Ie "no man's land" du non-museal, la limite
extreme de ce qui ne pourra jamais constituer 1 'image de notre identite.
Tel est, semble-t-il, Ie phenomene dont reI eve Ie musee: il s'agit de
fournir aux hommes des symboles de leur identite, et ces symboles doivent
signifier Ie pouvoir illimite de l'homme sur les choses tout en l'aureolant
de sacralite. L'entreprise est idolatre et narcissique, il n'en point doutel', nous nous en sommes d'a.i1leurs explique en d'autres circonstances (cf.
B. Deloche, Museologica, Paris, Vrin, 1985). En offrant aux hommes une
identite universelle par Ie principe de la reappropriation patrimoniale, Ie
musee se faisait l' instrument d'une nouvelle religion, d'une religion de
1 'homme, que Malraux n'a pas manque d'annoncer et de celebreI'.
La question est de savoir si Ie probleme des rapports de l'identite et
du musee se limite a ce jeu narcissique.
Il - L' !DENTlIE NARClssIQUE PRDFONDEMENT sECOUEE PAR LEs MUTATIONS DU MUsEE
Parmi les tentatives museologiques contemporaines, si diverses dans
leur vitalite, je ne retiendrai que les deux plus extremes, car elles
signifient l'une et l'autre un radical bouleversement de notre identite.
a) L' tkomusee:
Bien qu'il revienne il d'autres que moi, a Andre Desvallees notamment,
de parler des ecomusees, que l'on me permette d'en dire un mot pour appuyer
Ie propos que je tente de defendre.
Un indice, des.1 'abord, nous signale que les chases sont en train de
changer: l'angle inferieur yauche du tableau (cf. supra, p. 3) n'appartenait pas au domaine museal i l y n quelque cinquante ans, et cela est tres
significatif. L'extension incessante du reseau des musees suit une direction nouvelle, en meme temps que Ie rapport nature/culture devient principe essentiel de partage. Les musees d'ethnologie regionale - et plus
particulierement les ecornusees - ont d'un seul coup brouille les cartes de
la distribution traditionnelle. Desormais, on asslste il une sorte de naturalisation de la culture, une reconnaissance de la part decisive de la
nature dans tout comple~e culturel, et, reciproquement, il une acculturation
accrue de la nature dans laquelle Ie paysage lui-merne n'echappe plus a la
reorganisation par l'homme. Parallelement, tend a s'estampoer la reference
a la sacralite: dans ce rernaniement que connaissent les musees, la part la

68

plus mediocre du champ museal, cellf'> qui. n'etait consideree, si l'on veut,
que par pretcrition, devient.1c pocte flambeau du musee; c'est dans .!!':
vernaculaire que _s' opere cnncretement la reappropr lati on ~imonial".. En
meme temps, l'aire jalousement ecartee du non-museal se trouve invcstie de
maniere inattendue: Ie rapport nature/culture determine dans la nature
profane elle-meme des sites, des points de rencontre, des hauts lieux. Les
interdits sont desormais leves, tout peut entrer au musee, de la meme
maniere que tout est en droit objet de science.
Precisement, alors qu'il vient permuteI' les axes qui ordonnaient la
museol09ie traditionnelle et bouscu]er ainsi la carte typologique des
musees, l'ecomusee condamne, en meme temps qu'il l'ecla.l.re, la zone obscure
du non-museal. Tout devient musealisable: non qua la culture se convertisse
en phagocyte. mais l'ancien entrecroisement du naturel et du profane fait
place 8 un complexe dans lequel la nature est assimilee a la cu.1ture par Ie
travail et la vie, non plus par Ie jeu narcissique dela representation.
Reprise humaniste ~ la fois concrete et non idolatre: il n'est plus
question de ~ouvrir Ie champ de Ie realite d'un fin reseau capable de figer
et de th~sRuriser l'histoire des th~mes, car les th~mes s'effacent derri~re
les systemes culturels auxquels ils appartiennent. Le geste est inseparable
de l'outil et de :'objet produit, la mine indissociable de son complexe
siderurgique (1). L'ecomusee c'est la globalite: on se refuse 8 decomposer
un systeme en ses elements (archeologie industrielle, mentalites, folklore,
institutions, habitat, etc.), alors que Ie reseau museal fragmentait les
themes (i.ci Ie musee de 1 'outil, 18 celui de I 'objet, ailleurs Ie musee
d'histoire locale, plus loin Ie musee de la terre). La globalite et Ie
privilege accorde a l'ethnologique viennent rompre l'isotropie des themes
au profit d'unites organiques nettement differenciees. Bref, il s'agit de
mettre au jour des foyers culturels et de les etudier 8 la fois in vivo et
in situ. Le sacre comme Ie profane, la nature autant que l'art participent
a ce complexe global qui fait un ecomusee.
L'image de 1 'homme, celIe que vehicule Ie musee, celIe qui assure
notre identite par Ie biais de l'identification, cette image a change de
visage. Sans doute pour la premiere fois, Ie musee n'est plus commis a la
tache ingrate de renvoyer, dans son universelle diversite, une image
narcissique du sujet. D'ailleurs l'universalite du sujet, qUI confinait
paradoxalement a l'anonymat, s'efface derriere la n~ltiplicite differenciee
des ethnies. II ne s'agit plus de se reconnaitre comme l'homme universel,
de joindre Rome a Jerusalem, ou l'Inde a la Grece antique, dans une unique
fresque the~trale, grand reve de Malraux. Et si Ie principe de la
r~appropriation patrimoniale subsiste,
il s'est depouill~ de ses racines
mystiques,
intemporelles et impersonnelles pOljr s'inscrire dans une
histoire ouverte.
Voila qui va dans Ie sens meme de 1 'evolution des sciences de l'homme.
Celles-el, en effet, on methodiquement demonte cette image officielle de
l'humain: l'homme universe 1 s'est vu demantele au profit de recherches
divergentes et multiples.
(1) On se mefiera toutefois, lCl encore, des ambiguites: car les confusions
sont toujours a craind~e.
L'ouvrier polonais, par exemple, ne
reconnaitra pas son identite dans Ie complexe siderurgique fran~ais erige
en ecomusee; d'ou les ecueils de l'artifice et de l'arbitraire, et Ie
danger I'enouvele d' un faux universel.
f~cheuses

69

b) Le musee-Iaboratoire:
De l' autre cote, Ie developpement des sciences comme ot/Lils de
ma!trise de l'homme sur la nature et sur lui-meme a conduit a des demarches
neuves en matiere museale. Le musee peut, a juste titre, en tant qu'immense
silo d'archives de toutes sortes, etre considere comme une memoire collective. Or, la memoire ne saurait se confondre avec une quelconque accumulation, elle est partie integrante et active de notre identite. Une telle
memoire requiert une structuration methodique que favorisent les techniques
nouvelles offertes par les statistiques et l'informatique.
Certains musees ont deja su s'en emperer et mesurer tout Ie profit que
l'on pouvait Lirer de cette gestion rationnelle de la memoire. On peut
songer, par exemple, a la constitution de bases de donnees dans les plus
grands musees du monde (ex. a Paris la banque de donnees des objets
domestiques au Musee national des Arts et traditions populaires). D'un seul
coup, les immenses reserves d'archives des musees revelent les informations
dont elles sont porteuses. La memoire collective devient contraction et
pr jection de nos experiences passees en vue d' affronter l' aveni.r. Cette
memoire ne conserve plus pour isoler et pour sacraliser, au contraire elle
cree les liens et les interconnexions necessaires a l'exploitation optimale
des donnees.
Ces deux tendances extremes viennent briser Ie syst~me de sauvegarde
de l'image de l'homme: d'un cote s'estompe Ie proces 'de symbolisation
(l'objet de musee entre dans des series, il cesse d'etre un miroir pour
redevenir simple outil ou mediateur); de l'autre, l'identification a
l'universel ne fonctionne plus. La museologie de Malraux tassait les
. differences, ramenait les civilisations les plus eloignees a un commun
denominateur., tandis que Ie developpement des banques de donnees et des
ecomusees favorise 1 'apprehension des differences stylistiques, ethniques,
geographiques, etc. De meme, la double identification qui conditionnait
l'image de l'homme s"efface au profit de la reconstitution d'ensembles
culturels tendant a mettre en evidence les differences relatives. Le miroir
du musee vole en eclats, l'image narcissique et idolatre vacillo.
III

VERS UNE NOUVELLE FIGURE DE L'IDENTITE PATRIMONIALE

Quel nouveau visage de l'homme se dessine-t-il par Ie biais

revolution du monde des musees ?

de

la

C'est d'abord Ie signe d'une nouvelle ma!trise de l'homme sur lui-meme

par Ie remaniement du statut de la memoire.
Celle-ci cesse d'etre
retentrice et tournee vers Ie passe pour devenir une memoire prospective et
ouverte. Tel est Ie sens, en tout cas de 1 'experience des ecomusees, ces
musees qui forment la memoire collective d'une communaute vivante, active
et creatrice. Memoire ethnologique donc, mais aussi memoire logique offerte
par Ie developpement des banques de donnees et de l'analyse statistique.
II y a mieux: tend a se dessiner desormais une nouvelle identite de
l' homme, .une image humble et lucide; .image qu'impose aujourd' hui , par sa
derision meme, Ie comportement de ces hommes que hantent les fascinations
de la congelation post mortem ou de l'abri anti-atomique individuel. Nous
devons assumer notre humanite en la reconnaissant pour ce qu'elle est:

70

- ~ph~m~re et historique, de condition temporclle et fragile;

- irr~ductiblement materiel Ie et sans symbolisation outrecuidante, car
l'esprit emerge de la materialite, car l'oeuvre de l'artiste au de
l'artisan est d'abord geste qui fa~onne une matiere;
- communautaire, car cahque fois que l'homme pretend se sauver seul
d~nature l'homme;
- mais forte du droit a la diff~rence au sein de la communaute, comme
reconnaissance de l'identite individuelle ou ethnique'contre une absurde
sacralisation du sujet individuel.
Ainsi comprise, notre Identite - celIe qui doit fonder nos droits
serait a chercher dans notre puissance cr~atrice et dans les promesses
qu 'elle porte en elle, plutot que dans une abstraite identification a
l'image de l'homme universel.
Dans cette ~volution, qui nous ramene a nous-memes par dela une alienation pJuriseculaire, l'histoire contemporaine du musee aura joue un role
decisif: de gardien d'une image intemporelle et figee de l'humain qu'il
etait, Ie musee s'est fait subrepticement Ie salutaire destabilisateur. Les
secousses et les crises qu'il connatt aUjourd'hui sont significatives non
pas d'une humanite irreversiblement exilee de ses propres fondements, mais
bien d'une autre identite, d'une autre image commune aux hommes, sans doute
moins mysterieuse et moins aur~olee de sacralit~, mais plus vraie quoique
plus incertaine et plus inconfortable.

71

Andre Desvallees - Paris, France

IDENTITY
A few problems raised by the identity definition and the way museum deals with
the theorethical and practical questions raised by it.

On commenting Tomislav Sola s reflections I would like to underline two points:

the first one concerning the opposition between two identity problems categories
the natural and the cultural ones, this question has been solved since several
years so it'sno n~d to discuss about it any longer however it's always possible
to distinguish when analyzing marking elements that make identity those linked
to a natural environment from those issued from civilization only. Nevertheless
it will be impossible to isolate from that civilization a wild nature which
would not have been shaped by man.
But above all the notion of identity is mainly a cultural notion. Man only feels
concerned by identity. And his looks is essentially a cultural look. So we can see
v
it is impossible to talk of "a natural identity". Indeed T. Sola himself comes
to that conclusion when he says that "identity is something to consider in its
entirety".
The second point d~als with the identity content of museums. Indeed it is
absolutely necessary to distinguish among museums those for which cultural
identity' is their specificity and those which don't care about the problem
when collecting or exhibiting, either because they are highly specialized
in a field or they pursue universal and international goals at the same
time. Such is the case for most art museums and quite a number of science
and technique museums~ This is also true in western countries museums for some
museums or departments of antique archaeology or exotic ethnography. Cultural
identity is the 5pecificity of anthropology museums considered in a broad sense
namely historical museums which take a general view of history and not a factual
one or linked to such or such class and of history museums which express the
research result without giving too much importance to the way collect has
been carried out whether through archaeological excavations or ethnographical
investigation.
Before going further on in researching the forms that could take identity
museums one must ask what ;n fact is identity for museum such as le Louvre,
the British MU3eum the Metropolitan Museum and the Dahlen Museum in Berlin.
73

As many identities, as represented cultures we might say. But who intends to

say too much in fact does not say anyt"ing. Yet when observing this kind
of bulimia for museums and nostalgia for the works of the past of which
museums witness, if. not from their initiators at least from their visitors
one may wonder' if this quest for identity through museums does not express
the same nostalgia. Identity may originate in claiming independence, in
the political assertion of regional specificities or simply in the cultural
assert ion of differences referri ng to the 1anguage or cu1tui'a 1 features i nherited from the past. Thus it can take various forms: among them make the
public sensitive to the historical and ethnographic heritage, collect, exhibit
this heritage and present it permanently through museums.
Towards a museum new concept.
But museums which contribute to the quest or assertion for identity raise
new problems in the museal w~rld. Traditionally and generally museums are
a refuge for dead civilizations remains. Should they also serve as mirrors
for living civilizations (contemporary art, technics, contemporaryethnography) ?
Must museums be the repository for furniture objects or mobile wor~s of art
only excluding every thing which is not movable (monumental or vernaculer architecture, monumental machines or incorporated into a building for example a powerhal1lller or a mi 11 ). ?
Administration has to face serious problems because of the increase,
- may be exaggerated, increase of which the development is difficult to restrain
- may be disorganized but !Jowerful ,- of initiatives tending to collect witnesses
to gather collect'lolls called "ethnographical" because they are neither archaeological nor artistic but may be called'''cultural'' if we refuse to extend the field
of the ethnographical disciplinf>. These problems are due to a change in the way
of considering cultural object and at the same time to the widening of the
cultural ~IHness nature, to the variety of cultural activities and the attempt
to integrate con~ervation into a living cultural action.
A different point of view: to express a culture
The ethnographic discip'line and museums which translate it deal with the collections with a viewpoint completly different from art history and art museums
Closer to archaeologia on that point their goal does not consist in collecting
or preserving masterpieces but in finding significant witnesses of a recent
civilization and to express this civilization. In fact this explains, in
geographical areas of various di~ensions, the systematic quest for cultural
identity through museums. Seen from that angle the collection does not precede,
74

the museographic project. on the contrary the quest for identity is the vector
which will lead to the creation of a museJm. That's why that prob1ematics causes
so many problems to professionna1s who stay in the existing administrative
framework.

A different field involving a different material

Not only the approach is different but the content itself may appear as being
not very precise to minds used to well defined categories (let us say: after
the year 800 th sculpture. painting, Inechanics. optics. chemistry. electricity.
biology. sociology, economy .. ) and to people used to well delimited lines
between periods and between technics of expression. The only certitude lies
in the linlits a~stracted1Ygiven to the geographical frame for the research of
the cultural identity. But everything seems possible. As a matter of fact if
one succeeds in defining the ethnologic discipline it is far more difficult to
limit the content of a museum collections intended to a given culture. Moreover
not only culture does not limit itself to a given moment what means a reference
to its environment and is engraved in time. what implies an historical perspective with a view towards the present. the future and the past as well. Besides
we can't have set ideas on the choice of the witnesses which will illustrate this
culture: country and agricultural world vestiges of course but also, according
to the local dominant characteristic. -urban and industrical world remains.
Materials objects indeed but also writing and oral expressions of a culture;
utility witnesses ans also social. game. aesthetic witnesses too. None having
the advantage over the others but all of them tending to illustrate a culture
complexity.
Collections of.a different nature
If we admit that the field can be widened then rises the problem of the variety of,
naterials constituting cultural witnesses which illustrate cultures. If there
is already a great variety of materials in classical archaeology .we notice a
far more important number of them when trying to express a recent or even
living culture.
It leads to a selection rroblem as difficult if not more difficult than when
dealing with contemporary art collections because it must apply both to quantities and to a wider criterio10gy~

75

What implies to collect, preserve and exhibit (and the means to do so)
with objects of a classical type photographic documents,phonograms, cinematographic pictures and also living beings. What also implies when considering material remains that be solved the differences of administrative
treatments between excavated objects or objects found above the ground or
furniture or real estate objects differences which produce artificial gaps
in chronology and dimension and don't help to solve intricate problems linked
to architecture and mechanism: adjustment of a wine-press machinery', of a water
mill or power-haJmler to the building which shelters it and the contrary;
adjustment of various domestic implements according to the house arrangment
(kind of forges, water supply, reserve for food . ) and the contrary whether
the period considered is a research or levelling period.
A different Use
The difference of the administrative statute of various material vestiges
expressed the view of an epoch. Progress made by anthr'opology led to a global
conception of culture fo11oweo by a refusal for sectorizing. Then came the
inevitable claim for cultural new appropriation.
It gave birth to new museographic models not'centralized and at the same
time dynamic. Being not centralized they can associate in a unique structure
common institutions (therefore occasionally central) and particular institutions (with a specific theme or created around a site a building or a complex
object that can't be moved).
Being dynamic they join education creation activities to preservation and
exhibition ones to such an extent that it is not anymore possible to consider the first ones as being simply complement (that's also true for natural
science history technique or fine arts mU5eums as for history or ethnography
museums) and that prob1ems concerning institutions collections and staff
statutes cannot be solved bi texts which govern classical museums. In France
ecomuseums played an important part in that way. Their experience more or
less successful however can help in considering the subject.
A global solution or various empiric solutions
Facing such a change in prob1ematics we are inclined to look for a model
perhaps complex but unique which would be registered into texts and could
solve all the problems of statutes to which are confronted every day professionals in charge of the heritage and looking for the way to value it.

Within the framework of this broad model the classical museum would simply be
a museum among others, the curators with their present conception agents among
others. works would be a kind of cultural goods like others but the whole
system would work without sterilizing compartment. We can also try to find
the highest conmon factor of all these institutions or cultural institutions
projects and leave every administration to decide how to solve 'its problems
leaVing apart what is not i,l its field. However it will be necessary to gather all forms and innovating actiJns. to ellaborate texts and bring then
to a successfiel issue: it should be the work of a new administration in
charge of the cultural fields research or of an already existing administration
wishing to accept the challenge.
For some. c ~se changes are cyclical because linked to fashion (regionalism.
ecology) for others they follow the rising consciousness of a larger audience
therefore are irreyersible. Such is the case for those who try to express
identities.
Of course their task is difficult and though they may think they are bound to
a certain objectivity linked to the level of knowledge at that very moment
and also necessarily even if they are protesting and supposing they don't
want to do a militant work. linked to a certain ideology that time only
allows to judge objectively. Such is the case in Germany between the two
world's war with the Heimat museums. Concerning these museums: the only
point which could be criticized i.s the arbitrary and utopian nature of the
contemporary territorial divisions which stress in an even more strikinq way
variations in time.

77

Andre Desvallees - Paris, France

L'IDENTITE
Quelques problemes poses par sa definition et par 1'approche du musee
aux questio'ns theoriques et pratiques qu'elle pose.
v

En preambule et en commentaire des reflexions de Tomislav Sola, je

voudrais faire deux remarques.
La premiere est liue l'oppositicn entre deux categories de problemes
identitaire~, les naturels et les culturels, ~st une question qui a
ete tranchee depuis pas mal d'annees, au point qu'il n'y a meme pas a
en debattre. 11 :-este toujours loisible de distinguer, dans 1 'analyse
des marqueurs qui font 1 'identite, ceux qui sont attaches a un environnemenl: naturel de ceux qui ne decoulent que de la civilisation; il n'en
sera pas mains impossible d'isoler en marge de cette civilisation une
nature sauvage qui pourrait pretendre ne pas avoir ete modelee par
1 'homme.
Mais surtout, la notion d'identite est par essence une notion culturelle.
Le regard identitaire ne peut etre porte que par 1 'hon~e. C'est done par
esser.ce un regard culturel. Et a partir de 13 on voit bien qu'il ne peut
y avoir une "identite naturelle". C'est d'ailleurs un peu la conclusion
3 laquelle semble conduire T. $61a 10rsqu'il dit que "1 'identite est
que1que chose ~ rega rder comme un tout".
La seconde remarque touche au contenu identitaire des musees. 11 est en
effet indispensable de distinguer entre les musees ceux dont 1 'identite
culturelle fait la specificite et ceux qui ne se soucient absolument
pas de ce probleme, tant dans leur col1ecte que dans leur presentation, ou
bien qu'ils 'sont tout 3 fait specialises dans une disciplinp, ou bien
qu'ils se donnent des objectifs a la fois universels et internationaux.
C'est le cas de la plupart des musees d'art, de bon 110mbre de musees de
science et de technique. C'est aussi le cas, dans les musees du monde
occid~ntal,pou~ certains musee~ ou certains departements d'acheologie
antique ou d'ethnographie exotique. L'identite culturelle est done la
specificite des.musees d'anthropologie au sens large, a savoir des
musees historiques qui ant de 1 'histaire une vue globale, et pas seulement evenementielle ou attachee seulement 3 tel1e ou tel1e classe, des
musees d'histoire qui expriment le resultat de la recherche sans attacher
trop d'importance au fait que 1a collecte ait ete faite tantot par la
. fouille ar~heologique et tant6t par l'enquete ethnographique.
79

Avant d'aller plus avant dans les formes que peuvent revetir les veritables musees d'identite, i1 faut se demander ce que peut bien representer 1 'identite pour un musee COrmle le Louvre, le British Museum, le
Metropolitan Museum,ou le musee de Dahlen, a Berlin. Autant d'identites
que de cultures representees pourrait-on dire. Mais qui pretend trop
dire ne dit rien. Par contre a partir de ce constat que 1 'on peut faire
de la boulim'ie de musee et de la nostalgie pour les oeuvres du passe
dont ils temoignent de la part, s'inon de leurs initiateurs, du moins
de leurs visiteurs, on peut se demander si la recherche d'identite par
1e biais du musee n'exprime pas la meme nosta1gie. C'est qu'elle peut
avoir sa source aussi bien dans 1a revendication d'independance, dans
1 'affil'mation politique des particularites regionales ou simplement dans
1 'affirn>ation culturelle de differences par reference a 1a langue et
a certain nombre de traits cu1turels herites du passe. De ce fait,
elle peut revetir des formes tres variees, parmi lesquelles celle de
la sensibi1isation au patrimoine historique et ethnographique et, par
de1a ce,lui-ci, 1 'exposition, voire 1a col1ecte de ce patrimoine et
sa presentation permanente sous forme de musee.
Vers une nouvelle conception du musee.
Mais 1es musees qui apportent leur contribution a la requete ou a
1 'affirmation de l' identite posent des pl'ob1emes nouveaux dans 1e monde
museal. Traditionne11ement et globalement, les musees sont le refuge de
ce qui a subsiste des civilisations mortes. Doivent-ils aussi etre 1e
miroir des civil'isations vivantes (art contemporain, technique, ethnographie contemporaine) ?
Les musecs doivent-ils n'etre que le receptacle d'objets mobiliers ou
d'oeuvres d'arts mobiles,
en faisant exclusion de tout ce qui n'est
pas mobile (architecture monumentale ou vernaculaire, machines monumentales au integrees a LIn batiment, comme un marteau-pilon ou un mou1in) ?
De serieux problemes sont poses a 1 'administration par la multiplication,
- peut-etre excessive, mais difficile a freiner, - le developpement,
- peut-etre desordonne;mais puissant - des initiatives tendant a 1a collecte de temoignages et a 1a constitution de collections dites 1argement
"ethnographiques", parce qu'elles ne sont ni archeologiques ni artistiques,
mais que l'on pourrait aussi bien appeler tout simplement "culturel1es" si

. 80

on refuse une extension du domaine de la discipline ethnographique. Ces

problemes naissent a la fois du changement d'optique par rapport a 1 'objet
culturel, de 1'elal'gissement du champ culturel, du changement de nature
du temoin culturel, de la diversification des activites culturelles et de
1 'essai d'integration de la conservation dans une action culturelle
vivante.
Une optique differente : exprimer une culture
La discipline ethnographique et les musees qui la traduisent abordent les
collections avec une optique tout a fait differente de 1 'histoire de 1'art
et des musees d'art. Plus proche en cela de 1 'archeologie leur but est
non pas de recueillir et de conserver des chefs d'oeuvres mais de retrouvel' les temoins significatifs d'une civilisation proche et d'exprimer cette
civilisation. C'est ce qui explique, en des aires geographiques de dimensions variables, la recherche systematique de 1 'identite culturelle, par
le moyen des musees. Vue sous cet angle la collection ne se situe pas en
amant du projet museographique : c'est la recherche de l'identite qui est
le vecteur au bout duquel existera le musee. Et c'est pourquoi cette problematique pose tant de difficultes aux agents qui essaient de se raccrocher aux cadres administratifs existants.
Un champ different entrainant une matiere differente.
Non selJlement la demarche est di~ferente, mais le contenu lui-meme
adopte des contours qui reuvent paraitre flous aux esprits habitues aux
categories bien definies (disons : apres l'an 800, la sculpture, la peinture, la mecanique, l'optique, la chimie, l'electricite, la biologie, la
sociologie, l'economie, etc ... ), au>: contours bien nets entre epoques,
entre techniques d'expressioil. La seule certitude reside dans les
1imites qui sont donnees" abstraitement, au cadre geographique paUl" la
recherche ce 1 'icentite culturelle. Mais a partir de la. tout est possible. En effet, si l'on reussit Ii definir la discipline ethnologique, i1
est bien plus difficile de limiter le contenu des collections d'un musee
destines a une culture donnee. Non seulement en effet une culture ne se
limite pas a un moment donne, ce qui suppose une reference a son environnement, et s'inscrit dans le temps, ce qui suppose une perspective historique, avec un regard aussi bien sur le present et le futur que sur le
passe. En outre aucune idee preconcue nepeut s'appliquer aux choix des

81

temoins qui illustreront cette culture: les vestiges du monde rural et

agricole, certes mais, aussi, selon la dominante locale, ceux du monde
urbain et industriel. les objets materiels certes mais aussi les expressions ecrites et orales d'une culture; les temoins utilitaires, certes,
mais aussi les temoins sociaux, ludiques, esthetiques. Mais pas plus les
uns que les autres, tous concourrant a illustrer la complexite,d'une
culture.
Des collections de nature differente.
Si la largeur du champ est admise, se pose immediatement la question de
la variete des materiaux formant les temoins culturels qui illustrent les
cultures. Si les materiaux sont deja varies pour 1'archeologie classique,
ils ie sont bien plus encore lorsqu'on tente d'exprimer une culture
proche et meme vivante.
Ce qui pose un probleme de selection aussi delicat, sinon plus delicat
que pour les collections d'art contemporain parce qu'elle doit s'appliquer a la fois a des quantites et a une criteriologie beaucoup plus
vaste.
Ce qui implique la collecte, la conservation et 1 'exposition (et les
moyens pour ce faire), a cote d'objets de type classique, de documents
photographiques, de phonogrammes, de cliches cinematographiques, de
bandes video et aussi d'etres vivants. Ce qui implique aussi, s'agissant
de vestiges materiels, que soient resolues les differences de traitement
administratif, entre des objets de fouille ou des objets trouves au
dessus du sol, ou des objets mobiliers et des objets immobiliers, differences qui creent des coupures artificielles dans la chronologie et
dans la dimension et ne permettent pas de resoudre par exemple les problemes complexes lies a 1 'al'chitecture et au mecanisme: adaptation de la
machinerie d'un pressoir, d'un moulin a eau ou d'un marteau-pilon au
batiment qui l'abrite et inversement ; adaptation des differents instruments domestiques en fonction de la disposition de la maison (type de
forges, distribution de l'eau, reserve des aliments, etc ... ) et inversement selon qu'on se sitiJe dans une epoque de recherche ou une epoque de
ni ve11 ement.
Un usage different.

, 82

La difference de statut administratif des differents vestiges materiels

traduisait 1a vision d'une epoque donnee. Les progres de 1'anthropo1ogie
ont conduit a une conception globa1isante de 1a culture d'ou decoule un
refus de sectorisation. A quoi s'est ajoutee la revendication (ineluctable) de la reappropriation culture11e.
De la sont nees des conceptions demode1es museographiques, a 1a fois
non centra1ises et dynamiques. Non centra1ises, ils peuvent associer dans
une structure unique des etablissements communs (donc eventuel1ement centraux), et des etab1issements particu1iers (thematiquement specifiques ou
constitues d'un site, d'une construction ou d'un objet comp1exe intransportable).
Dynamiques i1s integrent les activites d'animation et de creation a ce11es
de conservation et d'exposition dans des proportions tel1es qu'ils n'est
plus possible de considerer 1es premieres comme de simple complements
(ce1a est vrai aussi bien pour les musees d'histoire nature11e, de
techniques ou de beaux arts que pour 1es musees d'histoire ou d'ethnographie) et que des problemes de statut d'etablissement, de statut des collections et de statut des agents ne peuvent genera1ement se resoudre par
les textes regissant les musees classiques. Les ecomusees en France ont
ouvert 1a voie a cet elargissement. L'experience qu'ils ont vecue, bien
ou mal, peut aider a 1a ref1exion generale.
Une solution globa1e ou des solutions empiriques diversifiees.
Devant un tel changement de problematique on est a 1a fois tente de
rechercher un modele, peut-etre complexe, mais unique (sorte de PPCM)
qui s'inscrirait dans des textes et pourrait resoudre tous les problemes
de statuts sur lesquels butent chaque jours 1es agents en charge du
patrimoine et de sa mise en valeur. Dans le cadre de ce modele large le
musee classique ne serait qu'une categorie d'etablissements parmi d'autres, les conservateurs avec leur conception actuelle, une serie d'agents
parmi d'autres, 1es oeuvres un type de biens culturels parmi d'autres :
mais 1 'ensemble fonctionnerait sans cloisonnement sterilisant. On peut
aussi rechercher le plus grand commun diviseur de tous ces etab1issements
ou projets d'etablissements culturels et laisser a chaque administration
1e soin de resoudre 1es prob1emes qui 1a concerne en abandonnant ce qui

83

lui echappe. Encore faudra-t~il que quelqu'un fasse siennes toutes

les formes et actions novatrices et fasse aboutir des textes qui les
prennent en charge: ce serait 1'oeuvre ou d'une administration nouvelle, chargee de la recherche dans le domaine culturel, ou d'une
administration existant mais acceptant de faire un bond en avant.
Pour certains, ces changements sont conjonctuels, reflets d'une certaine mode (regionalisme, ecologie), pour d'autres ils decoulent de la
prise de conscience de phenomene culturel pour un plus large public et
sont done irreversibles. C'est le cas de ceux qui essaient de fixer les
identites.
Certes, pour ces derniers la tache n'est pas aisees et, quoi qu'ils en
veuillent, ils ne peuvent que tendre vers une certaine objectivite,
liee a 1 'etat des connaissances du moment et aussi necessairement, meme
a leur corps defendant, dans 1'hypothese ou ils ne cherchent pas a
faire oeuvre militante, liee a une certaine ideologie que le recul seul
permet de juger avec une certaine objectivite. Tel est le cas en Allemagne, entre les deux guerres, avec les Heimat museum. Simple reserve
pour ces derniers : la principale critique faite a cette conception
peut s'appuyer parfois sur le caractere utopique arbitraire du
decoupage territorial contemporain qui ne peut que rendre plus frappantes les variations dans le temps.

84

Marcel Evrard - Le Breuil, France

THE ECQl..\uSEUH :
CON:,I~NCE

OF LASTING, TRANSITORY EXPRESSION OF

Identity, from
what is unique
The feeling of
we : one could

IDF~TITY

latin "idem" : to be the same as oneself. A word for

as well as named or perceived in different ways.
I - in case of collective identity, the feeling of
say "sameness".

Aut that same is multiple, and ~s named differently according to place

and time; besides, would it remain fixed, it would be no more than
just a profile. Identity is sel f-consciousness. Memory makes us ;
it is because of mamory that we ere ~hat we are, that each human group
is differa~t from the other.
And at the Same time, we never qvite identify ourselves : there are
limits. Self-consciousness is moving: identity is not an uniform.
Meeting one's identity is breaking out of common levelling, of true
copy, of onewayness. It is becoming the cause of one's own self.
There is of course a whole range of shades, there is flexibility, .~d
above all, there is an ambivalence that makes us escape from ourselves
through the conscience of our own selvas . And there, both in the lose
and in the unending rediscovery, is the pleasure of identity.

+
-I'

If museology exists, it is because of the presence of refuses .

Those two words are impossible to separate, whether museology
preserves, whether it transforms and uses again. That besic process
has to be kept in mind for it is fwndamental for work and gives it
its full signi.ficance.
Originally, pres rvatinn results from the. desire of knowing and
discovering, materialised through the curiosity cabinets or the prestige
collections. Besides, thOSe honest processes are often accompanied
by robbery, steal and loot. As well, most of the ethnographical
collections are steal products, but, as a counterpart, they have
drawn attention.
When the museum appears and, with it, institutionalised museology,
then comes the problem of setting and illustrating a classification able
to put societies and history in their right places and to draw a moral
out of it. The- museum makes history concrete : it makes it" performance
which you cannot doubt because there are the proves of it : then
comes the time of certainty.
To-day we are somewhere else : here are museological techniques and
here are questions. Preservation is not only directed to,,,ards whet is
acquired and towards past, it is an attitude purposed to cuestion
present, environment, and actual life, for - and that's the first
85

question - can a group's culture be both and et the same time

observed and Ifved ?
A physician knows that the milieu he observes is modified by his
observfltion ; the curator must observa his observation and then he
nets aware that the modes of representation ha creates to make an
object of the past be perceived, as well as to preserve a prescnt
behaviour, cause genuineness to be lost, daily life and living movement
to disappear.
Whether you want it or not. museology comes to be a shelter for a
relation with tre dead. The museum stays as. a kind of temple and
the notion of secredness soon appears in it.
When an artefact - even the most commonplace one - enters tho museum,
its entrance is rituelised : registering, setting, lighting, then it
becomes a relic.
Sacredness is not divineness. It is something which relates us through
time and distance, and specially through our differences. Sacredness
is communicating,
Every artefact can become a communicating agent if only you perceive
it aq a proof of continuity, consequently as something sending back
to the culture which created it and, in a more general way, to our
"humanity".

The only reason why the Ecomuseum preserves is that sending back ;
it does not venerate objects but what they carry. It does not aim at
being a r-,serve magazine for history, but the pIece whore people
are invited to bRcome the actors of their awn culture. If it has
anything to preserve, it is the future, it is not the official vl1rsion
of the past. In that process, the fcomuseum tends to become the museum
of refuses aut of which the future grows,
When it searches among those refuses, which is sometimes not without uneasiness ord~f~<UJty it is with the pU1!lpose of giving a new b:lrth to an
identi ty pregnant with future. To suppress,. refuses would lead to
suppress
roots, Every ect surges from a base and has its proper
place in~history. And that history - which we call with e humbler and
more actual word, "context" - is necessary to understand behaviours
or reactions as well as creations, Let e society throwaway its refuses,
then it will soon disappear; bases and traces heve to be ceeselessly
rediscovered and transformed, even if one looks at them differently
from those who left them.
Actuality is made of that new way of seeing.
The legally imposRd delays for the consul tation of archives ere often a
hindrance., but those delays, in protecting the persons' intimity,
allow at the same ti.m" a distance and a new way of seeing.
Everything is esthetic
how mise we are with that word, restricting
its use. The museum sets in motion e series .of esthetic experiences
stimulated by tho preserved artefacts and works. Those artefacts and
works are there to awake senses and significance, to provoke a global
experience inside the visitor. The museum is a breedina-ground for such
experip.nces.

86

To-day,informatics is a prodigious means to allow informations to bl!l

interrelated instead of being specialised -but prodiuious only if
thinking remains and if it remains active. Classification ,nakinn is
necessarily specialised, but thinking about its use generalises
because it is necessary opanness of mind.
The Ecomuseum invites us to get away from repetition
it is offered
as a ralay for sacredness, that is for communicating
a relay where
spaces for intimity exist.
Explanation is of no importance : it reduces its objedt to nothing ;
the important thing is to create correspondences wholly surrounder!
with dispobibility and marvel.
The collective uneasiness which Me suffer to-day is partly caused by
overinformation doomed to voidness and lack of significance. We are
fed with that lack of significance just at the moment when we think
we know all about everything.
Real mental food is not the comfortable illusion of knowledge/but the
will of stepping into the unknown. The present is that ever-renewed
unknowness. The Ecomuseum - or museum of the pr'sent - would be merging
into en openness which would lead us from the known base,always belongihg to the past/towards the unknown,always to come in its vividness.

+
+

It is not e question of being right in anything. Looks that meet

are mutual calls. To write, to speak, to designate are heavy-loaded
things, but,at the same time, they are the lightest.
We are accused of "humanism". We are not seeking to make people
happy, neither to save them. We are no Prometheus, no daemons, neither
do we fight for any doomsday. Now, this is what we are aim...ing at :
asking questions which no anwer closes.
Know, yourself.
That's it : know, yourself' - nothing more. Except the i"prudence
which drives you to trespass the circle inside which you are sheltered
in certainness. The question WHY is.to be indefinitely pushed further
on and let to the mercy of every essential imprudence.
What we of'fer is only exercising memory, thinking and seeing. Memory
as ,to exist inside the time that constitutes us ; thinking as a
physicsl pleasure for the mind ; seeing so as to discover that the
whole is not a mere addition of details.
50

The quali tl' of the whole is not ideali.stic : it is the matter which,
through th8 physical body, enthrells itself into thought.
our present world is building itself'with violence: it burns time
away. We know that we BrB inside the flowing time, and that this
one, without pausing, will destroy us.
But knowing is nothing : we only know what we know, and that is always
what we do not need.anymore.

87

When we are possessed by conviction, we tend to swell our voice,

but what could be dune without conviction 7
Do we ask the living world why it is living 7 Generally we do what
we do without knowing we are doing it. The only knowledge we claim
is to know what we do at the moment we are doing it,
Alike the researcher, searching round, we Bre engBged in B project,
a design, and not the least in B nrogrBm. The end is not known :
it never will be as it unveils itself little by little,
No, we Bre not doing just anything ; however,grBveness is B mask
which seriousness and rigour can very well do without, for they do
wi thout working off illusion .

88

Marcel Evrard - Le

B~elltl,

France

L' ECOf1USEE :
SAISIE DE LA DUREE, EY.PRESSION TRANS!TOIRE DE L'IDENTITE
Identite, du l~t:n ~d~." ~~re Ie m~me Gue soi-merne. Et pour dire ce qui est
unique tout en etan~ nomme ou per~u de manieres differentes. Le sentiment
du moi, Ie sentimenL du rous, dans Ie cas de l'identite collective: la
"m~mete" pourrait-on dire.
Mais ce meme est multiple, et on Ie nomme differemment selon Ie lieu, Ie moment ; d'ailleurs, s'il restRit fixe, ce ne serait qu'un profil. L'identite
est la conscience 'lu'tlne personne a d'elle-m!me. On voit la que la memoire
nous const~tue, et que clest 8 elle que nDun devons dtetre ce que nous sommes tout comme c'est d C8use d'elle que tel groupe humain est different de
tel autr".
Et a la fois, DO ne s'identifie jamais absolument : il y a des seuils. La
conscience de soi est mouvante : l'identite n'est pas un uniforme. Retrouver
son identite, c'est sarti. du nivellement, de la copie conforme, du sens unique. C'est devenir C2USP de soi. Mais il y a evidemment tout un jeu de nuances, une souplesse, une ambivalence surtout qui fa}t que nous nous derobons
a nous m~me dans la conscience ce nous-meme. Et c'~st la, dans cette perte et
ces retrouv~illes sans fin, qU'est Ie plaisir de l'identite.

S'il Y a museologie, c'est qu'il y a "dechets". Impossible de separer les

deux mots, soit que la mustologie preserve, soit qu'elle recycle et reutilise. II ne faut pas ~erdre de vue ce mouvewent de base, qui fonde un travail
et qui lui donne son epaisseur de sens.
A l'origine, la ~cnserv~ti~n tcm~ig~e d'un appetit de savoi~ et de decouverte qui sa troduit ~ar lr ~rt~tion du cabinet de curiosites au de la collection de prestige. Catte creation ~res honorable s'accompag~e d'ailleurs souvent de rapi~e, d~ vol et de pillage. Ainsi, la majeu~e partie des collections ethnographiques ~ ~te v~le~ ~ais, en contrepartie, ces vols ont preserve des objets, pui" "t.tj:r'~ f"Jr elJX I 'attention.
Ouand Ie musee ap~a~81.t, et avec lui Is Museologie institutionnalisee, il
s'agit d'appliqusr et d'illustrer un clpssement qui met a leu~ place les soci"tes et leu: histoil'"", at qui en tire une morale. Le musee concretise
l'histoire : 11 en fait ~~ ~oectscle dont on ne saurait dcuter puisqu'en voila les preuves : c'~s~ l'epoque de certitudes.
Aujourd'hui, nous s"mr:lSO aillcurs : iJ. y a les techniques museologiques et
il y a des quostio,)s. Cc~server n'est~lus seulement un acte tourne vers
l'acquis, vers Ie p~sse, c'e~~ une attitude qui met en cause Ie present,
1 'entourage, la ~ie imT~diate ca? - premiere question - la culture du qroupe
peut-elle etre e la foi~ cbservee et vecue ?
Le physicien sait cpe l'cbservatior. modi fie Ie milieu observe j Ie conservateur doit observer sc~ Q~se.vation, et il s'aper90it que les modes de ~ep~p
sentation qu'i) cree ~~ur dcnner a vo~~ tel objet du passe aussi bien que
pour preserve~ tel crm~'o~te:~e'lt actuel pro'Joquent la. perte de naturel, la
cisparition de 1a vie

~uot~di~~n~,

du mouvement vivant.

89

Qu'on Ie veuil1e ou non, la museologie ouvre un 9bri dans lequel apparalt uno
relation avec les morts. I.e musee reste une espece de temple, et la notion
de saere ne tarde pas a y naHre.
Quand un objet, fOt-il Ie plus banal, entre au musee, cette entree s'accompagne d'un rituel : inscription, mise en place, eclairage
et l'objet devient une relique.
I.e sacre, ce n'est pas Ie divin, mais ce qui nous relie a travers 1e temps
et la distance, a travers surtout notre difference. I.e sacre est communication.
Chaque objet peut devenir agent de communication pour peu qu'on aper90ive en
lui la continuite dont il temoigne, et Ie renvoi qui s'ensuit a la culture
qui l'a cree, puis, plus generalement, 11 notre "humanite".
L'Ecomusee ne conserve qu'en vue de ce "renvoi" ; i l ne venere pas les chases mais ce dont elles sont chargees. II ne veut.pas etre la reserve de l'histoire mais Ie lieu OU les gens sont appeles a devenir les acteurs de leur propre culture. S'il preserve quelque chose, c'est l'avenir et non pas la version officielle du passe. Dans cette lancee, l'ecomusee tend a devenir Ie
musee des dechets sur lesquels pousse l'avenir.
Et s'il fouille dans taus ces dechets, non sans gene parfois ou difficulte,
c'est dans Ie but de faire rene1tre une identite oorteusfr de futuro Supprimer les dechets conduirait a supprimer les racines. Tout~'acte a une assise
et s'inscrit dans une histoire. Cette histaire, qui est Ie contexte, mot plus
modeste et plus reel, est indispensable a la comprehension des comportements,
des reactions, tout comme des creations. Une societe qui ferait disparaltre
tous ses dechets ne tarderait pas a dispara1tre elle-meme : il faut sans cesse recycler, sans cesse retrouver les bases et les traces, meme si l'on porte sur elles un regard different de celui que porterent des sus les hommes
qui les ant laissees.
L'actualite est faite de ce regard nouveau.
On regrette souvent les deleis que Ie loi impose pour la consultation des archives, mais ce delai, qui preserve l'intimite des individus, est egalement
celui qui permet la distance et Ie regard nouveau.
Tout est esthetique : on est trop avare de ce mot, on l'utilise de maniere
trop restrictive. Le musee declenche una serie d'experiences esthetiques, dont
les objets ou les oeuvres conserves sont les stimulants. Objets et oeuvres
sont 18 Jlour eveiller les sens et .Ie sen.s, et provoquer chez Ie passant une
experience globale. Le musee est Ie vivier de cette experience.
l'informatique offre a present des moyens fabuleux permettant de croiser les
informations au lieu de les speci21iser - fabuleux si la pensee demeure, si
elle est active. I.e classement est necessairement specialise, mais l'utilisation "pensee" generalise car elle est tout aussi necessairement ouverture.
L'Ecomusee invite a sortir de la repetition; il accepte d'~tre ce relais du
saere, c'est-a-dire de la communication, ou sont menages et offerts des espaces d'intimite.
L'explication ne compte pas: elle reduit a rien ce qu'elle definit ; ce qui
compte, c'est la creation de correspondances qui s'environnent de disponibilite et d'emerveillement.
I.e malaise collectif dont nous souffrons aujourd'hui a parmi ses causes une
surinformation, que l'absence de perspective et de graduation condamne au
90

vide) done

l'insignifiance. Nous

som~es

nourris d'insignifiance au moment

m@me au nous crayons tout savoir sur tout.

La veritable nourriture mentale ne vient pas de l'illusion confortable de savoir mais de la volante d'entrer dans l'inconnu. Le present est ici cet inconnu toujours naissant. L'Ecomusee, au musee du present, voudrait se confondre avec l'cuverture qui, sur la base du connu, toujours passe, nous entraIne vers l'inconnu, toujours vivement a venir.

II ne s'agit d'avoir raison en rien. l.es regards qui se croisent appellent.

Ecrire, parler, designer sont des chases lourdes, mais ce sont aussi les plus
legeres.
On nous accuse "d'humanisme". Nous ne cherchons pas a rendre les gens heureux, ni ales sauver. Nous ne semmes ~i des Promethees, ni des demiurges,
ni les militants d'aucun grand soir. Tout ce que nous voulons : poser des
questions qu'aucune reponse n'acheve.
Connais,

toi-m~me.
~

Oui, connais, toi - mame - rien d'autre. Sauf l'imprudence qui pousse a franchir Ie cercle au l'on etait a l'abri dans la certitude. Le pourquoi est a
re~orter interminablement au gre de toutes les essentielles imprudences.
Nous proposons seulement un exercic!
gard. Un exercice de Is memoire afin
tue quotidiennement ; un exercice de
mental i un exercice du regard, pour
dition de details.

de la memoire, de la pensee et du red'entrer dans Ie temps qui nous constila pensee, pour Ie plaisir musculaire du
decouvrir que Ie tout n'est pas une ad-

La qualite du tout n'est pas idealiste : elle est la matiere qui s'enchante
travers Ie corps a devenir pensee.
Le monde actuel se fait avec violence: il brOle Ie temps. Nous savons, quant
a nous, que nous avons pris Ie temps en marche, et qu'il nous descendra ans
s'arrater. Hais savoir n'est rien : on ns sait que ce que l'on sait et teujours c'est justement ce dont neus n'avons plus besoin.

Quand la conviction s'empare de nous,. elle a tendance

que pourrait-on faire sans conviction'?

a gonfler

la voix, mais

Demande-t-on au vivant pourquoi il est vivant? D'ordinaire, nous faiso~s ce

que nous faisons sans savoir que nous Ie faisons. Le seul savoir que nous revendiquons pour taus, c'est de aavoir ce que nous faisons quand nous Ie faisons.
Tel Ie chercheur, qui va autour, nous semmes engages dans un projet, un dessein, et nullement dans un programme. La fin n'est pas connue : elle ne Ie
sera jamais pui~qu'elle se decouvre progressivement.
Non, nous ne faisons pas n'importe quai., mais Ie serieux est un masque dont
se passent fort bien la gFavite et la rigueur, car elles se passent de faire
illusion.

91

Bjarne Flou - Grenaa, Denmark

"COMJ(UN I TY-IlUSEUMS"

- local-level museums and "folk-research" in community-development

projects.

ABSTRACT:

The aim of any major community-development project is a radical change of

aspects of local culture and social organization.
Therefore the agents of change should recognize a responsibility that at
least an elementary museal registration and documentation of local culture
is undertaken before these radical changes are implimented.
For a successful implimentation of a community-development project the
partcipation of the local papulation in discussing the plans for
development and their effects on local culture and social organization is
realized as necessary and ideal.
However, this very democratic development stl"ategy',"very often fails because
the local population is not offered the necessary~professional assistance
and institutional means to put forward their ideas and opinions to the
agents of change.
The establ1shJ:lent of a new type of museums, "COKKUNITY-l!USEUlIS" as an
integral part of the community-development project is suggested to be one
way of dealing with these two important aspects of community-development.
The participation of the local population in all the musedl activities is
seen as crucial and the strategy of "folk-research" is suggested as a
method of developing cultural identity.
Although established as part of a community-development project to work on
the cultural identity in a situation of implemented radical change, the
"communi ty-museuw" might d.evelop into a "real" museUIU, becoming part of the
national structure of antiquarian institutions.
~~lliBTATIQN

OF LOCAL CULTURE BEFORE COKKQNIIY-DEVE1QPMENT IS

llU.l.lAIlilh.
A community-development project is intended .to result in radical changes in
aspects of tl-adi tional cuI t'ure and social organization. Therefore the
agents of change should feel responSible that at least some elementary
research and documentation is undertaken of the traditional patterns of
culture before the changes are brought about.
The establishment of local museal activities WDuld be one way to do tbis.
The local population should be invited to choose topics of interest for
study in relation to the planned chang!!s in local culture. They should be
offered professional assistance in this work from the national antiquarian
authories. The idea of setting up a small local museum and museum
exhibitions on "the chosen topics should be put forward, A local researchcommittee should be established, and the local population engaged in the
collection of informations and other material for the museal activities.
Although this research is not intended primarily to produce information on
which to work out a develop"",nt strategy, much of the material collected
might be very relevant for both local population and agents of change in
working out plans for development.

93

B, LOCAL PARIICII'.A.llOlLlll

COW!:UlllrLJl~

Museums and museal activities most often are ass~iated with a search for
the past, But museums and especially local-level museums could also contribute to decisionmaking on the future,
It is a fairly widespread development strategy to invite the local community, where a major development project is implimented. to participate in the
planning of the project and the discussions of the cu'tural end social implications of this development,
Although this is intended as a very democratic strategy af develop~nt with
the local population participating. they are not offered the necessary assistance and institutional means to participate in a meaningful way, They
are supposed to be able to participate simply in the light of their ordinary experience from living in the community,
The agent of change. i,e, the national government eventually working in cooperation with a foreign development agency, will undertake the necessary
research in the local cuI tur'e an': socinl organization prepari,ng their plans
for the community-developEent project,
The local population on the other hand also should be given the possibility
to investigate in topics which they find of relevance,
This is where local level museums and museal activities come in,
Ihe-policy of participation, The Tanzanian case.
~
A central aspect of Tanzanian socialist ideology is the importance given to
the participation of the common man in investigation and formulating the
goals and achievements of the policy.
It is also the ideal that the implementation of the socialist policy should
not precede an understanding of this policy by the masses, "The purpose is
man", as stressed by Tanzanian president Nyerere. anc the fault of establishing a socialist society ,.,i thout simultaneously de"eloping an understanding of this achievement is not intended to be repeat\!d on the Tanzanian
road to socialism.
This polley of optimal understanding and participation in creation of
modern Tanzania is clearly demonstrated in the ideolo::y of "Ujamaa" and its
application in the organization of "ujamaa-villages", Here relations of
production are given priority over the quality and qu.ntity of the material
products of the economic enterprise. 'Ujamaa" is firs~ and foremost an
experiment in liVing togetber an the basis of sociali,m in order to develop a socialism appropriate to ';;he ,speciUc. local hist:>rical conditions of
Tanzania.

As opposed to an approach to socialism where an intel,~ctual and political

elite formulates and implements the policy. assuming ,hat the realization
of the socialist man, th~ Tanzanian approach might ap~ly be called "African
peasant socialism", <Hyden: 1972). Here" African" denot.es that the approach
refers to specific local historical eondi tio"ls., "Pe~smt social ism" indicates that the masses, i,e, peasants. are thought to. ro the driVing force
in developing this approach. Also "African" socialism is chosen merely for
to underline that a majur source of inspiration in ~e~loping this approach
is the element of socialism to be discovered in the A:rican cultural
traditions

, 94

the element of socialism to be discovered in the African cultural traditions and albeit suppressed and transformed thnJUgh cecades of colonialism,
still to be found as a central attitude of the rural population,
The forces of colonial underdevelopment are considered to have had a far
lesser destructive effect on this attitude of the people than on their
material conditions of life. This is one major reason why the Tanzanian
road to socialism might be different and shorter than in situations where
this attitude has been effectively suppressed.
'[he policy Qf participatiQn in muse?!l activities and social research,

The plans to establish museal activities at local level in Tanzania have to

be seen on the background outlined abov~. The local-level museums are primarily a political instrument in mobilising the masses, Through participating in establishing museums they have to investigate their cultural traditions, how these have changed through the colonial period and finally how
they can be a source of inspiration for socialist achievement of the
country.
It has been explained that a major reason why these museums have not yet
been established was the lack of funds and qualified manpower. Now it is
decided that local-level museums should be selfreiiant as far as possible
in both respects. This means that each Village, d!strict, and Region by itself can decide if they want a museum and how mucb they intend to spend on
this type of activity. Also the choice of topic to be represented in the
museum has to be decided locally as well as the priority of local cuseal
activities. In this way it is hoped that these activities will serve the
specific local needs and interests, and at the same time contribute to the
common achievement of the nation. Concerning the problem of qualified manpower, the appOintment of Regional and District Cultural Officers has already taken place. The task of these officials, however, is not to
establish a museum for the people, but to get people interested in studying
their cultural traditions, for instance by collecting artifacts and doing
research in different cultural and social topics. Thus it is the very actiVity of studying the ment of a museum and a collection of items, that is
given priority, although the last aspects also are considered important.
This policy is in accordance with the ideology of "ujamaa" as outlined
above. Priority is given to the understanding and participation of ordinary
people in the establishment of local~level museulllS, even if this means delaying the establishment of museums and lowering the standard compared with
an approach >!here specialists are gtven the responsibility for implementing
the plans.
.
~~1k-research" and the discipline of ethnography~_
Ethnography is a discipline specialized in understanding the dynamics of
pre-industrial, pre-capitalistic social and cultural systems. The intensive
study of rather small geographical entities through the method of participant observation is a characteristic aspect of its approach.

Through participating in the activities of the studied community. the ethnographer tries to get an ~nsight into the local culture in its totality and
thus achieve a knowledge considered necessary for the study of more
specific aspects of the culture. Also, the method of participant observa-

95

t OIl is a way tc define the position of the scholar i., tho; local community. The ideal role for a participant observer is the situation where the
local community does not consider itself as being a "study obJect", but
litterally Joins the ethnographer in the investigation of the local culture. The local population voluntarily become research-assistants and start
to look upon their culture in a more systematic, i.e. scientific way. To
motivate the local community, or at least part of it actively to'participate in the ethnographic research is thus a central and necessary aspect of
the ,raditional ethnographic research method of participant observation.
The effect of this approach on the local community is often a mo e or less
radical chan~e in t~e way in which it perceives its own culture. A horrifying example of tbis is the ethnographic studies of African "tribes" which
in coordination with a colonial "divide-and-rule" policy resulted in giving
a reality to what was originally an analytical concept. More commonly, however, the ethnographic participant observation approach has stimulated an
already existing local interest in a more systematic study of cultural traditions, and very often the research has continued for a while after the ethnographer has left the field. Finally, research results have for the local
people often become the authoritative source to consult about traditions
and culture because they were the ~ results of the cooperation between
the ethnographer and local people participating in the research.
If this aspect of ethnographic research-technique is comp~red with the
policy of participation of ordinary people in the develop~nt of local
level museal activHies, I think it is evident that the ethnographic
approach is in great coordinance with the goals of the policy and that the
experience of the ethnographic discipline should be drawn upon. Until now,
the research techniques have concentrated on how ethnographers could
benefit from the cooperation of the local people. A matter for
inv~stigation in future is the way in which the local population can
benefit from the participation of an ethnographer in their research on
their own culture.
It was pOinted out that the ethnographic discipline often deals with
cultural systems withi~ small geographical areas. There are two main
reasons fcr tbis. First, this areal limitation is thought to further the
aspirations of understanding the social situation in its totality. Secondly
the smaller unit might allow more close personal relations with the local
population. It has ~lready been explained why these personal ,relations are
so necessary for the ethnographic research to become successful. Only
one thing should be added to this: namely, that apart from the research
utility cf these r~lationships, taey in themselves are considered
iuportant. During the research period the researcher is not only a
research-worker study~ng "something", he is primarily a human being who is
trying to establish relationship with other human beings, so as to be
accepted as a person whose contribution to society is to investigate it.
Therefore h~ has to become accepted both as a private person and as a
person doing a cer~ain i'ind of .'ork.
Returning to the ethnographic ambition of understanding the cultural situation in its total~ty it should be seen in relation to other approaches to
an understanding of society. The split up of disciplines into.political
science, economics, religious studies, and so on, actually mirrors the type
of society they try to describe, i.e. capitalist SOCiety. It has been men-

96

tioned that the ethnographic science concentrates on pre-capitalistic

societies. This might be the reason why it still has the ambition of a
"holistic" approach to an understanding of culture. Apart from the historical reasons for its survival, however, the importance of this
fundamental attitude within the discipline is clear when the task is to
study the social and cultural systems from a socialistic. point of view and
when pre-colonial social systems are studied to identify elements of
socialism which, transformed to fit the present conditions, might become of
great value.
Another important aspect of the ethnographic approach to the study of culture is the kind of explanatory models applied. A necessary condition for
the construction of more scientific models is commonly seen to be an
intimate understanding of the explanatory models used. by the culture being
studied. This Is a major reason why close cooperation between ethnographer and the local population Is fruitful, and even necessary.
That it is already to be concerned with folk-models of cultural and social
phenomena is seen as a very positive aspect for the type of research to be
undertaken in the development of local-level museal activities. Through a
close cooperation between an ethnographer and the local population these
folk-models will be made more explicit for the local population and
compared with alternative models, offered by a marxist social science.
Above I have mentioned some of the fundamental features of the ethnographic field-work traditions to show how close they apparently are to the type
of research activities which have to be undertaken In the development of
"folk-research" at local level. I think that a closer and much more systematic cooperation between ethnographers and the local population through
the development of "folk-research" might show most fruitful for both.
By actively participating in social research, the local population will be
given a hetter foundation to isolate those elements in their traditional
culture which are central for the deqelopment of the new cultural identity.
Social research will in this way not only be taL the masses, but also by
the masses themselves, thereby also giving ordinary people a much better
chance of evaluating and understanding more professional research results
which might eventually be used to change their living conditions and
cultural identity.
COI1CLUS ION:

The concept of "folk-research" is very central to the possibility of

applingy museal activities in the form of "community-museums" in communitydevelopment projects. Therefore this concept and its relation to
tradi tiona I ethnogl'aphlc research-methods and cui turn 1 Ident1 ty Is
discussed at lenght.
Also, the idea that the museal activities, research, exhibitions etc., can
be seen as a temporary activity not necessarily resulting in a permanent
institution 01 'a museum, is important.
In a situation of radical change as f.ex. a community-development project
the need for the local population to understand their cultural Identity is
most crucial.

But also, the sucess of the development project very much depend all. the
participation of the local people.
Museal activities is suggested to be one way in which both problems can be
dealt with in the same framework.

References:

Hyden, G. 1972

Socialism och Samhallsutvickling i Tanzania.

Stockholm.

Flou, B. 1974
Knudsen, B.

Strategies and Methods in the Development of

Museal Activities at Local Level in Tanzania with special reference tD the cDntinued develDpment of the Sukuma Museum, Kwanza Region.
(Research report presented tD Min. Df Culture &
YDuth, Tanzania, and DANIDA).

Flou, B. 1974 a

"On the Establishment Df Regional and Local

Museums in Tanzania" (Paper in the above publication) .

Yembah-Rashid, J. 1974

"The rDle of a NatiDnal lIuseum in Tanzania today".

(Paper presented to UNESCO-conference all. The RDle
Df AnthrDpDlDgical Museums in NatiDnal and lnternatiDnal EducatiDn. "IlDesgaard Kuseum", Denmark)

,.'

"YDrking Party Dn the Establishment and Running

Df RegiDl)al Iluseuros".
(Kin. of Nat. EducatiDn, Tanzania).
Flou, B. 1975

"Suggestions for a continuation Df the research

project on museal activities at local level in
Tanzania". (Paper presented to The Research Unit,
Min. of Culture & Youth, Tanzania).

Flau, B. 1975
Knudsen, B.
Poulsen, E.

Historical changes in the traditional pattern of

cooperatiDn and settlement in )lwanza RegiDn,
Tanzania. (Research report presented to Ilin. Df
Culture and Youth, Tanzania, and DANIDA).
Folk Research in IIwanza Region - The strategy of
folk research. (Tanzania NDtes and Records ND. 81
and 82, pp. 55-61).

Flou, B. 1977

98

Bjame Flou - Grenaa, Danemark

Musees rurales et "recherche populaire" en vue des proJets de developpement

commun.

Le but de toute sorte de projet de developperoent commun dolt etre un

changement radical de l'aspect quant a la culture:locale et l'or~anlsatlon
sociale.
A cet effet les initiateurs responsables du changement devront prendre soin
d'abord qu'une registration elementaire au suJet des musees et une doculoontatlon sur la culture locale aura lieu avant que ces changements
radicaux soient realises.
Pour obtenir une realisation avantageuse du projet de developpement commun,
la participation de la population locale serait necessaire et ideale en vue
des plans de developpement et de I' effet sur la culture locale et I' organisation sociale.
Cependant cette strategie de developpement tres democrate echoue souvent,
parce que la population locale n'obtient pas l'assistance professlonnelle
et les moyens institutionnels necessaires pour faire comprendre leurs idees
et leurs opinions aux initiateurs dU changement.
L' etabl1ssement d' un nouveau type de 'lilusee, les "Kusees ,'urales", comme
element integre dans Ie projet du developpement commun, a He propost! comme
une methode de reallser ces deux aspects lmportants du developpement
commun.

La participatlon de la population locale au sujet de toutes les actlvltes

de musee est consideree comma un element de premiere importance et la
strategie de "rechel'che populaire" a 'ete proposee com.me methode de
developper l'identite culturelle.
Meme se les Kusees rurales sera etablie comma element partiel du projet de
developpement commun ayant pour objet de developper l'identite culturelle
en vue de la realisation d'un changement radical, cette communaute se
transformera peut-etre en musee "veri table" et sera un jour une partie de,
la structure nationale des institutions d'antiquites.

99

Herbert Ganslmayr - Bremen, FRG

-------------------MUSEOLOGYAND IDENTITY
The Ethics of Exhibition
It is relatively easy to define "museoJogy": as the science
about the structures, th.a objectives and the working methods of
museums in their manifold aspects. !t is more complicated to
define "~dentity". It is one of those terms of which we have
so many, which cannot clearly be defined. One has very often
th~ impression that they are so persistently used because of
this vageness of definition.
Identity meant originally the alliance of an individual with
a specific social group and with its cultural m~nifestations.
Therefore we speak very often of a cultural identity. But there
anothe= problp.m arises: which kind of culture is meant? Does
cultural identity refer only to the outstanding creations of
art, literature, theater and music and an individual's or a
social group's relationship to them? What,about the so-called
folk-culture, for a long time considered to be related with the
cultural rna~ifestations of the rural population? What about the
culture of the bourgeoise, or of the workers? What about the
sub-cultures - a term which does not stand for "inferior cultures", but for specific cultural sections within a larger cultur<.ll group .. a kind of ecological niches?
And what about all the cultural manifestations which are consciounly or unconsciously demonotrations of protest against
curre':lt cultural trends?
Who ~s to decide which of these phenomena are the determining
factors xor the identity of an individual or a social group?
Mostly we shall be dealing with social groups, smaller o~ larger,
up to nations. Who will decide what makes out the cultural identit~ of a group, or'what are its pomponents? Is it a grown
;:'und~_e of different aspects 'or manifestations of \~hich the
group ~elieves that i t constitutes their specific and unique
cultural identity? Is this identity undergoing changes, as
fas~ion does? How about the dominant role of the society?
Does it enfor.ce certain trends in the expression of cultural
identity?
To complicate everything a little bit more, I would like to
draw the attention to the different definition of "culture",
"Culture" is-in any case more than the manifestation of ~deas
in tangible objects; it is more than the tangible cultural
heritage. Objects are the expression, the objectification of
ideas, of sentiments of human beings, of their souls. They
came to life through a process of creativity. Therefore anthropologists are no longer using the term material culture,
but speak of materialised culture.

101

Let me quote two definitions of "culture" in relation to cultural identity, before! shall be going on to. the problem
arising for museums which are mostly handling objects.
In his study "Kulturelle Identitllt", prepared for the German
Commission for UNESCO Herlnann Bausinger defines "culture" the
following way: "C.ulture" does not mean artifacts only: on the
contrary, the whole of social life, also, or even particularly,
the daily routine of work and duties, is imbued with value
concepts. That means that here "culture" is understood as the
organisation, the structure of value concepts, as a strategy
with which to master life, as a basis for attitutes, as a
principle forming one's way of life.
If this broader interpretation is seen in its relation to
'cultural identity', it is obvious that the latter is anchoring in the everyday life and the everyday concepts at least
just as much as in cultural artefacts. The daily company, the
kind of language used and the manner of speaking, the way of
dressing and feeding, the unwritten laws of beha.,iour, the
customs and standards and the unostentatious habits are, probably, determining a person's or a group's identity much more
than outstanding cultural phenomena, such as works of art."
During UNESCO's World Conference on Cultural Polipies in
Mexico, JUly/August 1982, the definition of "culture" and
"cultural identity" played naturally a very important role.
The discussion about it was summarized in the Final Report
in the following way:
"Without attempting to lay down a scientific or over-rigid
definition of culture, deleg~tes were in agreement in understanding it not ill the restricted sense of belles-lettres,
the fine arts, literature and philosophy, but as the distinctive and specific features and the way of thinking and organizing their lives of every individual ann every community.
Culture therfore cl1vered arti!3tic creation together with the
interpretation, execution and dissemination of works of art,
physical culture, Spo;7ts and games ann open--air activities,
as well as the way~ in which a society and its members expressed their feeli~g for beauty and harmony and their vision of
the world, as muc~ as their modes of scientific and technological creation and control of. the.ir, natural environment. One
delegate stated that culture was the ability of man to reflect
upon himself. It was, another asserted, -the right to define
onesel:: as a man, as a human person. It was the whole range
of knowledge and values which were not specifically tl!'ught but
which every member of a cOmffiunity nevertheless knows. It was
the means by which a people or a group perceived other and
itself. "
From these definitions it is clear, that "culture" and consequently "cultural identity" is not static, but dynamic.
External and internal influences and developments are changing
the image of "culture" and therefore also its relatedness to
"cultural identity". and therfore also its relatedness to
"cultural identity". Cultural identity as well as other identities, for. example national identity, have to be defined
102

anew all the time.

Before I touch on the zelationship between museology and
identity, a few words about the role of nature in this connection. It is quite obvious that culture cannot be seen as a
separate phenomenon, independent of nature. There exist mutual
an interdependence, not only where a development of cultural
trends take place, but, especially today, where nature is
deliberately destroyed by cultures of civilizations everywhere
in this world. Even if there exists an independent natural
identity, unrelated to any specific culture, it is the task of
the culture to safeguard nature's identity.
What is the relationship beween museology and identity now
and what should it be in the future? I would like to make two
reservations:
1. I would like to deal with "museums and identity" and
not with "museoloQY and identity", and
2. I am not concerned with the identity of museums as
institutions although this is an important aspect.
I would like to concentrate on the question, what
museums can do for the creation and especially the
preservation of identity. To quote a sentence in the
keynote-paper by Tomislav Sola: " the field of
museums is identity."
It is one of the objectives of museums as archives of materialised cultures to show the continuity (or the breaks) in the
development of cultures and cultural heritaqes and to elucidate which role the objects preserved are playing for the identity of a social group. In this conncetion it is important to
make clear over and over again that objects are the materialisation of ideas, of concepts, of the intangible soul and sentiments of an individual or a social group.
For museums this is not an easy task, especially since they
have torn away objects from their socia-cultural, religious
and political environment, if they are not dating back to the
historical past. The objects have been musealised. For their
presentation in the-galleries their original context has to
be restored again,which is important for a better understanding.
In this connection the question also arises, whether the objects should be brought back to their traditional environment,
if they have been illegally removed. This aspect of the importance of certain objects for the cultural identity of their
former owners, is the most convincing one in the whole discussion about the return of cultural property to the countries
of origines. But it is not my intention to elaborate on this
particula aspect of the relationship between museum and identity; I would like to take up another point.
When defining identity and cultural identity, one aspect is
very clear: the people concerned are in the first place competent for this task. They have to state what cultural identity
means to them, what the cultural manifestations are with which
one can ally theirs cultural identity. The definition from
103

Let me quote two definitions of "culture" in relation to cultural identity, before I shall be going on to the problem
arising for museums which are mostly handling objects.
In his study "Kulturelle Identitat", prepared for the German
Commission for UNESCO Hermann Bausinger defines "culture" the
following way: "Culture" does not mean artifacts only: on the
contrary, the whole of social life, also, or even particularly,
the daily routine of work and duties, is imbued with value
concepj:s. That means that here "culture" is understood as the
organisation, the structure of value concepts, as a strategy
with which to master life, as a basis for attitutes, as a
principle forming one's way of life.
If this broader interpretation is seen in its relation to
"cultural identity", it is obvious that the latter is anchoring in the everyday life and the everyday concepts at least
just as much as in cultural artefacts. The daily company, the
kind of language used and the manner of speaking, the way of
dressing and feeding, the unwritten laws of behaviour, the
customs and standards and the unostentatious habits are, probably, determining a person's or a group's identity much more
than outstanding cultural phenomena, such as works of art."
During UNESCO's World Conference on Cultural Policies in
l'lexico, July/August 1982, the definition of "culture" and
"cultural identity" played naturally a very important role.
The discussion about it was summarized in the Final Report
in the following way:
"Without attempting to lay down a scientific or over-rigid
definition of culture, delegates were in agreement in understanding it not in the restricted sense of belles-lettres,
the fine arts, literature and philosophy, but as the distinctive and specific features and the way of thinking and organizing their lives of every individual and every community.
Culture therfore covered artistic creation together with the
interpretation, execution and dissemination of works of art,
physical culture, sports and games and open-air activities,
as well as the ways in which a society and its members expressed their feeling for beauty and harmony and their vision of
the world, as much as their modes of scientific and technological creation and control ot their, natural environment. One
delegate stated that culture was the ability of man to reflect
upon himself. It was, another asserted, -the right to define
oneself as a man, as a human person. It was the whole range
of knowledge and values which were not specifically t~ught but
which every member of a community nevertheless knows. It was
the means by which a people or a group perceived other and
itself."
From these definitions it is clear, that "culture" and consequently "cultural identity" is not static, but dynamic.
External and internal influences and developments are changing
the image of "culture" and therefore also its relatedness to
"cultural identity". and therfore also its relatedness to
"cultural identity". Cultural identity as well as other identities, for example national identity, have to be defined
102

culture, have a right to express their own ideas, to explain

their own points of view, and to present their own interpretation of their culture and their society."
Le me still stress another aspect before ending my Jiscourse:
allover the world minorities are being suppressed, their
cultural ,identity is destroyed because they will not fit in
with a larger "superior" identity. Here museums are challenged
to act. Many of them will reject the idea because taking a
stand on this would be considered a political action. But if
museums are taking seriously the challenge to grapple with the
problem of identity, they cannot sneak away again as they
have done so often in their history. They have a responsibility and an obligation to raise their voices against the suppression of cultural manifestations, against the s~ppression of
'certain modes of life which are part of the cultural identity
of a group of people.

Bibliography:
Baghli, S.A., Principes pour l'etablissement d'une ethique de
la profession museale (leOM 74/Ex.16). Pnris 1974
Bausinger, H. Kulturelle

ldentit~t,

TUbingen 1974

Ganslmayr, H. Ethik einer Ausstellung - am Beispiel der PangweSammlung in LUbeck, in: H. Rammow (Hrsg) Neukonzeption eines VBlkerkundemuseums, Planung fUr
LUbeck, VerBffentlicht XV (1980) der Hansestadt
LUbeck.
Perrot, P. Ethics of the Museum Profession (EI Paso Lecture)
Ed. text of lecture'given by Paul N. Perrot at
Mountain Plains Conference of American Assoclation
pf Museums, October 3, 1975
Sola,T. Identity - Reflection on a crucial problem of museums,
Zagreb 1986
UNESCO,

Wold Conference on Cultural Policies, Mexico City'

1982, Final Report

105

Wojciech Gluzh'lski - Wroclaw, Poland

I. The definition of identity, comprising its natural and

cultural scope
1

" to say about two things that; they are identical is ludicrous, to say that 0 n e is
identical with itself. is to say nothing.~/
W1T~\GENSTEIN

What sense is iTi.erred in the word idontity in relation to

culture ur nature? Whatever 1s identity? T~e notion of identity has been precisely defined :in mathEIT.apcl:'..l logic as a two
-element relation that never occurs between two objects but
occurs always between any and itself. 21 It occurs when some
characteristics belonging to one objects also befit antoher,
but then it may be only the same object. "Non dari posse in
natura duas res singulares solo numero dj,.fferentes" - stated
LEIBNIZ in his "principium identitat1.s indiscernibilium".
As regards culture, this notion of identity can mean only
that every culture is identical with itself and that there is
no other that would share any mutual characteristics with it.
All cultures, therefore, differ between each other but this is
not a revealing statement since experie~ce, above all, has
taught us these facts. Id is different with nature when, by nature we percerive whole of beings and processes existing and
taking course independently of cultUJa Icivilization/. Nature
th.s mderstood is "one thing" an is, therefore, totally identical with itself and there is nothirg that woul differ from
it; !excepting culture/. In both cases we have think of WITTGENSTEIN, already referred to~
[I

"What had 0 n e b e Ii inn i n g is the same.?thing, however, what tad a beginning - a" regaI1S
time and place - different than that is not the
same thing but differs from 'it."
LOCKE 3/
Extending this description to prpcesses,. we open a way to
seY\j."e,.
finding e d~eper~of referring the nft;on of identity to nature
and by nature we mean here the whol~ If processes independent
of culture Icivilization/ - natura~~ocesses. We can say,
therefore, in line with the Author~ofthe quotation that every
process that had a natural beginni~;5 in.its entire course an
2

107

identical "thing" and that avery process with a different; beginning is a dift'erent "thing" varying from the natural process. Identity in relation to nature would mean, therefore, an
1 a e n t ! t Y 0 f
the whole 0 f pro c e sse s
wit h a n a t u r a l b e gin n i n g and consequently
also their course in the universe of beings comprising nature
existing independently of culture /civilization/.
But we are witnesses here that in beings of nature, not excluding man as biological being, there begin to take place destructive processes that have beginnings differing from the
natural, begjnnings in culture /civilization/, in
man's
cultural /civili~ation/ activities. And although these beings
do not lose their own identity /a fish poisoned by industrial
wastes remains the same fish - indiVidually and as a species/,
processes occurring in them /the inhibition of the life process
of a fish; are in thuir course not identical any more with the
natural, they are not natural.
From this point of view, we are facing a terrifying vision
of a gradual but irrevocable loss of identity by nature. This
"
is accompanied by the process of the decline at beings it comprises: water in rivers is no longer H20, plant and animal spec~es become extinct f air is no more air but an unnatural mixture of gases, etc" etc.

"Because this organization in which a collection

of fragments of matter has at any time, is in
this concrete thing something par t i c uI a ~, distinguishing itself from all otner
thi~s, and it is this individual life that at
a gi,en moment reaches in a continuous manner
both f o r war d s and b a c k war d s
and ~as this ide n t i t Y that makes it
alwa; s the same plant "
LOCKE 4/

Old :'oc1:e supplies mswers to various questions. Let us replace his plant by cul:ure, understanding organization a~ the
s y s t e m of cul:ure and the collection Df fragments as human soc i e t y.Every culture reaches baCkwards and forwards, it is a systlm that develops in time although this development is imperceptible in so-called primitive cultures. ~very
culture is "this irdividual life" of a particular group, its
specific and thougndeveloping in time it preserves its identi~
ty and remains the same "plant fl But the history of culture
shows that, for inE~ance, ~he culture of the late Middle Ages
in France /F/ diffe:s so much from the culture of the French
Enlightenment /R/ tlat we can hardly speak Qf an identity. We
are helped here by ~he notion of genetic idaptity.
108

We say that A is genetically identical with B instead of

saying that there exists a material body C that fulfils the
following conditions A and B are temporal crosscuts lor sec~
tiona! of c. 5!
If the "material body e" is interpreted as a system of culture developing in France then P and R will be temporal sections of the same system and, although they represents its two
dit"Ioeront states, they will be genetically identical - according to definition. The continuity of cultural developmnent
welds them into an integral entity. This con t i n u i t Y
constitutes the first condition for the e:c5.stence of genetical
identity, but there is another condition that must be fulfilled.
This concerne the "one beginning" referred to in point 2., in
this case - one e t h n i c source lor many sources permeating each other during the development of a nation! from which
the system of a respective culture develops in time. The term
"cultural identity" means, therefore, the con i n u i t Y
o f d eve lop men t a r i s i n g f r o m 0 n e
sou I' c e. The skeleton of this continuity is doubtless~ly the
language that is not only the principle Tactor shaping thinking
but it also programs the perception of the world that surrounds
us. 6! It is also a basis for an individual's self-identification with the nation and culture.
The cultural identity is disturbed when the development of
continuity is invaded by elements from the outside of the system
and - not absorbed or rejected - dislodge from H elements
belonging to the system, in addition changing its structure of
relation. In this way, culture gradually loses its identity
land an individual the feeling of cultural self-identification!,
it changes from a vital force into a miasma, it disintegrates
instead of integrating and depraves individuals or creates adaptation difficulties instead invigorating them !TOFFLER!.
II. The approach of museums to identity
4

"We must realize more clearly that a certain creation can by properly assessed only when it is
comprehended in connection wit the c u 1 t u
r a l b a s i s on which it developed."

BRINGKMANN 7!
Already at the end of the nineteenth century museum realized
clearly that it became necessary to take cultural identity into
consideration when working on remains from the past. 1n the
109

footsteps of BRINCKMANN, the initiator of this approach, BODE

said: "Artistic products can be comprehended properly only
products of one e p 0 c h a n d o n e nat ion are put
together".81 'I'he terms "one epoch and one ation" or "cu:tural
basis" include what in the preceding passage was described as
"one beginning" - one ethnic source and what was accepted as
one of the indispensable conditions of cultural identity. The
authors quoted here do not refer to the second condition Ian
uninterrupted continuity of cultural developmentl but they are
quite aware of it since the principle of assembling objects
according to development sequences has been put into practice
much earlier, particularly in museums of artistic craft F~unst
gewerbemuseum~ Within this context, such terms - used by these
authors - as "epoch" or in a more limited sense also "cultural
bas::'s" can be understood as a definition of temporal sections
of the same development process. This may refer to the notion
of genetic identity.
"In the strict sense of the word a museum is an
institution that doc u me;' n t s the course of d eve lop men t being within its
range, be means of three-dimensional objects."
HUBENDICK 91
The need to refer to cultural identity arose from the realization that cultural products can be "properly assessed"
/BRINCKMANN/ or "properly comprehended" /BODEI only within the
framework of this identity. Although their quoted utterances
have not been formulated in this manner. they are, indeed,
methodologicel directives. But they do not derange the notion
- reaching to times of museology classics beginning with
QUICCHEBERG /1565/,101_ of a museum as "a c o l l e c t ion
of the objects arranged and d i s pIa y e d with scientific method".ll/Even in 1910 the museum was defined by BRANDT
as "a treasury of values worthy of contemplation and feeling"
/Anschauungs- und Empfindungswerten/. 12 /
Museums are seen from a diametrically opposite point of view
by HUBENDICK, representing a typical present-day notion but
rooted in the past. So far, as BRINCKMANN's and BODE's directives indicated 0 n 1 y a method of v 1 sua 1 i z i n g a
collection of objects, the definition referred to. defining a
museum as an institution, the essence /distinguishing factor/
is to be doc u men t a t ion by means of objects, ref.
lects deep changes in the comprehension of a museum.

, 110

This shifting of the accent fl'om the visuaL1z1ng aspect to

the discourse and scientific aspect dated to the first decade
of the twentieth century, drastically restricted the social
function of a museum to the role of "an int'lrmeGiary "bet-.'Isen
science and the public ... 13f And, alas, SCHWIETERING's 10n131;;objection that this mediation gives only a "superficial view
of some r~sults and scientific methods" 14f remained echoless.
In the nineteenth century museum were ascribed chleCl) a
scientific role fexceptionelly a didactic as regards studentsl,
but the public was still not yet so large and differentiated
and when this began to change museum didactics 8:.nerged as e.
form of activity - closest to and best linked by scientific
mind~. It was invented by museum experts of narrow specialistic
disciplines
"One should leave a museum as one would a
church or an attractive conce?t, elated,
strenghtened, bettar than before. touched by
the breath of proclaimed hU'Ilanity."
FOERSTER 15/
Since the times referred to, museum t~il1king has been permeated by s c i e n t i f i e thinking rejecting Bny other possibility. All present-day definitions of a museum contain the
l'equi:'ement to record, to present "the development of society
fmanf and nat\ll'e". because objects collected in a museum are
sourr-e materials for such processes. Apdthey are indeed such
materials but within the context of scientific, bistorical
or nat'.lral knowledge and scientific approach. It is ooubtful,
howey('r, whether they play such a role to an average museUm
,-isitor ~ho seldom enjoys such a knowl8dge and comes to~museum
with a d~fferent intent. But a visitor m U 5 t receive his
sl~are 0:[' scientific knowledge whe:t7her he wants to o]~ not. And
thus USf3 is made of all auxiliary means. from labels to texts
and ',ideo-recorders, "endeavouring to illust.rate what an object
s ~ 0 u 1 G express - according to us fcurators - ~~/r in our
tSY.TI8. according to our assessements and in ou:- language".16f
Fc.iltng this, one creates - sometimes highly aesthetical - expositions that besides enjoying our e:~~7no joy to our hearts.
But knowledg~ itself is not yet a relation to the world surrounding us, it is only its notional image unless it joints man's
desj.res, (J)::pectations. anxieties, values and~the final stage11:1.s will whi::h may help to realize those desires, expectations
ana valuos.
l1a have acknowledged development~ the continuity of develop6

111

ment in pt. 3 as the first condition of cultural identity;

this does not mean, however that documentation. the presentation of devalompment, ought to be the basic social task of
museums. Whatever the importance of this identity for the de""elopment of societies is, its mere documentation and presentation ~s not and cannot be a means for maintaining this identity
in being, if individuals will not perceive it as a subjective
cultural self-identification. Cultural products exist outside
man but human consciousness is the place of existence for the
culture. It is likewise wi~what was defined in pt. 2 as the
identitJ of natural processes which will not be protected from
des~ction processes ~oted in culture /civilization/ either by
cr~~ing atural knowledge or scientific knowledge concerning
threats to tue natural environment into the heads of museum
visitors. In both cases, we not chiefly concerned with what
should ho k now n in scientific terms about social or natural development. We are interested in what should be des ired. But if one wants something, this object must be perceived as a val u e, one must learn to love ou;r only world,
creations of nature and man with his works. Infuitively, we must
understand what surrounds us, is close to us and beings linked
with us, not only as useful or hostile and we must feel responsible for all this. But this world be no more a sceientific but
a h u ~ ani s t i c attitude, and this is what we need,
above all, in our epoch when nature, man and human values are
'3ndangerl3d.
And one mcre thing, wanting to present development we introQUC~ rous~a~ objects into respective exposition systems. But do
vis~t0rs really ?erceive development or do they see only a multitude and variety of objects? It is probably the same as with
illY dcg. Y'IJ:".en I smoke a pipe I think that my dog sees me smoking
the pipe, well, as I actually do it - he must see me doing it.
But in fIlC"!;, "che dog sees only that his master chews a kind of
a knuckle from which there rises a cloudy something that is a
blotch against the background.
III.

Th~

role of museology

What is the rol~ of museology? In my opinion, in this and

many othGr cascs it depends. above all, on a ceaseless, patient
and thorough s t u d yin g, a n a 1 y z i n g and 5 p ec i f yin g a l 1 not ion ~ of the language used in
museums and their problems not only to determine the meaning
of these notions but; chiefly, in order to discover their proper'
112

m use

sense. For same time ICOFOM has carried out such useful studies and I think they should be con0

log i cal

tinued and deepened.

The next indispensable task of museology should be a
v e r i f i c a t ion of so fa utilized par a dig m s
of museal thinking based on analyses referred to. These paradigms are not so old but they were shaped on the besis of reality that has moved away the past, the more distant the deeper
the changes are that take place at present in almost all sect~_ons of life. Today, we have different problems, different
objectives and different threats - to be also answered by museu~s but in a dmfferent way than would be to the public. To
define these problems, objectives and threats, if they are
within the scope of museums,to answer what attitude should be
taken as regards these questions and to answer them, necessitates the engagement of museology, the study of the social ~unc
tion of museums. The at present organized discussion on "Museology and Identity" may be an important step in this direction.
A detailed study of mea n s and ~;'e tho d s of every-day museum activities, directed, on the one hand, towards
work with museum objects and, on the other, towards work with
the public, could be a successive task, resulting from the previous although closer to practice.

NOTES
1. L, Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, 5.5303;
a quotation translated from the Po:ish edition.
2. A. Mostowski, Logika matematyczna ~athematical Logic/ 1948.
3. J. Locke,
Essay Concerning Humm Unders~anding, book II.
chap. XXVII, 1 ; a quotation tralslated from the Polish
edition, underlining by WG.
4-. J. Locke, l.c. 4-; underlining by WG.
5. H. Greniewski. IUementy logiki forls1nej /ElementR of Formal
Logicl 1955.
6. E. T. Ra~l, The Hidden Dimension, ~66 IPolish edition 1970/.
7. J. Brinckmann, Das Hamburgische Museun fUr Kunst und Gewerbe.
Ein FUhrer durch die Sammlungen, 18~ /Einleitung/; underlining ING.
8. W. Bod~9 Die Aufgaben unserer Kunst~~~rbemuseen, 1896;
underlining WG.
,
9. B. Hubendick. Museums and the EnviroIDent, in:~Musee au service de l'homme~ Materials from the X World General Confe-

An

113

10.

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

rence of leOM, 1971. A quotation translated from the ~olish

edition; underlining WG.
More on this subject see W. Gluzillski, U podstaw muzeo1.ogii
IAt; the Basts of Mu.seology/, Warszawa 1980; chaptar VII:
"0 poj\iciti. "ezystago" llluzeum" /"About the Notion of a
"Pure" Museum"/; cf. R. Berliner, Zur !Hteren Geschichte
del' allgemeinen Museumslehre in Deutschland, "MUnchner
Jahrbuch dar bildenden Kunst" 1928.
D. Murray, Museum, their History and their Use, 1904; underlini.ng by WG.
G. Brandt, Ueber Kreis- und Ortsmuseen, "Museumskunde" 1913
/paper written ~n 1910/.
K. II o JflCob, Die museumstechnische Auswertung \forgeschichtlicher Sanunlungen nach dem pMdagogischen Prinzip, "Museumskunde" 1922.
J. Schwietering, Ueber das his:l1orische Museum, "Museumskunde" 1919.
O. FVrster, Sinn und AUfgabe del' !lffentlichen Kunstsammlungen in del' Gegenwart, 1926.
D. Cameron, about exhibitlions in: "Musee au service de
l'homme aujourd'hui et demain". Materials from the IX
World General Conference of IeOM, 1971; a quotation translated from the Polish edition, underlining by WG

..

'

-------114

Anna Gregorov8 -

Bratislava, Czechoslovakia

By way of intr.eucLion
Eay I atross that I reaponc reacily to ICOfOM's invitation to
sublllit lIy contriltution to the topic "MuseolollV and I4entity"
ue to be discusse. at the ICOFOW symposium in Buenos Aires in
November 1986. This topic is close to me also in vi~w .f
long-term efforts and research in museolelY which le6 ~e to write '" tasic ana cOllplex work pu ..lishec in !boak forr. lur" in Slovakia in 198~ /"M6ze' a .6zejnictvo~, ill., 303 pp/.Foreigg reaaers ha' an o,portunity of becoming acquuinte. with the fun.alIental ideas and postulates of thia work bef.rehan. in MuWoP/UoTraM,

II'

In view of lIy ~efinition of lIuseelogy IMuWoP/~J in whick I ancaor

precisely the specific relation of aan to reality as its basic,
d~termining sign, this to,ic is .ou~ly welcome te me. as it constitutes in fact the very core of above W_rk.
It is an irrefutable fact tr.~t the specific,i.e. museull relation
to reality has develop uniquely in man as net ~erely a 89cial.
but also a !lltural being. This relatien is essentilOlly 01.ivated by a pur~ly hUEan need Qf asserting one N id~ntitz eHpecially wit~ re&ard to the ascen~in& ev~luti~nal continuity ;of the
indi"illual.species. group. nation. etc./. supp.rte. pril'lllrlly Ity
material !)'ridence, The lIuseUIIl idea. concept ana all that &IU'8

wi~h ~t, as an ex,ression ef a certain 1egroe .r man s censciou8ness Ihis bistoric sensei. is si31ultaneously an ollfrlHlsien .f

OIlm s specific !J!ility - illf-projection. an. thill not mer81y

al'! fin individual er lIIeDIUl'tr or a c"rtain sraup. but a;'so as mem
~O~
~f ~ sapiens sapiens lenorally. Altb_ugh hi~ ability of
II reflexive e~ illustrative-iconic self-projection is much 01~cr than is self-projection ef the mus~._~~~ / anA here &el.nt t,hc very first !.'Iyths hanelelll do(g~~t lIIillenia as "literature
or ill'terates", as also IIrawatic. ~usical. pla~tic.etc. ex,
p~e~si.ns/. yet the neeel of identity or man s identification
;s ~ost strikingly encoeled precisely in the wuseum type of
se!f-~rojection. This down-right tan&i~ly SUbstantiated an~
CIlnstanUy re-establishelil anti verifiell 801f-prejectiun assert.
~an's illentity particularly in view or the need ef his survival
Dnd ,r~servation las an individual.species,natisnl in ~i8 ascending evelutiunal continuity.
'115

11 The definitien ef i4entity.

cempri8in~

its natural an; cul-

~De.f'e

. AlthDu~h very scientific discipline pessesses its ewn cate,erial apparatuB. nenetheless. many cencepts are simultaneeusly
employee in sundry scientific ftisciplinos each ef which 'efines them in its ewn different way Inot te speak of various types ~f the 40finiti8ns themselves as known t. science-Iogie/.
And tbe cencept "identity". tee, is differently defined ~y philosephy. physics, law. er psychelely Consequently. in museoleIY as a specific socie-scientific discipline. esential1y of a
philosophic nature. investigatinl the specific relation ef man
to reality. also the cencept "identity" must have a philosophical content or dimensien. And as interdisciplinary science 1s
inv.lve~. it must siwultaneously take inte account als6 its roIlainin,; contexts. particularly psycholegical ones.
It shoulc ~e emphasise. that from a philosephi~al lana even a
physicall aspect.it is not possi~le to gras, n.r t. 'efine e~,;.
the cencept "stability or " qUiescence" l"rest"1 without relation to their antipolos - mation. instability Si.ilarly in ethics c~ncepts like"go04" could not oxist if we had no pessi~i
lity or distiHUlhing it fre. evil. er leve froll h~tro'. happi.
ness froll unhappinoss. In other words. alse the concept"i~enti
U" is I.l r"lative one. whic" JIloana that it cannot be defined
lespecililly in IlUseelo&yl as a purely a~st.ract concept, but
Ilust be liefineill as a cencrete one. An abstractly apprehen'ecl
and ~efined identity signifies a total agreement or two or mere
ite~8. i.e. theso are identical uniquely when e~.ry attribute
of sbject p. possessed by A; is also shared by B. This is. ef
course. possible solely when the 8ame' object is inv.lveill. In reality, such an a,reement or i~entity exists then net in an abstract. but in a cencret& identity_ relating solely to that ene
liillenticftll .~ject. This simultaneously moans that, si~ilarly
/)s in the case of the cencepts "stability,quiescence" - "llIotion~
we may speak or iOentity concretoly only when we knew dissi.ilarity. Thus. the very erinciple land concepti of identity is
by its nature not only relative. but moreover. alse dialecti~
cal that is, it may be defined only in relation to its antithe--'
~ or its epposite.
116

From the museological point of view. these facts a~~ of F.PCcial significance. In view of the philosophical uh~racL.r ~f
museolagy as such, also a definiti~n af the concept "id~ntityH
requires ,to reco~nize a dou.le fact, viz. that of the exist~n
ce of re~lity /thin~s, phenomena, persons inclu~ing thei~ own
selvesl which thanks to identity differs /up te the entir~ Universe/. and the fact of a thinkin~ ~eing. ~ bocoLing conscious ~f the existence of this differentiateQ, upocific reality /thin,;s, penoutenal, including his (twn ego.
However, frolll a phy 10~flne Ijc aspect. hUI.an ci/lnsciousness .. "corded its own identity only at a certain degre~ ~f ev~lutien,
wh~n it was already capable or differentiatin~r disseciatint
itself from an identification with the surrounding nature.which
man began to be aware of a something different from hi~self
/standing against himl, hence. nonidentical with his own solf o
It was in consequence of a rurther mater~al and cultural-historical development in an already advancedc"social organisati~n
'1' civilisation /State/ that lIan began to be cen&CiaUB ~lsp ef
a need to preserve documents of this identity, its ev.luti~n
or centinuity. i.Cl o to preserve .ocullents or the histary and
activity or his own species. And thUS, the museum relation itself or man to reality land that is what we are noncerned with/
simulta.neously speaks for a high degree or man s cilnsci<liusnefts
of identity with his own self las an individual/. hut ~lse ~f
identity as a nation, groap. and even the hu~~n specios in general. The lIuseUE relation or lIan to reality then Illtt MClorely
an expression or an individual, but also' or a sucia! need in
the form or self-pr5jection or a new type, an. ~h~r~by also
ef a /lliateriali itlllnti,fication, which lIeans that. it is' an expression and also a part or the.process of his so~ialisation
and acculturation - of culture in the broadest meaning ~f the
term.
In the subsequent develop.ent of culture, Blan 8 lIluseum relatien t8 reality was extended also to the need 8f ~res~rvini
documents on,the developllent of nature which led to cullect
natural objects o From a lIuseolegical viewpoint. we lIay thus
speak solely or a concrete identity or nature, its material
.ocullents and not or an abstract identity /hence, ne such a
thing as "Dins an sich" exists here/, for in the museum r61atien, nature land various docullents - natural objects/ acqui~17

re!" significancE; ~mly in virtlJe of man s becoMlin&. consninus of

their meaning and specificity, their originality and identity
I for man/.
Only f911c~ing such an exposition of the issue can we attempt
to presont our own - if not a straightforward definition -tb/tn
at least a characteristic of tbe concept "identityn as follows:
,
"Identity is b~coming conscious of a total airee~enL with on~ s
own self and a aimultan~Ou8 differentiation from the other: aiClul tal~e~usly; it if) a counsciousness o.f tho ~r:'.~inality, autilenticity and thus also of irreplaceability of one by the other.of
a uniqueness 9f the existence of reality in its diffecentiatednes aOG itc ascensing evolutional continuity, from which derives al~o the need sf its d~cuwentation,"

21 Tho upproach of museuws

to idenLity

From the above cbaractoristic of the concept "identity" in relation to museumS anti their approach Lo identity, it follo",s
that ~ truly identical - and thereby also jrreplacGable - ~b
ject in museum can uniquely be an origina1, Buthentic c&bject.
but as such, it if! .10t me'
rely Ii; b:l~~t'r flf inf9rl:lati\'ns. but .ft-;,n alsO) l\ value. "f art.
After all, not just ~ny objects reach museums, but s.1917 such
as arc cocurn~nts ~n tho d~velopment 6f nature ann the society
linc!udi~g ~~l hunan activities capable af being documented'i
which. ~39i.rl!'l!; t.heir fundall1flntal, i.g, documentary lam\ hence
~18~ ~U3~~W/ valu~, poss~ss
a~ a rule a whole serie~ of further
valllo~ Ic~l~cral.materiaA, artistic.hiotorical,etc.l. Consequently. :ir. :-:l:r:mlDlfi .. aJ.80 in thllSft collectin~.l.lref.l"rving anci .. xhibiti!l,~ ~.i.; ..., c~nt.ol&pora':"l matorials - t:he concept identity
imultaaoo,jsl,: rola'.es to th.,Sll further valu08 of atl. objec t I ff;.f ~ho
~O. :;t\o. lOr.e> i!'!.oplaceabll>,non-eubstitu~8bl". t~10 ~ne qua non
:l.~.!lif'.n {IO.'3 being the docUl1lnn tarv I tes t imonial. evicten t iall
vlllu"c i~ il!USeU~l .:lbject is thu8 preeminently a necUUlont land the~
r~by al~~ ~dan~ity, and vice v~rsa/and this at pnce a duuble sip,nifi.canr:c.
al <l tuu.seU~1 objf'lct as an original, identical with i tRelf. le a
~~:~uration Gf its own existence liu~o evidence. proof of
it.s .;:o;vn self/, as E1r.. object iliffering from others:, nonident.i.C'l) \VitI': othors and theref9re .irreplaceable,
hI I' nus'Jur.: objecl; ia'a document Itestimonyl of '" cflrtain de&:i.

Jr.'.lB0UIl!

118 .

i)b.iect

j.8

a nnnli'i"ing

ite~,

of developl'lent of nature or society /of a certain phenomenon. activity -as its material result,where a part stands
for the whole/. which means that it is simultandously a proof of ,t,he continuity of this development land this regardless
of whether it is. or eventually is not. used any morv in its
original function and envirenment/.
Under these circumstances. identity of a museum otject. is a guarantee of the social need to document everything from the past
down to the present Ifor the future I, for the accelerated development of our tiDies daily creates countless nUlllbel"S of identical objects which tomorrow will mean yesterday. But this also implies that copies or imitations possoss no museum value,
an'il. altb()u~h often used in pepulari:tine; and cultural"educative activity generally land will evid_ntly continue to utilised
more and more along these lines/. they 8re not identical with
the original. but st';lely with themselves li.e. an imitation is
identical uniquely with imitation/. Howeyer, in cases ~here the
original is destroyed or doee not exist any more, an imitation
or copy Iparticularly a period onel may serve in museums ae 3
substt~ute museum object sui generis, which is identical with
it~elf; although hnvinr a substitute function. it usually possesses practically all the values of the identical. oritinal
object. though it cannot pass off as such. Such eT.c~ptional cases ara not so very ~~ceptional e.g. in the domair- ot 9hotographic documentG lincluding artistiu ,hotographyl , wboro the
real original is in fae-t. the J'lJllgative and all thn rast are but
copies. and naturally, where the or~.~inc.l model Ibui.ld ing, pel.son. evnnt, etc.1 no longer exists Ineither caq ~Ei~t I, this
phot:'gl','ph b~/)omefJ also 3 P1us,eum object rar exc(>llence ,with
the appropriate values - an obj,ct whi~h ectuBlly fulfills th~
functi~n of the original, that of idbntit~. ~he photograph lor
a mock-upl of. say. a hydro-electric power statiQq. or the statue of a personage, etc is not in itself a power Gtation or
a personage, but froDI the Dluseological point (tf view, it meetl)
the condition of constituting a museum objec~ las nc thor wode of documentation is here possible/.
However, the deDland wight be made, llarticularly in tho .nolll".in
of museums collecting activity - thnt social n~eri to coll~c~
primarily and above all original, identical obje~~2. This demand cannot be ignored by even the mOilt. "JIIodernisf:'(\" mU,leUIIl<i,
#

119

just as they cannot ignore the demand of a historico-develop~~al EI'in.s.iI!Je of documenattion of nature <"uri SOC:L0 t,)' il& sucho
After all, every identical, although isolat~d, object is ultimately a docummt of a certain degree of dev"lopment in t~e given domain and thereby also of its centinuity. A museulII, however, is not a DlUseum because it stores individual objects.
but be causa it dispuses of the most complete collection funds
made up of systowatically built-up and arranged collection objects lin relation to its profile and collection sphere!.~hich
are documents of development and continuity loften in di~con
tinuity!. And it is precisely frolll this developlII~ntal aspect.
this continuity, capturing in Dlaterial documents the differentiated r~ality itself Iwhere the part often represents the wp~
Ie. which gives real meaning to the partsl, tbat aise the .!dinal significance of identity of museum objects land fund&/
becomes apparent. Identity is here not meroly an objectiv~
cial. but sim~ltaneously also a museological re9uirement.and
as such, it is also a cultural phenomenon. ShoO:ld museuDls,within the trend of "modernisation" or "reanimation", relinquish
or dispense with this condition which determines th~ir very substance. they would in fact cease to be mu.eums; they would turn
into general exhibitions,or display fairs of "goods". ~venty
ally into pleasure grounds or schools !where imitations and
coppies suffice/. Within the system of culture and society,
they would lose their specific character and thereby alse their
own raison d'~tre. As a matter of fact. the institution~ reffered to above have a different mission and dispos~ of different means and forms flf work. However , the fundamontal means
of work of museums are 81ld remain systematically built-up 001lection funds of material/nonliving and for tI.e DlOst part.
three-dimensional/ objects as documents of the development of
nature and society, since docuDlents are inVOlved, these must
be identical. If within the trend of "reanimatiun" of museums,
e,g. a computer game caDle to be considered as a higher goal
than the document itself of hUDlanintellect and hands - the
computer. then we ~ould have swerved considerably from the mission and the significance of museums.

.0-

AlthoughmuseuOls in virtu. of their development adapt,extend

and modify their modes of work particularly in relation t~ the
publiC, yet the it mission derives from the museum relation itself towards reality land the historical sense of man general120

ly/. and that relation carries primarily a culture-promoting and humanising content. For. where ~lse caa wan acquire und become intimately familiar with a concrete neti.n about the developlllent of his species, nation, mankind, and even nature. than precisely in museUUIS ? Where else clln be lIere readily gain and deepen a feeling of respeut for the arduOilS, toilsome road of this development? Where else,if net in
museums, can be convince himself more vividly, even more "tangib y" of his national,cultural.social.or genlt_~ally human lli.!!.tity? ~nd it is in this direction that I see also the wissi.n
of DlUseums ef the future. Of that future which Illust as yet
terminate through houlinisation the iniciated process of lli!!!!.~tion of the species Homo sap1ans sapiens. to actualis0
his very human dimension not only towards his own identity.
but likewise towardS the identity of nature itself.without
which he would just be nothing.
3/ the role of museology

..

In my iew. the fundamental role of museology is this: on the

basis of a constantly wider and deeper knowledge of museum.
facts /i.e. of all that relates to museums and their activity/ and their critical analysis, further to process and sci~
,ntifically elaborate a theory supported by ar~uruents. which
aid Dluseum practice. Lucidity and precision of concepts and
terms then constitute the principal means fer this new sientific discipline to ferm and assert itself.
fundamental role of museology /as also of international organs of museu~ life/ should reside in the ethics of IIU~eum ~ork. After all. illegal excavations, black market ~ith
and thefts of works of.art arid other products going on to
this day, as also erroneous. or designedly falsified intorpretations of collections already aC9~ired lespeCially in
countries that had unlaWfully seized the cultural patrimony
of nations they had previously subjugated and opressod/ nething of this contributes to the good name of museums and
mvseslogy. Tp strut in borrowed Ihere rather siolenl plumee
is easy indeed. but it has not~ing in cemmon ~ith science
/and with truth Which is. the mother of ,science/ and. absolutely nothing with ethics Not te menti~n that tLa very concept "identity" is here being falsified /s1U1ilarly as when
a thief feals himself "identical" with his loot /.
Anoth~r

121

As to the "crisis of identity". this affects primarily nations witn a short hieterical past,i.e. nations that are,properly spc&king. only forming themselves Gut or nonhcmogene~us
eleDlentB .each ~f which is still intensively seeking his own
original "r ts", and thus, that identity is here rather a desideratu~ only /which also museums should help to satisfy/.
But t~ this day there exist in the world several nations that
live as il' "witlaGut IS . . .e", in sOllie slIrt of anfPnYllIity or semi-anenymity, yet 4espite this, they thewselves have a str.ng
feeling of identity, preserved in the~ principally by their
cultural~historical tradition /which also museums should help
to pres~rve/. The world,and also human seciety are identical
thanks to their dif~ntiatedness Idiversity/, which bQreis
actually a law lunity in diversity,_isparity/. From the aspect
of mu~eology this then means in practice, to lead museu~s te
help in preserving and deepening his identity,in preserving
nations, or even ethnic greups, decimated by Q1vilisation
/"dying eut"; which cannot preserve themselves Similarly,
museUMS and musoplogy hand in hand with related disciplines
and institutions ie.g. nature protectivn/. should help to preserve ev"ry species of plant - and wildlife of this mother of
ou~s - the Earth, which has produced them over long millenia,
nay ~illicnB of years. And they must he preserved not as a
etuff<D1i specimens /those ought gradually to disappear from ~u
seu~s;, but. in their natural cnvirenment,in their habitat land
if the~e is UP other way - as with threatened specios - then
in huma~~l~Managed botanical and z.ological gardens, without
rohain am! cages, as dreamt of by Carl Hagenoeckl For precisely th~roir. resides the ~ission of the museum relation of
man to !'!la1.ity a humanisingmission.But may ont' speak !;If "humanity" ~he~~ weapons are made on a large scale fer the deBt.ruction ~f our own species? May one speak of "humanity "
whe~o tabooed,yet "sacred" alibied aims of science still permit in the wl>rld daily to torment and lllassacre millions <lIf
~ti~ animals in shocking in vivo experiments, allegedly
"ad ~aior!f:m hominis gloriam ll 71 Hence,the crisis of identity under conditions of our scientific-technological revolu,
tion ~minently refers primarily to a crisis of man s r~
tion to _nature_, to all its prOducts, but principally to living creatures. For the time being - quite imprudently an~
&

122

unwisely, economic designs and aims triumph over the M4re

weighty ec~l103Jcal ends which directly condit:',ol1 .life on this
planeto And thus, the uniqu3 species, silladily multiplying
practica~ly ad infinitum,i.e.Homo s~piens sapiens, is faced
with the crucial question: Quo vadis. Homine?! Into the abyss
of destruction. or into tha ultimate age - that of humanisa,Cion? Howeve;., l",t us remain optimists -for museUill dQculI1(jlnts
o
in the whole wor.ld also sh<)w that mankind s de"el"plIleut has.
despite everything, an asaending trend as testifi~dto by. among ether things, the asoending hierarchy of values that man
recognises. lhasa values dQ net comprise wingod wsrds, but
deeds of' J.!l_l( fli1-h. leeds 1>:' whioh ho cOllcrlltely helps to preserve and improve not only mankind, but alec natu~e and its
li'Ting creature..:'!.. t.he;'r illnti ty. and i.hi.s is not only for
moral. but aleo ~ntol~gical reason9 - so that ~ur little planet Earth woult nat ber-ollle a m;3rfl 1l1umn:ified c.orps8 o And to
,
all this 1'10 ar<e promptell and bound also by Oiuseums c.o.llection
funds that show and document how painful hac been that development during aeonR down to the pro sent times and ~hich today
is faced l"dth Hamlet. t; d;Uernma: To be Illr not t& be 71
Finally. it is important in this c9nn~ction to omphasize that
one Clf the task/3 .. r mus8(llogy land of mUS6111IliS and museUJll organsl
is to ccmtri'Jute :;lot only l;O man "f! acculi.ura~ion,l>l!.t alsc to
hio ~y h~&nis~~~ fhiG requirsR everyone to contribute
by his ~w~ means t~ an underBtanding n~Qng natigns.U~Gerstan
ding alQno~ ~uppGrted 81o~ by the devalopment of eur ~wn spe0186 - io cmpa~le ~f ensuring an all-round c90peration. particularly in tho vital. need t ... p'reservil p'silce. ('nn 8.chiev6 finally ~iGar.nam0nC on ~hi8 little . planet
wher~~~0r7 Nan and ~0. .
iiIIan. ever1 :li>:tiOfi end@vcrr living cl!'sature ami !';he entire naturo hal;> 1m .!!l.'lliacmahle .. ~ntoJ.olttc!il .~:i.ght til hit> /l1erl l!wn
1:ij'e illf ide&i,U. und8r thv sallIe sun. All this derives from .1
muoeum ralation 31 roan te !r0elity, it f.orm;> its COI1.-:L"llte con!!.!!! and th~ su~stant~0 "f 5.tE!!!~a~ that have ~~een handed
dc~n ~o ~s oy countless g~n~ratign8 3B ~ ~l~~~. It is a
chalJ.enga fihowing man' ~ t':1orny r~,ad fr~!1l hominisat;,on to his
true anrl fi.nal :;;~ago - hilinanisation. And tl' promote this ailll
is not cn1.y a ri,~ht. !mt :'I d(lw"!rJi.ght l)bligetion on on the part
'

of

lIlU83U::lS

Grid

rnUS0 '!'> logy .

123

Anna Gregorov8 - Bratislava, Tchecoslovaquie

ReSUllle
En tant qu'auteur,je prends plaisir ; donner suite ~ l'invi"
tation de : la part d , ICOFOY de rediger unc etude sur la theme
"Yus601ogie et identite: d , autant plus que ce theme forme Ie
,
substance,l idle de base de mon livre, publi6 ~n 1984 en 510vaquie I"M{lzea a nluzejnictvo~ ill., 303 p.I.PuisqU6 dans Dla
definition de la mus601ogie - connue 8ussi des lecteurs 6trangers de MuWoP(DoTraMil - j#ai ancre aussi la relation specifique vers la realite 1= relation R1usealel COJlWle son signe de,
terminu~t, alors Ie concept d identite en decoule directement.
Cette relation est en fait motivee en principe precisement par
Ie besoin humain de s afferwir dans 1 identite tout speciale...
ment par rapport a la continuite developpementale ascendante
Ide l'individu, de l'espece, du groupe, de la nation/,soutenue
,
en prenlier lieu par des dllcuments nlaterie,ls.L idee de musee
,
,
et de ses activites est 1 expression d uri certain degre de
prise de conscience par l#homme de lui-m6'lIIe let de ce fait
aussi une partie du processus de sa socialisation et sen accul"
,
turation/, de Bleme
que ' elle est une expression dune
comp'ten,
,
ce specifiquewent humaine, a savoir, celIe ~to-projection
/dont faisaient partie deja 18S wythes les plus anciens,18s
expressions dramatiques, n~sicales, plastiques, etc.l. En outre, pr6cis6ment Ie musee type d auto-projection censtitue
,
simultaneMent une auto-documentation, une identite de 1 ho.lIe, cemst,allment verifi6e, tout specialelJlent en vue de sa survivance et de sa conservation dans Da continuite d~veloppemen
talc Bscendante.
,
1/ La d6finition d identit6. cemprenant sa ~ortee naturelle
9t culturel1e
Une definition d'identite faite pour les besoins de la muse.
ologie doiL tenir compte tout specia1ement du caract~re philosophiquede cette nouvelle discipline socio-scienLifique,
6tudiant la relation specifique, ci-dessus. de l'homme vers
la r6alit6 dans toute son 'tendue. L'identit6 elle-m~me est
une netion non seulement relative /la mu&eologie n'admet pas
uno identit6 abstraite, mais seu1ellent concrete/, mais en
plus, dialectigue; elle signifie un accord entre deuxou plusieurB ch~ses, celles-ci
etant identiques uniquellent si cha,
cune des qualites de 1 objet P, poss6d6e par A, est aU8si pos-

125

. un tel accerd, c est-a-d1re

'" . dans une
sedee par B. En f81t,
identiteconcrete, touchant a une mame /identi~uel chose.De
m~me qu'on ne peut exprimer Iphysicalementl 16 notion de sta,
bilit~, repes, ~ans sa diff~rentiation d instabilit6, treuble,
eu bien la netien de bien /dans 1 6thiquel sans sen antip61e- mal, bonheur de malheuf,on n'est pas ~ meme de ce.prendre et
d'exprimer la net ion " identit6" sans son antip61e -difference, neniaentite. Cepondant, l'helllllle a commence !au point de
vue phylogenetique! de se rendre compte de son identite !"egeIe moi"! seulement a un tel degr6 de son developpement,quant
il etait capable de se differencier de Ia nature qui I'environnait; et il ressentit beauco~p plus tard un besoin de conserver Ies documents mat~riels de cette identite let differen.
ti8tion/, au temps ou il cemmen~a a epr~uver une relatien aus~81e vers la realite I Ie sens histerique!.

..

..

Vu Ie caractere m~me de la museelolie, je soumets la definition

.
uivante de 1 " identite: "L identit6 est une prise
de censcience d'un accerd abselu avec sei-m~me,avec differentiation sillultannee de teut au~re; en m~me temps, elle est une prise de cen,
,
science de 1 originalite, de 1 authenticite et, de ce fait,
de 1 , impossibilit6 de remplacer 1 " un par 1 autre, de la natu,
re unique de 1 existence de la realit6 dans sa differentiation
et sa centinuite d6veleppementale ascendante, d ou pr ient
aussi Ia nlJcessite de sa documentatien."
,
,
2/ L appreche des musees a 1 identite

..

..

Tenant cempte des remarques ci-dessus,en ne peut considerer

,
comme objet identique et, de ce fait irrempla~able, que I eriginal, l"objet authentique; .celui-ci seul pos8~de une valeur
"
de Dlusee.Etant denn6e qu il s agit d un objet materiel Inon
'
vivant, surtout a trois dimensiens!.aussi ses autres valeurs
!materiels,artistiques. culturelles,historiQues,etc.1 sont
irr6parables et irrellpla~ables. En plus, un objet de Ilus'e
est perteur d , inforDlations. )(ais avant tout,c " est un document
let par cons~quent aussi une identite/ tant de sen existence
pr~pre Ic: A.d. une preuve de sei-memo/que d'un certain deg,
re de d~veloppement,cemlle partie d un tout Ide la nature,de
,
.
la societe, de I activite - en tant que leur resultat materiel!. Des copies et imitations peuvent devenir des objets
de wus~e en cas exceptionnels seulement, quand Ie modele original n'existe plus lIe cas des photcgraphies, des maquettes,

..

126

....
st~tues,etc./.

5i les musees veulent retenir leur caractere

de' olusees,ils doivent orienter leur prograllll!le de collect-ionnement vers les objets originaux possedant une valeur documentaire /de wusee/. Leur but, ~ c6t~ de ~odernisation. ne
...
doit pas borner a divertir et instruire, ~ais doit aider a
connaitre et
aftermir 1#identit6 de l#'homme let de la nature/ dans sa continuite d6voloppementale ascend ante
inspirer Ie respect pour Ie chemin penibiB 8~lce developpement et
, q
.f.
prendre une part active au processus dansll humani.ation do
1 homme, commencee bien longtemps par Ie processus d homini,
...
sation do it s achever a 1 avenir.

3/ La role de museologie
#

Le role tondamentale de la museologie est d 61aborer une theorie scientitiquement justitiee qUi doit aider la pratique
des musees,prenant pour so base une conn~~ssance 6tendue et
protonde des faits des musees Ide leurs activitesl los soumettant
une analyse critique. Un autre rOle de la museologie let aussi des musees et leurs organes internationaux/est
de veiller Ii co que 1#et1li9ue dans Ie travail de musee soit
resvectee. Des excavations illegales, vols d objets d art. Ie
tratic et Dlorch6 noir avec 1 heritage cultorel, comme aussi
une interpretation tausse des tonds acquis anterieurement
/derobes illicitement aux nations qui les avaient crees cemme leur patrimoine culturel/,c'est-a-dire,se panacher de plu
~es emprunt6es, n est pas une bonne reclame pour les musees
et la museologie, et les sciences en general. Et ce Bont surtout les nations avec un passe historique court qui Bouffrent de la crise d'identite, alors que les autres,lors m~me
...
.
que peu connues, et a demi anonymes. ont un sentiment fort
de leur identite gr~ce ~ la tradition historique culturelle
et, non pas en dernier lieu, grGce aussi aux musees. La museologie doit aider i chercher. et ~ afterwir Ie sens d'identit~ aussi dans Ie case de nations et groupes ethniques,decimes par la"civilisation ou condeomes
l'ixtinction, races
en passe de dispara!tre Elle est 6gal~ment tenue 1 aider.
tout avec les disciplines connexes, tr~s sp6cialement ~ pro....
"teger.a
preserver la nature de notre planete,
toutes ses especes de la flore et da la faune, qui se sont formees ici

pendant des olil1ions d annees. Les musees et la Dluseologie

121

ne peuvent ~as ignorer tels faits que la production en masse d' arDlements IIlena~ant I' existence du genre" hUlllain ou la
destruction de la nature et du milieu naturel, comme aussi les tourments inhuDlains infliges en Ilasse a des milliers
de creatures - animaux, dans des essais in vivo affreu~,
faits au nOlil de la science, presulJement "ad maiol'em hominis
glori-am"! Apres tout, Ie principe lIl~e d,' identite let de
diff6rentiaLion/consLitue la loi de ce monde muitiforllle.
varie, et Ie devoir d'aider a Ie preserver pour les g6ner~"
tions ~ venir, incowue aussi aussi aux lIlusees et
la mus6ologie. lIs y sont tenue par les documents materiels du
developpement ascendante de 13 nature et de la societe.par
la relation mus6ale m~me. vers la realitei son contenu concre~, comme aussi celui du message tr~nsmis
nous par les
generations passees, constitue un appel obligatoire pour
la museologie et les musees pr6cisement par leurs objets
de collectionneDlent len tant que documents d' el!:J.stence et
d'identite/, montre Ie chemin epinaux de 1 'hollme
partir
de l'hominisation, jusqu's l'humanisation finale.C'est pourquoi les mus6es at la museologie ont aussi Ie devoir et la
t~che de contribuer
une comprehension et collaboration
,
internationales, pour preserver la paix, comme aussi 1 hOIlme, la nature et toute la cr6ation vivant sur cette planete - la rerre, afin qu'elle, ne devienne pas un simple
cadavre Bloulifie.

128

Andreas Grote - Berlin (West), FRG

MUSEOLOGY IN A qUANDARY
W1fh1n the range of the theme of this years General Conference
of IeOM "Museum and the survivaLof the Heritage: Emergency
Call" the, theme of ICOFOM's symposium "Museology and
Identity" seems to be better defined than many such themes
had been in the past. We are left not much freedom to bother
about what might be meant by: "Identity". Quite evidently
the members of our comittee who have invented this Leitmotif
have more or less vaguely thought about

Cui t u r a 1

I d e n t i t Y , i.e. not their own, nor the identity of

museology, or of museums, or whatsoever might be having any
identity, real or postulated.
The theme of the General Conference is - as usual - a sweeping
one, and the author of this paper is waiting with some misgivings, but also with great interest, for the various contributions to come forth.
As director of a federal Institute for Museum Studies the
author has been watching with growing anxiety the attacks that
constantly have been and are being mounted against mankind's
cultural and natural heritage. The attackers are many and
manifold: the tooth of pollution, the slovenlyness of neglect
and ignorance, the witless and malign destruction by war and
rivalties, stupidity's effective activism and passivisms,
cynical or merely uninformed neglect, arrogant pride of the
specialist, annihilation by rUling classes or societies and
- alas! - complete lack of instruction, information,
or knOWledge about what importance our heritage has not only
for individuals or more or less transient social and political
configurations, but for humanity as a whole and its need for
cultural identity, the lack of which onlY recently seems to
begin to be felt so acutely that the term has become an
important tool in political argumentation.
Let us continue a little longer in this vein. Of course cultural heritage has been destroyed by the human factors which
I have listed above, in the course of the long history of mankind and its development, and it will be destroyed in the
future. Each social body will bring forth some kind of heritage proper to itself, and will destroy heritage which it cannot
identify with. That is staple knOWledge. But in our times, the
times we are are living in, mankind is picking up this argument
129

for the first time in a more or less rational, but at least

global, way. The reader has two possibilities for an interpretation of this phenomenon: one could be that the mounting
insistence on this concept or argument is a sign of progress
in collective awareness, the other would be that mankind in
the last most recent period of its development has destroyed
so much

of of its own culture that it now does not feel

itself any more in a state of blissful "na'tural" saturation,

but in a state of need. You visualize and speak about food
when you are hungry, and you visualize and dream about culture when you feel you are being deprived of it, and of the
cultural heritage which is supposed to be in some way a
constituent of your individual or group cultural identity.
We are not missing any mark if up to now we have not written
about "museology and identity"; we will come to that point a
little later. In order to be able to do so we have to follow
our line of argument a little further.
It is a depressing but nevertheless natural fact,
that cultural
-,'
heritage, as far as the delicate interplay between artifacts
and their function within a social frame are concerned, can be
destroyed, utterly and irrevocably destroyed.
We will here not go into the bitter raging argument that by
putting objects in museums (by "musealizing" them, as our
socialist committed colleagues like to say), we are "killing"
them as far as their active'

functional role within society

is concerned. This makes part of the quandary all ethnographical

field workers are constantly in. But by taking the objects
away from where they had been used and by putting them into
our collections we are withdrawing them to a different plane
of social awareness - they become symbols, something aloof,
they are not to be touched anymore or handled or used, they
develop an new aura, a new importance within a totally new
frame of reference, on a different level. They become part of
a different kind of cultural heritage, removed in meaning and
often in space, far away from what these objects originally
were created for.
I said: destroyed. Ifwe read the proceedings of the UNESCO
World Conference on CUltural Politics 1982 in Mexico City
we find that all terminology applied to the general argument
of CULTURAL POLICIES is rather diffuse, that the participants
evidently had felt it to be such and tried to reach some sort
130

of common denominator. Let us take the term CULTURE. The christians present in this conference defined it as "man", the muslims
as "love and brotherhood". Other participants saw it as permeating the whole social fabric and that it might be equated
with life itself (no.31 of the General Report). The term
"dignity" was introduced, alas!

Indeed culture seems to have

a lot to do with human dignity, and if you destroy that (man

has invented many ways to do that to himself, to his kind,
and to other living beings) you destroy man, and, indeed,
his culture (and, by the way, your own 1). We are quite sure
that each reader of these lines has more than one example
on his mind where human or animal dignity has been destroyed
wilfully and purposefUlly in order to gain predominance of
body and spirit. It is a basic human urge to do so, and only
culture, of which religion is an integral part, occasionally
hinders man to follow that urge freely.
We must say that CUlture, once destroyed, cannot possibly
be reconstructed purposefUlly. Many of

th~

objects we have in

our museums are the result of such wilful destruction, of men

and their culture, of nature, of the environment. They indeed
once were part of a cultural heritage, and they still are, but it
is changed in meaning, adUlterated, would be in its actual context quite incomprehensible to those who originally had created
these objects. Nevertheless they are quite evidently still
a part of human cultural heritage, even if the culture they
sprang from is utterly destroyed or the society which had
created them for its purposes has vanished from the face of the
earth.
European culture, i.e. its religion, its strange urge to dominate other cultures, its technology, its view of the world as
a phenomenon of european history, all this has contributed to
the destruction of uncounted cultures and their heritages. We
are well advised if we follow attentively and with some remorse
the clamouring voices of those whose heritage has been so utterly destroyed, and which are now turning to us for help and advice
in their need. I,hat an irony1 We were the first to subject
other cultures to our lethal schientific examination: we dissected them, we collected the artifacts and brought them home,
first as curios, then for study, we superimposed our scientific
systems and ideas on them, we completed the information we
thought we needed by registering their language, their music,
analysing their religious beliefs (often with a smirk), in a
131

word, we "preserved" their cultures for our special purposes,

not for theirs.

Now, after having had some sort of education from

us, these people become aware that they seem to be lacking a

cultural identity of their own, or that they are in danger of
losing it altogether and definitely, they have learned that
cultural identity, ideed, is a constituent for what they see
as an immediate political goal, and as a matter of national
dignity. What can we do in such a situation?
That is: we "museologists"? We shoUld do everything we can, on
the spot, to help preserve and document the things which
might have any possibility to remain or become seats for
local cultural heritage. We should stop taking them away, even
on the risk that the objects will then perish. We can give
technical assistance - which indeed is the most imnlediate need can offer, but not press on them, our advice.
We must not illude ourselves or those who are coming to us
for advice, that we or they will eventually be able to maintain
or albeit reconstruct their cultural identity with our help.
This they must do for themselves, and there we have to leave
them. It should be

the i r

identity, not what we imagine

should be theirs. We cannot turn back the wheel of history: we

cannot and many of us would not even dream to try to anul the
pernicious effects that f.e. the missionaries of our many
shades of faith have had on other people's cultures: some new
cultural identity seems to be growing out of these shambles.
Another very diffiCUlt point concerns the cultural identity
of who is writing this paper. Some time ago we were asked to
hold forth on "traditions and their

culti~vation

in museums",

in occasion of a German Museum for the Sports to be installed

at Cologne.
Of course cultural identity is closely linked with traditions
and tradition, or rather: any tradition is a constituting
part of cultural heritage and cultural identity. Here we are
not concerned about non material tradition, which is not
directly dependent on the use or creation of artifacts. As
soon as artifacts are being created to be used in tradition, or
just for the enjoyment of the soul, or for any social activity,
they become "museable" (i.e. material which eventually might be
eligible for "musealization"), in a museum oriented CUlture,
which is our own.
132

Of course the museologist postulates the following functions

for museums:

(a) cOllecting and safeguarding (conservation

or preservation) of objects,

(b) systematization and research,

(c) s lection of objects for presentation,

(d) presentation

(exhibiting) and divulgation (education).

It was an eye-opener for the sports functionaries listening
to our talk to hear that the enacting of and the cultivation
of traditions (sports traditions in this case) would be unthinakble in the museum itself, and with the employment of
museum objects. No museologist would allow anyone to continue using musealized objects in their original functions
within tradition, thereby continuing to consume them and in
the shorter or longer run destroying them.
How and why do we, then, culturally identify with museums?
Culture is a process, and the definition of, or the ideas
about, what culture might be, vary with the course of
history, and within each society. Museums ,are a european
phenomenon which can be observed only since about two hundred
years ago, and one of its several roots is public or private
representation; the objects which are being brought together
in such collections are particularly rare, curious or
precious. Here also the frame of reference varies greatly.
The fact alone that collections as such have been and are
still fUlfilling a

(political)

function for society makes

the single object or the groups of objects a medium which

for society transports a message. In what

w~y

this

m~ssage

might ever be decoded by the various groups: it always has got

to do with the group's cultural identity and cultural heritage.
We have seen that museums.undisputably are part of the
cultural identity of who is wri~ing this paper. Museums can,
however, contain objects which once were produced or collected far away in time and space from where the maseum existz
which holds them now. Here we see the quandary we are in:
should we museologists give a hand to damage or destroy
part of our own cultural identity by assisting in the
destruction of our museums, in order to assist in the
reconstruction of a cultural identity of societies on
whose territory the artifacts on hand once had been
collected or just been taken away, and documented?

133

Should we, the responsible for the museums, jeopardize part

of our cultural identity, of mankinds cultural heritage,
in order to enable a "handicapped" society to try and
reconstruct - very probably with doubtful results - part
of a cultural identity which to all means and purposes was
dead since various decennia ago? Even if the society which
the museologist is part of, it itself culpable of that
circumstance? We are viewing a tragical conflict and it will
take more than just easy formulas to find solutions for
the various single problems in this field that are constantly being brought before the international bodies.
Questions after questions ...
Again - the museologist, since he has the necessary
information and training, can help.He

can help by

scrupulously caring for, by doing research on and intelligently presenting to the public the testimonies of other
cultures which are in his care, he can train, give
technical assistance and advice to others on

ho~

to preserve

the products of their ancestors cultures which are in his

care, but he cannot possibly advise members of other
societies on how to create or recreate a cultural identity
for themselves.
What moral can we, the museologists, draw from the foregoing?
We should at least try - with unlimited curiosity and attention to learn as much as possible about the cultural conditions
others are living in. Only with such an attitude we can
begin to reassess our own position or situation,

even

if it probably will never be possible to reconcile our own

cultural identity with that of others, and so to find
a way out of the various quandaries we are finding ourselves in.

134

Edward L Hawes - Springfield, Illinois, USA

ARTIFACTS, MY'nI, AND IDFNl."I'lY in AMERICJl.N Hlb'TCRY ~EIH3

Significant I1ESSages are hidden in history museums in the United

States of Ainerica. They are usually not seen in the labels of exhibits or
heard in the words of guides and interpreters. Rather, they are fourd in
the very oojects themselves and in their ass=iations with one anotl-er.
Not just any ooject carries these m<:ssages, <Illy certain ones. Sensitive
museum people have long been aware that some artifacts have a sp2cial
attraction. Visitors comnent on them. Donors want them placed in certain
l=ations. They are part of what Americans terceive as "rolonial life" or
"pioneer life." As symbols they misshap2 the views of the visitor about
the past, not just those p2ricds of history so designated and reinforce our
national myths.
"Why are Americans often so unable to see what is really going on in
the world?" others ask. Lc-ok to our museums, as one srould, to understand
one of the key supports for the identity of any culture. What are the
myths that are fostered in museums am hON do they shap2 the natimal
identity? What are the symbolic artifacts that give rise to these myths?
Can these artifacts and their hidden rressages be identified objectively?
How can the messages be cnuntered? What can museums do to bring greater
recognition of realitites, past and present?
This pap2r offers some p2rspectives in answej;'ing these questims.
First it will examine the cnncepts of myth and identity with which the
author op2rates and discusses symbolic objects important for roth. Then it
discusses how in workshop; with museum students and professionals the
signficance of the symbolic oojects has been tested. One role for
museology is to investigate rommunication with museum cbjects methodically
and these workshops are models for this. The myths that E"..rnerge in the
workshop> are sUIT'Jnarized and their il1lflOrtaace for the American identity is
suggested. The functions of the myths in relatim to this identity are
cmsidered. What happens to museum visitors when they SEE the objects is
discussed. Means of countering the myths and applying the
findings of the workshop> are presented.
I.

Myths and SyrrOOlic Objects

Myths are the "stories" that give a culture its sense of meaning.
'ihey justify the behaviors of p2cple within the rulture to themselves and
to others. Corranoo motifs or themes occur in the myths of all cultures.
Many are concerned with the origins of the rulture. Related mes explain
its uniqLE situation and its special mission. These myths, as Mircea
Eliade has said in several of his bod<s, stand outside time and place, and
explore what people in the culture rE<Jard as "real time." Often related to
the origin myths are the set of motifs that the psychologist C. G. Jung
termed the "hero cycle." The protagmists undergo a long strug] le against
all odds, undertaking a jourrey with mdless hardships. There may be a
transformation to a better life, and eventual trium[b.
These myths are one key sUHJOrt for the identity of a cul ture. Just
as the identity of an individual gives a raison d' etre, so does that of a
culture. The myths give people in that culture a sense of themselves, who
they are, why they are here, where they are going, where they could or
should go. Just as the identity of an individual has a conscious dimension
in the Fl9'0, and an uocmscious dimension in the Self, the identity of a
culture also has conscioos and unconscioos dimensims.
tationalism is one way a cultural identity expresses itself. 'i'here
are conscious elements which can range from benign 10'-'= of place and
135

oountry to virulent jingoism, "my country, my leaders, right or wrong."

Trere are unoonscious elements which can J:e expressed in a benign form
through wearing of folk oostumes or in virulent form through fascist
unifonns. Such kinds 0: clothing are "signs" that a frsco is a member of
a group. They give a sense of J:elonging, and distinguish the rerson from
others. A group identity is established. Some Objects can reach even
deeper. A poster with "Uncle Sam" asking you to buy savings bonds reaches
into the associations wi th father and his demands. An "armed service"
recruiting poster 'can hit a more destructive IlOtif and enrourage viewers to
join or vicariously take {Brt in the exercise of power arrl the "glory" of

war.
Museums are instituticos that mllect and preserve cbjects; that is
Some of trese objects are mere signs - folk
rostumes, wedding dresses and military uniforms. Some have deeper symbolic
content like the posters or fascist uniforms. Usually that symbolic
rontent is lost in the translatim of the object from the popular culture
cmtext into the history museum, just as a p"'inting of the crocifixim of
Jesus Christ looses its profoorrl syrrbolic content when it is placed in an
art museum.
part of any definition.

This loss of symbolic mntent happrns to many cbjects. But tfJere are
some which gain symbolic content when they are placed in tre museum. These
objects were p"'rt of ordinary life one hw1dred years ago in IBrts of the
United States. Treir use in tre =mmon culture of developing areas in
Arrerica gOE'S reck several hundred years from that. WlEt are these
objects? In the Midwest, settlErl in the 19th century, thfi'y include such
artifacts as axes, open rearth mddng pots, rifles, <,Klok' cards, spinning
wheels, looms, "prairie" plows and reapers. In parts of the East arrl
South, settled in the 17th and 18th centuries, some of the same objects are
often found, but, in addition, tl-ere can be fwterware, a pit saw, a
Revolutimary sword. In other =untries, similar objects serve similar
functions. In Scarrlinavia a Viking s\'K)rd rould J:e added to the list; in
the South Tirol, a bread cutting board with a pivoting knife unique to that
region.
II. 'resting the Hypothesis
I t is not only intuition arrl personal extErience that leads the author
to the ronclusion that these cbjects are syrrbclic. Five workshofS in the
p"'st several years have been carried out to test the htpothesis. Clear
results have emerged. Particip"'nts have J::een InUS?um professimals or
museum studies students. 'lhe workshq> is dme as follows: chairs are set
up in a circle in a room that can J::e darke.J1ed. A table is placed in the
center of the circle, arrl arother is set up outside of the cin~le and
mvered with a sheet to hide the objects to J:e used. In the simple
version, these objects include a brass candlestick with a cream colored
candle, a dark red (or white) tablecloth, an axe and a fireplare ("English
bulged") rooking pot. In the introdoctim, the group is told that they
will exp=rience what objects can com!llunicate; that rertain objects will J::e
brought out and placed on the table. Each frson is told to write a myth
or a tale about the Objects , no definition of myth arc tale is given;
P"'rticipants are to use treir "own" definitions. In point of fact, the
workshofS have shown that AmO'ricans seem to hive common w1derstanding of
the terms, even tl-ough they think otl-Jerwise. par-.icipants are asked to
keep track of their impressions and thOlX)hts as the cbjects are brought
out.

'!hen the lights are p.1t out, the carrllestick placed m the table in
the center of the room, and the candle lit. The tabla::loth is then spread
out; the reavy pot carefUlly placed on the table, the lid lifted and
replaced, arrl the candlestick mova:! coto the cloth. Tre axe is brought
(Ner, and the fact that it is sharp is Wicated by holding the shining
edge up to the candlestick. A few other objects ti'.at are not call1ronly
assumed to J:e P"'~""t of the "pioneer" or "colcoial" period can J:e incllrled to
U6.

raise questioos in the minds of prrticipmts and to test out the ~wer of
the symbolic objects. I have USeJ an 1850 newsP'!per in photocopy, a
reprcduction drinking glass of that time, !OOdem blue Staffordshire and
Wedge.,ced plat~s. To set the mood, a few morrents of darkress are alloweJ
teforr~ lighting the candle.
People are encouragErl to feel ard pick up the
objects. ~lost particip>nts begin to write after a few IOOlTlents am keep
doing 50 for fifteen minutes.
At t:h end of this time, when there is a small grC\lP of p>rticipants,
everyone is askErl to draw their dlairs up close to the table, so that a
tight circle results. This is done intentionally in an effort to create a
bon:l of proximity. A larger group does not need this, interestingly
enough. Then the p>rticipants are askErl who would like to share their
work. First one rerson will cautiously volunteer to read, then another,
an:] in a while most will have shared.
No pressure should te applied to
have all read. After everyone who wants to tell their myth or tale has
done so, there is a discussion of the corrmm themes and their implications.
III.

Arrerican Myths and Symbolic Objects

The results are fairly uniform. There are commm motifs and related
ccntent whidl make the results significant. One large group of
participants will write tales of ''pioneer'' or "colonial" days, an:] a secald
large group \~ill fashion origin myths about one or the other of those
rericds. The key themes of the pioneer myth or: tale wi,n include: the
noclear family building its cabin an:l its way of life with few resources
amidst tremendous hardship; in short, the image of thensimple life."
People from the East or Sooth will write about "cq'ionial life" with similar
motifs. Those who write the myths bring in the rrotifs of the hero cycle.
The tales whidl I':ave similar motifs all give a sense of srecific locales
and pericds.
It is im!X'rtant tc EffiIhasize that efforts of the "pioneers" or
"colonists" are seen in in:lividualistic terms. F'amilies """re isolated,
unconnected with larger rommunities, with extended families, or with the
friends and places they left tehin:l. 'rhere is no ronsciousness of market
connections, of the role of developing transport or of other cbjective
themes which are part of what I term the "outer history/' the objective
history of an area which underwent settlement in North America from the
17th century onward. These are the hidden messages that symbol ic objects
like the axe a rr !X't carry.
In their association these syml:xJlic objects, the axe an:] the pot, are
even more powerful than if one or the other stands with objects of little
or ro archetypical quality. Particip>nts in t'le discuss.ions often bring
out this awareness. They say the am:iJestick ar.d tablecloth mean little
srecifically, but bringing'out the !X't, an, tten the axe, gives a definite
quality to the wrole process, am they. could rot help but think the way
that they did. vlhen additional objects are usn that my intuitims and
experienoe told me were not symbolic or from liter historical rericds, most
students ignored them in their stories. Some ruseum professionals admitted
to cmfusion with the presence of these non-p2ri.od, or non-symbolic
cbjects. But they wrote myths or tales with tie same motifs, largely
ignoring these other objects.
.
IV.

Myths and Identity

Why are these common themes and motifs pr~sent? I Suggest that there
are several fundamental reasons, both relating to the Am,=rican identity.
First of all, the pioneer or colonial myth am tales serve a social
function and are taught to us early in schools uri infor/rally in the hone.
They serve to justify inequality tcday I:xJth on ,he dorreSi:ic and
international scenes. The implication of the !:ory is that if all started

137

equal, those who have lOCJre today got there by hard work and deserve what
they have. So the myth is part of the basis of the belief system of
society in !'brth America which sees itself as highly individ1alistic and
competitive. Remember, it is often the local elites who start musewus.
'!hey have their "reasc'ns" related to these aspects of AmeriC'-'ill identity,
though they are largely unconscious of this.
5ec01dly, there is a psycholCXjical function. The pioneer or colonial
myths or tales are' "origin" stories in MiICffi Eliade's sense. They explain
the beginnirgs and they explore "real" time. They provire a groundirg for
Americans in this time of great charge. They provide a basis for a secure
identity. Even in OJltures not caught tp in transfcrrration, origin myths
arrl tales oc=. Irrleed, they are fWnd in s:>me fonn in the mytholCXjies
of all cultures. This irrlicates that they are recessa..ry and have their
roots in some area of collective unconscious. The way the myths and tales
are formulated by participants in the workshops, some with l.ittle or no
backgrourrl in history or ethnology, some with ml~h, supp:>rts the thesis.
To Carry the anal ysis several steps further, the archetypical
qualities of the pot and the axe can be cmsidera:1 in relaticn to the
pioneer myth. 'l'he former object is a symbol of containment, the latter of
liberation, to use the two great themes in Jung's view of the here myths.
'!he pioneer myth involves westward movement as a theme, obviously an image
of liberation. Today, tllat myth can serve as a means of c01tainment, given
the social flIDction. One version can rea'! as follONS:
"Once UpOl a time,
people were all equal, and even today you can go Lp the lactler without
obstruction according to }Qur abilities. But remember those who have
worked hard deserve all they get. So progressive taxati.oFl, civil rights
laws, equal cpportunity policies, and affirmative action :[:olicies are not
really neressary, arrl even are contrary to our origins."
There is a
. definite "politics" to CErtain museum artifacts and the tales and myths
associated with them. StLdents, rurators, interpreters, and visitors need
to be aware of them.

v.

What Happens in History Museuns

How do historic sites arrl cpen air museums present these symtolic
objects? Amateur and professional curators commonly place them in a
"kitchen," "bedroom" ex living-working rcom. '!hey do this because of their
own predilections and understanding of the rest, or because inflLEntial
people hint or indica;e directly that is "the way it ffiruld be."
What happens to < member of the ordinary visiting pililic is what
happened to the studerts and professimals in the workshcps. They
associate these cbjec'..s with "the simple life," the "beginnings," the "real
time" when everyone WiS supposedly equal and worked rard. Consciously they
are likely to think t\at these cbjects "helped make our country great," and
were usa:1 by heroic irilividuals, members of nuclear families, who "made it
on their own." They lon't recite the woole myth that the students arrl
museum professi01als ~rote, but the pieces are all there. This precess of
viewing symbolic objats and recalling elements of the subconscirus myths
arrl c01scious phrases reinforces the dominant Airerican identity. The
narrow and self-right'Ous irrlividualism that is part of that identity is
given support.
VI. Counter0g the Myths in the Museum
An interpretive \l'CXjram must be carefully designed to counter the
images and myths that these symbolic artifacts give rise to. The social
arrl economic context 1]lS to be emp.,asized. Tra:htional axes and pots were
produced in an early :ldustrial context, not by a single blacksmith working
in his shop, the ranar:ic image Amerirnns carry. 'l'he regree of market
dependenre has to be dscussed, the communications and transport systems
illuminated, and the :eans of capital formation arrl transformation

138

ronsidered. Thus tre cbjective "outer history" of tte culture has to re

used to camter what I term tre "inner history," the subjective tales and
myths we all carry.
Even in ITuseums dealiIB with the p::>st-pioneer or iX'st-colonial
eras ttese objects can be fourd am can give rise to miscmceptions abcut
the past. These misconceptims can be avoided. When the symbolic
artifacts are intentimally placed in the attic or out in a storage shed
open to the public, a powerful unsp<:ken message can be rommunicated.
''These objects are ro longer needed." The placement inevitably gives rise
to questions to interpreters: "Why are the axe and p:>t (the loan, the wool
cards, the spinning wheel) in the attic?" The answer: "Axes were no
longer needed because r:;ecple rould buy dimension lumber. Different forms
of ooaking p:>ts were needed when the stove replaced the fireplace, etc."
Change can be presented as a fact of life, and the two--edjed sword of
"progress" discussed. This is what has been dore in "the Broadwell's
attic" at the Clayville Rural Life Center in Pleasant Plains near
SpriIBfield, Illinois, operated by Sangarnon State University. The
associations and myths are brought up to conscioosness, and historical
realities are substituted (one hopes). In this fashim the inrer history
of the culture is used to create greater awareness.
VII.

Conclusions

Given the psychological function of myth and the ass::>ciate:1 symtolic

objects, mus61ms must be careful about what they place in public view.
Given the social function, rnusewns have to be ready to present to visitors
am to supp:>rt groups the outer history, examining'the context in which
such cbjects were produced and used. Finally, givEn the urrleniable JXlwer
and presence of the inner history of our culture, efforts have to be made
to bring its living myths to oonscioosness and to show both the untruth and
the truth contained in them. We need these myths. Museums can help us
know row to use them JXlsitively, and transform the American identity
constructively.
Every rountry has its symbolic artifacts oommonly enshrined in museums
of daily life, It is an important task of museology to identify them, to
see row they misshape r:;erceptims of past and presmt, to d=termine row
they can be used to clarify historical pr=esses that are still going on
aroum us. To ensure the future of our cultural heritage does not mean
that the objects deemed signficant by imp:>rtant dorors, government
officials and collectors in the past need to be displayed with utter
reverence. selection is ne:::essary, am placing them in context is vital.
Influential people, in government service and outside, may want museums to
fmctim as temples enshrining artifaetsthat reinforce an identity
acceptant of "things the way they are',' or the aprroved "national identity."
The museologist must strive for the "critical museum," ore that raises
questions about myths, the national pa,st and directions for the future.

139

Yani Herreman - Mexico D.F., Mexique

LE MUSEE CONTEMPORAIN ET L'IDENTITE CULTURELLE.

Le musee contemporain se caracterise pour avoir surpasse l'etape de collection per se, de recherche par et pour un
groupe reduit, et de jouissance limitee
un secteur socio-eco
nomique et scientifique determine.
Comme toute institution inseree dans la societe, il a
evolue avec elle et a modifie son fonctionnement, ses formes
d'agir et, ce qui est plus important. a commence a eclaircir
et definir ses objectifs sous un point de vue social.
Le musee existe. ses fonctions et transformations agissant sur l'ensemble des indications sociales qui, ~ leur tour,
exercent une influence sur lui et sur son evolution. De meme,
par sa nature propre, il s'est mis en rapport avec les grands
domaines institutionnels de l'education, la politique et la
culture ayant, comme comun denominateur, son caractere sociali
sateur dans le sens des sciences de l'education, c'est a dire~
pour integrer, initier et introduire les regles, les idees et
l'esprit de la societe.
L'une des plUS importantes contributions recentes a l'e
tude des musees, ~ mon avis, est Ie fait de voir dans celui-cf
une institution sociale, contribution fondamentale a la museologie faite lors de la Table Ronde au Chili:"Le role du musee
dans l'Amerique Latine" en 1972, aussi qu'un moyen de communication. La premiere situe la museologie parmi les sciences sociales, la deuxieme permet de mieux accomplir la liaison entre
le musee et l'homme et sa realite.
Sinous etudions le developpement du musee nous pouvons
estimer que ses fonctions fondamentales sont toujours les m~
mes. collection, recherche, conservation et exhibition. Cequi
a change ce sont les objectifs du musee, comme institution, ain
si que ceux de ses fonctions. De ce fait Ie musee contemporaina pu se transformer, d'etre un amas de collections pour devenir un banc d'objets tel l'a fait remarquer De Varine (1).
C'est ainsi que le musee con~emporain a pris conscience de son
potentiel comme vecteur de mesages a travers, et ayant comme
base, ces objets soigneusementreunis.
En tant que vecteur il a appris la valeur qU'ont les ob
jets exposes comme porteurs de sIgnaux et de mesages qui peu-vent @tre utilises pour instruire, charmer, convaincre, renseigner, prendre conscience. etc.
Nous croyons que le rachat et la promotion de l'identite culturelle est l'un des objectifs de premier ordre que le
musee contemporain a detecte comme un besoin social actuel, ob
jectif qu'il mene
bout fondamentalement grace aux expositions
utili sees comme moyen de communication. Cependant nous croyons
aussi que cet objectif ne soit pas le seul puisqu'il doit ess~
yer aussi de remplir d'autres besoins sociaux egalement importants tels que 1 'education, la promotion du developpement et
Ie respect a la diversite culturelle.
Toute culture a une dignite et une valeur qui doivent
etre respectees et protegees. Tout peuple a Ie droit et Ie devoir de developper sa culture. Dans sa feconde variete, dans

141

sa diversite, et grace ~ l'influence reciproque qU'elles exercent les unes sur les autres, toutes les cultures forment Ie
patrimoine commUn de l'humanite (2).
La prise de conscience du potentiel de communication du
musee apparait en meme temps que naissent les problemessociaux
d'identite qui ont pour cause soit un sens equivoque de l'essor,
soit une penetration culture lIe et economique de la part des
pays developpes. Le musee saisi, comme l'un de ses objectifs,
le rachat de l'identite des peuples a travers la preservation
et la mise en valeur des expressions culturelles propres, Vu
ainsi, le nouveau but du musee contemporain peut etre applique
aussi bien aux pays developpes qU'a ceux qui sont en voie de
developpement et aux minorites ethniques urbaines,
Un peuple qui ne conserve pas sa memoire collective perd
ses racines et son identite, Les peuples primitifs ont enregis
tre cette me~oire dans les mythes et, lorsqu'ils ont pu, dansdes oeuvres d'art et de mouvement, Cependant notre culture est
de venue si complexe que les mythes et les monuments commemoratifs sont insuffisants pour conserver notre identite en tant
que peuple, Les archives, les bibliotheques, les musees et les
monuments remplissent la fonction de conserver cette memoire et
de l'organiser de telle fa~on que nous puissions l'utiliser au
moment m~me dont nous en avons besoin et sous la forme voulue
(J)

Le passage anterieur montre a quelpoint se confondent

conservation et preservation de l'identite culturelle dans le
musee, tout en pensant
la conservation non seulement comme
les techniques necessaires pour eviter, arranger ou retablir
la degradation du patrimoine culturel, mais aussi comme l'action de perpetuer les valeurs dans la conscience des gens pour
qu'ils soient un signe de continuite de l'esprit communautaire
et un motif de divulgation pour les nouvelles generations,
Comme l'on peut voir nous sommes en train de rapporter
d'une fa~on intime identite avec histoire et avec culture, tout
en prenant l'idee de culture non comme un corps de valeurs imperissables mais comme un processus dynamique soutenu par la
dialectique de la memoire, l'innovation de la fidelite a soim~me et l'ouverture envers les autres, qui permet a une societe de realiser la modification sans avoir a s'aligner, ~ se
transformer, sans perdre sa configuration distinctive (4).
La culture, ainsi consideree, n'est autre qU'une reponse aux besoins de groupes humains produit de l'interaction des
individus qui les integrent. Elle englobe toutes les manifesta
tions creatives, humaines, artistiques, scientifiques et tech~
nologiques inclus. Elle offre un syst~me de concepts et symboles communs, grace auxquels la relation avec la nature et parmi les hommes est representee.
Cet ensemble d'expressions qui permet d'identifier et
de reconna1tre les differents groupes sociaux, qui sert comme
element de cohesion interne et de differentation externe peut
etre reconnu comme "identite culturel1e". II renferme aussi
bien les elements historiques que les .contemporains de 1 'homme et lui offre non seulement un moyen de communication et d'in
tegration avec d'autres individus du m~me groupe, mais aussi un sens de securit4 et de respect envers lui m?me et envers la
culture. Ceci Ie porte ~~tre moins permeable a une penetration

142

culturelle exteme excessive, et ~ reagir envers les principes

, les institutions, les formes de production at de comportement
qui peuvent detruire la cohesion sociale ~u groupe et sa relation avec l'entourage.
Si nous convenons
ce que Ie musee inc1ut dans son acti
vite 1a conservation comme l'une de ses fonctions fondamentales,
au m~me titre que l'exhibition, cette conservation dans Ie sens
museologique contemporain vise vel'S 1a preservation de cet ensemble de principes et de caracteristiques cu1ture1les que nous
avons defini comme identite cu1ture1le.
.
.
Dans Ie cas des pays hautement developpes il existe Ie
besoin de preserver un ensemble de manifestations culturelles
qui sont en voie de disparaltre sous l'enorme poids du develo~
pement industriel et des moyens massifs de communication entre
autres. Actuellement de nombreux musees europee~s utili sent
leurs collections dans des exhibitions qui ont pour but de raf
fermir leur identite et leur raison d'~tre, lesquelles sont en
danger de disparattre. II y a de plUS en plus d'expcsitions d~
diees au debut de ce siecle qU'au processus creatif contemporain (5).
Etant donne Ie phenomene actuel d'internationalisation
du capitalismo qui amene avec lui la concentration de la riche~
se et du pouvoir ainsi que la fragmentation des processus de
production dans plusieurs pays, de nombreuses communautes sUbi~
sent l'influence d'un ensemble de valeurs totalement differentes de ce qU'elles connaissent et apprecient (6).
Jusqu'ici nous avons voulu expliquer comment Ie musee,
tout en exer9ant l'une de ses fonctions fondamentales, la conservation orientee vers la communication, rachette et encourage des traits communs qui renforcent l'identite.
En ce qui conceme les pays en voie de developpement Ie
besoin de preserver la culture propre est plus notoire. Les nom
breuses pressions economiques et culturelles de la part des
pays developpes ont pour but de reduire au mini~um les valeurs
propres ce qui determine une veritable domination qui, comme
l'a dit lone CarValho de Medeiros, "ne peut ~tre effective
qU'au moment ou ils puissent (les pays forts) affaiblir ou ane
antir l'identite culturelle des pays domines". Pour eviter ce~
ci i1 est necessaire de renforcer une attitude de respect anvel'S les valeurs historiques, la connaissance collective accumulee et les institutions propres; encourager Ie renoncement
aux principes, institutions, formes et mod~les de conduite qui
detruisent la cohesion sociale du groupe; pousser ~ une resistance saine envers une trop grande penetration etrang~re et,
finalement, essayer'de trouver des moyens de product~on propres
au developpement humainet social du groupe.
Comme reponse a ce probl~me on a vu surgir d~~s de nombreux pays des experiences tres interessantes, telE 16s musees
communautaires an Mexique, .au Perou, ~ Nica.agua, ~ Cuba et a
Ecuador en Amerique Latine. Dans ces musees l'on pret~nd non
seulement instruire au sujet des cultures passees, ffi3is aussi
au sujet de la vie de l'homme qui se deroule dans la societe
d'aujourdhui avec les ~rands benefices de l'esso~ scientifi~ue et technique, ains~ qU'avec les menaces d'alienation dues
l'industraljsa~ion incontrolee qui encourage la conscmmation
et a la penetration programmee du neocolonia15.sme qui 8 tenu

143

et tient un r81e contaminant de l'identit~ des autres cultures.

Le troisieme cas correspond aux minorit~s ethniques qui
se trouvent g~n~ralement dans des zones urbaines. Comme ph~no
mene social qui s'est accru avec la crise economique., les ghetOB de n'importe quel origine situ~s dans n'importe quellevil
le, sont arrives ~ voir dans le musee (gen~ralement celui du quartier qui leur est psicologiquement plus proche et moins im
posant) un lieu de reconnaissance et revalidation comme l'ontdemontre "la maison du musee" qui fut un projet au Mexique en
1970, et le musee de quartier a Anacostia aux EtAts Dnis. rei
le mus~e remplit un double role I il met en valeur le groupe com
me sujet d'attention, et il met aussi en valeur les manifesta-tions culturelles de celui-ci g~ce ~ son etude, sa conservation et son exhibition.
Pour terminer nous dirons que le musee a evolue avec la
societe, comme une part de celle-ci. acquerant chaque jour davantage une responsabilite qui nuance ses fonctions et ses objectifs en les acheminant
resoudre les besoins sociaux qui
lui sont propres. Le rachat et la mise en valeur de l'identit~ culturelle est l'un d'eux.

.1,-

2.-

J.-

4.-

5.6.-

8.-

144

De Varine B,H. I The modern museumlrequirements and problems

of a new approach. Museum. Vol XVIII,No J. 1976. UNESCO.
R~solution 115 du Rapport General. de la Conference de Poli
tiques Culturelles. Mexico. 198~. UNESC6.
Cabello,P.l Abandono y p~rdida del Patrimonio Hist6rico y
Art!stico Mueble. 1er Congreso del Patrimonio Hist6rico,
Adelpha. Madrid. 1980.
M'Bow,A. I Rapport final; Conference Mondiale sur les Politiques Culturelles. Mexico. 1982. UNESCO.
MUtal,S.l The role of museums in contemprary society in La
tin America . Rapport presente h l'.UNESCO. 1984.
Hooper-Greenhill,E.l The role of museums in the next twenty
years. Rapport,presente au Seminaire des Mus~es et Educa-
tion. Mexico. 1986.
Carvalho de Medeiros,I.1 The community didactic museums.
Rapport presente ~ lUNESCO. 1984.
Arjona. M. I Museos y educaci6n. Rapport presente au Seminai
re de Musees et Education. Mexico. 1986.

Yanl Herreman - Mexico D.F., Mexico

"CULTURAL IDENTI TY AND THE CONTEMPORARY MUSEUM"

Contemporary museums have developed with society influencing them

and being influenced by it.
As social institutions they have ceased to be
only a valuable if not priceless collection for the use of a few, they have
left behind their role as research centres exclusively or a place of enjoyment
for the enlightened.
After the round table held in Santiago de
Chile, museums and museology acquire a responsability towards sociai requirements, one of them being the resuce of cultural identity.
The use of the museum as a communications medium and the recognition
of its social character are, from my point of view, two of the main contributions to contemporary museology.
We believe that the rescue of cultural identity is one of the basic
aims of museums, through exhibitons as a communication medium. But we also
believe that it is not their sole task, since its commitment to society
involves other fields equally as important.
For example: education and
knowledge and respect for cultural diversity.
Culture comprises all creative manisfestations: artistic, technologicial, scientific and humanistic.
It offers a complete system of common
symbols and concepts, which allow a relationship,between
man and towards
,.'
nature.
This collection of expressions that promotes identification and permits the recognition of the different social groups, that serves as a
cohesive element and diferentiates it from the outside, may be called
"cultural identity". It involves historic as well as contemporary features
and offers not only a communication and integration system among the members of thesame group, but also gives a sense of security and respect
towards oneself and towards one's own culture,
It is through the
strengthening of this cultural identity that we will be able to offer a
stronger resistence against foreing excessive cultural penetration towards
the imposition of principles, institutions, conduct patterns and production
means that may destroy the social cohesion of the group and its relations
towards natur-e.
If we agr-ee that conservation, in the sense of preservation (not only
of material artefacts but i" its ffiuseological and philosophical sense) is
one of the main functions of museums, i t is easy to agree that these become
natural agents for the transmi ssionof cultural pri nci pI es and of those
characteristics that we have defined as cultural identity.
In developed countries there is a need to preserve those cu tural
expressions that are in danger of disappearing under the pressure on an
advanced industrial development and the pehnomenon of mass communication.
In the developing countries, on the other- hand, the need to preserve and
rescue national and regional identities is clearer.
The multiple cultur-al
and economic pressures from highly developed countries endanger the local
values allowi~g a true domination that as Carvalho de Medeiros has expressed "can not be complete until one's own culture is diminished or
vani shed
II.

Museums are part of society and as such have social responsabilities.

The rescue of cultural identity being one of the world's contemporary
problems, museums, museology and museum professionals should not avoid it,
but make it one of its goals.
145

Ousmane Sow Huchard -

Dakar, Senegal

LZ...'OBJET-TEMOIN DE CIVILISATION. WlME

CONCEPT OPERATOIRE

~nJSEOLOGIQUE

La museologie, en tant que science, est relativement jeune il taut

Ie reconnattre. Aussi, comma toute science, elle doit avoir ses concepts
operatoires, ses methodes, ses outils d'analyses et ses champs specialiscs.
L'intelligence hum&ine faisant chaquG jour des conqu4tes, les sciencea evoluent'
en consequence en raffinant leurs outils. Los reflexions et les constructions
theoriques et methodologiques deviennent &insi une activite permanente du
chercheur pour une pratique plus sOre, plus tiable. C'est Ie aociologue

fran~ais

Emile Durkheim qui soulignait que "Ie savant doit d'abord definir les choliea
dont 11 traits efin qU& 1'on sache et qu'il sache bien de quoi il est question"
(I). Bien sdr les dictionnaires regorgent de definitions, mais pour une realitc
sociale. ou mleux, sociologlque, il ne s'agit pas de creer des mots nouveaux.
Mais
qui

c~e

o~t

de tuut

Ie disnit Madeleine Gravltz "de mettre

la place d1un concept usuel.

cantua. w,e conception plus claire at plus distincte" (2). Au milieu

~a,

nous resterons conscients, ,comme nOUB Ie reppolait Ie Professeur

Gaston Bachelard, que "quand il se presente

Ie culture sei,mtifique. l'esprit

n'est jamais jeune. II ost mAme tres vieux ear il a l.'ge de ses prejuges.
L'opinion pense nal, elle ne pense pes I elle traduit des besoins en connaissances. L'esprit Icientifique nous interdit d'avoir une opinion sur des
questions que

no~

ne connaissonB pas" (:}).

Dana 1.. debats qui animent les multiples rencontres des museologues
membres du Conoei: International pour la museologie (ICOFC*I), il est de plus
en plus question 4e renouveler la museologie par des reflexions d'ordre
theorique,

metho~logique

et pluridisciplinaire. Dans ce domaine. comme dans

147

bien d'autres"

l'Afrique se dolt d'apporter sa contribution, 8i modeste soit-elle.

Pour notre purt nous voulons intervenir ici sur Ie chump conceptuel des objet.s
de musee, dans la perspective d'une construction d'outils ou de systemes d'inlerpretation at des methodes d'analyae et d'exploltation des objets afin de lutter
contre leur denaturation et leur mutilation dans Ie cadre museal.
Nous sommes d'accord avec Ie triangle operatoire propose par Daniele
Giraudy et Henri Douichet
la mUReologie

(~),

qui retient quatre parametres fondamentau" pour

Ie b!timent (Ie musee), les collections (composees d'objets-temoina),

Ie permonnel et Ie public.

f' (to GRIfH ~ It Tc o~

A\) HI f-lIS TfZAT ION
R~ct+E:R.c.H
\:

\ CQUISI Tl 01'1

ot-\ '>fr;: vA-T 10 l'i

.f:S'1A vRAT ION

14B

PlJ~LIC

IN~I1,qTlotJ

E.b VCA-'11 D l'{

COHl-{

ul'{iCATION

En fait lea activites muaeologiques a'articulent autour de cette quadripartition (Musce t objets-temoins,

per~onnel

et

publi~). La

muscologie se

prc~ente

ainai, simplement,comme la synthesc des disc?ure sur les caracteristiques propres de

chacun de ces quatre parametres et les rapports dialectiques qu'ils entretiennent
en eux tant

SOl'

Ie plan diachronique que synchronique.

Nou" Ie "avo"", tou , les collections des milaces

Vel

COl'JpO"",,,t d'objeta de

toutes sortes. La Musee en devenant un centre de conservation et d'interpretation

de ces objets a impose aux spectateurs une relation toute nouvelle avec ces produits
culturels. La situation lethargiquo dans laquelle sont gardes cas objets depuis Ie
debut de l'aventure ethnographique et archeologique. nouo commande, nous membres de
l'ICOFOM. dans Ie cadre de nos reflexions theoriquea, de proposer de nouvelles demarcha
capables d'eclairer notre pratique museologique quotidienne et de lutter contre Is
denaturation et la mutilation des objets dana les musees.
Une des demarches possibles serait Ie rangement du terme "objet" aoua Ie
parapluie conceptuel "d'objet-titnoin". D'un nOlll COlIIIlun ~us passons ain.si .. un concept.
Cc concept eat

d'abord theorique et deviendra operatoire dans la maniere de l'utiliser

pour COllIprendre la realite que l'on veut observer et analyser. Comme l'a souligne
Grawitz

"Ie concept n'est PlUS seul"",ent une aide pour percevoir, mais wle faIWon de

concevoir. II .rgan!se Is realite en retenant les caracteres

dis~inctifs

nes. II exerce un premier tri au milieu du flot d'impressiona qui

des phenome-

aas~ill..nt

Ie

chercheur" (5).
Ls fonction essentiolle de l'analyse c-.oncept"elle de l'objet-temoin .. laquell~

nous

allon.~

nous livrer maintenant,

concept theorique au concept

opera~oire.

permet~ra

de saisir Ie olissement du

Cette analyse, qui ,,'effectue en doux etapes,

procede d' abord~ COI!lOIIe l' a montre Tremblay.

"n

l'identification de.s principllle",

dimensions du concept, et Ie reperage pour chacun~ de ces dimensions dina

e,u,~le ,j'lud.l<;ateurs valables". (6) 5i chlUi\ue dimension represente un aupeet

distinct de la realitet Ie.. indicateura par contre sont autant de voies possibles
d'investigation pour operer einsi l'explication de 1& realite que lOon obperve.
Qa'entendons-nous par objet-temoin ?
5i on se livrait

una economie de la culture, on oonstaterait

COlllllle l'a soulione Abrahwn Moles que "la culture se reduit finalement

tr~a

a Wle

vite,

enome

149

quantite de message" en col1lliderant qu'un "message est un groupe fini, ordonne,

d'elements puises dans un repertoire

constitu~nt

une sequence de eignes 8sRembles

selon certaines lois". (7)

Si la culture est une realite que tout Ie monde admet

aan~

pouvoir 1a

saiair, l'entendre, la voir, la sentir ou 1& toucher, il reate que aon objectivite
eat proclamee partout autour de nous par ses produits, qui eux, sont senaibles a
un ou plusieurs de nOB .. cns, selon leur nature.

La culture, cet ordre nouveau, qui decoule de l'emergence de la pensee

conceptuelle et symbolique de l'hamme, est donc un monde d'alliance et d'echange,

de communications et de significations I un monde de partage et de reciprocite.

On peut donc dire que la dialectique de la culture dans la vie sociale se resume,
essentiellenent par Ie phenomene de l'echange et du partsge des produite culture Is.
Et nous voila au coeur de la theorie de la communication sociale. Autrement dit,
la culture se resurme par la dia1ectique de l'ensemble des signes de la vie sociale
des hommes. La communication sociaIe c'est donc la dialeetique permanente des
messages culture Is au produits culturels ou encore des objets culturels.
Qulest-ce qu'un objet culturel ? mais d'abord, qu'estooce qu'un objet ?

La mat lui ml!me vient du latin

il derive de "objectllm", participe

passe de "objicere" (jeter devant). Peut lltre considere cemme objet tout ce qui se
presente

a nos

goat.

sens. un de nos sens I 1a vue, l ' 0dorat, I J ouie, Ie touc et, Ie

Au sens abstrait, "tout co qui so presente

la pensee ; qui est occasion ou matiere

pour l'activite de l'osprit", au sens philosophique", tout ce qui est donne pAr
l'experience, existe independamment de l'esprit" (10 petit- Robert). Autrement dit,
tout ce qui est oppose AU sujet qui pense. La mot objet renvoie au pre fixe "ob"
(devant, en face en latin) et

A "jet"

(action de jeter, mouvement d'une chose lancee

par courant une certa!ne trajectoire). Un objet, c'est done,

chose materielle, physique, ou toute manifestation sensible

~osentiellement,

a un

toute

ou plusieurs

de nos sens ..

Maniestation renvoie

l'action de maniiester, c'est-a-dire rendre

sensible aux sens. Une manifestation, c'est donc un phenomene qu'on peut observer,
explorer.
Tout autour de nous, la nature regorge de manifestations de toutos ftOrtes.
Cellcs-ci, qui ne sont que Ie reflet de la dialectiquo de la naturo, sont des
manifestations naturelles.
150

Par ailleurs. l'hoaDe dan8 sa

homm~Et

est

la

ba~e

l'aide de nos senn,

vi~

ditter.n~, t~3

de

v~loror

en rapport avec Ie nature et d'autres

ue gan!1eatationL

do~t

at aaiair la nature, leu dimenDionn et les articula-

tions , un outil.en fer. l'odeur d'une

una danse executee par des hommes

~audce.

a Gizeh,

masques, la orande pyrAnide de Kheops

la muaique exeeutee par un griot svec

sa harp..-Iuth "korn". etc tous ceD phenOlJ)cnes, qui ne sont

nature toute

~eule. ~cnt

nOU8 pouvons auaalt

des manifestations de 1&

eUltur~

PllB

Ie fait de Is

done den manifestations

~ lture I!!.!!..

Nous pouvons done deduire do tout ce que noUB

manifestat!or.~

Bant de.

naturel1es sont des

~jets

de dire que

naturale at leD menirestalionc

~e.

c~lturelles

~jet8 ~ulture18.

L:J....eos"O"" qce l'hOlmle

avec d'autres

~rojetto

et l'environngment en

howme~

II. peuvont Atre nateriels nu non

lectif qul

peut

~ture,

poUl"

COOIDunique,'

sent tou. dos objets culturels.

ca leur

te~et

culture qui eat, on d'autres

""'~

gene~al

fo~e

culturals, oont dorc quelle:' que coit leur

l~

bors de "a conscience

mate~ie1 ~

les sentir ou leD entendro, solon lour

.'-me de

ven~na

le~

eboerver ou les toucher,

~ture

Ie.

propre. Les objets

temotn~ d~

l'exi.tenes

"l'effort humain individuel ou col-

12 rUltu."" &U ",ervica de ::"1>_ " mais c'est ana.i per erteruoion, com-

me I'evolution historiquG de l'humanite nouo l'a en.eigne, l'utili.&tion quo l'homme

fait de lui-mtmo

8~

dec autrs"

h~eB

don. la vie 90eia19.

Sf. 1"= obj",t.. r.ult",dn I'tntf...:!.olll

fi:.c:er lia ven..~it'1 d.ana .1nt'J
~tra

~(jtlt..,

production. 100
sur

CG\lo~t.i\."

indiY;.duclln ou

de naturt3

10,.

o~bo}.a.)

d11"fcr-ent5

mr.:.~eriGlll,

treu70

!.,. rt""te cr.:.e r,e1;tn p3!'e';e qu-, peut

,~ua"i ~,,~ e~~e~e!on ~anD d'~~trc8

t.lef) prerx.ier,a; ;CJ\r

C~a

h~~a~ n'flr.illo~nt p~~ ~oulemoni:

c1n'.....:~I2;"}. IlH

de l'artitude :Ie I'''",."." a

t<a<,~gn.,nt

1.'.

Bur la

dit K. t-krx

.a~tur8, ~~ln

objots

"Dann 1&

flUb{ leo unB

nl1 pr")t3\.,:h;~l1t '1\tI~~ ~:)l.1ab~rcn; ,""uUrlO ~at:i(ttre !l(~terMinec

et en

eehangGant entr~ AU~ leurB ~ctiv!tn~. P?,lr ~~oduir~t iln 0ntrAnt ~n r.clat~on8 at en

rapport" determineFo I.es un" avec lelJ autre.; et Cl) n',.,,,t qn" d3JI.s 1..,,, limit.." do,
ceo
b

rela1:!("~

ot dG ces rapports DOcir..:J.r

~ue 3~otahlit

~~f"l!:'"

action cur In nature,

producti",," ('ll.
L'enc~blo

de. rnpports

de comprehenoion (politique.
aui des objets
rels que l'on

~~~AUX qu~ ~e

r~ligie~, eCDrooiqu~t "oci~l,

~ulturel, do~t le~

appell~

plus

cftrneterir-o

mnnireetationn sont

~onrr~uent

tat ions cultur..llell 'luI. ne requieM

des fait

pIlL

90ci~ux

~~r

pluoiourn niveaux

juridique, etc ) 80nt

t~g:blnG. ~s

cbjots cultu-

{puisqu'il. 80nt de.

~ani!e6

do matH.re pour l",u,. o7.prnnsi",n' Qconutituent

151

avec les objets culture Is materiels ce qu'on pourrait nommer la dichotomie

de Itexistenc& humaine

OU

la dualite,phenomenologique de la

cul~ura.

Ceo deux

naturea d'objets culture Is sont regles per la dlalectique Bociale aur !aquelle

re~oae

la dynamiquG culturelle.
Les faits socisux, caracterises par leur IDObilite pel,.anente. oont
bien de" mardfe"tations de culture dont l"anthrol'ologie a d6ja largeme,.,t <':e''1c>ntrc
l'objectivitc. Bien que cette objectivite Boit synonyme d'impdrti"Hte do rznlitc ou
d'univcr~a~ite$

il reste que c'eat toujours

a partir

d'une certaine

e~prehen8ion

ceptuelle et theerique que nous tenteron8 1 par l'observatioh sensorielle et

a'a~preho~laer

dif~eren~s

les

pGrcopt~ve

aspects, les profondeurs et lea Articulationn de

objeto cultureln ou faits sociauxt que noun preferons appeler objeto sociaux t

nous avon.. e:nprunter

con-

ce3
no~ ~ue

Claude Riviere (1969).

cristalli~o

C'est parce qu'autour de l'objet culturel materiel Be

une

certaina quantitc d'activites humaines que lui, nous l'appelons : objet materiel
~ocialis&.

Les objets sociaux I mythe, !angues et Inngagea

div~rs.

densest rites,

chansons, muaiques, etc ; et les objets materiela socialises, pirogue,,_ JlW,squ.s,

livres, voitures,

haut

1~

e06t\WeS,

couteaux, etc

fo~ent

ce que

nOUB

dichotomie culturelle. En tant que fruits des activites

avons

deja

humain~s.

appcle plus

ils aont des

prouuits de culture, des instnwents de cUlture, des vchicules de culture, et des

des

~>~bolcs

n"C'st qu'un

de

cUltur~~

AiDS!. dans tout

intt'lm~diair('l

Cos

deu~

~a,

Ifh~n9t

Ie createur de

C?L cbjQt=~

dans eette objectivation -"u Bocial.

natures d'objets (objets materiels socinlises et

oojet~

aQ,,:'.3=! .1Ont dialacUqu"",ent Hees .. car l'objet lIoeial peut s'in"crire <:ann P"bj"t
:t:-:\tei~iei t:oc~e~_\l~e

do

~up~rt

tiell~n ~st

~Oel.lt

3ervir

Par consequent, l'institution musicale, dont l'une des tAches

a~son

i>eut rejaillir

l'e:~ression

SU~

1 'obj~t

ff~'~ial.

lutremsn-:;

d~_tt

l'ur..

de l'autre.

IV interpretation des phenomenes humains et sociaux doit, avec lee outils

sclentifiques de 8a discipline mere :

nignifiction~ ~ociales

Itanthropelogi~Jtenter

de

r6vel~r

Ie

Dond~

des

et historiques des objets materiels socialises at den objets

sociaux dana leurs relations dialectiQues. Ceo objets, c'eat en tant que m~~oire ou
~iroir de la societe que nous les appelone ; objets temoins de civilisatio~.

152

lIs portent en eux Ie temoignaoe de l'existence et des luttea des hommea.Nous entendons done par objet tC.",oin. tout objet materiel "ociali"" ou tout objet social.

Contrairement
~Nsee

conservateur du

ancien Directeur du
logua a tr""aille

~eyieo).

ul'expresBiona

Ndoye (3)

dee arts africains de Dakar (IFAN). Ie Profeaaeur Jean Gabua.

~~see

d'ethnologie de Nenchatel (Suisse). qui en tant que mu"eo-

l'elaboration du projet du Busee des civilisations noire,.. aux

cStes des architeetes Pedro Ramirez Vasquez

gie de

'~riama ~mengue

ce qu'a ecrit notre collegue

(batisseu~

Jorge Campuzano Fernandez et Therry

objet-t~oin.

~lelot.

n'est pas Ie parrain de

(sic). La professeur Gabus, dont nous connrtirUiOIW assez

bien lea tnwaux 9t publications <lit

qui perIni'" d"s onde..

du celebre mULe" d'anthropolo-

lui-m~be

avoir emprunte Ie mot

~cteau

Jean

ces objets degagent ; et ;'1 cite no'tamment Basil"

qUI>

~lribe

qui

lui. le.3 qU<>1it"lait "d'objets-diapasons" (9).

Nous com1nissons aU83i d'auttcs theoriciena deD objets. Un des plus
prollfique& est cGriainement Ie 80c1010gue t"onctionnaliste Jean Baudrillard (10)
qci s'inter3sse parliculUrement " la liturgie t"onn.. Ue;:des objets dans Ie. societe
de

ccnuo~ation

arece par Ie mode de production capiteliste et qui ne procede qu'"

une description &ynchronique des objets quIll etudie. On peut. citer ausoi Pierre
Boud"n "Sur Ie otatut de Pobjet". Henri Van.:.Lier avec "Objet et esthetique lt
'fiolette }!o,.in "l'objet biographique" Ol}. 11 y " Kepes G.
Ph""""e" (12), M. Rheim..

"l'objet cree par

"La vie etrar.go des objets (13) ; c"ttc liste n'est p""

exhaustive. Mala leo ret"lexions et lOR analyses leo plus interessante.. sur lec>
objet" 'l",e nou,,, connais,.ons restent cellos d'abra-;am A.' Holes avee "1" the"rie
<.lee obj",t" " (II,)" 0 I'lod.odynamique de la culture" (15) et "objet et co!lllllunication"
(16) ; et (,,,Hest de claud.. IUviere avec "l'obj"t ..ocial , e"sai d'epistemologie socia-

(17i.

JoUique!i

Tout en
titre que
:f()r.ct~.on

le~

reccnnaissnr~t

aux

~hjets

organes de presse ecrite,

une

Abr~am

f~nction

A. Moles

de communication, au rnAme

rcduit~

avec raison, cette

c-e qua 1a eemiotique et Ie cadre Bocio:!.ogique peUVl'Hlt nous

conslLerant l'objet

uniqu~en~

reve ler

en

eomme un objet-signo.

Pour tous ces auteurs. y compris J. Gabus. les objets dent ila parlent
ne Ront que des objetc eulturels materiels. Seul Claude Riviere

p~esentent

les

objets decculant des activiteo de l'homme (lea objets culturvls) comme dunlite
phtnoreenologfque de la culture (objets materiels socialise!lobjets ~ociaux).

153

Pourt..nt nous a,wons que "peutoo3tre considere COI1lIll" objet, tout ce qui ae presente

nos sena "(fu>bert etymologlqlle) ; OU cOlOme nous l'avons deja dit, tU1\te manifestation
sensible .l ltun de

nOB

cinq sens. Ainsi comme fa souligne Henri van Liol'fl Ie

bens

qu'ils lIes objets) nous communiquent du aeul fait quills pLU'lent " la "ens"Uon .t .i
la p"rception. Hbo ~i noua conaidero"" leurs constructions, leurs fOllctionnoDients,

leurc

la

den~inationa
substan~e,

par Ie langage. leurs relations

It.space. au temps,

14 eaU8Alite,

ce sera toujoura Ii partir de llepreuve sensib18 que noua proposent

leur pr,,',ence et leur utiliaation" (18).

phenOlD~nologi'lue

L'objet culturel, qui est done une dualite

de la cUltul'll,

c'est. .:e qUE nouu appel;.oon& dar.a la perapective muscolo b ique, un OBJET-TilllOIN DE
CI\'ILISA~

; Is culture etant l'esprit de la civiliaation aelon Is belle formulation

de Leoflold Sed..r :Jenohor, membre de l'Institut.. Co concept d'objet-ti"'lc,in ['ecouvre

non se141,)nent l'obja":. materiel socialise, mais auas! l'objet social. Une telle consta'uction conceptuelle est different" de la vision gsbusienne de l'oujet-tQrnoin.

En fait. en procedant a une s.::. ..iotique de la cultUl.... on no I,eut qu'aboutir

a une conception dichotomique de l'objet

cu1tu~,

c'est-A-dire de l'objet-t;moin.

Aprea avoir identirie les deux dimensions possibles de l'objet-temoin, il

s'ngit .'sintennnt d'en rep6rer les principaux indicateura, c'est-a-dire toutes los voies
possibles d'inveatigation Bcientifique.

N~UB

Ie

.a~onB,

l'homme, pour 80rtir de son

animalite~

ben~ficie

travera

de nom1:-reusp.s Rll'ttation", de. }1 ewergenee de deux caracteres e.ssentials qui ponctuent et

colo~Gnt ~QC~~B Ge~ man1~entatioOBt

rique. Cs

ca~a~t~1~t

lais~ent accu~~ trnc~

et ceci

mama n'i!s existent

sur

c~rtainementt

depuie la peri ode prchisto-

embryo~nairemerat

l~ur comport~ent.

Comme 1'4

chez dtautres animauxt ne

montr~

Lewis

M~nord,

cea

~eux

cernctorc;8 JlJor.t non enregiatreJl, et peut-@tre mAma non umregi.trabl<e ; l'un dit.... l1 :

"c.o!';,t

11')

I"V}u,r,.,.!~:.'"

rolF: ::raV()r at surtout de transfcrmer lea conception6 imaginees en pr"jets

verita.ltl'=!s, ltl\'.!.tre ei't Ie

~.ngci!'GCt ~t!

S:i.

l~hC1ume

liJen~

de la crainte et de la veneration, qui ne Bont 1>119 sana

prceence des fcrc<,J) qui sor:.t hors de portee de ll::ntel!igence hW4aine ll (19).

el"t d.Aven\,;

U~

produr.taur de culture, souligne encoro ltanthrol>ologue, c'eat

surtout ,p{;i;!'ce q.uwl,. oat lila seule creature

dans 1" nature r,

~lur;

avoil" jMlais eu Ifintuition 'lullil

a.

qUEl ce que ne lui en disent 8e6 yeux" (Idem).

La vie e..otjo.",elle dont il etait devenu Ie porteurr plonne .. l'hotDme dans

~~

monde d'~~OUT. de haine. de peur. d'nngoisae. de rire. de larmes. de part age. d'al-

liance, d'echenge, de reciprocl~e. de coml~t. de communication

.151.t

C'est parce qu'il

ate capable d'exprimer et de convnunique.' ce qui l'hllbi-

tait. que l'hoarne est devenu un producteur de culture ; et les produits de cette
culture sont 10. pour en temoioner.
Expression,

communica~iont

temoignagft t voila done, les trois Dlots-c Ills sur

lesquels reposo tout produit culturol. c'est-A-diro tout objet-tcmoin.

L'EXPRESSION ; l'howmn ate>..--priloe <!ssentlellement, COmmc nous

plus haut,

travers d'une part des objets

matbri~ls

par~.

nwntr[

8ocialisl:s (transformation de

IRatcriaux que lui ofire 18 nature en objets utilitaires =

des objets materiels), et d'autre

lla\~on6

proct?s.su~

de

~ccialisation

des oLjets sociaux {v{cus varticuliers, oestcs

multifonue6, pas ules, langages divers, sont organises (muHiquE') institutions,

4

U~

cl

coutumes, monde de relations et dtinteractions, pratiques sociales, etc

~ CO~nlN1CATION

I ce par quoi est scelle Ie lien social

l~i-m~~e

; synanyme

d'cchange. de rfciprocite, d'al1iance. et de portage; qui dit communication dit 8ignlCj cot i lIoR. Sinon "que serait une cownunication qui ne serait pas t:r'nnsmission d 'une
"

signification 7 qui ne s'etablirait pas dans les expressions porteusos de sans 7 "
s' int erroge avec rabon Scherer (20). Do fayon generale. c'est la dialectiqlle des objet".
temoins dans la vie 50cia1e. Objet-temoin etant synonyme de message, d'ohjot-aigne.
"Les objets, cocnme les mots. sont porteurs d'infonnations" (21).
IE TEHOIG}/,\GE I la principalo consequence de I' emergehce de la pensee conceptuell" et symllique c'est d'avoir fait passer l'hOlWle. d'un "animal qui "ait" .i un
"animal qui sait qulil sait". (22). L'homme a conscier.ce de ses vecus particuliora passes. de ce qu'il oat entrain de faire et de co qu'il voudrait faire uu devenir. Les
objets materiels aodaliscs. dans la diversitc de leurs fonnes et meteriaux, et les
p-ueta

soci~ux

fixc3 ou inscrits sur divers supports (qui sont eux aussi des objets

materiels socialise~. portent en eux Ie temoignage de l'existence, des luttos. d~s

conqu~tes

et. des prC>;Jres de l'hOlDllle, dans la vle sociale et face

l'envi"onnement

naturel.

11 sufii; de savoir interroger les objets temoins pOllr qu'ils nOlls livront
leur temoignage I c'est Ie r81e de la recherche scientifique.
Loin de onsiderer dans 10 musee uniquement Ie caractere esthetique acees50ire do l'objet-t~in~ l'interpretation dialectique Ie revelera commo line veritable
source de

connaissan~s.

et coci par l'analyse, la presentation et l'animation dana

155

un cadre muaeal trae'ttionnel au da.,s l'environnement Boe-"..al tout entier

AVAnt de preuenter ou expoeer,un objet-temoin dans un cadro

~pectacteur8

i1 faut

~u&calt

5eule~nt,

dc!inir ; c'est-i-di!"'c en dt!gager taus lea caracteres- qui- .peuvent non

aider leG

}ll:~~C~

mUDeoiooi~ (~t:CNo:,n.

nise a"'ee ..-aiB.o.n Ie No!rw'f'eI!:Ient intero,lltiono':' pour una nouvel-Ie

l~

10

CO!(r,\'3

a~pai! perr-e~~Le

en penetrer l'univers aocia-culturel, mals

l'objet-tecoin do jo,,')r 30n rele d'objet de eonnaissance, done de prog,..;',.

Ccttfl

~eti~!~ion ~ultid~monaionnellet qui

tati.:.>n u:.uscogrsp-biqu19o; COlUJi8tera

mila~ion

'to:.

)l\'t le prc-cellf\u.$ coonifti!

de tout

c~ ~~~ 'e~

p~ealp.ble ~

repo8~

in!tlale::JP.nt cur- 11.np;)r6t\oC:'a!:don

gens commvniquent

notre esprit

Ai~Bi,

la

cy'p"ri~,,,s

(0

i'hcn:me i

~t

J.!f a8si~

~un3ci~nce

que

IY,m.ori"ll"s ,

la vue, 1'oure, l"odorllt, 1e toccher, 1" go(\t. La ."ationaUte dOl notre

conna!t20aan~.A,)3t

:1~r~!.)'9ctiIC6.

signes Que repose tout l" anvoir

nous avons du 1110"do ot. de notre 8tre prov!en't-elle d.. n08

avide !!C

~out~ L~~erpre

acruter l'objet-t.cDloin dar.s pl'.ID1cu;-s

C~\~8t ;:'1:- Ifintor'I:"e~atiQn Cl1t~

5i
c I est que'!

eat un

eflpr~.t.

toujour"

eO~10

cooryoit-elJ.e done l'enviroJUlement tSatural et soc.ial

peuple

de signe" en jl>xt!llpo!lit!on et en interaction, dont l'intelligenee SEl nourr.a en tCl1tant

leur eyplic&t!on. leur clarification, leur classification. bret, leur syste"8tisation.
I I faut neanmoiruo ""uligner que le" signes ne s'ndreusent pM "'IX lien'" en ,,;,,,,,,t .. U~ teb,

car

CC5

~n

c'cst-~ir,,~

~le

ctcITderea

tant

\In\!

~ue fondem~nt

iiU~l.!lt.:l"tC~

cella dtuP'l a:.:i:c-

sont en realitc! qu'un moyen, left voiea f1'acces

de lractiyite

mcntale~

file

~i9ne

notre

est Un

:nte}.ligcnc~"

nti~ul~~.

sensible .. c.lont Itimnge menta Ie ~5t l'I.~socice dun3 t:otre cr.p:,="t

~tJ.r;r,luo

;..... \'11 a pour fonction d'c\'oQ.u-er -en vue

~tun~ cO~l':~icaiionH

"

(2J),

Lit
:.... l1.

n.,d.!"~

to:u~tlttnCA _8~n3ibl0

:~cr. ~;,~ .~O",. j~ C.,,:-o4'.!~r

du siDno et Ie ireulus qu'il a p9ll..'"

1r:::-.)) ll{'(;r.t"~ \ 1 t in~crpretant) t' connti taent. les d'3u~ ".;.crn.~.3 (~\~~:lL~If\>1t/:~igni:fi~

llans 103 sCi1!il)logie 311UI':'Surienne) fondes fJur

une relation (':nnvcntio,l1'1':!lle 8 m.j...,: lc

si !Jn~

seircienn3 en

~.ci-1l1hn~

llyn-ch6tice.

AJanH

la 5er!liotiquB

t"'4

nais .i u~c .ir!~~~_ (rcA~rcsfl1ntam~l'obj.)"t ~t 1 t interpretant). Sur Ie

tCn-;1~
ra~\;

:Jlnne

~orn.la~t rt.tE'!:i

.plut8-t- co::r.mE'.:

l:r;~

pafJ

fr..L.~C:!

U':l~ ~~

r;h..-p co!'!.C(~ptl'al~

Ie

f2:Lplo!o,l1Iultiples t at loin dt@tre un t':!nue hCit!Jo=-.yrnique, il appa"

{~?r-nee

poly~c~!que.

~la.i3

de

;fa~ol1

gc.nerelc, :Il

fica. l~oti~)rt

f"Rt une_

1<>5 cateRori,,!' <lc. r'it<'lec, pa,. contre, lJont Dlult!ples.

f'he.wlrt{,nologiql.lement parb.:.t, or. l>eut retenir que clan:\! p.'es,!""

me5

~ultl;.;.~~ls

m~89ages

156

connan dOon8 Ie

:r:onde,l~, COO!In\lniCAt~on

""'OperA a

travcrn

1'3

su\vl1.\t"bJ ~ .!.~Lt;',.!!:!.J.1ti:D!: oi1"aetifs, .l.e.c.ti':ea at JluntE.:ti.fD.

",'US 1"0 syste.

dnq ".e,..du.a: f1n

Si certains signes ont un caractere universel plus au moins marque, d'autres.

par contre, supposent pour

Ie

m~e

repertoire

leu~

cul~l,une

comprehension. que l'emetteur et le rccepteur partagcnt

m@me aire culturelle. II convient de souligner que dans

la communication soclale chaque individu est. en Boi. un emetteur et un recepteur potontiels et que Ie canal physique qui porte Ie message change de nature selon Ie mode de
communication utilise par les acteurs sociaux ou Ie secteur de la vie sociale considere.
Chaque signe ou ensemble de signes ne sera intelligible sous sa forme de
manifestation que dans la mesuro ou Ie recepteur pourra l'interprcter selon Ie degre de
partage de ce mAme repertoire avec l'emetteur. La recepteur etant toujours un acteur
social, ou un groupe d'acteurs sociaux, l'ametteur, lui s'!l peut @tre

il peut

~tl'e

un acteur social,

6u"si une institution cOlllllle Ie musee, ou l'objet-temoin lui_@me. "'utrement

dit. dans 1" demarche museologique. l'objet-temoin. qui est un signe produit par un emetteur. devient lui_he. de par sa con:figuration. sa morphologie. sa "mDeire". un emetteur.
Dans Ie cadre de l'interpretation museologique. l'objet-temoin, en tant que medium. donnee anthropologique et historique. se presente donc comme un temoin de civilisation
porteur d'un certain message que les gens de musee ne doi~t pas glacer.
La denotation d'un signet (d'un objet-1B",oin). surtout quand il s'agit d'un

objet materiel socialise cOlllllle Ie masque

"Kan_ga"

des Dogon ou la harpe-luth "Kora" des

Mandinka. se fonde principalE!lllent sur sa structure morphologique.

formelles significatives qui se manifestent

a travers

sur ses unites

des traits differentiels pertinents

dont l'interdependance et les articulations creent l'i.age de l'objet-temoin que Ie recepteur

per~eit.

Ainsi donc. la culture de par son universalite. sa dynamiqu6. et 80n rale de

moteur de la communication sociale. confere

a aa

produits (que nous avons auss! appeles

objets cultl1RiS. objets-temoins, objets materiels socialises, objets sociaux, objetssignes), pluaieurs dimensions ou car.acteres qui concourent .. I' affirmation de I' identi te
culturelle d'une societe donnee.
C'eat pourquoi.

l'objet~tCmoin peut

avoir une dimension SymboliQue. il a une

histoire et une :fonction 80ciale. il peut connattre un ou plusieurs CAracteres

estheti~

que;-sociologigue. pOlitigue. cconomigu6. religieux. ritual. etc il peut s'integrer

dIlIUI un systeme d'objets-temoins peuplant un s6cteur donne de h
jet-temoin considere, certains caracteres peuvent

.'~

vie sociale. Selon l'ob-

manifester. d'autrea plus ou moins.

au pas.

157

Dans la perspective muscologique, In connaissance scient.ifique dQ.s ot.juttottmoins constituant les diverses collections, occupent done une plnct). !onportante .. Cor,
nou~

Ie aavons

t.:llS,

C2

diif::rcnts proijres de
un~

sont les objets-temoins quI traduisent concrelemcnt lcs

11~10m:ue ;

c'est

t.ravers qUE': s'cJq)rime uno culture nationale,

civilisation ; et c'est par eux que 8'affinme une identitc culturelle.

Cleat pourquoi Jean Pa.ul Sarte n ecrit avec raison

que liLa culture nc

Sail'"" den ni personne, eUe ne justifie pas. Hais c' est un l'roduit de l'homme I i l
s'y projette. B'y reconnattl 8el11 ce miroir critique lui o:f:fre cOn imaoe II (<:1.)./

Auteurs ct ouvrages cites

(1) - DUIlKlIEIH, Emile

ClS'OG) Reg1es de 1.. methode soe!ologique, 1'''1'1&. P.U.F.

(colI. nBi~liothe~ue rl" philosophie contemporaine ll ) 159 edition p. J~.

(2) - l;R.\WITZ. M.

1974) ~Iethodes en Bciences "ociale". Pari". Dalloz. 2e edition,

~.61.

(J) -

BAOIELARU, C. (1970) la formation de

l'esprit scienti:fique. Paris J. Vrin,

p. lit.
(I,). _ CIF.AUr--i, D. et 3OUIUlET. If. (1977) Ie lUusee at 1a vie, Paris. 1a doc.unentation
:fr~f1~a:"se~ p.

6.

(5)

op. cft. p. 373.

(6)

'i:P&lBL.>.Y, ~l . . . A. (1968) lnitistion

I .. reches"che dans 1es sciences humaines

Hontr.'ea1, Nc Gra_hil1. , p. SIt.

(7) - }~X. K. at ENGELS, F. (1978) oeuvres chaisies, t. I. Moscou, Ed. du progres,
p. 166.

(0) - NOOYE. H.~m. C198J) "Le ~lus"e en question" in Ie SOUIL {;\uotidien du " mars)

DakIlr Senegal. p. 6.
(9) - GADUS, .1. (1975) L'objet-tclUo!n I Ies references d'un.. civilisation par l'objet,
Neuchtate1. Ides et Calande". )JO p ill.
(10)..

158

I>;'UDIlILLAnD, J. (1968) 2:!....BYst ...." deft objeh. Paris, Gallimard, ~88v

In c"""""nicaHons lJ, Paris, Ed. du Seuil, 1969.

(11)

(12) - bruxel1es, CU.

La Connaissance, 1968, 2JO p.

(1J) - I(HEIHS, N. (1$159) .La vi.. 6trange des objets, Paris, PIon, J78 p.
(14) - faris, Editions universitaires, 1972.
(15)

h,ri", Ed. }Iouton, 1967, JIo2 p.

(16)

In ColllDlunications lJ, Paris, Ell. seuil, 1969.

(17)

P"ris, Librairie Ha,"cel Riviere, )80 p.

(IA;

In Cocmunications IJ, 1'.-90

(19)

HO~:FOI<ll, L.

(~O)

SClIEPJ:.!l, R. (965) 5tructure et fondement de la cOOllnllDication hUl1laine,

(1956) Les transfonnations de l'hOClllJ\E\, Pads, Pa)'ot, p. 19.

""sai c,"itique vur les theories contemporain"s de I" communication, Paris, 5 .E.D.E.5.
p. 20.

(21) _

B~MERGER,

CH. (1979) Technologie et analyse semantique des objets : pocr unt

sem_\o-technologie" "in l'HON1'1E, janvier_are, XIX (1) P. 105. cf. LOnlAN, J .H.
(197-'-), "Proble.noa de 1.. typologie des cultures" in KRISTEVA

J.,

IlEY-DEBOVE

J.,

UNIKER J. J. eGs. Essays in semiotics, Paris- La Ilaye! Hauton, p 6,

(;<2) - VAHDEllJoJEEreClI, V. (1979)" 108 nnditres de l'hOlllll>e "in Science et vie

N 129 hors

oer~e. decembre, p.

104.

(2,3) .. GUIR.\uD. P. (1971) 1& Se.niologie, Paris, P.U.F. (colI. "Que sais-je ?

N 1421), p. 29.
(24) - cite pAr

~~LES,

A.A. (1967) Sociodynamique de la culture, Paris,

~wuton,

p.

~l.

159

Jan Jelinek - Brno, Czechoslovakia

Identity, what i$ it?
Identity is e complex of representative features with the help of which
populations survive.
They can be of biological, cultural or environmental
nature.
identity makes an individual ~ part of a certain population
identify'.ng him with this population by characte~istic biological features
like body dimensions, eye and skin pigmentatio~, type of hair, specific
morphological and/o" physiological features (enzymes, blood groups, dental
fe~tures,
facial morphology, etc.) All these features are of a genetical
or environmental origin illustrating human adaptation to diverse - environmental, cultL\ral, and social - conditions.
BiloQic~l

makes an idividual a part of a certain cultural tradition

identitying him with thiE tradition by characteristic cultural features
such as language, economy, mythology, religion, art, material cult.ure,
social relations, kinship, etc. These features illustrate human adaptation
~o vnrioun - envirDnmsntal and biological - conditions.
~tur,:L id~nt.ity

Environmental irlent.ity makes an individual a part of a certain environment,

usually of tho environment where he is born or be!i;-t adapted biologically
and/or culturally.

.'

These three types of identities are not solid, fixed; rather they are ever
che,nging at v,,,riC'us speeds.
In this way they are the components of human
evolution end development.
A crisis arises if the cultural, biological or
environme"t,li changes - whatever be their origin - are too great for the
individu~l;
if thoy rurpass hi" possibilities of adaptation,
As a result
he looses his biC'logi<::al, cultural or envir"n..ental identity - a situation
which can b~ fatel to him.

CL!lturnJ idrmtity i~ usually represented in museLlm exhibition,. with selected histw"icill objects, and in this way they ilh,strate the past
cultural traditions of the corresponding population represented in the
exhibitio:-h

apprc",ci"
lect-Polo)

~Ji

~nr

jll!';\:

tM

thi~~

this i-eason museum exhibiitotls have mostly an

as

historical

':h" col1.ections used in the exhibitions are also

col-

aspe::t in mind ..

Only axcil'ptianillly can Ol"e find in some modern museu/ils - and more in short
term p.xhibiti~n~ t~an in long lasting ones - the sociological aspects of
contC'11,p::lT'\ry Clll turaJ tr'adi tions and probl ems. Thi 5 is more the case where
the ,"us<,um <>;wears .35 " ne., cui t.ur..l i snt! tution stri vi ng to cover some
contemporary neGd5 of its

50cisty~

This was the case of the IIHeimatmuseum u

in the 19t~, c:.'ntLlry in Ce.,tral Eurooe., Today we can find as an example the
Anaconia Nei~h~ou~hood MLlseum, in Washington DC.
This museum has a new
kind oc p.&sFntation, and also of other educational activities based not so
much on t~~ past ~nd the tradition~l roots o~ cultural identity but also on
the c:o~tcmponlry needs ot its populati on and on its adaptation to new
conditions. Ev~n this adaptiv~ proce5s is often part of c:ultural identity,
especi~lly sith the young new genertation.
With the fast tempo of cultural
change5 in modern 50ciety, the cultural identity of the new generation is
fairl\' di <'~,'r,mt 'tIher. c.ompared with the cultural identity of the passing
genr"r.ti 0:1.
':hi Ii Qua1i ty of cuI tural identi ty - the changing char'acter
161

on the degree of isolation - is clearly projected into the coo1(building of collections) and the educational ac ti vi ti es of
muSeLtmS, which varies in the different parts of the world.

depending
servation

The losu of cultural identity appears when the past cultural traditions are
replaced teo fast by new ones - in modern times they are replaced with
internatienal traditions - which usually have only short lives, without the
possibility to plant deep roots into the cultural consciousness of the
popul ati on.
Human adaptability, in our case the capacity to leave the old traditi ons
and the specific cultural identity and to accept new ones di stributed
mainly by communicative mass media, has its biological limits.
Therefore the CAll for the cultural i~entity of the past is reaction of
that iargG part of our society which cannot easily accomodate to the ever
increasing tempo of the changes of our modern cultural development.
MuseDlo:ty. and

!;'~~l

tural i denti ty

a science of museums, their activities, their place in society

and th~refore also in its cultural development, faces a fundamental problem
when tryir.g to solve the quesitons of identity:
How far should we look
back for our past identity, that is, for the identity of past generations,
and how far should we focus also on recent changes in .the identity of
modern man, bringing simultaneously an international uni~ormity and a break
with the identity of the past. If we relate identity with the environment,
it means how far can modern man go without the traditional natural environment o-f ..hich he is the biggest enemy, with his modern technmology.
In
princip1<:, I,e fac"l here a fundamental question - where are the limits of
human adaptability?
Both the biological and the cultural one - which has
onp- com~~~ denominator : our nervous system.
!1us~clogy 0S

Contem~orary mU5eology,
there where it works the best, tries to coordinate
both agpects tre asp~ct5 of the past and of the present identity, as it
best fits our modern needs.

162

Poka Laenui /}iayden F Burgess) - Waianae, Hawaii, USA

Thb.. papeJ[ WiN the iJ.l[tho![ I "" ""poken eon;t![ibu.tion
to the Inte![natA.onat Con6e![enee
on ~and the CuUwu:tl Co~ & Identi;tq
in Jokkmokk, Sweden - June 1986

06

lruUgencu.o People-!>

CN MJSUEM> AND INDIGENOOS CUL'lURES

The cuJtures of the Indigenous Peoples

are part of the cuJ turaJ heritage of a] 1
mankind. Iooigenous cuJtures, like a]]
cuJ tures, deserve dignified treatment and
proper respect of all peoples of the w:Jrld.

the occassion of the construction of a new muselDn in the

On

haneJands of the saami at Jokkmokk, S\oa:ien, A'JTl'E --S\oa:iish MJuntain and

saami. museum, in cooperation with the Swedish O::mnission for tJNES(X) and

the International council of Museums (IW1) recently sponsored a

conference on Museums and the Cultural COntinuit/ & Identity of Indigenous
Peoples.

I present here a written version, as best as I can recall, of

the presentation I made in addressing the question, "How Should Museums

Present Indigenous Cul tures?"

\~y

By

not

tl~se

of apology, let me say that the a:mrents I rrake here are

of one trained in a field directly associated with museums.

am a lawyer by education engaged in a snaJ] law practice concentrating in

representing Hawaiian natives in an econanicaJly impoverished c::mnunity in
Hawaii.

I al so advocate for rights of indigenous peepl es on bellal f of the

World COuncil of Indigenous Peoples which has indigenous members fran five
of the w:Jrld regions: South America, central America, North America,
Pacific and 5candanavia.

Thus, my o:mnents may afPiU" to those engaged in

muselDU activities to be uninfonred.

they remain,

~ver,

How

Perhaps that may be the case, but

the perception of one outside of museum activities.

sh:>uJd Museums present Indigenous cuJtures?

163

To address this question, I suggest

museums' role in the society?"

we first ask, "IVhat are

ApparantJy, museums must fuJfilJ the role

of supporting the society in whatever direction the society is heading for

(or slPuJd be heading for).
questions:

But this resp:Jnse leads only to further

"What is the direction of human progression?

of human existence?

Where are we heading

What is the goal

for?'~

Unless these questions are first considered and resolved, and ....' e
are given definiteness in social direction, we are left witlPut a sound
fonnuJation to guide us and will remain drifting in a sea of ideas, at
times even engaging in activities such as pointing out the cute clothing
styles and hair designs, peeking at indigenous courtship methods, or an
outright condawlation of indigenous rel igious practices.
Therefore, I ask, "What is the supreme end of h];lrnan existence?"
I sul:I11i.t that spiritual developrent is the supreme end.

The

endeavors of mankind in econanic, political and material aceumuJation, in

the fields of science, wedicine, astroncmy, astrology, and technology all

began as a progression in spiritual developrent.

How closely those

engaged in these endeavors have stayed on this initial path is subject to

great controversy which I shaJ 1 not entertain here.
What of the languages, dances, cererronies, art, "magic" and all
these other practices of indigenous peoples which we coJ]ect losely under
the term "cu.J ture"?

I suI:I11i.t \:hat "cuJ ture" is the. highest social and

historical expression of a peop.Je of their spiritual developrent.

In the

languages, dances and cererronies of indigenous peepl es, we can often find
at their very surface, the spirituality of the peop.Je.

These cuJ tural

expressions are capsuJes of spiritual conceptualizations developed by a

peepl e over thousands of years.

164

What sh:>uJd be the resp::msibiJity of musetnns to ITOVing the

society they serve cJ oser to society I s suprene goal of spidtual
developrent?

Mu.seums are resp:msible to maximize the opportwlities in

which people are able to understand and to oontinue developing their

spirituality.

Thus, in dealing with cultures of indigenous peoples,

museLUllS shouJ d present to their societies the cuJ turaJ practices of others
so that their societies wil 1 be enriched by the weal th of social and
historical experiences of many other cuJ tures.

Thereby, museums will be

providing their audiences the opportunity to appreciate the many avenues

to spiritual developnent and thus be able to develope their own
spirituality with a broader view of the already existing cuJtures.
If this can be said to be the mission of museums, or at least
cultural museums, then how best do museums achieve/this goal in dealing
with indigenous peoples?

And in attempting to fuJfill this mission, what

are musetnns' resp::>nsibilities to a=rd the indigenous peoples and their

cultural practices the proper dignity and respect?
In presenting indigenous cul tures, museums must present not the
musetnns I view of indigenous cuJ tures for too often that view is shrouded
with judgmental values based on that museum's particular approach to
spiri tual ity.

When that is done, the cul tural practices presented are

done so by a val ue standard foreign to the indigenous cuJ ture.

Such a

prac':ice accompl ishes on] y the enforcenent of the museum's society c.."'uJ ture
and does nothing to the service of the, society in presenting other
e-xpressions of spiritual i ty.
Let me illustrate with an exartple.

In F.awaii, the Bishop Museum

presented an exhibition cal 1ed "The Hawaiians."

As I entered the first

displ ay hal lway" I was :inmediatel y oonfronted by a brightl y oolored

165

painting of an artist's rendition of the death of Captain James COOk at

KeaJ akekua on the IsJ and of Hawaii.

COOk was centered in that picture

with his rren around him, warding off the attacks of the natives.
That was the introductory statement for the po'e Hawaii, the
native people of Hawaii, a peopJe wtx>se ancestors cane fran the creationaJ
god Po; wn:>se forefathers-were directly traceable to the life forms of the
oceans and the lands, wn:>se genealogical line was traceable fran the tills
when the giant lizards roanEd the earth -- a people wtP had

110

"dark ages"

but wtPse geneology is traceabl y, ever step of the way, to the beginning
of creation; wwse creational chant, the KUTU.ll ipo, has been cal Jed the
greatest piece of J iterature ever produced by mankind.
The beginning of the Hawaiians did not begin when this British

captain, perhaps lost in the middle of the Pacific, came upon our isJands.
No.

Hundreds of years before, when COOk's forefathp.rs

wex:~

stiJ J hugging

their european coastl ines afraid of venturing too far fran sh::>re 1est they
fall into the jaws of fairytale II'Onsters, my forefathers were
crisscrossing the Pacific ocean, sailing fran island to island, even
reaching continents which touched the pacific waters.
discover us.

COOk did not

We knew, Jong before he was conceived, wtP and where we

Cool< 's appeara."1ce may have been the birth of our peepJ e in the

minds of the Europp-illlS, but for us, our beginning .is far different.
sure we can fi.TJd lYli'ny II'Ore e.xarrples to illustrate the point

ot

I am

hM a

foreign viev' and '!2J u., standard can produce a tremendousl y ina=urate
presentatior. of indigenous cuJ tures; yet serve onl y to reinforce the
:1

foreigner" s concepts of indigenous cuJ tures.

How then

can museums refonn?

Is it Possible to br:iJ:!g atout a

new partnership between-museums and indigenous peepJes

50

that the

cuJ tures of the indigenous peopl es may be presented ac=atel y and

respectfulJy, with greater tolerence for different fonns of spiritual

expr~sions?

166

I will not be so bold as to suggest the method of reformation of

museuns being the first to oonce:'le naivety in this arena.

Rather, I w::>uld

share sate questions for oonsidereation by those wh:> are the experts in
museums hoping that these questions may aid in the oonsideration of such
reforms.
Questions:
1) Hew can museums loak beyond the fonn and outer
appearance of ? cultural display item and present for
societies' appreciation the substance of spirituality
contained wHhin or illustrated by the item?
2)

can

non-indigenous museun experts properly deal with

the spiritual substance of indigenous cuJ tures when

these experts care fran and abide by a bel ief system

foreign to that of indigenous peoples? SoouJd musuems

inchrle indigenous peoples themselves into museun
institutions so that the accurate transfer of
information takes place in an exhibit? At what levels
soouJd museuns inoorporate indigenous peoples?
How do museuns incl ude indigenous peopl es?
SOOuld these indigenous people be "qual Hied" in tenns
of possessing diplanas, degrees or certificates (often
proof of having been subjected to a minimun of soCial
and cul tural brainwashing) or should they be qualified
in tenns of possessing a first hand experience,
understanding, and perhaps even belief in the spiritual
expression for which his or her cul ture stands? Soould
elders be oonsidered the experts and museun trained
peopl e serve as their technical assistants to aid in
presenting the elders' beliefs in the most accurate
rranner?

3) How soould museuns treat those aspects of indigenous

cul tures which, acoording to that cul ture, should not
I:e exposed to others, or to ~ , or chil dren; to
those practices or displ ay i terns reserved for
disclosure only to a particular family or group? Who
makes the final decision on whether or not to display
such sensitive properties or practices?
4) In displaying indigenous Objects sacred to the
people, what are the proper metOOds of-display which
wil 1 not detract or appear disrespectful to indigenous
concepts? How can m:xlern technology be used to present
these displays? can indigenous metOOds such as songs,
story tel 1 ing or chants be used as a mediun of
camunication?
5) What is the responsibility of museuns to return
sensitive cultural properties (eg. representational
forms of gods or goddesses or spiritual elements, hunan
remains, etc.)? J))es it depend on whether or not such
properties were freely given by the indigenous peoples?
What oonstitutes "freely" given? Are bribes .. trade in
trinkets, barter with alcoool considered to be fair
trading or "freely" given? Are a people under
167

colonization ever able to "freely" give anything?

How should museums treat the situation where
such sensitive cultural properties are "found" by
rruseum experts or others who turned these properties
over (for a fee, fa'vur, or otherwise) to museums? I:O
those ciicunstances make the possession of such
properties by museums 1egitimate? Were such properties
ever "lost" by indigenous peoples in order to be
IIfound"?

Is it a sufficient reason not to return

cul tural properties, the cl aim that indigenous peopl es
do not have the appropriate technology or facility to
preserve such properties as well as museums? Is there
any value to the indigenous claim that their properties
are often never intended to be preserved but should be
1aid to rest or destroyed, or used in their cerenonies
rather then enclosed in a display panel or left in the
botton of sane drawer of a museum's basanent? Is the
"toontality" of preservation Irerely an :inqJosition of
foreign val ues appl ied to indigenous peopl es?

As

we consider these issues and the sensitivity of indigenous

peoples to musUert's, we should also consider the image wtrl.ch museums often
represent to indigenous peoples.

In sane societies, museums seem to carry

an aura of separatness fran indigenous peoples

-- an elite institution,

the territory of scholars, scientitst and tourists.

Is it time for

museums to take down the "walls" which separate them fran the marginalized
sectors of the society, either by virtue of that sector's geographical,
cultural or economic situation?
Especially with respect to tiJse indigenous peoples who are now
undergoing cultural extin:::tion, including the loss of language, lack of
creative crafts, weahening of individual identity in the cultures, do
museums have a responsibility to give back to' those people the product of
lTI\.'.Seums' research and investigation of these peopl es?

If museums do

indeed have an affil:mative responsibility to act as a catalyst for the

renaissanc(~

of a peapl e' s cul ture, how should this responsibility be met?

Each museum will have to apply its role to the specific

ir.digenous and non-indigenous situation it has before it.

But these

questions may be a beginning point to answer tile question, "How should

museums present indigenous cul tures?"
168

Isabel Laumonier - Buenos Aires, Argentine

L'IDENTITE:
...
fJne pOGGib1e explic.ation c.ancernant Ie "mystere argentin"
On parle actuellement du "mystere argentin" comme l'on parlait
autrefois du "miracle japonais". Cela veut dire qu'il y a quelque chose d'insaisissab1e dans Ill. situation d'une nation, quelque chose qui eclate les cadres nonnaux de Ill. realite.
Pour Ie Japon il fallait comprendre comment un pays pauvre en
mati~res premieres, ~audit pa1' Ill. pire des maledictions, la malediction atomique, trauvsit 1a force de se redresser, d'avan cer et de prendre les devants. Pour l'Arg~ntine par contre, Ie
miracle se transfor~e en mystere : simplemnent i1 y a quelque
chose qui "ne tourne pas rand", une cause inexplicable qui entr~
ve tous les progres, qui frane toutes les pramesses de celIe qui
fut Ie "grenier du monde", vers Ie '1900.
Ou chercher Ie mal? Peut '~tre bien du meme cote que pour Ie Japon, mais dans Ie Bens contraire. Ce que l'un possede tres fortement, l'autre en manque presque totalement: nous parlonsde
l'identite.
r,:~rgentine

obtient son independance de l'Espagne en 1810. II

lui faudra un demi-siecle pour arriver
sa forme nationale et
.
polif;iqll8 definitive. Nous nous trauvons, a Ill. fin d" XIX elae
siecle, face ~ un pay~ possedant' finaleroent une constitution et
\ill gouvernement stable. Les terres praductives
(la pampa hmneda) cOQIDencent
donner des fruits et necessitent de la main d'
oeuvre: c'est l'arrivee des immigrants en masse. Ce sont les
millions d'itali~~s, d'espagnola, de juifa, de franyais, d'an glais qui d~fer1ent sur un pays origiDalement tres peu peul'H.
Mais les jeux sont faits et les grandes familIes, les familIes
"traditionnelles" se sont partag6 168 bonnes bouch6es. II n'y
a plus de possibilit~s pour une exploitation agraire Ratisfaisante; il na reste ~ di8tri~buer que les sola arides, ou pre~
que.

169

Mais la vague humaine continue de d~ferler~ Elle reste pres du

port, elle aug;nente ind~finiment les limites des grandes villes,
particulierement celles de Buenos Aires. Les quartier~ se mul'tiplient ou l' on ~coute parlee tous les langages, au I' on tro],!;
V3
les gestas et les visages du monde entier. La vie passe par
Ii. H~las, l'histoire officielle, l'histoire "racontlle", prend
un autre chemin.'
Effray~s

par ce nombre d'~trangers et par leur diversitll, les

polititiene -issus eux aussi des famillles traditioJU1elles-, dl!
cident de fabriquer une "identitll nationale" ad hoc. Elle sera
rooul~e par l'llcole, par les rolldias, et par les musbs. Les
"peres de 10. patrie" auront 10. copie de leurs lipees, de leurs
~paulett.J'e8 et de leurs sables dans les vitrines du pays. Et
les hommes de lettres trouveront une place pour leurs encriers
et leurs pl,unes d'oie exhiblis
coeur joie. JJes hliros sent bona,
sans tache: , parfaits. Les traitres, abominablss. Ces liffigies
e:~ carton pate, difficileroent croyables, difficilement aimables,
maintiendront une distance infranchissable entre' leur image prllfabriqulie et l'identitli rlielle du peuple.

Les ~i~s funestes dlicenies, aoua 10. tutele toujous croissante ties forces armli~, n'ont fait qu'acroitre cet abime.
A

Cependant, a 10. marge de l'histoire en mayusculss, le "meltingpot" ! l' argentine ne cessait de braBer les cout'Ullles et les
traits culturels des 4 coins du monde.
LC'in des villes principales du reste, l' identi t~ avai t eut moins
de mal a cro{tre: ce seront les cultures r~gionaJ_es aux aspects
bien marquls. Nais c' est quand m~meii Buenos Aires at a" rosario,
Canto. Fe et 1 Parana, l~ o~ les immigrants se sont etablis,
d'ou peu a peu un eeutblant d'identitli nationale cOll1mence :::.'" ilo:i,ndre.

'-

L' esprit communnutaire est presque in~rl8tWlt. non seulement

par las raisons si~~es, maia aussi par les effets destructifs
de 10. tyr~e. 11 faut redonner de l'espoir at de la force
un
peuple qui a douffert du silence et de 10. censur9. II faut d~
mythifier l'histoire. II faut faire place aux mus6s populaires
et participatifs, ou l'objet tout simple raconte sa petite ane

170

dote quotidienne et o~ 1e h&ros est l'homme de la porte

t~ et non 1e general monte sur son cheval.

d'a

co-

Ainsi comme 1e "gaucho" a pris son poncho a l'indien, sa culotte

l'w~da1ous, Ie feutre de son chapeu a l'anglais, ainsi comme le
tango est'ne du mariage de la musiqse a!ricaine avec 1es airs italiens et son principal instrument, Ie "bandoneon" (accord~on) est
arrive au i'ort de Bueno s Aires de Ill. main d I un marin allemand,
" l'identite
de la meme faeon,
peu a peu, prenant de ci et de la,
j
commence ~ faire son choix.

Et le muse? Le muse deit y aider de toutes ses forces. Le ~use

doit mettre en evidence la .'IIultiplicite, la ridu.3se dt. tous les
courants cu1ture1s.
I.e muse doit doit trouver sa propre identit~ en s'eloi~nant de son grand vice: l'accumulation d'objets d'.
ar~ sans relation avec 1, 'art et la creation du pays.
~ous rec1amons la {onoation des muses populaires et participatifs, dont
nous avons prtsente un projet, de fayon que ce soit de la base
.........
meme du peuple ou l'identite nationale trouve sa force ets<:-.\
Il-f' PI..':
Void., nous croyons la mission la plus importante
des muses en Argentine.
",'

171

Harrie M Leyten - Amsterdam, Netherlands

MUS E U M

INS EAR C H

0 F

IDE N TIT Y

Speaking of concepts as vague as 'museum' and 'identity',

I feel the need to narrow them down. before working with them.
The museum's identity can be described in a twofold manner.
First of all, the museum's identity is determined by its
collections. It is from the collections that the majority of
museums derive their names:musums of history,of art,of glass,
of ethnography. It is equally being determined by the care
of such collections. Its staff-requirements are set by the
collections. There is a heavy responsibility towards the
collections,preserving them, restoring them, documenting them.
This responsibility is one which is entirely intrinsic and inalienable. No matter what society the muse:um finds itself in,
no matter what political or economic or historic developments
lake place, the museum's identity is indissolubly linked with
its collections. Here is the museum's first and exlusive responsibility.
In practical terms this means that the museum staff can live
as it were in ivory towers,as long as there is a letter-box in
the front wall through which the latest developments in documentation and restoration-techniques can reach the museum-staff.
In other words,this concept of museum identity is a static one.
This has been the museum's responsibility for the past centuries
and it will continue to be the main task for any museum for
centuries to come.
The second desription of the museum's identity is of a different
nature. It is the search for the museum's identity vis-a-vis
society and the public. The many definitions of museum agree
that there ought to be an openness towards the public. The museum
ought to be accessible. There has been an ongoing discussion in
museum-circles of how best to aChieve this. There is not a single
solution to the problem: the situation is too complex. Searching
for the museum's identity is asking implicitly what the identity
of society is. No society is just affluent or poorjno society
is just good or bad. Each society or culture is made up of
173

countless sub-groups and sub-cultures. These in turn are not always

clearly distinguished from each other by age,or class, or education, or profession.
Boundari&s are rarely clear-cut. Of a number of such sUb-groups
or sub-cultures the identity can be established with reasonable
accuracy. The different categories of schools and tra~ning
courses can be defined. Specific museum-programmes can be drawn
up for pupils of each of the categories.
It is much more difficult,however, to stipulate what the identity
is of 'migrant workers'. They include many nationalities. They are
not in themselves organized. Even migrant workers from one
particular country can hardly be approached as one coherent group.
There may be political and religious factions among them. There
are the 'first generation' pioneers who have long cherished the
ideal of ever returning home and the 'second generation' which
was born here and which does not feel at home in the country of
their fathers.
In other words, speaking of the museum's identity in relation
to society, in fact means identifying those target-groups within
society to which the museum wishes to address itself and from
which it hopes to draw visitors.
Museums such as the Louvre and the British Museum(to mention
only two) which are said to house the world's largest treasures
and which are said by some to belong to the whole of mankind,
donot clearly identify themselves with specific target-groups.
They can afford not to have target groups. The whole world
files past their Monalisas and ElginMarbles anyway.
Colonial museums in Europe inevitably had a strong link with
civil servants,army officers,sailors and missionaries who (had)
served overseas. After the colonies had obtained their independance
the target-groups o~ these museums were doomed to become extinct.
The Tropen~useum in Amsterdam was a cherished meeting-place for
ex-colonists who c~me to enjoy the Indonesian abmosphere which
they recognized so Nell. When the Tropenmuseum changed its
course and emphasized every-day life of the man-in-the-street
in tropical countries,rather than the spendour of palaces and
temples,it 'lost' many of its ex-colonial visitors,but instead
found a new target-group:the young generation which was more down
~

down to earth and which wanted to know about the economic and
political problems of the 'Third World'.
Identifying target group(s) in society is crucial for the museum's
174

own identity. Understanding the needs and demands of the targetgroups is the next step in the process. Being able to address the
target-group in its 'own la~guage' demands flexibility and
creative thinking on the part of the museum staff. Those who
have dedicated their lives to the preservation and documentation
of collections (one half of the museum's identity) may not be
the best suited persons to determine the other half of the
museum's identity:its relation with its target-groups,i.e. its
relation with society.
Target-groups are living organisms within society. Their views
keep changing. Keeping track of these views, keeping the museum
pOlicy abreast with developments in society, producing those exhi~
bitions which are clearly in demand, requires a new approach,
2. ~1CW management from the museum-staff.
The museum's identity, deduced from the qualities of society,
of its target-groups, is not static. It is dynamic,it changes,
it is flexible. This identity is not made by the 'traditional'
museum-curator, but by the Public Relation-man, by the manager
who is sensitive to market-mechanisms.
"
The two'halves'of the museum's identity are not necessarily
complementary. Rather,there is ground for conflict,for strife,
for a clash of interests. But this leads to another discussion.

175

Lynn Maranda - Vancouver, B.C., Canada

What relationship, if any, do museums have with identity

and if so, what kind of a relationship is it?
We know museums to be tnose institutions which collect,
and scientific
systematize, house and conserve items of culturalAvalue and we
understand identity to be that which tells people who they are.
The kind of relationships which museums could have with
identity would be:
1.

that museums create identities for people;

2.

that museums reinforce people's identity;

3.

that museums provide services bther than identitYi

4.

that museums negate identities for people.

Let us examine the proposition that museums have a

relatior. with identity.

An examination of a partial list of

museums ',iives us this evidence.

Large "universal" museums such as the British Museum
(London). the Louvre (Paris), the Hermitage (Leningrad), and
the Roya:. Ontario Museum (Toronto) have collections which
present

itO

(universal> ilppeal to the viewing pUblic iiLnd these

museums i:re looked upon as holding items of considerable value

in specii'l trust.
i~stitut:ons

The attachment the pUblic has with these

is not one of identity but it is one of education,

admiratLn and reverence.

Most countries of the world have a

national museum and contrary to what the name implies, these

museums 10 not by purpose generate or deliberately reinforce
national identity but rather serve the pUblic as keepers of
national t/ealth.

National museums have many collections on a

world 5c.le and so afford their people the opportunity to

177

partake in the general world inheritance.

Similarily, many art museums such as the Victoria and
Albert (London) cnd archaeological and anthropological
/

museums such as the Musee de l'Homme (Paris) present

collections that appeal as a source of education as well as
having items held in special trust.

The natural history

museums such as the British Museum (Natural History) (London)

and the Carneigie Museum of Natural History (Pittsburgh)
present the pUblic with an educational possibility but again
it seems that such

museums do not

engender an identity in a

public although it may arouse empathy for a common SUbject,

that is the study of ornithology, etc.

In a similar manner,

science and technology museums, for example, the Science

Museum (London), the National Museum of Science,'and Technology
(Ottawa) and the Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago),
exist because they provide a public with an opportunity to
viewing presentations of aspects of human knowledge and again,
such a relationship would not be considered one of identity.
In summary, it seems that there are museums that have no
relationship with identity but which serve the pUblic with a
<\niversal

~ppeal,

with an educational format and as keepers of

a speciLl trust.
Bowever,

ther~

are other museums which must be listed and

Thes~ ~nclude

examined.

local history museums such as the

Richmond Museum (Richmond), the Museum of the City of Mexico

(Mexico)

~nd

the Wisbech & Fenland Museum (Wisbech) which owe

their eJeistence to the community's need to explain factors of

their own existence, and so this kind of museum is seen to
~einforce G

178

need of identity.

Similarily, historic sites, be

they buildings, park or an entire community, serve a function

of reinforcing a people's identity.

There are many special

museums as well which come into existence owing to a specific

request by a pUblic's need for identity.

These include

religious, military, sports and perhaps "item specific"

museums such as those dealing with musical instruments, clocks
or ceramics, and company museums such as the Wells Fargo
History Museum (Los Angeles) and the Alcan Museum (Montreal),
the existence of which is dependant upon a pUblic's request to
supply identifiable material to the viewer.

This section of

the list concludes that there does exist a relationship

between identity and museums as many museums which have the
role of reinforcing a public's identity, do exist.
By examination of this partial list"it
seems that
,.
existing museums serve mankind in the form of either (1) a
traditional universal museum which is a repository of "yalued"
items or as a source of human evolutionary knowledge, or,
(2) as an identity reinforcing institution which supplies a
public with the value it is seeking.

Nowhere is it evidenced

that nuseums create an identity which people pursue as an

activity of their lives.

Therefore, the conclusion is that

museums can have a relationship as reinforcers of social or

community identity.
~s

a part of this examination it should be stated that

there is the possibility that a .useum could function in a

negative capacity, that is, the housing, preservation and
display of items arouse feelings of disassociation and disgust
and

e~otions.in

a pUblic that are considered antipathetic to

positive attachments of identity.

The request for the

179

repatriation of items to their place of origin or the

displaying of material that a conquered people feel to be
emblematic of their oppressors, will serve to make the point
and has the possibility of generating a negative identity
response.
The paper pre-supposes that the museum could enter into
four basic relationships with identity and as three of these
have been discussed, attention should be given to the fourth
possibility, that museums become identity creating.

Although

the record has been that museums do not function in this

capacity, it could be the ambition for museology to reach
forward in the future to become involved with social life in a
capacity as creators of an identity for a people.

It must be

pointed out that there exist in our societies, ,institutions,

the function of which it is to create identity, that is, the
arts, theatre, literature, philosophy, religion, politics, and
that should museums attempt to assume the role of identitymaker, they quite likely will be placing themselves in
competition with existing identity creators.

Such

confrontation will undoubtedly cause confusion in the pUblic's

mind as its view of the traditional museum as keeper of a
trust would have to change to accept museums as progenators of
a way of life.
It may be argued that to change the pUblic's view of the
role of the traditional museum is a good thing in that it
would afford a "healthier", hands-on active attitude for
museums to relate to their society rather than the popular
view of a museum as' a passive "stodgy" place.

However, the

question is whether or not the public is best served by a

180

shift in basic museum policy or whether or not the answer to

the needs for an active participation in the shapin9 of human
life is best served by other means?
question of, 'should

museu~s

In other words, the

consciously endeavour to establish

the identity for a community of people?', is the question of,

'should museums become an institution of political force?',
or, 'should they become agents of a new theatricality or
philosophers of a new way of life?'.

Or, on the other hand,

should those individuals in the museological field who feel so

compelled to change the community and the lives within it,
seek the success of their .mbitions through the established
channels which already serve these ambitions?

There are in

existence political institutions which serve political ends

and we have actors which perform new wave theatre and creative
minds which write papers on philosophical literature.

To

implicate museums in a future of identity creation is a

confusion of terms which has the possibility of becoming
dangerous.

The possibility being that those institutions

entrusted to per serve values would become the same institutions

creating values.

On a political level, this would be akin to

mixing the jUdiciary with the legislative levels of

government.
We know that the traditional role of the museum to be one
of collection, systematization, conservation and interpretation
and scientific
vf items of culturalAvalue and that people within the scope of
their living have used museums as a store-house of treasured
and educational objects, and that people's identity with their
surround and history and other aspects which inform them of
who they are, have used museums as a reinforcement of these

181

identities.

We also conjecture that museums, under specific

circumstances. could have the effect of negating identity for

a people.

The possibility that a museum becomes involved with

creating identity has added to it dangerous polemics of

confusion and confrontation with other established institutions.
Is it not possible that should museums succeed to influence
the change in a pUblic's thinking and create an identity for a
people, that opponents of that view would consider the
museum's collection held in trust as objects of a political
opini~q

and so view the items with bias and unscientific

attachment?

The conclusion being that successors in any

political contest would either accept or reject the museum's

holdings on political grounds rather than appreciating the
value of items by their merit or scientific contribution.
Consider hOw conquerors of the ancient world destroyed temples
of the vanquished to build temples in their own style or how
Pizarro melted down the gold of the Incas - actions which
resulted from the contest between competing identity-makers.

182

Ivo Maroevlc - Zagreb, Yugoslavia

Im2ITITY AS A COaSTlTUEHT PART OF NUSRI;.LITY

In considering the topic of identity it is ~GceSGcry to

define not only identity, as sur;gested in the cell for !x'.ners
but ':luseology e.s \'1ell, because only in such r'. context it is
possible to lmderstCilld the rel~tion between nusooloGY end ic.enti ty, uhich is the main theme of the confcl'cnce. ':"he title
of my :L)uper ocddresses the phenomenon of this relQtion r.m,~,ly
ticC'.lly but ~li th certain assumptions' ~lhic:l define such e, reLltion. So the idea of museali ty is incorpor:.'ted into this
rclntionship nnd it deserves to be defined as uell if one is
to follow all the important aspects of the presented thesis.
1. DeHnitions.
I-luseology is a scientific discipline u;1ich stl\c\~.eo f!llseali ty throu[;h musealia (museum objects), creO-tes :'nd elo.borates available scientific and cultural informotion by meens
of vC.rious informution-documentrtion syst:ems, =d i::FlrovGs tho
~ethods of ~plication of all these achievements in the muselm
nrc.ctice.
Muscc.lity is a characteristic feature of en ohject uhich enables the object, sepnrated from its real environn8nt
2nd pl~ced in the musenl environment, to become the document
of that reality fron which it is separated, ie., to becow.e the
;r.usealin. F.::turnlly, museality is e set of chcr~ct8::.'istics
c.nd, in the lest analysis, the polystnatified con.tent of u musec,lia. All layero of muse:11i ty nay ,1ever be discovered ,"Ii thin
those comnunic::,.tion processes which go on behHion the object
nnd the user (in this pc.rticular case, t~1e CUY"'tor or the collector). The field of museal indefinitness is the noro resist?nt rtS the field of museal defini tness increnses, :md so
the possibility of discovering new chc.rc.ctoristics of museality is reduced ~lith the grm'ling musertlity of thc.t p'~rticular
object.
Idmtity is, however, a concept ~n1ich in this 9crticular
case f.enotes c.bsolute conformity'between the n~teri~l and t2e
spiritualin'u certc.in reality on various sociel levels, with
the aim o~ defining the spiritual dimension of c.ny cf these
levels bymenns of the material components of o:,jects. So the
social lffiel becomes decisive for tho scope of identity with
1111 the i1ter.:'.ctions of the three of bcsic Cc.tor:;ories (sots of
183

ele'1ents) tine, s:?uce =d society. In ~ 11e find ele~.1ents

nucll :::s the p:,.st, the preoent, the future, Hi th the simL11 tnnecus ?rosence of perm.~ence Qud transltoriness, repetition or
frequency_ In sv~ce there are ele~ents such as the nicro- or
nacro-areo. uhich do not coincide I'li th the ele1!lents of the 110rId or t'H~ universe. 1:1e distinguish betueen nc. tur:-.l, C!ll t!!r.~.l,
cLlltiv:o.ted, urbml, rural and vr.'.rious other spr.'.ces \1it11 their
owa ch:-.r~cteristics ['.nd influences 1111ic11 can h::'.Ve an e'cfect on
the c.efining of identity. The notions of the socinl, ;lntiol1c.l,
public or priv~te spnce bring us to elements belonging to the
Cll.tor;ory of society. In this cate;;ory there :lre very iC";"ort~nt
eloIll0:1ts, such as the individuz.l person, group, uction, class,
race, religion, mcnkind, QUO many subele~ents ~n1ich ~rc hidden
uithin o::'.ch of the elements menticned.
From the teoretical point of view we can say thnt the
spoc}_fic identity cen. be defined us an intersection of elorlents. For example, we cen speak about:
the identity of a certain micro-area in the present time from
t~o gspect of ~ Group of people who live there
J
t!lJ identity of Islu:n in the urban space in the p::,.st (:':ith
~ll ,ossible v~riations of subelements),
tho identity of frequency of influence of the feud~l class
on the tr:-,nsfol.--:n::!tion of ncturc.l space into cuItiv:lted S;Xl.ce_
N~turally, the nu~ber of possible combin~ti6ns is en91e95, because the mmber of elements wi thin each of these thJ;'ee b:-.sic
categories (time, s~c.ce e~d society) is unlimited.

SPACE

, 1 .

pUO .1C

"ationQI
scqic.l
pl."ivnte

,
/

//

",

. ,. .

/
/~..

indi vidu::l.l.r~-::Y

J.----~;....------ ' ":,-----7

Cirou0~.-..(":'.:."
.' pa.st
'"
na.tlon ,.' ..... '- ~:.,", ~ _.
present
,
e::u:M s .i..-.
----future'
r ce ..' ~-_ __ __
repeti tion';._
....
religlon
7:..__ ."...~ ~~
u

184

...

__

_.'

-.-:.-:-

Consequently, a more precise.determin~t:i!on of identity

in the museum .field depends primarily on the conscious intention to define the most convenient intersection of those elenents !;/hich ~lill give uo optimal possibilities for e:q;ressing
such an identity within the existing or potential collective
fund of the museum.
In this context, \'le are inclined to say thnt 8useums
can more efficiently express or confirm the cultural, nQtural,
n~tionel or any other identity defined and delimited by such
n descriptive cdject:Lve. We must remember th:lt such l.~.bels require more precise theorotical explanations, heco.use it is
quite enough to mention some hundred notions f:,~ol'l the cuItur:::.l mc.p of E. Hall to realize the complexity 2nd l:lck of precise det~rmin3.tionof the adjective "cultur2.l". lJ:::tur::tlly, determinations such as "national" and "naturnl" contr.i.n sinila.r,
if not Greater, limit:ltions.
2. The nuproaeh 'of museums to identity
Musealia (museum objects) cs elel'lentary units \~]ich ere
the preconditi on for the functioning and .c.ctivity of "JUS ouns
and as constitutive parts of the museum's collective funds
\
must contain such characteristic feature by meGns of which any
possible identities can be expressed. Musealia have such characteristics because, defining them as culturQl p~operty, we
hQve put them at the top or the triangle with the components
of time, space and society Musealia 11ith their :nateric.lity
always remain a document in ;time, because they exist nnd endure independently of the quantity of information ~hich is hidden or which we are able to read and define as carriers of inform~tion. Musealia document their time and e:d.ntence. By reeding off their characteristics, information is created. It
penetrc.te ir-tosociety in the form of tmique scientific ~1d
polyst~atified cultural information. The content of :nusealia,
thc.t is, their muse~lity, is formulated into messages ~md acts
in space, ~nthin a context, in concentric circles h~ving the
museum as an institution as their centre.
So museums, lrith their collective funds ~nd their ~cti
vity of collecting and selecting objects, of stud~nng pnd discovering tneir hidden qualities, and of exhibitir-G or disseminating their messages by means of complex contextual information-documentation systems, .havenll the possibilities to
foroulc.te the messages whose content ~~ll be an identity. Such
LIn identity Ilill have those characteristics th0.t are !:'clevant
to the concrete society and time, in the specific space, ~nd
185

it will be 2ble to realize all the forms of other identities \"/hich are to be found at the intersection of the queli ty
of a relevant collective fund in the museum and the oonbin2-tion of those c"tegories <LTld elements \..hich influence the de-.
termination of -identity. Nuseums with their collective funds
and museoGraphical instruments are the hardware "nd the softl"/3re (in a Ilider sense, meaning equipment vii th the arcp.i tecture and nuseum space as hardware and the personnel ~lith their creative capabilities as software), a potential field for
expressing adequate identities in the form of complex messages. But they lleed a 'Hide theoretical support of museology
and a series of basic humanistic disciplines, among-which the
role of sociology is irreplaceable.
Identities which we can fipd in museums, whether only
potential according to the structure of the collective fund
or expressed and de~ined by means of one of the fOTIOS or methods of museographical work, are in practice never QTlambigous
or exclusive. They may be added to or combined, but each keeps
its olm characteristics. By their cumulation l a~:ne\'l quality
is often created. For instance, a memorial museum of a certain
important person gives evidence of the identity of that person,
part of the identity of the time in which the person had lived
2nd worked, elements for the identity of his philosophy, class,
n:,tion and space in I-lhich he had acted. At the same time, such
a museum takes part in creating and maintaining the cultural
identity at 'all those 'levels which are readable from the interrelation of musealia in the exhibited and the available collective fund of the museum. Moreover, the identity created through the contextualisation of the movable museum cultural property is supplemented by on action of the narrower or ~lider
environ~ent in space, which can act as a lrider framework of
the rmseu"l' s advp.nture, as preparation as well as continuation,
as "ill addition to those insights of identity \'Thich have derived from the museum's organised PFogramme.
Identity as part of the museum .message becomes the element of Glowledge about existence, about the roots which reach
to different depths of the past and of space, the roots of those human structures which.are inherent to a human being, such
as his membership in a neighborhood, a place, to~m, area, count::'y or continent, his .membership in afatIiily, a relc.tion, hone, region, nc.tion,class, race, civilisation, religion, culture, or any other form of formulated eonsciousness. Among the
objects and messages in museum within the museum environment
186

we can .perceive similarities and differences and establish

our ovm identities in constant communication processes, which are different from those that are COt!lmon in semiotic systems of institutionalised communications (writing, lan,o;uage,
etc.). So the identity created in museums is different and
complement~ry to other approaches and invaluable for the humen
race considered in its entirety.
3. The role ofmuseology
~~at is the role of museology in the process of creating,
combining und accumulating various identities? As nOl"'1n2.11y defined, it studies identities identities as a form of museality.
Just as not every object in its real environt!lent around us has
such characteristics which would qualify it to become a IDusealia (in other words, it does not possess enough t!luseality),
so also not every musealia inherits enough elements to show
clear indicators of some standard forms of identity.
Museology should theoretically study those forms of identi ty which are possible to be expressed and formllated through
the museum activities and seek to establish possible criteria
for determining those characteristic features of objects tmich ~re inherent to museality and which contribute to the expression a certain identity. It is at the same time the process
which includes the analysis of an object structure ~nd an identi ty structure, ,=d their interrelations. ~joreover, there are
museographical investigations towards un .adequo.te forr.mlation
of museum messages and ways to make such an identity a constituent part of 'these messages. ,r,juseology should investig9te the
interrelations of.illusealia characteristics vnlich contribute to
the determinatj.onof anidenti ty anel. their other ch9racteristics, avoiding 'acertain ,ideologisation which would have been
con[l:;rary to the democratic substance of expression and perception of an object's characteristics and the creation of an identityof different ,forms. There is no doubt that museological research should orientate itself outside the narrow sphere of museum 'o.ctivitiestoo.Thismeuns that it should aim towards interrelations \rith,otherformsand phenomena around us
which can and do 'act ,to ,form an.identity. 'l'hey are, or 0= be,
complementary with.the museum.activity and its area of influence.
In thefieldof.museological doctrine, un identity is 0.1\'lays one of.thecultural or social variables which must be able to be documented 'as ,a quality within tho context of all
those social changes which affect the forming of an ictentity.
187

Therefore, museology should take care to document adqQuately

~nd to record all the Imol'lledge about the defined qur::.lities of
the ie.antities \1hichare socially and scientifict>.lly relevant
:-t a certr>.in historical noment. The identity wh:i;ch is re:llised
~nd renains only on the level of an individual insight C2nnot
serve as a real basis for .improving those procedures \"!hich
should le~d to the establishment.of more clear and better de~ined ways of Museological.expression of certain fo~~s of identity by means of organised and defined museum mess~ges. In spite of that, such an i~dividual insight is justified, as it
helps to humanize man's existence and gives more substantial
life to an individual person or group that has reached those
insiGhts.
It is important that museological theory should include
the ch:cracteristics expressing the \ridest and most accept:.\ble
f~r9s of identity among those criteria of nuseality ~hich are
decisive for the identification of a museal quality of n cerk.in object. So the full identity \~hich is expressed by the
r.lUseum object's existence and the museum's col1.ective fund in
its entirety can be given the place which it deserves.
e'

References:
T.: Nemi jezik,. BIGZ, Beograd, 1976.
2. ~L~ROEVIC, Ivo: Predmet,I!Iuzeologijeu okuiru teorijske jezgrp.
informGcijskih znanosti, Informatica museologica, 1-3,(67-69),
3-5,(1986)(The subject of museology ~thin the teheoretical
~ore of information ' sciences) ,
3. STR~fSKY, Z.Z.: Pojam muzeologije, Muzeologija, 8, 40-73,
(170),
4. TUDrUill, Miroslav: Struktura kulturne informacije, Zagreb,1983,
Zavod za kulturu Hrvatske ( The Structure of Cultural InforIDa.tion)
1. HALL,

188

Ed\~ard

Carol A Martin - Tucson, Arizona, USA

Museology and Identity: an American Perspective
Analyzing and discussing the term 'identity' as it relates to ~useology is
both an Important and timely topic.
Without a clear articulation ot how
.,useum professionals Interpret these two tel'ms, and how th"y perc"iv" the
relationships between various interpretations, i t will be difficult to
achieve consensus on goals and objectives for museum behavior.
WJthout
some lIlutual understanding and agreeMent on at least Ilajor areas of
concern; without active cooperation growing out of understanding, ",useuDlS
and the cultural and natural heritages they seek to preserve will have a
difficult time surviving In an era of turbulent change.
According to the MerriaM-Webster dictionary, the term identity has several
definitions in American-English:
"sameness in all that constitutes the
objective reality of a thing; the distinguishing character or personality
ot an Individual; the condition of being the same wJth something riescrlbed
or asserted." At first glance, these definitions see.. very similar. and
their interpretation tairly simple.
Semantic theory, however, tells us
something quite difterent is going on underneath the surface. Words and
phrases are symboh>, and the .eaning of any symbol is seldom inherent in
the symbol itself, but dependent on the perspective ot those using the
symbol, as well as the context in which the symbol is used.
(This
Includes how one symbol is combined with others to torm new symbols, such
as "cultural identity", "natural enviromaent" ,':' etc.)
Perspectives are
tormed by background and experiences, and contexts conti nuall y change.
With such complexity and variation, plus the fact that semantic interpretation usually operates at a subconscious level. it is rellarkable even
partial understanding is reached between difterent groups and/or individuals.
Whether consciously realized or not, however, sellantic interpretations
are expressed In visible behavior.
With some serious obsel'vation and
study, one can look at the way a museum is orga,d zed, the type ot coJlections, the forMat of exhibits, etc., and .ake a fairly accurate determination ot how those responsible tor lI'lnaging that Ulusen", interpret 'identity' .
i'or exallple, suppose one subscribes to the first definition above, that
'identity' equates with "sa.eness", and "objective reailty ot a tIling".
In this instance, the focus of lIuseu~s would be on objects rather than
Ideas, and slllllarity' In type ot objects rather than a l'ange of a,'Ufacts expressive of a spe.cific cultural or natural enviro" ..ent.
A fine
arts museu .. ,.ould be a prllle expression of this way ot defining Identity.
The esthetics and quality of the iteMS in the collections. and their
similarity to each other, e.g, a set of Impressionist paintings, or Greek
sculpture, are more Important than the context in which they were created
or how they are related to 01' Interpreted by those who see such items.
Identity In this case is enclosed in the object itself and is little
attected by or related to past, present or future context.
On the other hand, suppose one detlnes identity by the second of the above
definitions: the distinguishing charactel' or personality ot an individual
(01' group).
In this case, the focus is on having collections and exhibits
that highlight the distinctive features of II culture, an individual or an
envil'onment.
"Identity" is being able to know how one distingUishes a
desert environment from a seashore, a member ot the Navajo Indian tribe
trom a member ot a Hopi Pueblo, a painting by Leonardo da Vinci f,'om one
by Gauguin.
Natural history and anthropological museums found in the
189

visitor centers of America's National Park system are a good example of

museums which feature this aspect of the definition of identity.
Such museums frequently serve as mil-rors by l<hi cj, i ndi viduals and societies can recognise and identify themselves and their own environment.
Exhibi ts and other programs are usually directed toward defining the
patterns by which a specific identity can be recognised and providing a
way to interpret those patterns so they have a meaning that is understood
and agreed with by members of the 'identity' being described.
Context and causes are more important to this definition since they may
help define distinguishing features.
The relationship to the past, as
it helped shape the development of an identity, is also recognised as
important and is often spelled out in exhibits and programs.
In some
cases, relationship of past to present may be explained, where an identity
which existed in the ;:>ast is gone; or of past to future, when an identity
is in obvious danger of being extinguished.
Most often, however, these
links are not explicit, and the visitor is left to infer them from his/her
own knowledge and experience.
Identity in this instance depends upon the perceptions and perspectives
of the audience, and is not necessarily :nherent in the object as it is
in the first definition described. Without some type of visitor reactionl
recognition, this type of identity does not exist.
With no image to
reflect, a mirror is blank.
Finally, there is the third definition of identity: "being the same with
something descl'ibed."
Tlw very differing types of museOm programs fall
into this category. one type tradi tional, and one type which may not even
be recognised or accepted as an appropriate museum activity.
The former
includes natural history dioramas and aquariums where the collections,
stuffed or alive, are exhibited within the environments to which they
belong, whether a painted diorama or an enclosed body of water.
The latter includes what the United States National Parl< Service calls
"11 ving history" RlUseums where a portion of the past, such as a 19th
century farra, is recreated and managed, down to the costumes worn by the
workers, the agricultural implements used, the crops grown in the fields,
and preparation of foods in the home, exactly as it would have been in the
original time period. Also included are craft demonstrations, festivals,
and similar acti\'it1es sponsN'ed by museums and other organizations (such
as some Native American tribes) which redefine and reaffirm ethnic
identity through representations of dance, foods, crafts, songs, sports
contests, etc. which are identicai or modified versions of past behavior
actually or supposedly associated with ~ specific group,
Museums tendinl; 1.0 SUbscribe to this "same as" definition of idenUty
actively Involve the pubI1c in their progralaS' more than r,.useums leaning
toward the "sameness" or "distinguishing features" meaning. And, to sOlRe
extent, this tends to perpetuate some aspects of Identity into the future
more than the others do, Active involvement strengthens the bonds between
indi vIdual and group and sharpens the distinct! ve features which set one
group apart from another.
In reviewing the history of museum development in Western countries, and
their institutIonal behavior, one can see also a gradual evolution through
these various definitions of identity.
Originally, as "cabinets of
r '~Iosities", museums were mostly collections of items of esthetic andlor
curiosity vallie which excited the interest of the collectol'.
Collections
had identity because of what thet were in and of themselves - rare birds
and butterflies, big game t~ophy heads, American Indian arrOWheads, musket
balls from a Civil War battlefIeld.
Museums had identity because of the

190

type and quality of their collections - "the finest collection of ... ,

the largest collection of ... ", not because they represented the heritage
and identity of a specific cultural 01' natural system.
This is not to say the latter concept was totally ignored, even in the
earliest beginnings of museums as social institutions.
Each collection,
to have Its own identity, had to have some structural organization, some
ordel'ing which set it apart as a recognizable unit.
Often this ordp.ring
coalesced around distinctive geographic or cu 1tural features: the flora
and fauna of the American Southwp.st deserts, wood cal'vlngs and totems of
the Pacific Northwest Indians, for example. But the link between heritage
of the past and cultural identity of the present was not really important
until the rising social consciousness and emerging nationalis~ of the past
few decades,
As the concept of and concern about ethnic and national identi ty gained
strength in society at lal'ge, so too did museums begin to reflect that
interest. Collections, exhibits and programs were designed to prp.serve and
explain unique cuI tural and environmental identJ ties to the groups whose
her i tage they represent.
The "distJ nguishing character" concept of
identity moved to the forefront, and is probably still the most prevalent
of the definitions of identity to be expressed in today's museums.
Contemporary museums, recogniz ing that this concept may link past with
present, but does little to carry present forward Into the future, began
experimenting with the "salle as" concept descr ibed above,
I n order to
attract and keep visitors and public support, more and more museums have
developed programs to actively involve their con'stituents.
Identity of
the museum strives to become synonymous with identi ty of the social group
or natural environment it exhibits in its collections.
But this does not go far enough, as many musellm professionals are beginning to realize,
If museums are to survive as viable entities in the
future, they must help shape and define that future. lIere is an .!mportant
role for museology. The link between an object's identity and identity of
individuals perceiving that object has to be expanded to incorporate a
consciousness of shared identity for the future.
It is not enough simply
to study how best to preserve cnltural and natural remnants of th" past.
Nor is it enough to define the distinguishing charactel'istlcs or "personality" of ethnic groups or nations so people can identify themselves as an
outgrowth of a particular way of life.
The link alsa has to be made
between past as' heritage and future as the ,'csult of forces generated by
knowledge of that heritage.
We ace what we have experienced; our sense and perception of the future is
shaped by what we have done, seen. and heard in the past,
It should be
the role of museums and 'museology to define and accomplish several
obJect! ves:
- ;>rovide a rich and accessible way of experiencing and learnlng about our
own and other's cul tural and natural heritages so we can understand
ourselves and others better;
- help museUM visitors recognise the value of knowledge of the past in
coping with and shaping one's individual future;
- provide continuity of a heritage that groups and individuals buffeted
by an uncertain present can cling to with pride; which contains the hope
of a manageable future;
- sprve as "gene pools" of ideas. concepts, and specific cultural and
envi:-onllental heritages now almost or completely vanished, out of which

191

can be dr'awn new ways of sl1aping a common future. of restoring divel'sity

whicl1 would otherwise be irrevocably lost. and wl1icl1 is necessary for tbe
survival of us all.
~Iore than we realize. museums are potent forces in the community. for good
or ill. Until more museums recognize this, and take better account of the
total env ironment of the surrounding communitl es. however. the needs of
museum user's to form a personal association with their heritage, and
reaffirm their identity in terms of that heritage. will continue to go
largely unmet.

Museology then takes on a dual role. As a philosophy, it must help define

identity for end give direction to museums.
It must help museum professionals to gIve forethought to results to be achieved; to develop dear
objectives and a knowledge of the identity needs of museum audiences; to
become teamworkers in a larger network of museums and museum professionals
so no single museum has to try to be all things to all people.
As a scientific discipline. it must support research to develop ways to
better preserve and interpret humanity's natural and cultural heritage.
It must provide a means to present its philosophical concepts to the
public 00 that museUmS can actively perpetuate and link the heritage of
the past with the identity of the future,
Museology must also recognise that identity has no single "best" definition.
Rather the term identity is simply a symbol for an indefinitely
large number of different empirical operations which vary with time and
context and can be defined at varying levels of abstract'ness.
It is the
understanding and agreement between sender and receiver of the symbol
rather than the shape of the symbol which is important.

192

Carol A Martin - Tucson, Arizona, USA

---------------------La ;:useologie et L'ldentite: Une Perspective AmedcaJne

L'ana]yse et ]a discussion du terme "identJte" ayant rapport 5 ]a mus60]0gle, est . ' 10 fois une question importante et 6 propos. Sans avoir une
articulation claire de comment les professionnels d" muse" interpretcut
ces deux termes, et comment lis per;olvent les rapports entre les interpretations variees. il sera dlfficile d'arri\'er Ull consensus unaniJRe en
ce qui concel'ne ]es buts et les objectifs pour une condui te de musee
appropr i ee.
Sans un degre d' entendement mutuel et. d' un accord sur au
moins les dofitaines principaux d'interet. silns nne COOpt~ratjon active, nee
de eet ectende~ent, les mus~es et les heritages culturels et nationaux
qui jJs cherchent a conserver. auront du mal it subslster daBS une ere de
change~ent turbulent.
Selon Ie dictionnaire Merriam-Webster, Ie terme iclentite a plusieurs
definitions en anglals-amerlcaln: "la ressemblaJ:ce dans tout ce qui
constitue la l'ealHe objective d'une chose;
Ie caractere ou 1a personnalite distinctifs d'un indlvidu; la condition d'etre Ie meme que ce qu'on
a decrit ou afflrme."
A premiere vue, 11 parait que ces definitions se
ressemblent, et que leur Interpl'etation est plutat simple. Pourtant, la
theol'ie semantlque nous montre que quelque chose de tout di (ferent se
PI"eSente sous 10 surface. Les mots et ies phrases sont des symboles et la
siKnification de tout symbole est rarement inherente au symbole lui-mime.
nlals qu'elJe depend plutat de la perspective de: C""" qui .'en servent,
autant que du contexte dans leque1 Ie symbole se manifeste.
(eela
comprend la combinaison d'un symbole et d'autres pOU!' en former de
nouveaux. comme "L'ident!te culturelle", "L'environnement naturel",
etc.)
Les perspectives varlent selon la culture et Ie. exp~rl"nces, et
les contextes changent constamment. Avec une complexite et une variation
de ce genre, et en outre Ie fait qU'une interprltatiml srimantlque fonctionne d'habltude ii un niveau subcollscient. 11 est rema"quable qu'on
arrive menae a un entendement partiel entre Ie r,l'OUJlCS et las individus
dlfferents.
Pourtant. s J on s t en rend cORlpte d tuna fat;on conscienle Oll non. les
lnterpretations semantlques s'exprlment dans la condulte visible.
A
partir ct' une observation et une etude serieuses on peut regal'dcl' Ia fa;on
dont on organise un musee; Ie genre des collections. Ie fOI'mat des pieces

des

cxpo8jtio~s

etc. pour arriver

comRlent ceux qui

OIl' identite."

sont

charges de

une

d~terminatjoll

asscz

10 direction du musee;

pr~cjRc

sur

interpriHent

Par example. supposons qu'on souscrive a la premiere definition cl-dessus,

que "I'ldentlte" egale "Ia resse"blance" et "10 realite objective de la
chose." Dans ce cas. dans la direction de Dlusle 11 s' al'.inJi t de mett"e au
point les objets plutat que les idees. at la similarit~ eu ce qui concerne
Ie gent'" d'objets plutot qu'une gamme d'objets fac;onnes exp"lmants un
envll'onnement naturel speclfique.
Un musee de beau/C-at"ts serait une
expression par excellence de cette fac;on de definir l' ictcnti trio L'esthltlque et la qualite des elements dans ]es collections e~ leur ressemblance
l'un vis-ii-vis llautre. par exemple. un ensemble de tableaux impressionlstes ou d~ sculptures grecques. est plus important que el contexte
dans lequel Ils etaient crees ou comment l1s se rapportent ou comment ceux
qui les regardent. les interpretent. L'identite dans ce cas, se rcnferme
dans I'objet lul-meme, et elle est peu affectee du contexte passe, pl'esent
ou futur et s'y rapporte peu aussl.
De I' autre cote, supposons qU'on definlsse l' identite, par la deuxHiae
definition ci-dessus proposee; Ie caractere ou la pel'sonnalite distlnctlfs

193

d'un individu (ou d'un groupe). Dan~ ce cas on s'occupe des collections
ou des pilces qui met tent en relief les traits distinctifs d'une culture.
d'un individu ou d'un environnement.
"L'identite" est la capacite de
savolr comment distinguer un environnement desertique de celui du bard de
1 a mer. un membre de la tr i bu Navajo d t un membre d' un pueblo Hopi. un
tableau de Leonardo da Vinci de celui de Gauguin.
Les musees d'histoire
naturelle et d'anthropologie qu'on trouve dans Ie systeme des Pares
Nationaux d'Amerique, sont un trls bon exemple des musees qui representent
cet aspect dn In definition de l'identite.
Ce genre de musee sert aussi de miroi I' par lequel les indivus et les
peuvent reconnaitre leur propre environnement et s' y ldenti f ior.
Les objets exposes et d'autres programmes sont d'habitude diriges afin de
fournir un mo\'en de didinir les desseins par lesquels une identite
speci t'ique se revile et de pourvoir un moyen d' interpreter ces desseins
pour qu'ils aient une signification qui se comprend et qui s'accorde avec
les membres de l'identite qu'on decrit.
socH~:tes

En ce qui concerne cettc dlHinltion. Ie contexte et les causes sont plus

importants pUisqu'ils peuvent aider a definlr les traits distinctifs. On
reconnai t aussi l' importance du rapport au passe comme 11 a aide a
fa90nn"r Ie developpement d'une identite et cet aspect est SOllvent
presenU; dans les pt'ogrammes et les exposi tions,
Dans certains cas. on
peut expl iquer les I'apports du passe au present quand une identite qui
existait dans Ie passe a disparu. ou du passe au futur quand une identite
est evidemment en danger d'extinction.
Le plus souvent pourtant. ces
liens ne sont pas explicites. et on les laisse inferer par, Je visiteur de
sa propre experience et de ses propres connajssances.
..L' identi te dans ce cas depende sur les perceptions et l,es perspectives de
1 'audience, et n'est pas necessairement inherente dans 1 'objet comme il
est dans la premilre definition decrit.
Sans quelque sorte de reaction/reconnaissance de la part du vIsiteur. cette sorte d'identite
n'existe pas. Sans aucull image se refIcter, un miroir est en blanc.
Enfin il y a la troisi~me definition de l'identite:
"la condition d'~tre
Ie m~me que queJque chose decrit. Dans cette categorie il y a deux genres
de programme de musee trls differents, l' un tradi tiOllllel. et l' autre 'lui
ne peul meme pas etre reconnu au accept- comme Ulle acti vi te de musee
appropriee.
Le premier comprend les dioramas d' histoIre natureJle et les
expositions d'aquarium o~ les collections. naturali~ees ou vivantes, sont
exposees dans les envlronnelJientes auxquels lIs appartiennent: tantot un
diorama peint ou une 6tendue d'eau entour~e.
Le dernie, comprend ce que Jp Service National des Pares des Etats-Unis
appelle les ,nusee d' "histoire vivante" ou on recree et maintient une
partie du passe telle qu'une ferme du XIXeme si~cle. y compris les
costumes d'ouvrIers, les instruments aratoires: la recolte, la preparation
des articles d 'alimentation ala maison. comn", tout etait fait pendant la
per iode or Iginale.
On presente aussi les demons trat ions des Rletiers et
des arts, des festivals et des activites pareilles offertes par des musees
et d' aut res organisations (comme les tr ibus naturelles d' Amerique) qui
redfifInissent et reaffirment l'Identite ethnique par moyen de representa::ions de danse, d'aliments. de metiers et d'arts. de chansons, de concours
dp. sport etc. qui sont ou des versions identiques ou modifiees de la
conduite pass~e. assocf~es couramment au cens~ment a un groupe specifjque.
Les musles quitendent vel's cctte dlfinition de l'identite; "la condition
d'etre Je m~me que," ont une tendunce a engager Ie public daos leurs
programmes plus que ceUl< qui donnent dans Ie sens de "ressemblance" ou de
"traits distinctifs," Et, dans une certaine mesure, cela est ollsceptible

194

 perp~tuer quelques aspects d'identit~ dans Ie futur plus que Ie font les
autres. Un engagenlent aclit renforce les liens entre l'individu et Ie
groupe et accentue les traits distinctifs qui distinguent un groupe d'un
autre.
Dans Ie recensement de l' histoire du developpement du musee dans les pays
occidentaux" et leur conduite institutionnelle. on peut aussi discerner
une evolution progressive par moyen de ces definitions d'identit~.
Originalement. comme des petits cabinets i curiosit~s" les mus~es ~taient
pour la plupart, des collections des ~I~ments d'une valeur ou esthetique
ou curieuse qui stimulaient I'interet du collecteur.
Les collections
possedaient une identit~ i cause de ce qui les contenait el de leur nature
meme -- oiseaux et papillons fares. trophees de chasse aux grands fauves,
pointes de fleches des Indi ens d' Am~l'ique. balles de mousquet d' un champs
de bataille de Ia Guerre Civile. Les mus~es avaienl une identite i cause
du genre et de la qualit~ de leurs collections - La olns he!l~ cellectl""
de ..... "Ia collection la plus grande de ... , el pas parce qu'ils
repr~sentaient I'heritage et l'identit~ d'un systeme cuiturel ou naturel
sp~cifique.

Ce n'est pas i dire que Ie dernier concept ne s'imposait pas du tout. meme
dans Ies tous premIers debuts du mus~e comme institution sociale. Chaque
collection. pour avolr sa propre identite. devait avoi,' quelque sorte
d'organisation structurale. un arrangement qui la distinguait comme unite
reconnaissable.
Tres souvent, cet arrangement se fonda i t sur des +r.l.I't$
g~ographiques ou culturels distinctifs:
Ia flore et Ia faune des deserts
du Sud-ouest de l'Am~rique, sculptures et totems Sur hois des Indlens de
Ia Pacifique Nopd-ouest pal' exemple.
Mais Ie lien entre I'heritage du
passp ~t }'identite culturelle du pre~:;(~nt n'importait. vraimellt pas
beaucoup jusqu aux quelques dernieres decades au on a vu. In croissance de
Ia conscience sociale et du nationalisme.
I

Tandis que le concept et la pr~occupation de l'identit~ ethnlque et

Ilationale se sont renforc~s dans Ie grand public. les nl(Js~eg cux aussi.
ont commenc~ 6 refleter ce m~rne int~r6t. Les collections, les expositions
et les programmes etaient formules pour conserver Ies identites uniques
cuI turelles et envirounementales aux groupes dont ils represcntaient
l'h~ritage.
Le concept d'identit~ de "trait distinctif" s'est avanc~ et
est probablement toujours le plus pr~valent des dcfinitions d'identites i
etre exprim~e dans les mus~es d'aujourd'hui.
Les mus~es contemporains, tout en se rendant compte que ce concept peut
Jier Ie PU99' au pr~sent mais qu'il ne fait que triB peu poup transmettre
Ie pr~sent vers Ie futuro ont commenc~ faire des experiences avec Ie
concept "meme que" deerit ci-dessus.
Pour attirer le~; visiteurs et pour
les garder autant .que Ie soutient du public, de plus en plus de Iftusees ont
d~velopp~ des programmes qui engagent 'de fa90n tres acti ve Ieus commettants.
L' identit~ du mus~e tente de devenil' synonyme de I'identite du
groupe social ou de l' environnement naturel des pieces e-,posees dans ses
colI ections.
Mais beaucoup de professionnels de mus~e commencent a se rendre compte que
ceJa ne va pas aussi loin.
SI les musees vont survivre comme des eIltitis
v iables dans Ie futur. i l faut qll' ils aident a la formation et i la
definition de c~ futuro
Voici un r61e trls important pour la musiologie.
Le lien entre l'identite d'un objet et l'identite des individus qui
perc;oivent cet objet doit etre augment~ pour incorporer une conscience
d' une identi te partagee pour Ie futuro
II ne suffit pas simplement
d'ctudior la meilleure fa90n de conserver les restes culturels et naturels
du passe.
II ne suffH pas davantage de dlHinir Ies caract~ristiques

195

distinctHs ou la "personnalite" des groupes ethniques ou des nations pour

qu'on puisse s'identifler co....e consequence naturelle d'une mode de vie
particuliere.
Jl faut que Ie lien se fasse entre Ie passe comm" heritage
et Ie futuro comme resultant des forces produHes pat' la connaissance de
cet her itag".
Nous SOllmes ce que' nous avons appr is par experience.
notre perception du futur se fondent sur ce que no us
entendu dans Ie passe.
Le role des .usees et de la
inclure la definition et l'accomplissement de plusieurs

notre sentiment et
avons fai t. vu et
Iluseologie devrait
objectifs:

- pourvoi I' un moyen riche et abordable d' apprendre par experience notre
propre heritage culturel et naturel et celui des autres, pour nous mleux
comprendre aunsi que les autres;

- aider les vlsiteurs de musfie A reconnaitre la valeur des COllI1~jss~llces

du passe pour falre face I leur propre futur et pour Ie regIeI';
- pourvoir une continuitfi d'heritage auquel les groupes et les individus,
bousculfis par un present incertain. peuvent se raccrocher; une continuite
qui contient l'espolr d'un futur realisable;
- servir comme "mise en commun genetique" d'idees, de concepts et d'heritages culturels environnementaux specif1ques main tenant presqu'ou tout I
fait disparus, d'ou on peut puiser de nouveaux Iloyens de former un futur
commun, de reconstituer la diversi te qui autrement serail -'irrevocablement
perdue et qui est necessaire pour notre survivance.
;'
La force puissance. que ce soit bonne ou mauvai se. des musees dans la
CO/lUIlUnaute. nous depasse.
Jusqu' a ce que plus de !lusees s' en rendent
compte. et tiennent mieux compte de l'environnement total des communautes
qui les entourent. pourtant, les besoins des utilisateurs de musle pour
forller une association personnel Ie avec leur heritage et pour reaffirmer
leur identite aux termes de cet heritage. continueront I ne pas etl'e
satisfai ts.
\

Le role de la museolgie devient double. Comme philosophie. il doit aider

a definir l'identite pour les lIlusees et I y donner de la dIrection. II
faut aider les professionnels de ~usee I premedlter les resultats I etre
atteints; I developper des obJectifs clairs et une connaissance des
besoins d'identitl du public; I devenir des travailleurs d'equipe dans un
l'eSeaU de Illusees et de professionnels de musee plus graud pour qu' un seul
musee ne doive pas tout accomplir tout seul".
COlule discipline scientif ique. 11 faut sooten"i" Is" recherche pour developper les moyens de Illieux" conserver et interpreter I 'heritage nature I et
cuI turel de l' homme.
I I faut fournir un moyen de presenter ces concepts
philosophiques au public pour que la conduite de musee puisse perpetuer et
lier de fa~on active. l'heritage du passe I l'identite du futuro
La museologie doi t aussi reconnsttre que "1' identl te" n' a pas de seule
definition approprlee.
Plutot que Ie termeidentite n'est qU'un symbole
pour un nombre indeflniment grand d'operations empiriques differentes qui
varient dans Ie temps ~t selon Ie contexte et qui pellvent etre deflnles I
de niveaux differents d'abstractlon.
C'est l'entendement et l'accord
entre envoyeur et destinataire dll symbole plutat que la forme dll symbole
qui est important.

196

Marc Maure - Lommedalen, Norvage

Identit!s et cultures
--------------------Le concept

d'idcntit~ peut !tre d~fini est uti1is~ de p1usieurs fa~ons

different~s, relativement 3 la discipline scientifique dans laqueile on

s i we.

se

Dans ce texte Ie concept d'identit! est uti1is! dans une perspective socioculturelle. dans Ie sens de "identite collective d'un groupe social". Le
terme (ie "groupe social" est defini de fa,on tr~s large; on peut parler de
l'identit~ d'une nation. d'une communaut! locale. d'une mino,"ite ethnique.
d'une c1asse socia1e. etc.
L'id~e essentie11e est que tout individu s'identifie a un groupe, 3 une
co~munaut~ d'individus partageant des memes croyances et une fa,on de vivre
sp~cifique. En fait chaque individu a plusieurs identites. dans 1a mesure
ou on peut, par exemp1e. se sentir 3 1a fois occitan. ouvrier, fran,ais,
europeen. travai11eur immigr!. catho1ique. etc. Dans quel1e mesure une de
ces identit~s peut predominer depend en tr~s grande partie de 1a situation
et du contexte dans 1esque1s l'individu et Ie groupe se trouvent.
La notion de "difference" est tr~s importante dans:cette perspective. L'identite d'un groupe se definit et est vecue par rapport 3 l'existence
d'autres groupes qui sont"diff~rents~ L'identite d'un groupe c'est ce qui
fait que "nous" sOlll11es ce que "les autres" ne sont pas.
Le concept d'identite est tres lie 3 ce1ui de culture; ce qui fait qU'un
groupe se definisse comme "different" par rapport 3 un autre groupe. est
Ie fait qU'ils aient des cultures differentes. Le terme de culture n'est pas
utilise ici pour designer un certain type d'expressions culturelles ayant
une certaine qua1ite (l'art. par exemple). maie bien plus largement pour
d~signer tout ce qui caracterise la fa,on dont 1e groupe fonctionne et est
organise par rapport 3 son environnement naturel et socio-culture1.
La cu1tu~d'un groupe se manifeste. est materialisee, dans de nombreuses
manifestations differentes, comme langue, style de vie, ritue1s, objets,
mythologie, etc.

~~~~9~~!_~~~_~~~~~~_~
"p~urquoi des musees?" I "3 qoi servent 1es musees?" I "est-i1
vraimeOlt necessaire d'avoir des museesfpeut semb1er paraitre denuee de
sen;. L'cxistence de musees-etant dans notre-societe si bien ~tablie qU'on
peut presque 3 1a rigueur 1a considerer comme 1e resu1tat d'une loi natureI Ie.
Bien entendu on peut justifier 1 'existence des musees par des consid~rations
dt. genre "la connaissance scientifique". "la preservation des t~moignages
du passe". Mais pourquoi est-i1 important de pr~server. collectionner et
etudier de vieux objets? La creation de musees est un phenom~ne relativement
recent de l'histoire de l'humanite; les societes ont pu 10ngtemps se passer.
et certaines s'en passent encore, de posseder des musees.
Si l'on essaye d'ana1yser ce ph~nomlne et de 1e voir "de l'exterieur". il
semble qu'on puisse l'interpr~ter dans Ie sens d'un "processus d'identification". Je veux dire par la que la cr~ation et 1e deve10ppement des institutions que nous appellons "musees" peut etre considere comme un moyen.
un instrument, qU'une societe utilise dans une situztion donnee pou~ par
exemple, prendre conscience de, signaler, proteger ou diffuser son identite.
Essayons d'analyser deux peri odes importantes de l'histoire des musees dans
cette perspective.

-La qu.stion

197

A l'~poque de la Renaissance, en Italie, les ruines et autres t~moignages

de l'Antiquit~ Greco-romaine commencent a prendre une signification et une
valeur qu'i1s n'avaient pas dans 1a societe medi~vale. Des d~bris de sculptures, auparavant consid~res comme pierres sans importance, sont pieusement
deb1ay~s, recueil1is, conserv~s et exposes dans d~s
ocaux specialement
construits (les premiers mus~es au sens moderne du terme). Ces objets et
collections fonctionnent cOrmle "porteurs de valeurs" et "modeles normatifs"
pour la culture de J'el ite sociale qui se developpe en Occident dans cette
p~riode. Ce groupe definit son identite, signalise sa difference par rapport
aux autres groupes, en se situant dans un cadre de reference 00 les valeurs
de la culture antique jouent un rOle central, En meme temps cette culture
est definie et present~~ comme ~tant de nature differente et d'un niveau
superieur par rapport aux autres cultures; elle devient "la CuI ture".
Nous retrouvons, a mon avis, Ie meme ph~nomene au siecle dernier, quoique
sous des formes differentes. Le 1ge siec1e est caracterise par un developpement extraordinaire des musees. Partout en Europe sont constYuits des musees;
ce sont des institutions qui sont g~ographiquement centralisees, specialis~es dans une discip1ine,et ouvertes au public. Elles ont aussi une autre
caracteristique essentiel1e, plus ou moins explicite. qui est qu'el1es ont
pour fonct;on de fonder et rendre manifeste une identite nationale, ceci
li~ au contexte europeen de l'~poque (situation qui a des paralleles aujourd'hui dans les pays du tiers-mondel, Haze1ius, 1e c~lebre museologue suedois,
cr~ateur du musee de plein-air Skansen dans les annes 1~80, l'exprime ainsi:
Ie but du musee est de "reveil1er et d~velopper 1'amour du pays natal. Utiliser dans ce but les collections pour. stimu1er le sentiment national chez
Ie visiteur".
Cette ideologie de caractere national a marque et meme domine Ie devcloppement des muSees jusqu a nos jours, pas toujours d'une fa~an aussi explicite
que dans Ie cas d'Haze1ius, mais gen~ra1ement de fa~on indirecte par Ie
biais des politiques d'acquisition et de constitution des collections. Le
critere de "qual it~" de 1 'objet ayant domine ces pol itiques, la consequence
a et~ qu'ont ete juges dignes d'etre preserves surtout les objets repr~sen
tant une valeur nationale. La culture de nombreux groupes ne pouvant pas
jouer ce rOle national a tout simplement ete oubliee ou jugee pas digne
de trouver une place dans 1es musees.
Ce phenomene est present dans tous les types de musees: art, histoire,
archeologie, technique et meme histoire naturelle. Meme 1e developpement
de musees locaux et regionaux, qui da~certains pays a connu une grande
importance, peut etre interpretedans cette perspective. Je veux dire par
la que Ie developpement de ce type de musees a joue dans certains contextes
un rOle essenti~l dans Ie develo~pement d'une conscience et identite nationale; la culture paysanne ayant par exemple cette fonction d'etre Ie
catalisateur national, c'est-a-dire de symbo1iser la difference,est d'etre
1'expression de ce que les autres nations ne sont pas,
y~~~-~~-~~~~~~~-~~~~-~

L'institution musealc est aujourd'hui, a mon avis, 1e cadre de mouvements

qui font qu'on Jevrait peut-etre parler d'une phase nouvelle de l'histoire
des musees; les question$d'identite y jouent un rOle primordial.
Dans Ie cadre de~ vieilles nations, les minorites culturelles et autres
groupes non-representatifs de la Culture nationale revendiquent Ie droit
a la differenc~et la possibilite de mieux cQnnaitre et de developper leur
propre culture, Minorit~s ethniques, sous-cultures, travail leurs indus
trlels et autres groupes oublies du developpement museal desirent voir la
creation et 1e developpement d'institutions culturelles ayant leur propre
culture et histoire pour objet.
Ce processus de pr~se de conscience et de revendiquation doit etre vu dans
une perspective plus large que Ie cadre purement mus~al. Ce reveil des
particularismes culturels est une caract~ristique essentielle de la societe moderne. Ce ph~nomene doit etre considere comme une reactiOn, a la fois
contre une tradition centralisatrice, et contre les dangers que font courir
Ie developpement ~es massmedia et d'une industrie culturelle i~ternationale.
198

Ces derni~res ann~es ont vu le developpement de certains musees qui sont

1'expression de cette nouvelle situation. Je pense en particulier aux
"ecomusees" et aux "musees de voisinage" qui en sont les exemples les plus
connus. Mais pratiquement dans tous les pays ont commence a se developper
des musees qui d'une fa<;on ou d'un autre refletent cette nouvelle ideologie.
Ces realisations, malgre tout ce qui peut les separer en ce qui concerne
I'appellation, la taille, Ie contenu des collections etc. ont en commun
les caracteristiques essentielles suivantes.
Tout d'abord, elles ne con<;oivent pas leur rOle par rapport a un publ ic
general et ind~termine. Elles travaillent pour un groupe d~termine, et
ont pour objectif de renforcer les liens entre ce groupe et sa propre
culture de fa<;on A Ie rendre plus apte a affronter les probl~mes et crises
qu'il rencontre.
Ensuite, Ie travail de ces musees est caracterise par une perspective
ecologique, 00 la culture est consideree comme un l'!lcment dans un systl'!interactif entre l'etre humain et son miljeu; milieu naturel, mais aussi
dans Ie sens d'environnement d'une maniere tres large. Ceci a entr'autre
comme consequence que Ie travail muscal ne se limite pas seulement aux
objets, mais englobe aussi toutes autres manifestations par 1esquell es
l'identite du groupe se signalise, comme traditions oraies, paysages,
rites, etc.
La troisieme caract~ristique importante est que les membres de la communautc ne sont pas consideres cOlrme recepteurs passifs du message du
musee, mais participent a differents niveaux au travail de recherche et de
collecte du musee. Dans ce contexte Ie rOle du museologue est specifique
et peut etre assez different de celui qui lui traditionnellement assigne;
il tend a etre un catalysateur mettant ses qualites profesionnelles au
service de 1a communaute culturelle dont le musee est I 'expression.
!~~~!!!~_~!_P~~~g12g!~

Dans ce texte j'ai tres rapidement essaye d' illustrer une chose qui me
parait tout a fait essentie1le pour 1'approche du phl'!nomene museal, a
savoir que la notion d'identitl'! est a la base de l'existence de musees.
En ce qui concerne les consequences que cette affirmation peut avoir pour
la museoloqie, ses objectifs et ses ml'!thodes. je voudrais tres sommairement enoncer les idees suivantes:
I 'analyse museologique devrait se pr~occuper du. "pourquoi" des pMnomenes
museaux avant Ie "comment", c'est-A-dire mettre l'accent sur Ie rOle
social et culturel du musee
la musl'!ologie doit utiliser les concepts de "culture" et identitl'!" dans
une perspective relativiste (c'est-A-dire au pluriel)
les sciences sociales ont un role important a jouer en musco1ogie
une approche orientee vers les ph~nomenes de communication culturelle
peut etre particulierement fertile en musl'!ologie
la mUSl'!ologie a un rOle social important a jouer, si 1'on est conscient
du fait qu'un musl'!e est bien autre chose, et bien plus, qu'un lieu pour
la delectation esthetique

199

Peter van Mensch - Leiden, Netherlands

Identity is a complex concept indeed. Originally a philosophical notion.

it was 30-40 years ago developed as a psychological concept. Since about
20 years it became especially used in a wide and varied sociological
connotation. In this paper I will develop some thoughts about the last
meaning, commonly understood as "cultural 'identity".
Identity, some basic concepts
In the "International thesaurus of cuI tural development" (UNESCO 1980)
culture is described as "the sum total of a people's activities, its
methods of production and of appropriation of material assets, its forms
of organi~ation. its artistic creativity. its beliefs and sufferings,
its work and its leisure, its dreams and its successes". Cultural identity
is described as "the correspondence between a community (national, ethnic.
linguistic, etc.) and its cultural life, as well as the right of each
community to its own culture". There are, of course, many other d~finiticnst
but these descriptions meet the needs of this paper.
Cultural identity is commonly understood as expression of a feeling of
togetherness, shared by the members of a certain community. Sociologists
distinguish between different types of groups. A group exists when there
is a number of people who (1) have a kind of patterned interaction, and
(2) feel bound together by a "consciousness of kind" or a "we" feeling.
Group members have common loyalities, share values, and see themselves
as set apart from the rest of the world because of their membership in
this particular group. Another type of collectivity of people could be
called "category". A category is a number of people who have one (or
more) particular characteristics in common but fail to have a patterned
interaction and we-feeling. Categories can easily become groups. voluntary
or involuntary. When there is some permanency each group will eventually
develop a certain group identity.
(Cultural) Identity has two sides: "acquired identity" (or "self identity)
and "ascribed identity"; Both identities do not necessary correspond, they
may even be opposite. There is a tendency among groups to generalise the
characteristics of other groups. This leads to stereotypes, especially
with a negative ring. A wea,k self-concept is influenced by the stereotype
images of an ascribed iden~ity. In this way a stereotype can easily become
a self-fullfilling prophesy. On the other hand there is a tendency in
groups to cultivste stereotypes to foster a we-feeling.
Erikson (Erikson 1959) described (cultural) identity as "pseudo-species".
Within the biological species 'Homo sapiens evolution lead to cultural
speciation, divergence on the basis of cultural behavior. As physical

201

isolation (whether or not as result from cultural isolation) inevitably

lead to the development of biological features that are specific for the
group, group identity becomes based on both cultural and biological
characteristics. This combination can be called Il ethnic identity".
Ethnic identity is territorial. There is an interaction between the
cultural identity of a community on one hand and the morphology of the
landscape and the ecological boundary conditions for economic development
on the other. Many aspects of cultural behavior are related to the
economic exploitation of natures resources. At the same time man shapes
his environment. This holistic approach had (and has) an enormous impact
on museology. For example the concepts of both the "Heimatrnuseum" and
the "ecomuseum" are ased on it.
In present day society the concept of territorial based identities appear
to be a too simple concept. It is questioned by four developments:
(1)
(2)
(3)

(4)

inbalance of power,
mobility,
new groups,
communication technology.

(1) In the course of history groups of people have dominated other groups
of people. Allthough dominant groups often assimilate elements of the
culture of subjected groups, the general trend is that subjected
groups adopt too a high degree the culture of the dominant group at the
cost of their own cultural identity. Or more often: they are forced to
adopt the culture of the dominant group, whereas the dominant group spends
much energy in suppressing the cultural identity of the subjected groups.
Unfortunately many examples can be found around us. Many ethnic groups
are exterminated, expelled to outlying districts or culturally repressed.
Do I need to give examples? The Hopi-indians in the USA, the jews in the
Sovjet Union, several indian tribes in Brazil, the hungarians in Romania,
the turks in Bulgaria, the kurds in Turkey and Iraq, the palestinians on
the West-Bank, etc. etc. etc.
(2)

Migration looses the bond between a person and the community of which
he (she) used to be a member. At the same time he (she) gets
estranged from the cultural life of his (her) co~unity and he (she)
has to come to terms with the cultural life of ~he new environment. ,He
(she) can adopt different strategies between total conformation and
complete isolation. Of course the possibility tp develop a strategy depends
on the room left by the dominant group.
The growing world wide mobility leads to pluriform societies. The big
cities are cultural melting pots. Even some complete countries are (USA).
Apart from ori.ginally territorial based ethnic groups new groups
appear. Categories develop a we-feeling, develop new loyalities,
share new values, especially as response to felt discrimination.
Women and homosexuals are such categories.
(3)

202

In our fast changing

~ociety

generations seems to change from categories

into groups. The collective experience (the Depression, the World War,
the Sixties) -is the generation defining process, the nostalgic sentiment
creates the we-feeling (see Davis 1979).
(4)

Thanks too the rapid developments of communication technology we are

not far from MacLuhans "global village". Allthough the control of
the communication media. strengthens the existing economic and
cultural supremacy of the dominant culture(s), the same media give rise
to universalism. The phenomenon of universalization constitutes the

final destruction of traditional cultural identity. The present ethnic

revival (see below) may be a last-ditch attempt.
In stead of ethnic based cultural identities we will see new cultural
identities predominately based on consumption behavior. At the same time
cultural identity becomes a commodity. The industry, supported by the
media. provides a pseudo-identity by selling images of collective
nostalgia (Davis 1979). Let's call it the Laura Ashley syndrome.
Cultural identity and cultural policy
It is clear that cultural identity is a complex concept. Nevertheless
it has become a politically very important issue. It is the key concept
of cultural policies. It suffices to quote from the Mexico City
Declaration on Cultural Policies <UNESCO 1982);
"Every culture represents a unique and irreplaceable body of values
since each people's traditions and forms of expression are its most

effective means of demonstrating its presence in the world. The

assertion of cultural J.dentity therefore contributes to the liberation
of peoples. Conversely, any form of domination constitutes a denial or
an impaiment of that identity. Cultural identity is a treasure that
vitalizes mankind's possibilities of self-fulfilment by moving every
people and very group to seek nurture in its past~ to welcome contributions from outside that are compatible with its own characteristics,
and so to continue the process of its own creation. All cultures form

part of the common heritage of mankind. The cultural identity of a people

is renewed and enriched through contact with the traditions and values of
others. Culture is dialogue, the exchange of ideas and experience and the
appreciation of other values and traditions, it withers and dies in
isolation. The universal cannot be ,postulated in the abstract by any
single culture; it emerges from the experience of all world's peoples as

each affirms its own identity. Cultural ldentity and cultural diversity
are inseparable. Special characteristics do not hinder, but rather
enrich the co~~nion of the universal values that unite peoples. Hence
recognition of the prespnce of a variety of cultural identities wherever
various traditions exist side by side constitutes the very essence of

cultural pluralism. The international community considers it its duty

to ensure that the cultural identity of each people is preserved and
protected. All of this points to the need for cultural policies that will
protect, stimulate and enrich each people's identity and cultural heritage,
and establish absolute respect for and appreciation of cultural minorities

203

and the other culture~ of the world. The neglect or destruction of the
culture of any group is a loss to mankind as a whole. The equality and
dignity of all cultures must be recognized, as must the right of each
people and cultural community to affirm and preserve its cultural
identity and have it respected by others."
One of the most important principles is expressed in the last sentence
of this quote. Too often this leading principle is corrupted. Its
significance is narrowed down to the supposed right of nations to
affirm, preserve or develop its own cultural identity. In the actual
political situation in many (if not all) countries the affirmation
and preservation of the cultural identity of cultural groups seems to
be a ticklish affair with far reaching political implications. The
homogeneity of a national culture however is a myth, either a 19th
century romantic philosophical myth or a 20th century post-colonial
political myth. National identity is almost always the expression of
a dominant (sub)culture. In order to legitimise the dominant subculeure
as national identiey pcrely aew traditions are invented (see Hobsbawn
1984).
The political dimension of cultural identity is a complicated one. Ae
one hand ehere seems to be more interest in strengehening national
identities than ever, but at the other hand the strive for more rights
to assert small scale identities has gained considerable world wide
support.
The fast escalation of violence used co gain cultural (and political)
equal rights is partly due to the economic dimension of the problem:
the blacks in South Africa, the roman~catholics in Ulster, the eamils
in Sri Lanka, the basks in Spain, the corsicans in France, ehe sikhs
in India, not to mention the tribal tensions in many African couneries'
and the dramatic civil war in the Lebanon. Less violent at the moment,
but still a problem is the denial or impairment of the cultural,
economic and political equality of the indians, the blacks and the
spanish speaking people in the USA, the flemish in Belgi~~, ehe surinams
and moluccans in the Net~erlands, the iwmigrant workers (especially
moroccans and turks) in some western-european countries (such as Germany,
Belgium and ehe Neeherlands), etc.
Mention has already ~een made of the development of new non-ethnic
identities. Especially in th~ western world these counter-cultures have
a revolutionary momenf:l1J'p..
A pluriform society based on an open dialogue of cultures seems to be a
far ueopia. The dominane cultures do not cave in. Some develop a
strategy of repressive tolerance (Marcuse 1966), others do not hide their
intolerance and are overt repressive, whether or not legitimi.sed by an
intolerane fundamentalist ideology.
In above meneioned examples the polieical and economic desires overshadow
the other aspects of culture. There is however a growing international
interest in these other aspects. Paradoxically this growing concern has

.204

an economic background. It concerns the following subjects:

(al
(bl
(cl

cultural identity as boundary condition of economic development,

cultural identity as tourist attraction,
cultural identity as export catalyst.

(a)

By much trial and too much error economists found out that
economic development is not possible without taking the cultural
dimension into consideration. More recently economists finally
understood the warning of ecologists: economic development is also not
possible without taking the ecological effects into consideration.
Sustainable use of nature's resources require an adjusted exploitation,
hence a renewed interest in traditional lifestyles (Anonymous 1983).
(b)

Tourism is a growth market. Apart from the climatological features

a region derives its attractive power from a pronounced cultural
identity. Commercial success however is often like a Pyrrhic
victory: a victory won at so great a cost as to be as bad as a defeat.
(cl

A pronounced cultural identity can act as lubricating oil for the

export of all kinds of consumer goods. It lends a special aura to
the products. Besides in consumer oriented societies objects with
an exotic odour have a high "fetish" value (Ferree 1978l. (bl and (cl
fit in the present trap of "repressive desublimation" (Marcuse 1964),
the compensation of frustrated desire of freedom and authentic experience
by never fully satisfying consumer behavior.
It is a remarkable fact that these remarks hold true not only for the
developing countries, but also for the developed countries (Van Mensch
& De Rook 1985).
Museums end cultural identity
Diop (Diop 1982) mentioned three builving blocks of culture: language,
history and attitutes. Traditionally museums concentrate on the objects
in which history and attitutes are reflected. As guardians of cultural
identity the traditional museum developed a rather limited view. To put
it simplistic: the traditional museum was (is) more interested in form
than in content. What was (is) preserved is the ornament, not the world
view behind it. Here we ~re confronted with one of the mayor imperfections
of a object-centred society ,as compared with concept-centred societies
(Cannon-Brooken 1984, Taborsky 1982). We see it in the extreme in archaeology where neolithic and post~neolithic'culturesoften exclusively are
defined oy form and decoration of the pottery.
When groups want to reenforce their cultural identity, they often use
the forms of the past, the ornaments of the Golden Age, the Lost Paradise.
When during the 19th century a Dutch nationalism developed, renaissance
architecture (the style of the early 17th century, Holland's Golden Age)
was considered the proper style of public buildings. When however the
Roman-Catholics were again allowed to profess their religion in the open,
they chose the (pre-protestant) gothic architecture as expression of their

205

emancipation. The most uoportant Dutch architect at that moment was Pierr~
Cuypers. He was admirer of Viollet-Ie-Duc and also a roman-catholic. He
choose neo-gothic as his main style. When he was asked to build the new
Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, his first designs were in that style. This caused
almost a revolution. The plan was by many considered an insult to the
protestant dutch liberation war. Not surprisingly the present Rijksmuseum
Amsterdam is build in an adapted neo-renaissance style.

This example served to connect the general introduction of this paper

with ~useurn practice. Apart from Lhe veneration of the ornament of the
"mythical" past, it shows the vulnerability of the concept of national
identity. Who's identity is reflected in national museums? Who's past?
Who's material culture?
In journalism it is a well-known fact that "news" is what is reported; what
isn't reported isn't news. Unreported events donlt cease to exist, of
course, they simply fall into an area devoid of social responsibility and
moral restraint. What a museum curator considers important is collected
and/or documented. What isn't collected or documented doesn't exist
within the reality of the museum. Museums are full of "invisible objects",
documenting "invisible groups".

Some years ago a student of the Reinwardt Academie analysed the exhibitions
in Dutch history museums. She found that women only seemed to playa
decorative role in Dutch history. The museum that has the aim to depict
the history of the USA (in Washington) starts its story with the coming
of the first white colonists. Indians are hardly mentioned. Their culture
can be found in the adjacent natural history museum. Until recently
information about the culture of migrant workers in the Netherlands could
not be found in history museums, but only in antropology museums, as if
migrant workers have nothing to do with Dutch history. Remarkable too is
that art produced by non-western artists is not shown in art museums but
in antropology museums.
These observations can be made everywhere in the world. Good examples
are for example given in recent issues of AGMANZ Journal, the magazine
of the Art Galleries and Museums Association of New Zealand (for example
Mead 1985, Neich 1985). The social emancipation of the Maori means in
the first place cultural emancipation. It also means the museal emancipation of the Maori. "It is not just the taonga (heritage) of the past
that are in museums today; the guilt is there, too, and the pai.n of the
Maori people as well" (Mead 1985). To the feelirig of 'the Maori the antropological approach does not do justice to their culture. For example,
Maori art is imprisoned in the historical and intellectual context of
the antropological museum, contexts that are developed by curators that
are no Maori.
This leads us to two central issues concerning cultural identity and
museums; (1) the representation of cultural identity, and (2) museums
as self appointed advocates.
(1)

206

The problem of the representation of cultural identities in museums

was extensively discussed during a three day symposium in February,
1986 in London. I expect the proceedings will be published. This

publication will serve as a treasure chamber of thoughts and examples.

It is clear that a member of one social group is not able to detach
himself from his own set of values. He is only able to describe and
understand other social groups in terms of his own group. The other
is a mirror of ourselves, a projection of our values, our frustrations,
our hopes. Carpenter is very cynical about this phenomenon (Carpenter
1976). He described a Disney tv series on people and places: "Twenty
cultures were chosen, scattered among tundra, desert and jungle, but
even though the people dressed in different clothes and ate different
food, they wre all alike, members of a single culture. That culture
was our cult.ure - more accurately, our cliched image of ourselves that
mightbe called the Hallmark greeting card view".
That Americans (and others, because these films are sold everywhere in
the world) will know the rest of the world through such films and
comparable museal representations is not the only problem. A more
important problem is perhaps the fact that "we use media to destroy
cultures, but first use media to create a false record of what we are
about to destroy" (idem). After the revival of the indian interest in
their own cultural identities, often the only record of their cultures
could be found in museums. So the new generation indians adopted the
romantic anglo-saxon interpretation of their culture (Hanson 1980).
These pehnomena are not restricted to antropology museums. Similar
situations can be observed in history museums. Schlereth has described
some of the fallacies (Schlereth 1980). Even natural history museums
are not free from distorted representations. Diorama's reflect our
romantic interpretation of nature. In the depicted social scenes we
recognise too often our own idealised nuclear family concept. The
best illustrations of the here described processes are the reconstructions
of prehistoric man.
(2)

Museums act often as self appointed advocates. By presenting other

cultures the a.im is to promote understanding. The concept of
advDcacy is an interesting one (Evans 1980, Kobben 1983). Typical
of this kind of advocacy is that the advocate is not a member of the
group which interests he wants to serve. Kobben distinguishes between
advocates with a they-perspective and those with a we-perspective. The
latter identify completely with the cause of the group. They tend tD be
more radical th'1[1 the gToup itself ("plus royaliste que Ie roi"). Evans
shows that this approach is. not a, fruitfulJ. one. A more detached theyperspective seems to be more suitable for museums.
The main problem of advocacy is the fact that the advocate is not a
member of the group. Succesfull advocacy involves mutual confidence.
Museums have often betrayed this confidence. Traditional museums show
a paternalistic dislike for dynamism. Peoples are pinned down on a
romantic interpretation of what is considered te be the pure, authentic
cultural identity. But at the same time under the cover of saving a
disappearing culture, they help to destroy that culture by robbing it
from its material culture (Nooter 1975). And, oh dear, when somebody
raises the question of restitution and return ...

207

The new development is the rapid growth of museums that originate from
the social groups themselves. It is interesting to compare the indian
museums and the black museums in the USA (Hanson 1980, Austin 1982). Most
of the older indian'museums are founded by self appointed advocates,
white anglo-saKons with a growing concern for the disappearance of the
indian cultures. These museums show a static 19th century image of "the"
indian. Host of the black museums however, are community based. They
are founded by those in black communities who recognized a need for
institutions in which their cultural heritage could be both eKpressed
and preserved, but in a dynamic way.
The growth of the nl~ber of local history museums in the Netherlands
(and elsewhere) is the eKpression of the same wish of communities to
assert their own cultural identities. Also the first women museums
have appreared with the same aim.
Cultural identity and museology
There was, of course, already much museology in this paper. When I try
to summarize in this part of the paper the direction that museology
can show us, I think we should expect from museological theory to find
a balance between conservation and development, between myth and utopia.
The basis should be the principles eKpressed in the Mexico City Declaration, but we should be very careful with the nostalgic conservative
ethnic based cultural identities. We should aslo be careful with the
political dream of national cultural identity. A new direction could
be the critical regionalisme of Tzonis and Lefaivre (Frampton 1985) =
"das neue Heimatbegriff" (Piepmeier 1982).

References
Abranches, H. (1984) Museums and cultural identity. Proceedings of the
13th General Conference ., London 24 July - 2
August 1983. ICOM, Paris: 19-31.
Amstrong, A. (1983) What is urban studie,.? ,Bulletin 'of Environmental
Education 143: 6-9.
Anonymous (1983) Culture and conservation - a missing link in the World
Conservation Strategy? IUCN BUlletin~, (7/9); 97-98.
Austin, J.F. (1982) Their face to the rising sun. Trends in the development of black museums. Museum News~, (3); 29-32.
Cannon-Brookes, P. (1984) The nature of museUm collections. In: Manual
of curatorship. London: 115-126.
Carpenter, E. (1976) Oh, what a blow that phantom gave

20B

me~

New York.

Davis, F. (1979) Yearning for yesterday. A sociology of nostalgia.

New York.
Oiop, Cheik A. (1982) The building blocks of culture. Unesco Courier
aug./sept. 1982:
Erikson, E.H. (1959) Identity and the life cycle. New York.
Evans, B.H. (1980) The museum as advocate. Museum

News~,

(4):

Ferree, H. (1978) Van mens tot marionet. Hoe imitatie de menselijke

mogelijkheden beperkt tot consumptie. Utrecht.
Frampton, K. (19B5) Towards a critical regionalism: six points for an
architecture of resistance. In: H. Foster (Ed.),
Postmodern culture. London: 16-30.
Hanson, J.A. (1980) The reappearing vanishing american. Museum News
12" (2): 44-5l.
Hobsbawn, E. (1984) Inventing traditions. In: E. Hobsbawn & F. Ranger
(Eds.), The invention of tradition. Cambridge; 1-14.
Kobben, A.J. F. (1983) De zaakwaarnemer. Intermediair

1.2.,

(16);

Marcuse, H. (1964) One dimensional man. London.

Marcuse, H. (1966) Repressive Toleranz. Frankfurt am Main.
Head, S.M. (1985) Concepts and models for Maori museums and culture
centres. Agmanz Journal~, (3); 3-5.
Mensch, P.J.A. & G.J. de Rook (1985) Contouren van een buitenlands
cultureel beleid. Museumvisie
(4); 136-140.

~,

Neich, R. (1985) Interpretation and presentation of Maori culture.

Agmanz Journal li, (4); 5-7.
Nooter, G. (1975) Ethics and acquisition policy of anthropological museums
in the Netherlands. In: P. Kloos & H.J.N. Claessens
(Eds.), Current anthropology in the Netherlands. Amsterdam;
Piepmeier, R. (1982) Philosophische Aspekte des Heimantbegriffs. Zeitschrift
fur Kunstpadagogik 1982-(2): 32-38.
Schl ereth, T.J. (1980) Artifacts and the American past. Nashville.
Taborsky, E. (1982) The sociostructural role of the museum. The International Joutnal of Museum Management and Curatorship l: 339-345.
UNESCO (1982) Mexico City Declaration on Cultural Policies, adopted
by the World Conference on Cultural Policies, Mexico
August 6, 1982.

209

Domimec Miquel & Eulalia Morral - Sant Cugat del Valles, Spain
----------------1.1. Identity, identification.
When talking about identities, one of the most carmon errors made is to re-_
fer to one invariable fixed model. Reali ty, however is totally dilferent.
Everything changes, everything evolves, nothing remains the same.
During his life man chang';b, in sanatic aspect as well as intellectually:

Very often we have difficulties in identifying a person standing before us, a

person we haven't seen for a long time, with that other one we remember, or,
to be more exact, with

the model we formed and conserved. Not only that per-

son has grown older but probably his behaviour has changed as well. The same
occurs with human groups: The individuals they are canposed of renew themselves, generatiOl, follows generation and after a certain time, all the canponents are different, as each year

the com of the same field is different.

Even inert matter erosions and changes its appearance. Remember the exerrple
of Zagreb, about the Cariatides or the Victory of Sarrothrace.
So, identity is not an idea that is firmly set. But, normally speaking we are
able to identify a determined component -individual or collective- in spite
of the continuous changes it suffers. This mea"lS, that in its transformation
there are sane defferential features more persistent than

others that enable

the observer to recognize that element as a specific individual -distinct of

all the others near him, but looking like him- through a model of reference.
We identify ourselves thanks to models we have cf-eated beforehand, abstract
patterns , than have to be suffuciently elastic to allow the variations and
above all the mutations wich enable us to determinate phases i0 the evolution.
The evolutionary speed of the models is not uniform, not in time and not in
space; certain circumstances ca, accelerate it in one area, while in another
it may remain unchnnged for a long-time. -New technology

c~~

provol<e a'1 impor-

tant jurrp to canplexity, but the ;tiroothat passes till the next impuls is variable. It is not even true that all the aspects of a model evolve at tIle same rhythrne without meaning that this supposes necessarily the existence of a
conflict, or, if you wish, a crisis of the model.
On the other hand, it is not only the object under observation that evolves,

but also the observer, and his own exPerience of change can help him to understand the experience of the others or, on the contrary, he may becone a
stanger who cannot recognize the references. The evolution of our own identity modifies also the idea of the model we have of that of the others.
The more are individuals in the group, the more it gets difficult to recognize the identity, the more the identification process gets canplicated.

The

211

more there are in the group, the more exceptions can appear, the

CaJJ110rl

fea-

tures get weaker and the toodel gets thinner, becanes schematic so as to include all its mermeI'E',

"''10,

in the::'I' turn can be individualized. And the

smaller the group gets, on the contrary, the more the characteristics are important, without hindering individualisation for that matter.
The problem of uniformity arises when the collective toodel is mythisized,

and the individual gives up his own characteristics to adopt artfully the

0-

nes of the proposed model. This does not necessarily mean, that the individual
is aware of the process. A well divised propaganda can act subliminally on
certain people and aNake the wish to imitate in others. The behaviour of an
individual in a crowd, wich:s excited becanes very often irrational and
inconsiderate, finding

impu~se

only in mimetic automatisms that have nothiLo

to do with his normal behaviourpatterns. Individualization in a uniformed

group is difficult and often based upon intrascendental and trivial details.
The uniformization enters in crisis when the mirage that acts as agglanerative agent, dissipates.
Another aspect of uniformity is that there are no alternative options for
the proposed rrodel. When as a possible

candidate only a mythical

pattern is acc.pted wich leads inevitably to a renouncement of the practice

of liberty.

Problems have to be resolved with the manual in hand. Sponta-

nueous acts give way to codified rituals. Creativity is guided along specific lines to finalities. All that deviates of these lines is of no irrportance because then the norms are violated. This does not mean, that the collective hasn't got its own identity but only, that the human condition impoverishes when the model becanes an idol.
Trying to syntesize one could say that the word "identity" , etymologically
speaking, means "to be equal",

<no

that it is defined as "the quality of

being the same as one supposes"; "to be equal", "to be the same", irrplies:
- the existence of a model we have recourse to previously to establish the
supposed equal i ty .
an identification, wicn is saying to recognise in the contemplated object
the charecteristic and differential features df the model.
To feel one's own identity means, then to auto-identify oneself with a determinated toodel, preViously established through abstraction from the fact that
the features of our essence and beha'ltiour are hTICM'I1. The process has a special irrportance when one recognises oneself, -and is recognised as such- as
a member of a collectivity and of organized society. In this sense, the identificationprocess has, for humans, a parallet with the autentificationprocess
referred to objects with all the dangers and the problems than an unadequate
use of this similitude can cause.

212

1. 2. Cultural Identity, Natural Identity.

This is not the rocxnent nor the place to start again the old discussion to

know if

the necessities of the individual are satisfied by culture or the ne-

cessities of society. Let us only say that certain human groups have developed a material culture -technological if you want- wich is, at the present
level of application, extremely aggressive for the natural environment. An
accident, that causes contamination, can affect zones that, are thousands of
miles away. In these circolTlstances it becomes difficult to think of development isolated from the natural environment. Even if in a small portions the
space-earth ':ay seem miraculoWJly virgin, it is totally e,ffected by the acti.
vities of man,

wll0

modifies it, lllQre or less intensively, substancially to

the point, that, even when it is called "natural pare" it only means adapting
it tcj>eing visited by thousands of people. So, culture changes nature constantly, and the change in relations asks for adaptable new answers wich are
no other thing than cultural transformations.
Talking about natural identity without counting with the activity of man is
getting difficult. Surely this activity is not located equally in space or
in time but identity is really founded in patterns which are a fusion of natural and cultural models, even if there are predominant differential aspects
on the one or other side, according to how small and how specific the zones
get we go dO\\It1 to.
There is a constant relation in evolution, so that, when we understand cul-

ture as

the whole of rules of behaviour in relation with a detennined envi-

ronment, both realities are so strictly related that the identification of

a human group is not possible,

~lhen

they are not considered sirnultanuously,

nor can we understand a natural identity without tal<ing in account the direct or indirect, transformations man has effectuated.
1. 3. Transformation and Crisis.

To live means to evolve in the system of. relation and adaptation to environ-

ment. When the relation

is balanced, intelligible, when a human ccmunity

catches and assimilates

the relation day after day, the lnodel that syntezi-

ses the characteristics of this relation evolves imperceptibly, rather without being aware of it: identification is always possible. But the rncment the
dynamics of this relation are unbalanced (becanes desructive or too much protective for the environment, and consequently, man is affected) then they become haighly complex (and therefore not intelligIble), man cannot understand
anymore, (he feels impotent, it is impossible for him to interfere and decide
what to do) and by far too fast (there is no time to assimilate changes), a
situation of crisis inevitably arises:
. cultural: one is aware of the fact that the system, in not satisfying the
213

new necessities, does not work. All the aprentice-ship man has lived and inheri ted, is lost.
Crisi.s of identity: the complexit'.f of the dynamics makes the abstraction to
the always changing model difficult. OUr intuition tells us thet the new model, product of transformation or shifts, is possibly not satisfactory and
that

its characteristics.-consequence of the cultural crisis- do not cor-

respond to those in wich one would like to recognise oneself.

Crisis of liberty, in fact,

because one feels oneself prisoner of a large-

scale uniforming spiral of generalisation, where one's own identity waters

down, allegedly with the excuse of progress

and the man himself is more

and more removed from the centers of power, where the decisions are made.
Meanwhile, one is more and more controlled.
Those situations of crisis are normal through human history. A change of climate can show the imperfections of a cul tural system and the necessi ty of
finding new answers. On the other hand, nations,people who have dominated

0-

thers, have always existed, trying in a subtle way or with force to impose
their model upon the daninated even if on sane occasions it is the daninator
who has been assimilated. The result is always the same: A different identity
appears, which still has some aspects of the original. Domination, however,
does not imply necessarily assimilation. On the contrary, this assimilation
is occasionally rejected to maintain a state of difference. Their activities
and their rules of behaviour forbidden or destroyed, the daninated group -and
this qualification does not only imply a situation of direct military or political pressio11 but also an unequal econanical relationship- has a tendency of
falling in a state of acul turisation for loss of its own organisational structures.
In this sense , the watering of the culture brings with ita lack of internal
cohesion of the group, lack of model, really, wi th which one can identif'y oneself, as it is quite irrpossible to do that with the daninator. Such a situation can certainly become a fennent of a new collective conscience, but only
when the ennemy is well defined alld personified. The subtle infiltration of
progress, with its advantages and carrnodities is somewhat too ethereal to
fight; even if one is conscient of the destruction, the unbalanced situation
it means and which becomes more and more clear.
A second large group uf uncultured people is fanned by the great amorphe masses of irrmigrants who, like an avalanche or dropping in, invade the big cities.
Of rural or foreing origin, they cannot use their referencemodel anymore in
the new environment. The first generation can still conserve experienced persistences, but the second, often born in margination, finds itself between
two worlds without feeling any bonds with either. The a-cultural citizen will
finally create a new identity, wi th bearings that will make him feel excluded
from the groups of origin, but also from the new society. Wich is often dispo- .
214

sed to accept a different origin, but not an impure.

What then happens is,

that the city, lIDder the impact of the newcaners, with their culture, from
whom

are imperceptabily adopted customs, of small importance at first -ve-

ry often of gastronanical character- in the beginning , which become "impure"

also, without people beig aware of it, undergoes a transformation.

The crisis and the absence of culture lead to a situation of anxiousness.
There is no need to bother oneself with problems of identity, when one is
firmly enrooted in a culture. The problems arise, when this cul ture does not
correspond wi ttl the necessities. When we talk of crJsis. It is then that people turn with nostalgia to the past -without re"C)l]flcing the modem lifp.- to
examine ancient models in order to find the persistent elements in them so
as to find support in a history, explaining the present to them. I t is then
that the Museun meets a socio-cultural requirement. The Museum is the holder, the conservator of the testimonies of evolution, of the past signs of identi ty, but which make it still possible to recognise oneself. Museums of
the past -far or near- to understand

(?) the present.

2. Museum and Identity.

To say that a

~luseum

is a medium to preserve identity has become a topic that

is accepted without discussion. It is, however, not as simple as that, and

there is the possibility of misunderstandings and manipulation.
Straigtt away we encounter a first problem -not necessarily contradictory- in
the fact that identity is sometlling that belongs to the intangible world while the Museums dedicate tllemselves preferably to safeguard material objects
and it is since a few years only that tlley have been interested in the imr.aterial on

any fonn or recording or register. But even today the registers are

often conSidered secondary or complementary and nearly always in appication

of museographical didactics.
HOI'i

can we keep irrmaterials, that are in a continuous transformation? The

object is, in fact, a Sign, a syrrbol; it has to be deciphered to make its

infon-nati.on understandable. An intangible can then be presented through signs.
To read

and understand tllese may remain possible if they maintain a rruseul

syntaxis between them. In the same ';l<J,y that a text is not an arbitrary row
of words, the museal sentence isn I t a collection of objects , put together according to size, age or type either.
And secondly, when we sew "preserve the .identi ty", we are supposing that this
identity is in danger. Nobody feels the necessity to protect what is alive and
in nonnal development. Its ccntinual use, constantly renovated and put to date,
is the best guarantee of conservation. The feeling thatilis necessary

to pre-

serve an .identity is typical in a JTXJment of crisis, as we said before. The Museum

(not Museology) has always been inclinated (topically ,again) to the con-

servation of obsolete objects or the hibernation of those that are going to be

215

it soon and is the perfect institution to accomplish this protective function.

But, in what meaning is the

ML<~':TT'

a refuge of identity? And of which iden-

tity?
The saying goes,-general vlay of rea.soning,again topical- The Museum in its

mission to conservate memoria, acumulates objects, that are intrinsically

testimonies of a determined way of being and living, thus of an identity.
Merror:y -knowledge, i f yoo want- is the foondation on which the model. is
erected we need for identification. However, what happens is that in the intellectual memory the elaboration of the model is done by the individual him
self. while in the objective memory it is the Musellll that fabricates the

m0-

del and offers it ti the public, who may recognise itself in it -or not.
The process of "making" a model is nothing but a determined inteqJretation of
relations, existing between testimonies. The Museum, intermediator between
the individual and a part af the collective memory will produce and present
the models according

to its own conception of the world (which depends of

many factors, like time and place, 50cial and ideological situation of the
inteqJrets ... ) and with a specific intention towards the pUblic and its reactions (unidirectional didactism, subjectivity, neutrality.. ) . Thus it can
give us a model we cannot comprehend for excess of information -"informative
noise"- on, in the contrary to give us scant information v.hich results i.n a
schematic or caricatural model according to the information being essential
or anecdotical; a unique, isolated model or one, that is related with others,
near or far away. etc. The Museum chooses then the time and the space of this
model, that can establish -from a distance or not- the near connotations, and
therefore be actual and striking, or to becane nostalgic and present us with
a swatened image of a model errl:>odied in the past or in the exotic.
Thet the Museun is a valid tool to give us, conserving an important part
of the collective memory,

~~

elements, necessary to form the model(s) which

enable us to identify us as a members of a group, is one thing.

thing is the undeniable fact, that this tool ~~ be

(has

Another

been, is) used pre-

cisely to destroy determined identities, offering irreal models, which leave

the individual without protection against the agression of deculturisation or
colonisation, or in case of

genera~ions

in transit, leave us withoot knowled-

ge with regard to the old identity without giving access to the new one.
The problem has two aspects: The Museun

shoold really be a collective memory,

and his patrimony responds conseqUEntly the objectif and another question is
its socio-cultural rOle.
Evidently, the Museum (abstract) and each rruseulll (in particular) reflect inevitably the identity of its creator, who always belongs to the dominant social sector (economical orland intellectual, orland ideological, orland poli216

tical) i f it is a person, a group or a political authority. If we like or not,

the phenomen Museum is tied. to a determined social sector, a minority but dominant group.
The identity the

~tlseum

transmits

bec~s

a source of identification in its

tum: a "wanted" identity, in contrast with a "sensed" identity. Visiting a

lIUSeum, taking part in a group of "friends of the museum", design a museum,
opening a rruseum, it all means social prestige, the public aknowledgement of
being a cultural person.

Thus, through the identification with the model of

the upper class -the museal consorrrnation- a part of this identity becomes
part of the visitor, vJho finds support in it for his own.
The "classic museum"

is as much in a minori tary position as the "ecomuseum".

The objects of everyday life have become cultural marchandise, wi th a marketprice, that becomes higher daY after day. A toel is assimilated wi th a work of
art and the so-called rural residences of the middle and upper class are decorated with obsolete objects, taken out of context. symbol of culture; the value of the identification signs has changed. And meanwhile tl1e cOllmunity for
whom me mirror-museum theoretically was created -which "lways set up by intellectuals, that are often only interested

in the typical models of the pre-in-

dustrial econOllly in contrast with the industrialisationtheir place

ment

wonder. wtlich is

in the world. if the mlseum is really usefull for their develop-

or if they form just part of the show.

\\'hem a mlSeUffi becomes "star" , the carmuni ty. the terri tory and its identity
ressent it. The invasion

of visitors asks for special services, which alter

the Village. Is this positif ? Looked at it frem the consumer's angle. probably. but it is certain that the normal development of the identity results
modified nnd the crisis can appear converting inhabitants and place into what
is qualified wi m "typical standard", deper'Sonalised.
The Museum has a very strong initiative character. But however much we try and it is hard to recognise this- to underi;tand it, and make i t clear as a
service for everyon.... there will ~ways. qe people \.Jho do not accept it. bec",lSe i t does not

[aIm

part of their model, meani.ng that not only they do not

feel themselves idenUfied there, but they even identif:{ it with other sectors
of the ccmnunity .
In our opinion the Museum is in fact, a mani.festation which fonns part of
the model of today' s westem society, vJhere we have to live. That is a kind
of "potlatch" through which the dominant and the dominated groups maintain a "edJ.stributioning balance in the cultural field. It shaNs itself then
as a. useful system to reproduce the si tuation of dOlllination.
Surrmarising. we could say. that the Museum can be useful way of approach necessary to affront our own real identitymodel -real ,meaning of present interest. But to give the Museum correctly its place wi thin the relationship
217

man-patrimony, it is convenient, that we being to consider it not only as

a collective source of melOOry
wj

and knowledge, but lOOre as a cultural phenomen

thtn t.'1e envirorment of our civilisation, fran a lOOr'e anthropoJogic 1 p':Jj'1t

of vue.

Then, we may discover that the "Institution

~1useum"

is a need in

our western culture with some very concrete functions, a'1d would we export
that fonn, thajlnoctel, to other cultures, we would just help to destroy its
identity.

218

Domenec Miquel & Eulalia Morral - Sant Cugat del Valles, Espagne

1.1.Identite, identification.
Lorsqu' on parle d' identite, 11 semble qu' on se refere fort souvent

a un

mode-

le fixe, invariable. Mais sans doute <;a n'est pas vrai: tout change, tout evolue, rien ne reste Ie

m&ne.

L'homme se transforme pendant sa vie, aussi bien du point de

qu'int~l.lectuel:

souvent nous

VU0

somatique

scxrrnes etonnes de la difficulte que nous avor..

d'identifier' une personne que nous n' avens pas vue pendant des annees avec
celIe dont nous nous souvenons -0lI, plus exactement, avec Ie rnoclle que nous
avions forme et conserve: elle n' a pas seulement vie11lie, w.ais proba:Jlement
change ses regles de canportement. La m&me chose passe avec les groupes humains: leurs lndividus se renouvellent, les generations se succedent, et au
bout de quelque temps tous ses elements sont differents conne est different,
chaque annee, Ie ble du

m&ne champ. Mi!me la matiere inerte s'erosionne et se

change dans sa forme fisique: rappelons-nous de l'exemple pose

a Zagreb

des

Caryatides ou de la Victoire de Sarootrace

Identite n'est done pas fixite. Mais nous sarmes nonnalement capables d'identifier un element determine

-qu'il soit individuel ou collectif- malgre Ie

changement continu auquel 11 est soumis. <;a signifie que, dans sa transfonnation, il y a des traits persistents qui permettent a l'observateur de Ie reconnai tre carme individu specifique
semblebles)

(et detache de tous ceux

qui lui sent

travers d'Lrl modele de reference.

Nous nous identifions nous memes

gr~ce

a des

modeles crees d'abord, des pa-

trons abstraits qui doivent etre sufisanrnent elastiques face aux variations et
surtout aux fJ!.ltations dans lesquelles on peut determiner des phases evolutives. L' evolution des modeles n' a pas une. vi tesse uniforme ni dans Ie tel!19" ni
dans l' espace; des circonstances ,detenninees peuvent I' accHere:- dans une _'1ne, tandis que dans une autre elle res.te invariee pendant longi:errq:

In<: .ech-

nologie nouvelle peut provoquer un saut tres irrqxJrtant vers la corrplexi te,
mais Ie terrps qui va passer jusqu' a la prochaine impulsion est variable.

M&ne

taus les aspects d'un unique modele n'evoluent it des rythmes diverses, sans
que cela suppose necessairement des conflits ou, si vous Ie preferez, la crise du rnoclle.
D'autre part ce n'est pas seulement 1 'observe qU'evolue, mais aussi 1 'observateur, et sa propre experience du changement peut I' aider it canprendre celle
des autres ou, au contraire, devenir etranger sans reconnaitre les references.
L' evolution de notre propre identite modifie aussi l' idee du modele que nous
avons de celle des autres.
219

Le processus d' identification, de recconaissance de I' identitEl, devient plus

cOllPlexe au fur et

a mesure

que Ie groupe est plus narbreux: i l

bilit- d'excep:::L0t1S et les i:l'ai!s

cm~kn1S

ya

la possi-

s'afai!Jli1"sent. La modeIe s'amincit

et se schematise pour embrasser tous les membres -eu:< aussi susceptibles d'

e-

tre indivudualises. Au contra::.re, plus Ie groupe est pet,i t, l' importance des
nuances augmente, sans que ce fait puisse difficulter l'individualisation.
Le probleme de l'uniformisation apparait lorsque Ie modele collectif est ~

thifie et I' indi vidJ renonce

a seE'

propres

~gles

ment, celles au modele propose. La processus peut

pour adopter, artificieuse-

~tre

inconscient: une propa-

gande bien dirigee peut agir Ge ma:1iere sub',iminale sur certains individus,et
eveiller Ie desir d' im;.t'1ticn a= autres. Le canportement d' un individu dans
une foule excitee devient souvent irratiornel et irreflechi, et pousse uniquement par des autcmaf:ismes mimetiq-les abs')lume<lt contraires aux regles de
sa condui te normale. Dans un

Group~

tn:i.fornise t' individualisation devient

difficile et tres souvent fondee sur des details banales. Cette uniformatisation tanbe en crise au rroment O'J Ie mirage qui agit ccmne aglutinant est dissipe.
Un autre aspect de l' uniformi te c' est de ne pas disposer d' al tem'1tiyes au
modele propose. Si ccmne possibilite on n'accepte que Ie patron
renonce inevi tablement

a 1'1 pratique

de

~a

~thique,on

litertEl. On doit resoudre les si

tuations avec des solutions stand3.rd; Ie rituel codifie substitue 1'1 spontaneite, la creatlvite est dirigee vers des finalites speeifiques en dehors d";s
quelles on
regles.

n'accep~e

rien parce

qu'~l

n'Bst pas compris dans l'artifice des

i;;a"~ignifie~e la collectivit n'a pas une identite propre, mais

seulement que, lorsque Ie rrodtHe devient ic'cle, i1 y a un

appauvrissement du

genre humain.
On pourrait tenter dB synthetiser, en notl'e ooinion, ccmne suit:

Identite, d' acord avec Ie sens ethimologique, signifie "etre egal" , et on

1'1 ctefinit ccmne "qualite d'etre le:reme qu',on suppose". Done, etre Ie ~
me implique:
-l'existence (j'un !!lXl,ele prealable auc;uelnoos recurrens pot.:r e':ablir l'egalite supposee,
-une action

d'ide~ti~ication,

c'est A dire, de reconnaisance dans la chose

contemplee des tr-aits carocteristiques et differentiels du modele.

Sentir 5,a propre identj te

es~,

clay, s' autoidentifier avec un modele deter-

mine, etabli d' avance par abstraction

a partir

de la connaissance des

traits de notre essence et carrpo:-tement. La processus a une importance speciale lorsqu'on se recornait -et est reconnu- cOTllle merrbre d'une collectivite et d'une societe organisp.e. Dans cpo sens, Ie processus d'identification a, pour les harmes,

W1

paraIJ.cllisme avec 1e processus d'autentifica-

tion refere aux objets -avec tCUf; les problemes et perils de mauvais usage
que cette coo;>araison peut pose!' ..
220

1.2. ldentite culturelle, identite naturelle.

Ce n' est pas Ie lieu ni l' occasion de recornnencer l' ancienne discussion sur
la culture, que sI elle satisf'ait vraiement les besoins de l'individu ou de
la societe. Mais il est certain que des groupes humains determines ont developpe une cul ture materielle - technologique, si on Ie prefere- qui, dans son
niveau actuel d'application devient notarrment agressive pour Ie milieu. Un
accident qui suppose de la contOOlination peut endamager des zones eloignees

a milliers

de

quilometl~S~

Et cette si tuaHon, il est difficile de penseI'

a un

developpement separe du mi-

lieu naturel. L' espace-terre, malgre que dan" des petites aires peut nous sembleI' miraculeusement vierge, est absolurnent affecte par l' action humaine qui
Ie modifie avec plus au mains d'intensite,
Ie qualificatif de "pare naturel"
tation

a 1a visite

m&me jusqu'au point de lui danner

-qui ne signifie rien d'autre que son adap-

de milliers de personnes.

Parler d' identi te naturelle sans tenir canpte de l' action hunaine n' est guere
possible. 11 est vrai que cette action se locaHse de fa<;on irreguliere dans
l' espace et dans Ie temps, pats en realite I' identi teest fondee sur des patrons fusionnant dEEmodeles r-aturels et culturels au mme temps, malgre qu'elIe prenne des aspects de predOOlinance d'une ou de l'autre au fur et

a mesure

qu'on descend vers des zones plus reduites et specifiques.

11 y a une relation consta'1te dans l'evolution, de maniere que si on canprend
la culture corrrne l' ensemble des regles de carportement en rapport
precis, les deux
ne

l~alites

a un

milieu

sont si etroitement liees que l'identification d'u-

ccmrunaute humaine n' est point possible sans cette reference, ne l' est la

canprension d' une identite naturelle en oubliant les transformations que l' hanme lui a impose, directement ou de maniere it1directe.
1.3. Transformation et cri.se.
Vivre est evoluer dans Ie systems de relation et d'adaptation au milieu.
Tandis que le rapport est equilibre., intelligible, susceptible d'etre atteint
et

assimi~~,

Ie modele qui syntetisetoutes les caracteristiques de ce rap-

port evolue de maniere imperceptible et presque inconsciente; l'identification

est toujours possible; mais lorsque la dynamique de cette relation souffre un
desequilibre

(elle devient destructive au protectrice de maniere exageree

envers Ie milieu et, en consequence, l'hcmme en reste affecte), elle devient

de plus en plus complexe (inintelligible done), elle ne peut pas etre atteinte (1 'homne se trouve impossibilite d'y intervenir et de decider), et elle est
trap rapide

(on n' a pas Ie temps d' en assimiler les changements) il se pro-

duit inevitablement une situation de crise;

cuI turelle: on decouvre que Ie systems, ne satisfaisant pas les besoins, ne
foncti.anne pas. Donc, son apprentissage herite et vecu, ne lui sert plus.

221

d' identite: 1a ca-rplexite de 1a dynamique fait difficile I' abstraction qui.

condui t

a Hablir

Ie modele taujours changeant. On voit, par intuition, que

possibler:ient c:e, m,)6.E-:le n I est pa.s satisfais8nt et

-consequence de 1a

qtJ'3'

crise cuI hJ.relle- ses caracteristiques ne repondent pas

a celles

dans les-

quelles i l voudrait se reconnaitre.

de liOOrte, au fond, parce qu' on se trouve pris dans Wle spirale qui l' emporte vel'S une generalisation et uniformisation de masse, ou son identite
particuliere est "diluee" par allegation de progreso Les centrBs du pouvoir et de decision sont de plus en plus 8l0ignes de lui, au meme temps
qu I on se trouve plus centrale.

Ces situations de crise sont normales durarTt l' histoire humaine. Un changement climatologique peut montrer I' incapaci te d' un systeme cuIturel et Ie 00soin de trouver de uouveau;" chemins.
D'autre part, i l y a eu toujours des gens qui ont domine d'autres gens, et
-subtilement au par la bnltalite- ont tente imposer leur modele encore qu'en
tres peu d' occasions c' est Ie dominateur qui en resul te assimile. Le resultat
est toujaurs Ie meme: lme identite differente, avec vestiges persistents de
1 'original , apparaft. Mais la situation de domination n'implique pas toujours
I' assimilation; bien au contraire, cette assimilation peut etre declinee

cause de la volonte de maintenir un status de difference. oetruites ou interdites ses activites oj- reg1es de canportement, Ie groupe damine
lificatif ne

corl~spond

pas uniquement

oupolitique directe, OBis aussi

a des

a des

-et ce qua-

situations de pression militaire

rapports economiques inegalS- tombe

dans l'aculhlration par perte de ses propres struchJ.res d'organisation.

En ce sens, l'aculturation implique une absence de cohesion interne du groupe
et, en reali te, la manque de modele av"!c lequel s' identifier, parce qu' on n' a
pas la possibilite de s'identifier avec Ie dominateur.

Une situation parei-

lIe peut deveni.r fernlnt d'une nouvelle conscience collective, mais seulement
dans Ie cas que l'ennemi soit bien defini et persa.nalisable. L'infiltration
subtile du progres, avec ses avantages et comodit&s est une chose trop ethere

a combattre

malgre qu'on soit conscient de ia destr~ction et les desequili-

bres que r;a signifie et qui deviennent evidentS.

Un deuxieme grand groupe d' acul turels est forme des masses des irrmigrants qui
-comme avalanche au goute

a goute-

tombent sur les grandes villes. D'origine

rurale ou etranger, leur modele de reference ne leur sert plus dans Ie nouveau milieu. La premiere generation peut, encore, conserver des persistences
vecues; mais la suivante, nee souvent dans 1a margination, se trouve entre
deux mondes sans qu' elle puisse se sentiI' liee

a aucun

aculturel terminera pour creer une identite nouvelle

des deux. Le. citoyen

b"UI'

des metissages qui

lui font rester en dehors du groupe d' origine mais aussi de la nouvelle societe -celle-ci disposee souvent
pur.

222

a adrretre

un origine different, mais pas im-

Mais au

rneme

t~

la ville se transfol1OO sous l' ~act cuI turel des groupes

arrives desquels e11e, de fa;;on presque iJrperceptible, prend quelques petits

moeurs

-qui d'abord sent normalement gastronaniques-Ainsi, elle devient aus-

si 'impure ll
La crise et

acultur'aLion conduisent

a des

5ituations d' anxiete. On ne se

pose pas des problemes d'identification si on est solidement integre dans une culture.

L'inquietude appar-ai t lorsque cette culture ne satisfait pas

ses besoins, lorsque 1a crise se produit.

C' est alors que, "ans renoncer

a la

modemite, on se toume, nosthalgi,que,

vers Ie passe, pour analyser les anciens mod,nes et y puiser des elements
persistents, pour s' appuyer sur une histOl.re qui lui puisse expliquer Ie present. C'est iei

ou Ie t1us8e appar-ait carrne besoin socio-culturel. Le Musee

est Ie dep6t, Ie conservateur des temoins du developpement, des signes d'identite passes

n~s

dans lesquels on trouve, encore, des

?~cts

dans les-

quels on se reconnal tre. Musees du passe -prochain ou eloigne- pour comprendre (?) l'aujourd'hui.

2. Musee et identite.
Qu 'un

Musee est un moyen de preservation de l' identite est devenu une idee

topique acceptee par- tous sans discussion. L'affaire, neamoins, est bien
plus complexe, et ne manque pas de rnalentendus et de manipulations.
On

trouve me premiere difficul te

(qui ne doi t pas resuHer necessairement

contradictoire) dans Ie fai t que l' identite est une chose qui appar-tient au
danaine de l' intangible tandis que les musees se consacrent de preference

la sauvegaroe des objets materiels; seulement ces dernieres annees ils ont
montre leur interet pour des irrm'lteriels sur n'importe quel type de registre.
Mais, encore aujourd' hui, les registres sont souvent consideres coome secondaires

ou complementaires et d'application presque exclusive

que museographique. Comment conserver des immateriels

a la

didacti-

en transformation

continue? L'objet est en realite un signe, U!isymbole qui doH etre dechiffre pour en tirer de l'information. Lam"tsentation d'un intangihle peut gtre faitc
qu' Us
r;on

a tr?vers

~ntiennent

des signes, et leur lecture peut devenir Clail'e tant

entre eux'les regles d' une syntaxe rTUseale. De la mElme fa-

qU'lItexte n'est pas une succession arbitraire de mots, la phrase musea-

Ie n'est pas non plus un enserriJle d'objets gl"Ol.!P8S par dimension, flge au typologie.

En second lieu,

lo~u'on

dit "pserver l'identite" , r;a veut dire qu'on sup-

pose qu' elle est menacee: personne pense

a la

preservation des choses vivan-

tes et en developpement nmmale: son usage continu, toujours renouvele et actualise, est 1a meilleure gar-anti.e de leur conservation. Comme on indiquait
plus haut, 1'idee qu' i l faut preserver une identite est nee d' un moment de
cr'ise. La figure de Musee -pas de la Museologie- , toujours (aussi topique-

223

ment) incline a la conservation des chases devenues inutiles au a 1 'hivemation d'autres qui sont en train de Ie devenir, correspond bien a cette fonction protectr'c;:",
Mais, en quel sens Ie Musee est Ie refuge de l'identite ? Et, queUe sorte
d' identite ?
Il Y a un raisonnement generalise -de nouveu topique- qui dit: Ie Musee, dans
sa mission de conserver la memoire, accumule des objets qui sant, eux--me'lnes,
temoins d'une maniere d,gtre et de vivre, c'est a dire, d'une identite. La
memaire -la connaissance, si vous voulez- est la base sur laquelle est fonde
Ie modele qui sel't aI' identification. !'1.ais 11 passe que dans la melTloire intellectuelle c'est chaque individu qui fait l'elaboration du modele, tandis
que dans la memcire objectuelle c' est Ie Musee qui "fabrique" Ie modele et
l'offre au pubUc -qui peut, ou non, s'y reconnaitre.
Le processus de "fabrication" de modele n'est autre chose qu'une interpreta-

tion concrete des relatioos qui existent entre les temoins. Le f>lusee, intermediaire entre l'individu et un.e partie de la memoire collective, produira
et presentera les modeles d' apres sa propre conception du npnde

(qui obeit

a plusieurs aspects conroe telTps et espace, elTplacement sociale et ideologi-

avec une intention specifique face au public (didactisme unidirectionnel, subjectivite, neutralite .. J. De cette f~on il pourra nous offrir

que .. ) et

un modele hors d'atteinte grace a un exces d'information -"bruit" informatique-

au, au contraire, nous donner des donnees pauvres qui aboutissent

a un

modele sch&rratique au caricatural selon qu'il se base en des traits essentiels ou anecdotiques. Le Musee choisit ainsi Ie temps et l'espace de ce modele qui -eloigne au pas- peut etablir des liens prochains et devenir done actuel et frappant , au tom!:.'er dans la nosthalgie et

IlOUS

preserter une irnag:=

adoucie d'un lTl0dele ancre d8ns Ie passe ou 1 'exotiq\.,e.

Que Ie Musee soi t un moyen valable parae qu' i l conserve de la memoire collective, et i l nous donne des clements qui ncus pernlilttent d:= nous identifier
conroe membres d'u'1 groupe humain deterrr..i.ne c'est
est Ie fait indeniable que

C3

moyen peut etre

une

chos,~.

Une autre chose

-il 1 'a cte. i l 1 'est- utill-

se :ustement pour detrui.re certeJ.nes ic'entites tout pn offra'1t des mcooles

irreels qui laissent l' individu sans defense face aux agressions decul turatrices ou de colonisation.

a l'ignorance de
ces a la nouvelle.
ne

au,

pour des generations de passage, les abandon-

son ancienne personalite mais aussi

sa~

les cles d'ac-

La question se pose en deux dorraines: que Ie Musee soit vraiement une memoi-

re collective -5: son patrimoine correspond a cet objectif-, et sur son ~le
socio-culturel en lUi-~me.
II est evident que Ie

Musee

-en abstract- et chaque musee -en particulier-

reflete de rnainere inevitable l'identite de son createur; createur que toujours -qu' i l soi t U'1e personne privee, un groupe ou une autorite polHique224

appartient a un secteur social dcminant -econanique et/ou intellectuel, et/

ou ideologique, et/ou politique-. Qu'il

DOUS

pla1t ou non, il est vrai que

Ie phen~ne Musee est lie a un secteur social determine, moniritaire mais

daninar.t. L'identite que Ie Musee transnet devient a son tour source d'identification : identi te "voulue" en contraste avec identite "sentie" , Visiter
un lTUsee, fmre partie d'un groupe d' "amis du rw.see", dessiner un 111US&e, inaugurer un musee, signifie prestige social, reconnaissance publique qu'on
est une personne culte. Ainsi,

a travers

l'identification avec Ie modele des

puissants -la consorrmatibn museale- on arrive

son identite , ou

ay

a participer

d'une partie de

appuyer la propre.

Le "rn...t.see classique" est aussi minon taire qu' un "ecan.xsee". Les objets de
la vie quotidienne sont devenu marchandise cuI turelle, et ils ant un prix de
marche de plus en plus haut. L' outil est assimile aI' oeuvre d' art, et les
maisons soi-disant "rurales" de~lasses sociales moyennes et hautes sont
decorees avec des outils devenus inutiles, hors de contexte, transfonnes en
ayrrt>oles de culture: les si.gnes d' identification ont change de valeur. Et cependant la cormunaute theoriquement destinataire de ce ITl.lsee-miroir -fait
toujours par des intellectuels, et fort souvent interesse

seulement aux mo-

deles "typiques" de l'economie pre-industrielle et son contrast avec l'industrialisation-

se detllande

quelle est la place qu'elle occupe dans Ie roonde

et si Ie musee sert vraiment a son propre developpement ou si elle

-ils,

tous- fait partie du spectacle.

Lorsqu'un musee devient "star", la COii111lll1aute, Ie territoire et leur identitE? s' en ressentent. Le passage des visi teurs exige des services qui alterent Ie village. Est-ee positif ? Oui, possiblement, du poit de vue consunateur. Mais il est evident que l' evolution "normale" de l' identite en resulte modifiee, et la crise peut appara1tre en faisant tanber lieu et habitants
dans un "tipical standard" depersonnalise.
Le caractere iniciatique du Musee est tres fort. En reali te, malgre qu' il
soit dur de Ie reconnaitre, tant que nOllS avons beau d'entendre et de faire
voir qu' il s' agit d I un servi.ce poI!lI" tOlls, U Y aura des gens qui continueront

Ie nier parce qu' il ne fait pas parti-e de son modele, c' est

s' y voient "ux~s identifies/

teurs de la cc:mnmal.1te.

meme

a dire,

Us ne

qu' ils l' identifient avec d' autres sec-

En notre opinion, on pourrai t dire que Ie Musee est vraiment une manifesta-

tion qui fait partie du modele de la societe occidentale conterrporaine aU

nOllS vivons. Qu'U est une fa,;on de "potlatch"

a travers

lequel les groupes

daninants et danines maintiennent un equilibre redistributif dans Ie domaine

culturel; au m@me temps, cette forme se devoile comme un systeme utile pour
reproduire la situation de dcmination.
on peu dire que Ie Mu.see peut etre une forme utila connaissance necessaire ~ur nous trouver viS-a-vis

En essayant de syntetiser,

le d' aproximaticn

225

avec notre modele reel -c'est

a dire,actuel-

d'identite. Mais pour mieux 8i-

tuer Ie Musee a sa place dans Ie rapport holl1ne-patrirooine, i l faut qu' on

corrmel"'ce

a Ie

regarder pas seulement ccmne source de memoire et de connais-

sance collective, mais comme phenamene culturel dans notre aire de civilisa-

.-

tion, a I' analiser du point de vue anthropologique. Peut etre alors on decouvrira que I' "Institution Musee" repond aux besoins de notre culture occidentale, avec des fonctions tres concretes, et qu' exporter cette forme,
ce modele, ad' autres cultures , c' est precisement
dentite.

226

aider a en detruire l'i-

5 M Nair - New Delhi, India

While I could lIDderstand "identity" in tenns of one's culture,

nation, nature and even institutions like museums, I am afraid, I fail
to lIDderstand "museology and identity".

Going through the 'provocative'

theme paper on the subject by Tcmislav Sola and the contributions by

many others for this symposium has helped only to confuse matters further.
I have all along maintained, and I do still maintain that Museology has
no separate identity of its a.m as it is an applied science.
its value only when applied to disciplines such as Art,

It assurres
Archaeology,

History, SCience or Natural History.

Museology is not synoniJrous to lIV..\Seum philosophy, conservation
of cultural or natural heritage or the functions of muselUl\S.

Museology

deals with how museums may be organised, maintained, serviced, enhanced

and utilised for education, camunication, research and so on.

Museums

may present the past, the present or even the future but Museology is
not the end product, it is only a

llEanS

Vhlat then is Museology and Identity?

to achieve the goals of the museum.

Whose identity?

Identity with

what?
\Vc

should stop oorrying about defining Museology.

To define

Museology and to give it 'a spiritual and even metaphysical connotation

seem to be the hobby of sore Museologists.

They are wasting their tine.

Museology is sinply a tool to good Museum organisation and management.

The

'provocative'

theme paper ofT.

supernatural powers:

Sola ailns at arming Museums with

The role of a museum is to present facts with the

help of artifacts and exhibit to infonn,

To

fulfil

these objectives they collect,

carmunicate and educate.

'I'heir role

the changing needs of the camunity.

educate and even provocate.

decurrent,

research,

exhibit,

and philosophy may change to suit

They can make a significant contribu-

tion to lIDdE'xstanding one's cultural and' natural heritage and the need
227

to preserve,

protect or conserve these valuable hUll'aIl heritages.

But

to assume that it is the museum's role to actually undertake action plans

for achieving these> goals is to stretch matters too far.
For exarrple, T. Sola laments, "Does our professional and ethical
concern end up in the proud possession of the last specimen of the extenninated species?

Are museums here to document passively the disastrous

trends, or to do sare thing about them?"

Yes.

To do sarething about them?

Create awareness am::mg the public about what they could do, how

they could nake a personal contribution - every thing needed to educate

the visitor about ecology,

environment and conservation.

undertaking action plans in these fields.

But not of

Are museum curators and educa-

tors expected to plant trees in the denuded forests, are they expected
to undertake pollution control Ireasures, are museums of natural history
going to breed endangered aninals in captivity?

There are institutions

and organisations charged with these responsibilities in every country.

The role of the museum is to sensitise the public on issues relevant

to its ccrnnunication objective and to create awareness anong them.
Let museologists not over estimate their role in society.

Museums

are just one of the many media of popular education and not the only
one.

They have a significant role to play, however suall it may be.

Let us play that role well instead of assuming the role of saviours of
the ,,'Orld.

It is this identity vis-a-vis the MuselUll and its functions

that is . .i.rrportant.
end '

Let

Ire

repeat, Museology is a

for achieving this goal.

'lreans' and not an

Museology has no existence of its

unless applied to a discipline to which it can contribute.

there is nothing like "Museology and Identity".

228

Otm

Therefore

Alain Nicolas -

Marseille, France

LE W.uSEOL(X;UE EST UN ANTHROPOt(X;U

Deux faits essentiels font aujourd'hui que Ie musee tourne

en r'01d etne parvient pas

a sortir

d'un corporatisme nefaste

pour I'institution et ce qu'elle represente.

1/ Son champ d'action
Ie

II

I'interieur de ce que I'on appelle

pa trimoine"

2/ La coupure epistemologique, confortee par I'administration,

entre "patrimoine

ll

et "creation".

1/ II est d'usage, en ces annees 80, de donner au terme

"patrimoine

lJ
,

un sens tres large qui reCDuvre pratiquement

la notion de culture, tout en excluant, nous Ie verrons

plus loin, ce qui est du domaine de la creation artistique
contemporaine.
Nous

s~es

a penser

un certain nombre

que tout musee,

quel qu'i I soit, renvoie en fin de compte

et par consequent

I'Homme

une connaissance globalisante (sciences

humaines). La rnuseologie ne pouvant se contenter d'etudier

Ie contenant (I'architecture, par exelfl>Ie), et dans
la mesure ou !es musees couvrent un chalfl> tres large
des potentialites de la recherche sur I 'Homme, elle
ne peut qu'etre pluri et, mieux, interdisciplinaire

a plusieurs

Ie comite de Museolosie de 1'!COIt, I ',a dit

repr,ses, rna,s nous pensons qu'il est bon de Ie repeter

,

'

chaque fois que celd peut declencher de nouveaux reflexes

profess/anne Is. le vieux Ilconservateur de musee" du

debut de ce siecle, est

a mettre

aux oubliettes malgre

les quelques services qu/;1 a pu rendre, et Ie "nouveau"

conservateur doit poindre Ie nez,'a la fois sociologue,

ethno Iogue , archeologue, homme de communication ..
Or, qu'en est-i I de nos jours de la formation de ces

museologues ? Les [tats ont-ils pris conscience de la

necessite de sortrr des promotions de "conservateurs"
qUI

ne soient plus forcernent et !ft'ioritairement des special istes

des "tendances erotiques dans la peinture religieuse

229

de la Haute flandre du Sud de la seconde moitie du XVllo

siecle" ? Ont-i Is pris conscience, Ie,; [tats, que les

modeles actuels vont en se sclerosant a toute vitesse,
qu'i Is ne correspondent plus qu'a un tout petit aspect
du systeme capital iste international, Ie marche de I'art

Sont-ils prets, enfin, a ouvrrr les musees aux gens et

a ce qui les interesse Ie plus, c'est-a-dire leur histoire
et leur vie?
L'un des roles de I' ICOM, et plus particul ierement du
Comite de

~useologie,

est de se battre pour imposer cette

realite : I'ouverture des musees sur Ie social.

La difficulte tient evidemment
"patrimoine", et surtout

a ce

que I'on entend par

ce que les gens veulent bien

comprendre et revendiquer, individuellement et socialement,

d'un patrimoine. Deux notions sont a examiner afin d'eclaircir
Ie debat : la memoire et I'identrte.
Toute matiere vivante fonctionne avec une MMOIRE et I 'honme, aussl
bien individuellement que socialement, applique cette memoire a
des fins tres diverses.
Individuellement, elle constitue I'une des bases psychologiques
de fa personnalite et, socialement, elle sert a construire des normes,
syoboles, croyances, etc . sans lesquels aucune societe humaine
n'est viable. II est interessant

a plus

qu'i I existe entre ces deux types de

d'~n.titre

memoir~

de constater

des relations souvent

confl ictuelles, et que ce que I 'on norrme "memoire collective" n'est

.pas la sirrple addition des memoires individuelles,mais qu'elle implique
un consensus social au moins momentane. Le grenier de la maison
etait, jusqu'a I 'apparition et la mu:ltipl ication des inmeubles collectifs,
Ie lieu privilesie et clos ou la memoire individuelle et fami liale
etait conservee

I'abri des regards etrangers, selectionnant et

accumulant les temoignages d'un vecu. Albums de photos, souvenirs

230

voyages, objets divers etaient la materialisation d'une histoire

de vie, et les phenomenes recents d'urbanisation, rnais aussi d'evolution

sociologique du monde occidental restreignent et uniformisent
"expression de cette memoire. les consequences d'un tel bouleversement
d'habitudes multi-seculaires dans II's zones urbaines sont difficiles
a evaluer, rnais il est certain que nous semmes en train de vivre
unc lente revolution ponctuep. par les introductions dans les families,
des tp.chnnlngies dites "nouvelles" qui font de I 'hoome des vi lies
un etre largement nuvert sur Ie rnonde contp.mnorain
rrinitels ... ) rnais p.n

me"",

(tel~rhone,

television.

temps envahi de stereotypes q"i rendent

un p~,u der'isoir" tout retour e" aTie'e sur lui-",fme.

II faut se mefier de la notion de "memoire collective" . [n
fait, tout groupe humain commemore quel.que chose: un individu,
un eVEmement, une croyance II

Ie fait a sa fa<;on, selon un

consensus et des regles bien precises et se comporte alors collectivement

conme affirmant un souvenir conmun qui i",,1 ique une veritahle
memolre commune, mais , encore une fois, la memoire collectIve

d'un territoire administratif (ville, departement, region, nation)

n'est pas la simple addition4s memo ires cPs groupes qui Ie constituent.
Au dela d'un certain stade, non quantifiable sans une analyse
approfondie, et

meme

si plusieurs groupes peuvent arriver a un

consensus sur des souvenirs co",muns, il existe un seui I au-dela

duquel seuls des pouvoirs politiques sont en mesure de Creer
une memotre "col (ective" et d' inpos~r sur elle un consensus social

une tel Ie demarche va des monument-saux morts a la Fete Nationale,

mais combien de ces commemorations sont'reellement impliQu&es dans
Ie vecu des gens, et qu'arriverait-il si I'[tat decidait un jour
de cesser la celebration du 14 juillet

II en va differemment, bien sur, des fetes lices a un cycle universel

tel que celui des mo,ssons ou du nouvel an.

231

Dernier5 eKemple5 repousso,rs : les tentatives de tous les regimes

total itaires pour organ,ser, au nom de fa "memo ire collective" des
celebrations diverses (Allernagne nazie, Iran du Shah et de Khomeini,
_ .. ) et les tentatives, symetriques,
des groupes oppr,mes pour organiser leurs propres celebrations (Solidarnosc,
les meres argentines .. )
Nous n'uti I iserons pas

donc Ie terme de "memoire collective" et nous

lui prefererons d'autres termes, plus fluctuants rnais en

meme

temps

tres forts, tels que "conscience collective" "identite collective",

"enracinement" etc ...... qui, bien que ne recouvrant pas exactement

les memes idees, pourront jouer Ie

meme

role

Parler de la memo,re d'une population vivant sur un territoire geographique

tel qu'une region administrative necessite donc de prendre un certain
nombre de prealables et de "precautions oratoires" pUlsque cette
population ne desire pas forcement se souvenir de n'importe que I Ie
phase de son histoire et que I 'essentiel , pour rendre compte de cette
memoire, est d'etre en accord et par consequent
popu Iat. ion tout en gardant
generations

a venir

I'ecoute de cette

I' espr it que nous t,rava i ,lions pour Ies

et que, par consequent,

le~

informations

colle~tees

doivent deborder largement Ie cadre d'un simple instantane.

Nous re Ieverons dans Ie terme "I DEN1ITE" Ies memes amb i gu ites que
lorsque "on par Ie de memoire

propos de patr'imoi ne culture I. A I' eche Ion

de I'individu, I'i dentite se definit de plusieurs

fa~ons,

selon Ie

regard que I'on porte sur lui: I 'administration delivre une carte
"d'identite" qui note un certains nonbre de caracteres rropres

232

a cet

individu (nom, prenon, sexe, date et lieu de na,ssance ) alors

que psychologues et psychanalystes ont une toute autre VISIon,
complementaire, de I'identite. Ce que I'on peut dire, c'est qu'un
indiyidu "mentalernent sa;n" a conscience.!:! revendique une existence

propre et une existence sociale, les deux qualificatifs pouvant d'ailleurs,

selon certains, etre confondus ou dependre I'un de I 'autre. La encore,
parler d'identite "collective" necessite une extreme prudence car
les mecanismes sociaux, economiques, culturels, physiques, geographiques,
etc, Qui font qu'un groupe se definit par rapport a un autre et revendique
une identite sont extremement cO<l'plexes. l'identite "collective" d'une
vaste zone conme une region releve encore aujourd'hui du my the, et
Sl

I'on peut parler d'identites collectives au pluriel, c'est-a-dire

reconnaitre I'existence d'un grand nombre de groupes distincts, il

est largement premature de pretendre que la dimension regionale fait
partie de I'identite consciente et revendiquee par tous ces groupes.
Ces difficultes ne signifient pas que I'identite collective n'existe
pas, et Qu'i I n'est pas possible de parven,r a un consensus social
sur des facteurs communs d'identite culturelle. II est evident Que
des traits comme Ie climat, la lumiere, Ie relief, sont des facteurs
importants dans la constitution d'une identite collective; I'image
donnee d'une population,par une longue tradition est egalement un
facteur d' ident i te, meme negat if (I es' Corses 'sont paresseux, Ies
Bretons sont tetus . ) ; certains even~nts peuvent devenir des
elements forts de I'identite d'une population (Ies "mexicains" de
Barcelonette, par exemple), etc . mais un patrimoine n'a de sens
pour un groupe humain que s'i I correspond bien

a son

Le premier travai I du museologue se s'ifue donc bien

identite.

ce nlveau

est-ce-que Ie musee en question renvoie a un consensus a I'echelle

de son territoire ?

233

Sans entrer vraiment dans la polemtque, les musees de "Beaux Arts",

les musees d'Art Contemporain, bien qu'ayant une finalite legerement

differente (un didactisme, une approche sensible pas necessairement
cognitive) ont

a se

preoccuper de ce meme enracinement, quitte

ce qu' i ~ sOlent-vecuscolTlTle un I ieu de confrontations, et acceptes

comme tel par la population.

2/ Cette dernicre

remarque nOUS fait entrer dans la "coupure

epistemologique" entretenue par la plupart des administrations

et des Etats occidentaux : Ie patrimoine est dans Ie PASSE,
la creation representant Ie present.
I I est remarquable de constater que la politique

fran~aise

de

la culture s'appuie sur des structures administratives dont

I'agencement et les inter-relations donnent

eux seuls I'image

que se fait l'Etat du patrimoine culturel. Une Direction du

Patrimoine, mais aussi, parallelement, une Direction des Archives,
une Direction des Musees, une D;rection du Developpement Culturel,
une Delegation aux Arts
, Plastiques. La gauche

fran~aise

n'a

pas su ou pas voulu en\terrr.iner avec cette image traditionne lie,

en creant des son arrivee deux commissions distinctes (une pour
Ie patrimoine, une pour la creation artistique).
La Dir'ection des Musees de France est un veritable bastion qui
se retranche derriere des questions ethiques de conservation
du patrimoine museai et qui gere les musees d'art contemporain
comme el Ie gere les collections de peintures ou de sculptures
du musee du Louvre.
Aussi longtemps que les musees accepteront cet etat de fait,
auss I longtemps qu' i Is ne revend j. quera'nt pas I' un icite du patr imo ine
et non son decoupage chronologique, i Is ne ~empliront pas de
role social.
La creation contemporaine et, bien sur, pas seulement la creation
artistique, doit s'integrer dans la museographie comme une dimension

fondamenta Ie pu i sque ",ecue en contemporane ite.

234

las ituati on actue I Ie nous se..o Ie b Ioquee,

pr

inc ipa Iement par

cette loi de la jungle qu'est Ie marche de I'art, rna.s les projets

de musees devront des Ie depart associer des createurs (des
artistes, des artisans, des architectes, des graphistes, des
gens d'images .. ) dans les equlpes interdiscipl inair'es chargees
de preparer Ie contenu du musee.
1I faut aujourd'hui sortir des mots et des phrases, et Ie mouvement
international de Nouvelle Museologie est en train d'agir :
I ' ICOM do it cont inuer d' etre une merve i I Ieuse tr ibune pour I' express ion
d'idees nouvelles, mais i I doit aussi, sinon prendre parti,
du

n~ins

signaler au monde que certaines pratiques sont desuetes,

et que I'avenir de I'institution depend de son dynamisme et

de son ouverture sur Ie monde contemporain.

235

Luis Jeremias Oberti - Caracas, Venezuela

------------1 N T

R0

UCC

ION

No/, .tomaJllo.6 la ,ubeJda.d de I:omun-i.c.a!L ta ex.peJU.e.nc-i.a ocullida al lteunUt algunO/, ma:teJU.alel.> de cOn<\uUa pMa u.te aJl.-Uculo. En .ta con:tJtapoJt:tada de.t V-i.ccio
nM-i.o Pequeno LMOU.6/,e IlUf>:tJtado apMece un mM de bandelta~ que -i.den:ti.6-i.ca un
ll-i.nnUmeJto de p~u del globo. Ellpon.taneamen.te -i.n.tento ubA.ca'tel:tJU.colo.t vene
zolano <f pali.ecie-ta que Jtual.tan pOJ:. .tOdM pa't.tu l>Uo cof.OltU amaJ'..-i..Uo, azu.t IfItojo.
Penllamo~ llegu-i.damen.te que e}(~.ten. 0:tJt0l> .tan.tOll pun.to~ de .ea .t-i.eMa que,al
-i.gual que lIenezue.ta,:tJta.taton de p.tMmM en una bandelta con aqueUoJ" cololtel> pWlQ/uoo,la emdcion que ./>-i.n.t-i.elton al adqu-i./t-i./t c.onuencia de ./>u -i.den.t-i.dad 11ac.A.onal. Halj en u.ta un llen:Um.i.en.to de -i.den.t-i.6-i.cacian can la hwr.a.n-i.dad, con (a
camun-i.dad de <le-tu hWlJanoll que hab-i..tan nuell:tJto./> hVulJo./>o p.tane.ta. Pen./>amo./> que
a.t bU./>CM cOn<\cien.temente nueA:tJto bande-ta, Ue <lentim-i.en.to de -i.den.t-i.dad g.tobat
lle :tJt.u./'ada a f..a pMce..ta que no./> VA.O naceJt, con valOJte../> y ./'ea.t.tade<l pltop-i.all, con unpaMdo ./..gn-i. 6-i.ca.-tivo 1j cohelten:te que no./> cohe./>-i.ona ol.lCIt.temente haciendo
no./> ./>en.tJJt como un .todo. EJ"e ./.entA.m-i.en:to de nU../>m-i.dad 1j con.ti..nu-i.dad como vene:zo./'ano./> 0 ameA~cano/' e.6 la e./>encia de rtUe.l>:tJta A.den:t-i.dad nac-i.onal.

La A.dentidad e~ un pltObiema complejo de ex.p,ucat:.. Una caprvLchOl>a de6-i.n-i.cion con:tempoJUinea pud-i.('1tQ Jt.educ-i.Jt a la pltegun:ta ?Qu-i.en ./>oy Ijo? Ex.';4..te -i.nmed-i.a.tamen.te una -i.den.t-i.dad c.A.vil que la M:ti..66acemo/, al pJte.l>en:taJt lo./> documento./> oM
ciale/, de -i.den.t-i.dad. La -i.dent-!.dad p~onal .t-i.ene un./>';gn-i.6-i.cado m~ ampl';o,-i.n=
clulje .tamb-i.en
./>en.ti..do ./>ubje-t-tvo de una ex.A../l:tencia continua Ij una memoJU.a coheJten:te. La -i.den.t-i.dad p/,-i.co/,oc.;al p0.6ee CQJt.Qc:t~.t-i.Cah aun ma./> complejM,a
la vez ./>ub j e.t-i.vM Ij ob je-t-tVM ,-i.ncUvA.duale.l> Ij ./>oc.ale./>. TodM e.l>tM d-i.meno-i.o ne.6 /,on -i.na~.pen/'able.l> PQJtQ compJt.endeJt ./'a -i.dentidad nac.A.ona.t. Tamb-i.en pud';eJtan toma~e en c.uen.ta lo./> Mpec:too hA.4.t6~co./>, anttopol6g-i.co./> Ij /'0c.;ol6g-i.co~
de .ta -i.den.t-i.da.1 ame.ucan.t .to/' cuale.6 lle en60can en e./>.ta../> pJUme"a./> c.uaH-i.U'M

e.c.

e.c.

PoJt. o:tJia pa't.te,

lIJu~eo mode-'tno, v-i.vo, agil, ab-i.eJt:to Ij po.t.m.co ./>('/ta e.t veh.[culo POlt e::.celenc.;a p(L~a JteClteM la -i.dentidad nacional,pJtwcllpac.;on que ex.-i.-I>.t-<.o
de.l>de un com<.enzo del me.l>.t~zaje cu.t:tuJt.a.t amwcano Ij -6.i.guc. la.tnte e.n nue./>.tJto~
dM. U. obJe.to h.eal :tJU.d-i.menl>-i.onal p<'At-!.c.;pc<J1do Jun:to can et -6uje-to ob./>eltvaf..mb-i..to dd mUf>eo, como meM.J de con:tJta'tlte-l-tM la crvi../.-i.-I> global de
dOlt en
-i.den:t-i.dad. f.t mu~eo como men./>aje~D de -i.den:t-i.dad;La -i.den.t-i.dad como "azan de
lle-t de fl.l muo.oZog.w, e.l> e..t .te..ma Q!Le c.A.eJtJtIl. e~-te enoayo.

e.c.

El PJtob.teula de lit Iden.ti..dad en La.:ti.noamWca.

Ve.l>de el. -6.~g.e.o
111, poJt lo meno/" :ea pJteoc.upac.A.on dom-i.nan.i:e en .ta men-te de
lO-6 lV...l>panor.meucmw/, Aa -6-i.do lo. de la p!top-i.a A.den.t-i.dad. r ado/' .to/' Que han e.l>
-tudA.ado .tOJ pJtoblemao det tamado Nuevo Mundo,han coA.nc.d-i.doen -6enatat .-6-ta cQJtQcb.fl.u..-t.Lc'l. Se. ha hablado de to. o.ngu../>.t-!.a de.t c.UoUo POl{. aveJU.guaJ( lo.
e.l>enc.;a de oU oJU.ge.n bUf>cando<le o.o-i. mA../lmo en:tJte heAenc.;ao contJt.ad-i.c.toJU.a./> If
d-i../>.mite-6 po.Jtetl.tp...6Co./> , a61oJtando.te a .ta p-i.e.l'.
cobJte de -6u o.n:tepiUlado -i.nd-i.o, a
e.t blanco de Cao:t-i.tla 0 a Itato./> e.t neglto en-6ot:..t-i.jado de /'umoteada co.belle~~ a6JU.co.na. A Jt1'..tO-6 ll-i.n.t.i.endo./>e de_M:vlJw.do en ./>u pltop-i.a .t-i.ellJtil. 0 ac:tuando como
COtlGu-i.-I>.tadOh. de e.e.ta.; con una doJ''':' conc.A.enc.-i.a de. que :todo e.l> po./>-i.b.te Ij nada
oe ha patl>mado de maneM de6A.n-i.tiva.
Hubo fa holta de C'tee~e ~dalgo pen-i.nl>ulM en e.t ex.-i..t.o en .tucha dell-i.guat co~
:tJta .t.a baJlbaJU.e nat-i.va,o de pMeceJt -i.ngte.6e.6, 6Jtance.l>e.l> , alenlatle.6 0 amWcano-6
del noJt:te. Hu.oo m~ :tMde qu-i.ene./> /,e Melje-ton -i.11d-i.geno../> If /,e d-i.e-ton a Ite-i.v-i.ndic,Vt to. pienA..tud de una uvilizac.;6n -i.Mevocab!emen.te -i.n.teft.Jt.ump-i.da POIt la. Con
qu';./>-to.;1j nO 6attMon lo/, que -6e -6-i.n:t-i.eJton p06e-60/, de un alma negJto. if tr~-taltOn
de J{e.l>u~-i..talt Uti pa.6ado a6Jt-i.cano.

xv

e.c.

CII.e.tuJ{at~ente no eMn eUJ{opeo-6,n-i. mucho meno./) pod4an l>elt -i.l1d.i.o./> 0 a6Jt-i.can04Ra

c~.<Lemen.te,un me.l>.t-i.zaje de ./langJte ad -Ln6A.n.twn ma.t-i.zaba la po,uCltom.[a de ou./) -ep-i.deJtnJ-W Ij ta po.t-i.moJtMa de IU/' 1t000g0-6 6ac.A.ale.l> if CMpOl{ale.6. No va Ii <lultg-i./t
una. Nueva c/,pana como .tampaco va a mar.teyt~e e.e Mex.-i.co az.teca 0
Peltu -i.n-

e.e

237

C.1UC.0. No va a <IV!. n'<' to uno n'<' to o:tJto <I'<'no .to. vev..ta eon6.e.uencia de .eev.. vown
tadu If lev.. MngJtu de <111.<1 hOltjadoJtu, c.on <1M c.on6Uc.:to<l If <111.<1 no Jte<l4e1..tev.. c.on:tJtauc.cionu en un J.nac.abab.te pJtOc.uo de mutizaje c.u..t:tuJr.aJ: ameJUcano que
ha he-e..ho .tar: aC'l,:;'OI1/e u vzvo e..t p!wbEemo de. <lu .-ldenti.dad PQJta F."anc.Ui?< e.
Il1ijiue<l deL <1-<'9.1'.0 XVIII,Benjam-i.n (JtankUn 0 Geo![ge WMhzngton Own Ame;Uc.anid
en c.amb-i.o FfLanc.Loc.o de Mi.Jtando If S~1i5n BOuvM,pJtec.rlMOft e.i' prveme!Lo If ge<l.toJ1
et <legundo de .i'a ,zndependencA.a de Venezue..ta,que podan !Lep!LUentM COn ma<l ;tJ.
tu.i'O<l .i'a !LeaUdad de.t Nuevo Mundo,Vtan <I-<-mp.f.emente .i'O<l c.Jt.<.o.t.to<l,lo<l hab-i.:tan ~
te<l de T-i.efL!La FJAme,de ua o.t!La AmeJUc.a que todava <Ie du-i.gna c.on to<l nom -blte-6 obje.tablu If p!LOv~-i.ona.f.u de H.0.,pano-AmeJUc.a,Amrnc.a Latina, Ibvw-AmefLJ.
ca If ho.<lta Indo-Ame!L-i.c.a.
LO<l m,u,mo<l hombllU de. eO. J.ndependenc-i.a <Ie topMan c.on et v-i.ej a enigma de to. zden:tJ.da.d. ;30lvall ,fa pllOt'J.ama en <lU dMC.ttMO ante e..t Conglt.e--60 deAngol.>.tulta en
1919 c.on paJ:.abllM que no han pOtudo vaUdez: "No <lomO<l w,wpeo,~, ,/0 6omO<l -i.n ,.
d.-lol.>, <lomo<l un pequulo genVto humano " En Q-i.n,e<lte U miu.t!Lo po.<lado,uH teJtJteno e<lc.abllol.>O,ag,le,ote,-i.nde6zn'<'do,<lobJte e..t cua.f. <Ie enuerJtan can u6Jc.uR.:Iad
.to.<l ltaJ.c.u de nuel.>.t!La ,zdenudad amvt-i.c.ana. E<ltamo<l c.onnec.tadol.> a.f. po.<lado ma 7
If0llmente. PO!L m-i.:to-6 If fLecui'/tdo-6 de to<l que .tentamente vamO<l tomando c.onc.-i.enc-i.a
en e.e. angU-6.t~060 pllOCe-60 de a6-i.h~ac..-lan de ia -i.dent.-ldad.

I ndudablemente e.e. pllOC.UO de guta.c..-lan de to. .<.denudad -6e -i.n-i.c.-i.a c.on .e.0-6 gJtan
du encuen:tJtol.> de. pw!.b.e.o,;, en lO-6 c.hoque<l de euUullo.<l fuunto.<l que han oc.o.<Iza
nado .to-6 co.'nb-i.ol.>,.to<l avane.e-6 c.lleado!Le6,to-6 d-i.6c.-i.iel.> acomodam.-lento-6,a~ nueva!
c.omb-i.nac..-lonu,de .to-6 c.ua.f.e-6 ha -6uftg.-ldo e.e. pllOe.UO de -f.a hi-6tolt~a If .to. geltu-1.6
de ntLeVM nac..-lonel.>." En c-i.e/l:to modo,la hi-6toll-i.a de. .to.<l c-i.v-i..t.-lzac-i.one,\ u to. h-i.!.>toJUa de .to-6 enc.uen.t!LO-i>" en pa.f.abllM de.e. 6ecundo u CJvt.tOll venezotano All:tUllO
UI.>.tM P-i.m.-i., If e..t -i.mned.<.a;to ftuu.ttado c.lleado!L de UO-6 enc.uen.t!LO-6 6ue e me-6u
zaj e c.u!:tu'ta.f..
ACa-6o el mejoft ejempto del podeJt c.JteadoJt de.e. me-6:t-i.zaje c.ulxulta.f. If ftac.-i.ai fo -

0611ee.e E-6pa~:-i.ndge~o.<I -i.be!L-i.e.o<l,c.e.e.~-6,e.aJt:tag-i.nel.>e-6,gll.<.ego-6,Jtomanol.>,godol.>,-

c.!L-i.6t.<.an06,611anC0-6,mOll0-6,jud-i.O<l,e.01ttJt.-lbulfeJton a c.!LeM .to. pe~~ona.f.-i.dad de 1.>11. a~"a c.omp.teja If podeJt06a. Un-i.6.-le.ada .to. hellenc.-i.a c.u!:tuJr.aJ: hi-6pana,c.om-i.eltza a
c.eJtltaMe fa gllan epoe.a de me<l:t-i.zaje c.!LeadOll If 6e c.on-6o.e.-i.daa .ta6 ~del1:t-i.dad no.
c..-lonale-6 eUlt.opea!.>,
COlt pJ tJU"n6o de .tal.> upano.te6 -6 a bile lO!> Mabu en Gltanada del.>ptLel.>de 6-i.ete 6-i.
giol.> rle cont~e>!da,.t()J., 6O.e.dilda, de fu Rec.onqu-i.-6,tabu6e.an-JauMede. 6U-6 {,lwntelta-6 C.01t"
u.nenl;Cll..el.> If PJlipujll.rcll e a.f.tenae -t0-6 mMel.> -i.gnot06 paJta ,r,ntentall ntlevo-6 enc.ue~ .t!L0!.>. La 'iue v-i.no a lteaLtzaMe en Amellc..-la nO' flue n.-l ia pellmanenc-i.a det mundo
Jndgena IU l(1. p1w.tonga.c..-lon de Ewwpa. La que oc.uJtJUa hue 0:tJta C.OM. If po,t eM
6ue Nuevo I'undo d.'~de. e.e. c.om.<.enzo :-6e ablla un nuevo tiempo caauco de mi!.-6:t-i.zQ.
j p, C.UUtilla.f. !j JWc..-lc! que peftdUlta ho.<l~ nuu:tJto-6 dM.
"Tban c.on fa ClLuz en .to. mana If una -6ed -i.i1-6ac..-lab.te de 01(0 en e..t e.ollazan", c.ome"
ta Fllalf Brv.;totoine de. Lo.<I CMo.<I. E-6 .to. h-i.!.>:tO!'..-i.ade .ta e.onqu-i.!.>ta If de fa coJ!.on-i.zac.-i.an, c.uandG p".ebtol.> de c.u!:tuJta-6 d'<'Ve/l-6M en:tJt.a.n en e.olltac,to, e.a6-i. c-i.emp,te hO-6W If v-i.cle,'1.tv. If donde e.t plloduc.tbft Mn6..e. de. e-6e c.ontac.to dev-i.el1e ell un po
dVtol.>o eam')(,o c.uUUJta.f. plt06undo e i.Jtlle.veM-i.b-le c..on peAd-i.da ac.entuada de .to-6 ~
llo.<lg06 c.uV:U.h,c..e.eI.> orolg-i.na.tu. E6 .to que an.t!Lopo.tag.-lc.amente -6e de6.i.ne C.OmO un
p!LOc.uo de ac.u!:tullac.-i.an en que ftuu.e.:ta c.on malfOll .-lmpac.to e.e. paJt:tie.-i.pan:te menOfL, meno-/. podeJw-6o a POc.o oJtgan,zzildo If e-6 e.e. momenta en que eom-i.e'tza a gu .taMe una nueva ~den:t-i.dad e.:tn-i.c.a ame,uc.ana.
En e.-6te p!LOc.eM e.e. gltan pelt.dedoll 6ue If continua .<I-i.endo.to nue-6btu oboJUgen. Pu~
den oe.U1l!"JJ, UlJellW-6 gJtadO-i> de o.<I.<.mi..e.ac..-lan, d-i.6u6-i.an, adaptac.-i.6n, -6.i.nc.it.eWmo, ex:t-i.nc.-i.6n de .tal.> c.uttuJta-6 en contac.:to,pe!Lo -6-i.empJte te~n-i.na p!toduc.-i.endo-6e una
6ubc.tL.e.:tuJta -i.ndgella En e-6:te plloduc.:to 6-i.na.f. de .to. ac.uUullac.-i.an,-6e ha eneC. tuando W1.a l.>u-6.tAace.-i.6n de .e.0-6 va.f.oJtu e-/.teue.ol.>,upVt-i.:tua.f.u,CUVltlla.f.u !j tee.
110.tag.-le.0-6 abor...i.gene6 If -6e han .-lmp.tantada .to-6 a:tJtO-6 va.f.ollU de .to. C1!tUJta c.!L-i.a
Ua, va.f.ollU a <lU vez e.Ue-6uonabtu pOll -6Vt tamb.-len io:/:a una e.u.t:tulla meuati-':
zada,<lubde<la!LJtoUada a e.omo eu6em-6uc.amente -6e .to. Uama en v-i.o.<I de de-6aJtJto 0'.0. Ambo.<l c.u.ttu,~.o.<I,.to. -i.ndgena !j.e.a c.!L-i.oO'.a,utan l.>u6JUendo urta p!106unda
Ct-l.J-i.!.> de -i.dent-i.dad POIt -6U e.ond-i.c.-i.an de c.uUUlta-6 depend-i.ente-6 a -6ube.u.ttuft({,\,
-6uboltd-i.nada-6 a 0:tJta6 e.on tec.no.toga dp--6aJtJtoUada.

238

En ef. ShnpO.6-<-o ~oolle la 'S,{;tuauon del. Ind1gena en Ame.iU.ca del SuA' ,nuutJW
co.tega ef. anVLOpo.togo y ung<d-6ta EM:eolln E. MOMny-<- du CMoe fu <I-i.tuaciol1 en
la<l alOOItU de fu coloMa, c.u.anda" ... ef. 'l1.lLtuItal' ella pagano e .i.dola;tlta y a,/,-i.
.oe ltauana-Uzaoa IJ jMafvi.caoa ef. lleghne1! que to ~(Jmw.a.. floy .'..i .i.nd.i.o piLede
N!. t .catiJ:A.co 0 p!LiJ.tutaI1te, haor,a dejado de ~e!L .i.dS.fatlta, fOetLO r~ta e.on6'{'de.J<.ado
a.tItlUado y 6la j a a v-i.ua~a, en 6.<.n, Un.i.eamen.te du.i.guat, que u .fa c.and.{&on Yle
euaJL.i.a p:v..a <legu.{.JL !Lae.i.olla.Uzando ta exp.totae.i.on eoton-i.al. ".

La he!Lene.i.a C1.l..Uw'cal wpanoame!L.i.eana de hoy .oegu.{.JLa. man.i.6u;tQ.ndo<le eon CMae

teJtoaelU de una ~ubc.u.t.tu!La que e.ota tejo<l de e!Lealt una veJ<dade!La .i.denti.dadnauonal,a mena~ qu.e ~e pltoduzea ta IlUptu!La de ta !Le.f.auon neocoton.i.al. E~.ta en nuu.tJLa p!Ll!.ocupae.i.on pJtoou-i.anal y e.aea qu.e uta <lueeda IJ en.tonc.U ta Arne.
Jt.i.ea. Lati.na ~wa,.ta.e vez, fu Un-i.c.a gllan zona ab-i.eJ<-ta en ei. ",undo actual at :plloeuo de me.oazaj 10 c.u..e.tultal e!LeadoJt que, en V.u.Pe!LM de-t. ~.i.gto XXI,peJtm.{;ta a
utlU A1'.Jt.{.e.lU ~.ne.on.tJLa!L .oU deMni.:Uva .i.denadad nauona., L~e .~eI1thn.i.enXo de
mtimdad /.I r.onti.nu.i.dad que, como lo de6-i.ne Tamti.tav Sota," eon.tenga <lu6i..&en
.tu 6Ue!LZlU cen.tJL-Lpe.tM y cohU-i.vM, <lu6-i.uen.tu altgumento~ ptVta <leJL eo~.i.:

deJ<adr: como W1 tOdD."

EL. MUSEO, MENSAJERO DE LA IVENTIVAV.
Ve~puu de u.n eentenalt de ano<l,comenta Tom.i.<llav Sola,tadava e.o.tamO<l habtando def. "S.tcUi.u> NMeend.i." de la mu..oealaga. Se ha ueJt.i.ta mucho Ij <Ie ha upec.u.
lada <lao!Le una CO!L!Lec.ta Ij engtaoante de6-i.n.i.e.i.on de mu..oeotag~a. Pa!La ef. reOM e~ la d.i.6upuna que "~e oc.u.pa def. u.tud.i.a de la wtaJt.i.a de t06 Inlweao,de <lu
papef. en ta oouedad, de <1M o.i.<ltema upec-i:6.<.eO<l de .i.nvuagauon, documentauon
~ef.ecuon y ollgan-i.zauon,lU-i. como de tM Ile.f.ae.i.anu de la .i.~utuuon e.an el
can.te>:to <loual".
Tamb-i.e.n oe la ha plluentada como "ef. fuc.u.MO teoJt.i.e.o c.u.ando oe habf.a de rnU<le<>.\
Se puede pJtOponell como me..ta de toda mMeo" una' cO~Mvae.i.on uen.u6.i.c.a y una
pltuentae.i.on !Lazonada Ij o.i.<ltemmea. de f.lU ab!LlU que ea.pae.i..te una enoe.nan
za eMe.az pMa ef. pUouco." En .I>'<:ntu.i.<l pud.i.eJ<a dee.i.Me tamb-i.n que la I>UlU.tuuon mu~wac.a u ef. med-i.o .idoneo pMa f.a ltea6.ill.mac.i.on de .ta .i.denudad de
to~ pueof.O.6,euIjM man.i.6utauone.6 cu.e..tuJ<a..f.u(abje.tO<l mMeab.te.o) eOI'!6e!Lva y c.o
mun.ico. mecl.{.ante mode!l.no<l ~ec.u.Mo<l pedagog-i.eo.6 Ij tecnotog-i.co~,~ovoc.ando f.o. ~
lte6~e>:.i.on utWc.a Ij uUU.taJL.i.a en.tJLe ef. obJe!Lvo.dolt Ij el objeto mU.6wuca.
A.6.i. CO'!lO fA. e.i.vilizae.i.on contempoMnea en co~tan.te eamb.i.o ha. Jtea~.ie.n.tado
f.a~ metftJ de p!Loduee.i.on en 6avo~ de la uu.-Uzac.i.on,f.a noe.i.on de muoeo po.60,e<lwbe H.:<.S-i.ngle.ton,de la "ella de la adq<d-6.i.c.ion" a la "Veil de la uUUzo.e.i.Sn" , en la que la p!<.i.JT'<o~d.i.al u la exp.totae.i.on ma>:.i.Jna de lo~ "'a.telt.i.a..ee~,.10CI.lnlen-to~ t.< obje;.:o.6 de aJvte. Ella ~Uupone un rluevO humillU<lmO que. de6co<l.iMca at. ho",b~e en .6U Ile.f.ae.i.on eon e.f m~eo,ato!Lgandof.e una pllepondeJtane.i.a .6obJ<e
l06 obje.to.6. E~te e-<l ef. camo.io teoJt.i.e.o 6undamental ape!Lado en ef. m~ea.
ShoeY.ell lo explte.6a lU.i. "ef. ea.mb.i.o que <Ie ha Pllod,ue.i.do en ef. mundo u..U.i..lnamente
- vuad06 ,<.LUJnento<l, tecn.i.ea, gente, amb.i.etite ~e man.i.Muta en la 6un&on def.
(vr.:te <-.n !'lue<ltJta <IOuedad, . Loo va.lollU ma.t~tM, olUadoJ en 0<1 obje.too, que c.paIleeen dude to. epoca llenaeent.{,Jta,dejan tuga~ a .to<l vaeo~C./> no ma.te!L.i.~
.e."..!>.ta~, ~M'tdo~ en pltocua~ d-i.nam-i.eo~ que ,acogen ilU ltef.ae.i.one.6 en.tJLe et 6e!L hU'!lono,la na.tuJta.teza,la uenc..i.a: y la teenof.og'<:o.."
Todo habto. en 6avo~ de una !l.evotuc.u.on m~eo16g.ica eon .e.a apf..i.cauon de <I,u,te.ma.6 Mode!l.n06 ,0~denadollu,OanCo.6 de da.to<l,.i.n6o!(JT'<ae.i.on a~omat.i.c.a. Hay e>:pe- Il.i.enc.{.a./> pa<l.{,;Uva<l en E.U.A.,Me.x.ico,Ing.(a.teJ<lta,Fllanc..{.a Ij a.tJLo~ pa.u.eo que e6tan i.ne.o~po!Lando pauta:Unamente Ut06 ~eeuMO.6 y te.CI1..i.ea.o rnMeogJtaMea./>.
PeIlO 6e debe can6.idellafL la tem.iole o.glle<l-i.on quee.f homb~e tecn.i.6.ic.o.do ejellce
eoro..tJr.a ef. med.i.o cu.e..tu!l.at Ij ma.teJL.i.a.e que .e.a alo ja. La .ideo.tog.<:a de.f p~og,tuo Ita.
e.onveJ<ti.do el m.i.<\mo camo.io en la "oleada def. 6u.:twto" ,.{.rnpltedec.{.bie e .{,.f..i.m.i.tada
que a..f.eja a.{ homblte de la na.tu!<aleza Ij de .6M obJo..a.o. E.6to ha e!Leado una angu.6
aa Que 6e compJU.teoo. en lae!Leuente tendel1c..{.a a. v,u,.{,,(;aJt 0.6 paIlquu na.tMate.:6,
en f.a. pllOu6e1lauon de ecomU.6eO<l que .i.nteg!Lan al homblle al med.i.o amb.i.ente na~
.twcal IJ c.u.t.tullal. En .f.a<I PllotUtM de tM <IOe.i.edadu cO~eJLvo.e.i.on.i.<ltM en de6e~a de iO<l llerU!I..606 ecolog.ico<l cada vez m<i<I d.i.<lm.i.nu.i.do.6.
Se haec. pa.tente .ta CIleae.i.on de un anddoto que n06 pO<l.ib~e 6upeJ<afL ta.6 can
239

.ea

.6ecu.ellcUu de uta duhumall.<.zac<.on, Y ute podJUa' .6 ell.

meta del mu.6eo modeMO a :tJrave.6 del objuo lleal mu../ie..wuc.o,o .6ea, el objeto
devuelto e {nte
gllado a .6U entollllo Ileal del qu.e 60llmo pallte alguna vez, Se. debeJt1a lleCU1ll/..(.Ji.a {a eco{og.w. c.I.lLtU!l.if palta
plLoducili. c.amb.<.o.6 Muollale), en fa inteJcacc<.on
de.f.a,o ouedadeo y de { <I -U!.;t.<.tucone.6 MUaleo e-;bte .6i 1/ ccn e.t ,,'eLk.o am
biellte
- -

POll o.t'la. paJtte,.U1 uellc<.a. mU.6e.o{ogica ha etUg.<.do al homblte en .6ujeto plt.<.mOItdial de{ mU.6eo poniendo a .6U fupo.6iuoll el ob j uo de .6U contemp{auon en una llefuc<.on iUalemca, Se plLopende al .6Mg.<.miento de{ mU.6eo como cenbto ineluiUb{e de in60llmauon y educ.auoll. La.ta.Jtea pedagogic.a eo .6u meta pJt.<.nci.
pa{'en 6unuon de {a u.t.<.e.<.dad que I/.epollta a.e homblle.E.6 .ea 6unc<.on didactic.acone.t apOrjO de {M c<.e.nu(Z,\ humanM lj MUaleo y t06 metodM y tecn,iCit6 de eM uenuM e)(pell..<.me'ltalu, .6in que e.6.ta-6 intenten -6M.tUu-<-'l a.e homblte POIt {a maqui,'a.
Lo .<.mpo!t.tante U que e{ homblte no .6e aleje de .ea v.<-6-i.on Cj con.tacto d-i.Jtecto
COil {a OOM;{O demiU .6011 adqu.<-6iuolleo del pltogl/.UO, Se toma {a uteuca. como
el componente e<lenc.i.at que data at objeto mU.6e.6uco de ta eneltg.i.a. mio viva
paM que ute pueda. 6eJc Mumido uteuc.amente pall el eopectadoIL. A Mn de que
ute .6e{ecuone image.lteo, 6. Ulte .6U.6 gU.6tO.6 lj dote aR. ob j Uo de una u.t.<.e.<.dad
pILewlt. PvunJvUendo{e el UbILe jLtego de .6U -Lmag-Lnauon, emouonu ,1le6{e)(iOrteo,
de{ pape{ que juega ta pltecepuon humana .6oolte {0.6 objeto.6 mU.6e.i.uco.6 que a.6umen,d.i.atemcamellte,un vafOll e.6teucu q a la illv~a,un Ca.'lacteJt u~a
llio. E<I {a. mUamo1l6a<l.<-6 can6eJt.<.da pall taa~d del upectadolL ante ~aJ.
E<lte U e{ pMO impolttante a dall. <legUn A. Leon: "poneJc at hambfte coma <lujuo
en et cenbto del mu.6eo lj .6eAV.<.Jtee como autolt,coopeJcadalL y e.6pectadoll de {0.6
ojeto<l mU.6e.6uca<l". Y e.6 que {a gILan eMcaua del abjuo ILea.f Mdica en po.6eeJc una teJcCel/.a d.<.men.6ion autenuca,.f.a eco{ogaa,que 6a.tta. en el munda actua~
Pue.6to ell patab''lM de H. Va.'l.<.ne-Bahan"". ,.6e vive en un mundo de da.6 dimell .6ionu, del comic a .ta telev.<-6ion, del plto.6pecto de{ modo de emptea I a.e peJt.<.o
iUco, I nc.W.6o et aIlte te U mt, Mequib.f.e pOIt edic<.olle.6 ba'la.ta..6, que en .6U.6 ::601/.ma.6 oJt.<.ginalu".
Una ILe.6pwuta que uta ~.taU.zando e.6 el mU.6eo-beauboulLg como e{ de{ cenVI.O
Pomp.i..dou en Paw, en que .6e patenuza una autenuca acuon dia.femca enbte
U.6ua.'l.<.O lj objuo,que u .6-Unbo{a de una cu..ttMa camblLt'..i..va que no .6ota "d.i..ga" .6ino que "haga" coma e)(pILe.6ion de ta .i..nteJcacuOn .60UO-CULtLJ./Lal. La plteemil!en
c<.a de{ homb''le o5Obfte el objua 60.6ilizado,uta mUamoIL6o.6.<-6 en objeto ILeal, v.i..vo ,pamupante jWtto call e{ ob.6eILvadoft, con e{ homblte .6tL autolL,ll0.6 {{eva
ueJctamente,a e.n60.,-call. el ILa.6go plLedom.i..llante de {a 6unuon del mU.6e.D que U {a de6en.6a de to .i.den~~dod,pe!to en {a cont.i..nuac.i..on de to .i..dentidad.
LM gente<> .6.i..n pMada.dupojada.6 de .6u memoll.w. colemva,lM nauollu de Ame
Jt.<.ca,A6Jt.<.c.a y A~J..o .;oju~ga.d.:u paIL obtM naUane.6 mM 9ltalldpJ.l y <lU.6 WR.twt.M-;
{a.6 gILandU> CIt-<-<l.<-6 de identidad l1ouona{ que a6ugen e.60.6 gJtande.; ftegione.6 del te!tceA 'J cu.alLto mundo, meJcecen un e.6pac<.o en U nuevo mU.6eo comba.t.i.vo
que .6e plle..tende .i..n6:t-'lUmentall.. Mellecen .6eJc R.a /Lozon de' .6U ex.<-6tenc.<.a,.6eJt. {a
ven.tana donde. .6e e)(pongan .6LL!> dugaJUiadolLeJ.l pILob{e"'o.6 de .i..denudad. E{ .6.<.t<al.
de honolt pa.'la oyudalt a {a compften6.i..6n.de utO.6 pueblo.6, a 6.i..n de que e{ U.6ua
lLia de{ mU.6eO,como .6tLjUO centJr.a.t de nuutlta atenuon pft06e.6.i..onal,lj call lo,6:;;o
6-<-<1uca,dM -tecn.i..cM mU.6eogJui6.i..c.M que .6e dicen al .6e1/.v.i..uo de una inteJcacuon
.60Uo-c.u.e.tultal,prAuba a btavu de{ objUo mu.6e.6uco v.i..vo,e{ men6aje de .6OU
da.'l.<.dad de.f lIlu.6eo can utO.6 pueblo.;. CILeemo.6 que {a 6unc.i..oll del mU.6eo e.6 ga=naIL a <lU.6 U.6Ua.'l.<.O.6 a .ea j U.6:to c.aU.6a de e.6tO.6 pueb{o.6 que {uchan paIL ftecobJtaJl.
.6U .i..dent.i..dad nac.i..onoR.. He aqu al MUSEO COMO MENSAJERO VE LA IVENTIVAV NACIO
NAt.
.
ABSTRACT.
Th-<-6 papeJc 60c.U.6U> the p1loblen 06 -the mU.6e.um V.6 nrnonal .<.denUtlj ILe{rnOn.6h.i..p. Folt ove!t tlmee cen.tuJt.<.u the ~.<-6 06 nauona{ .i..den.tUy ha.6 ILemwnec!,J..n
the .tat.i..n ametUc.an mind w.-U:h ovVtWheim.i..ng 601Lc.e. The h-<-6pano-ameJt.<.c.a1l contact
.6taJtt.6 a c.uUMal ell.o.6.6J..ng 06 MCe.6. TheJce 60UoW.6 an aceJ4R.twt.auve pJr.oceM w.Uh pltodumon o~ .6ub- c.uUMU dependent, o~ otheJc cu..e1wLu w.Uh advanced techono{ogiu. It ~.6 the cta.;~J..c neocolonJ..a.l bond that h.i..ndeJt.6 any authent.i..c
240

au.the.t.i.c. and c.u.Uu!l.a.t man'<'Ou.ta.,tioM and -iA .the c.alL6e 06 l.lndVtdeve.L-opemen.t.

On .the o.thVt hand,.thVte -iA a btend '<'n Oavolt 00 a new muJ.>eolog.<.cal Ite.vofuuon
wh.<.c.h -6hou.id c.owttvw.c..t .the ac.c.e.eJULted and l.lnpJted.i.ctable Muo-euUultal and
env.i.Jtomen-tal c.hangu,.the Alv.i.n ToUIVt' J.> vw. 06 Gne.a.t TltalU.u:.<.CYl,VlIpoJ.>e.d by -the .i.deo[C'glJ 06 pJLOfj'LU6.
.
Suc.h ILevo.eution .i.nvolve.-/> .the Vtec.tion 06 .the human M .the. o!L.i.g.i.YULe .6ubje.c..t 06 .the mlL6eum;-the. endOUhlli'.rl.t 06 .the mu-6eab.te. objec..t wah an au.thetic./uUlda
Jt.i.an value. .thltough .the. app.uca.tion 06 .the .<.n60JLmatic. la.te advanc.eme.n.t6;.the :u-tabl-iAhmen.t . 06 an au-thentic. d.<.alec.tic. lte.atiOlUh.<.p be.-tween -the ob-6VtvVt and .the objec..t. The lte.6u.i.tan-t .6hould be .the new mtL6eum M an expILe6-6.i.on 06 .the J.>ouo-c.u.i.tl.lJtal .i.n-tVtac.tion.
ConJ.>equenUY,we bet.<.eve .tha.-t -the c.ombative 6unc.ti0! 06 :the ac..twu mU-6eum .i.J.>
-the plann.i.ng 06 .uve.ly exh.<.bd.<.oM -to 60J.>:tVt .the jUJ.>tic.e 06 .the natio'1tU .i.den
ti-ty c.atL6 e.
-

241

Jurij Pisculin - Moskva, USSR

1. Identity regarded in the broad philosophical and culturological context is a characteristic oJ: an Qbject or phenomenon
from the sphere of social history or natural environment, which
makes it possible to refer the .Q bject or phenomenon to a definite nati.onal culture, and YO define its historical, artistic,
scientific and other values for this culture. Ascertaining the
place of a mo~ent in national culture, we therefore establish its place within the framework of human culture as a Whole.
2. Identity in a narrow, professional sense should be understood as an "identity of a museum object". This terlll is used to denote a description of a museum object that del;ermines its historic, scientific and other values and its place in the collectiou of a given museum. Formaliaation of such a characteristic
in the country's legislation gives grounds for the object's legal protection and its rational use in the interests of society
or a certain national entity
.3. Identity of a museum object is a result of a long and painstaking process of identification, during which the object is studies both by itself and in relation to objects already studied
and included in museum colledtions. Therefore, wlule establisl~
iug the identity of a museum object, the degree to wIdch the
collectior.s of a given museum have been studied and the professional level of the museum stuff acquires vital importance.
It. Tee following properties of an object should be stngled out,
on the basis of all sources available, studied, by applying objective scientific methods, and recorded in museum documents in
the process OI identification:l)the
size, form and material of
, '
wIrich the ~bject is made; 2) features of its design; 3)the purpose. time and place of llianufactu'ring (for all objects except natural lusto:,::,y mOIlUlI\ents); 4)its origin and "legend" (i.e., the
history of how the object occurred in the museum); 5)its physical
state (a potential possibility.to preserve the object by modern
restoration and cosrvation methods; 6)author or manufacturer;
7)ethnic or national sphere of existence (dissemination); 8)
8)the object's relation to certain historical events (its lristoric value); 9) its relation to the life and activities of
certain outstanding personalities (its memorial value).
For pictorial and written sources, and f'11m and photo materi243

als it is also necessary to precisely state their theme and

subject.
5. It should be emphasised that only the aggregate of features mentioned above (and, possibly, some additional ones as
well) will constitute the identity of a museum object. It is
only understandable that representatives of developing countries mainly put to the fore the national, ethnic features
of museum objects, and their locality. However, the notion of

identity should not be limited to that only.

6. Soviet museums' experience, especially those devoted to historic and cultural monuments of small ethnic sroups in the North,
the Far .r;ast of the Soviet Union, and the Caucasus, provides
evidence of the fruitlul ness of a complex approach to the definition of identity. Xational, specific is revealed in new
museum objects by studying their essential features in accordance with museology reqUirements, and with reference to the already established museum collections devoted to the bistory and
culture of other fraternal nationalities of the country.
7. The problem of identity is no doubt needs further elaboration. Sharing different opinions and. ideas will take us closer to
the truth. However, it is evident already now that we are faced
with two dangers: of a too broad interpretation of tcis concept
when the meaning is lost in the vastness of the plrilosophical
and culturological knowledge, and a too narrow one, that of
"national identity". I am of the opinion that it would be expedient for ICOFOM to concentrate in its materials Oll the museDlogical interpretation of the concept of identity.

244

Waldisa Russio Guamieri - sao Paulo, Bresil

"

0 fenomeno da perda de identidede pod e variar de

intensidade com que se manifesta, mas sua di9se~1na

980 ~ un1versal. tI

ALOISIO MAGALH1ES - "E Triun!o? -- A'I.estao

bens culturais do Brasil"
(l)

dos

.,

Dans les dernieres anneea, noue avons employee avec

une telle frequence l'express10n IDENTITE CULTURELLE, elle nous semele
tellement famislialef on a si nettement v~cu avec elle, que le r~sultat
est analogue

celui qu'il aavient sux choses avec

so~

lesquelles nous

.es deja habitu~a: nous ne les connaissona effect1vemcnt

)lalgre Ie r1aque du "deja vu" , 11 est fondamental so.\!
d'identite et seS caracteristiquea.
D'abord, l'identite entraine l' "alterite" (condic.,.
tion d~etre l'autre) dans un double Bens.
Premi~rement. par rapport
"L'autre" a l'interieur d'un .eme ensemble ou groupe consideres comme

ven1r le

conce~t

#'

references pour l'evaluation des caracteristiquee par lesquelles, dans

}
un contexte de diversit e, les egali tes ou les analogies (1' "ide.." s'!!!

firment.

Deux1emement, par rapport a"l'sutre", a l' exterieur del' en-

semble ou du groupe dont l'alterite (condiction a'etre l'autre) s'affiK

,
",
",
me en tant que divereite, inegalite,heterogeneite.
1-

ft~H1'i~I!~~~,I;'ALTERITE_~~~!S~!~~=~~~~~=~~~~~~L~=~~=~!~~~"
Au sens intrinseque, llidentite suppose dee r~t~rences

a l'usage comme des parametres pour mieux.connaitre l'egal ou le siail~i

reo

II taut realiser les points de convergence de cette i.(hmti te, 1a-

quelle se reconna1t par rapport ~ son similaire, soit au niveau de l!i~

dividu, soit au niveau dugroupe.
Dans Ie cas sp~cifique ae 1'1dent1t~ culturelle, quel
les seront les r~t~rences?
Cela va sana dire qu'elles seront les caract;ristique~
de la Culture en cause.

Selon Durham (2),

"L' hpmme est un animal qui a construit, au moyen des

syathezes s1m~oliques, um amb1eftt artificiel dans le
quel il vlt et lequel il transforme to~jours. La cuI
ture est eXQvtement ce mouvement de creation,trans mission et reformulation de cet ambient artificiel
. On do1t r~a1iser 1a culture co~e
un processus au moyen duquel les homces,
la fin

245

"

d'agir en societe, ccnsta~~nt prc~vi~ent q~'~ont

l'usage des aiens culturel..
Calle ci es~ 11~~i_
que fa~on d'organieer 18 vie collective. 8.f~~~n

organique
C'est a dire que l'identite
a un caractere
(ou systematique) de permanence ,~ de resis~ance et de continuit~ ( jamais d'eternite)

qu'impose BeD marques et ses enregistrements dans

Is

Cette memoire, a sa fois, n'est pas seulement Ie

ire collective.
memo

passe (perspective), mais l'enregistrement du present et la poseibilit:

du futur (prospective).
Cependsnt, l'identite culturelle n'est pas oeulement

une memoire collective

maio Bussi une conscience collective, laquelle

~

fait 80n exercice au long de la vie, au meme temps qu'e11e se renouvelle

toujours: si 1 'homme et 1a culture sont dtnamiques, mobiles et chang;Blltal

pour quoi suppsoser une identite statique, ineDte et

immuaeles 1

La question est mise, alors, sur la reconnaissance

des elements perpetuels (c'est ~ dire, d'une permanence dynamique)

qui

res tent dans ce processus contunu de "crEetion, transmission et reformul.!

tion n , dans lequel les hommea. "produisent et font 1 'usage des biens cu:;.
turels"

Quels sont ces .iens culturels 1

II)mmaire et abrangeante,

D'une fagon tres

on peut sg>
venir quelques "biens" auxquels les 'hoDlllles attribuent des significations:

a)

1a reconnaissance meme du paysage physique (la

fagon, la moniere, i'attitude ds la reconnal
lequel un groupe exerce son r~le

tre) sur

transformateurl l'amenagement meme de l'eRpace

c' est une oaracteristique.

de 1 action

'~ran"for-

matrice, c~st ~ dire cul turell~ des hOlllllles (OBJEC'l'UIlh

(~)'

l'ambient artificial contruit par l'homme en

~~

difiant Ie physique, l'urbain inlus: batiments,

monuments,chemine, villages at villes, ces

gran~s artifacts humaina, en r:sumant:1a cr;a

c)

'

tion lIaterielle dee biens dits immeubles. des

artifacts immeubles I

1a creation materiee1e de l'hoome traduite en ~

tifacts meubles (on peut ins~rer dap. cet ensemble
lee objete meubles de lanature Ruxquels l'homme fait attri.ution d'une valeur, d'une fonction,
d'une slgnH'ication)1

Ii)
246

1a creation 1mmaterie~le des hommes,;tablie

dans

leum1'8~on8

de vivrp.:ltorganisation liu travail,

les relations 800ioles,e,c.

I

I1 1'aut re1ever que, dans ce que concerne a la Culture

et en considerant que l'homme est un animal capable de cre~r des signi1'i
cations et des 8ym~01es, d'etab1ir dee valeurs

ot qutil

SP.

communique

au moyen de p1usieurs 1angages (orale,ecri te,iconique,ge"tuelle) ,nouB

ne pourrms~ jamai s oublier l' extense e.t prof'onde gamrne des elemel ts
I

ti1's.

les a1'f'ecti:fs -- sont les plus grand ..

A mon avis, ces3elements

caracterisateurs

arre'.s

des cultures.

~:~~~~~~~,!,L' "ALTERITE" =~~~in~~~~~~~=~;~~~~2=~=~~_~':~~~~

-2-

========::::f:=

EvideJlllllent les caracteristiques de I' identi"i;e son't

plus nettes quand elles s'a1'1'irment dans le contact entre ou avec /l'au tres cultures et, par

cons~quence,

dans le' contact

themes de valeurs, des lois et de praxis.

avec d'autres eys--

Vraiernent, c'est usns le di~

logue, dans le contact et m~me dans ls confrontation qu'on peut eta.lir

des relatione d'analogie et les compara1sons par lesquelles l'identite
e' a1'1'irme au _oyen de 1a tiversi teo
C'est D1en vrsi que, au long de l'Histoire, les rela I

tions entre les groupes,peup1es et nations n'ont pas ete toujours d' a1mable

"convivium".

La confrontation par1'oie n' a pas scuJ.ernnt remlu

des peup~te guere jusqu'~ l'extermiDe, mais aussi e11e a cherche de re~
dre nul1es 1es expressions culturel1es (4)
CLAUDE PAllRIZIO, ds:nsun etude r';cent, di t
".
];a identidad cultural, de modo hoy general,
cubre cierto nttmerci de rasgos especi1'icoe en los compor
t~ent~s de una ~omunidad humana relativaIDEnte homog;:
nea 7 re1'lejados en las maneras d~ vivir, los sistemas
de valores, los modos de produccion, 'las relaoiones socialea,y finalmente, la produccion intelectual y artistica.
................

Ademes, la nocion de identidad cultu ral comprende connotaciones relatives a 1a reivindica cion de igualdad frente a cul~uras extranje~as mas 1'ue
tes, y se asocia con Ie nocion de unidad
promoci;fi de una identidad cultural naI

. ........

........

cional

II

L'identit~ culturelle est ainsi tr~s intimement atta -

chee

a la

ont 4e

vie et

le~s

a l'histoire

memes.

des hommes ainsi que a'ls conscience qu'ils

Il ne s'egit pas d'etre, mais du savoir l' 'etre,ou

247

de .~avoir ;tr~~~el.

En re8um~' ce qui sont les hommes at 1'1.6

ge qU'ils font de leurs memes, l'autoyconnaissance (au re-connatssance),

en1"in, la conscience de la "relation que les hOJlllDes ma1ntient avec Ie
temps et, portant~ avec
1.'histoire" (6)
,
C'est bien sUr que dans les relations av~c Ie temps at
l~Histoire et dans ces contacta entre les nombreux groupes cu1.turels, on

considers ~es diff~rences et les convergences; partir d'un minimum, une

sorte de co~ficent d I equivalence ou d' identi t~, forme exactement par les
caract~ristiques culturelles (noua croyons avoir nomme 1.es principalss I
voir,qaU,Ub",nct'ld" du -1-)

-3-

L' IDENTITE ET I.E PATRIlrlOIlm CULTUREL

====~=:========~==c;=;================

Une analyse, superficielle qu ' el1.e soit.noe enseigne

,

'"

tI'

..,.

que la caracterisation de 1. ' identits est attachee directement _ l'herit~

ge et au patrimoine culturel. Plus exactement, l'identit~ estattachee
directement

a Is

connaissance,

a la

conecience de l'heritag~ (ce qu'on

re~oit) et au patrimoine pulturel (L'ensemble des biens qu'on preserve

et l'ensemble des biens qu'on r;aliSe, qu'on contruit au present),ce qui
entraine necessairement sa preservation et sa communication.

Cette preservation

"

doit etre realis~e comme tra-

vail transformateur et seleetir de reconstruction et de destruction

du

pass;, qui est fait au pr~sent et dans les condictions du present" (7) et
,
,."
c'eat Ie reaultat d'une "volonte collective de proteger ce qut constitU9

et est, en sqi, au meme temps, Ie temoin des experiences en commun les ( 8)

quelles sont pensees comme l'histoire partagee."

Cette histoire constitue,tres souvent, la r~alisation

des processus vivants, d'experiencee concretes, dans un espace vital aliquel tous 1.es ensembles huma;l.na donnent une signification speciale
Cette p;l.stoire.st cette culture qui s'expriment dans la
construction des styles de vie, dans les relations socialas,
~ons

d~ns

les fG-

de production, dans les arts, les sctences et les techniques, dans

l'elaboration des systh~mes de valeure et de ref~rences; dans les manife~

tations au moyen des langages; dans la construction des artifacts

-4-

LA truSEOLOGIE ET L'IDBNTITE : L'OBJET

====~======:~========;=~=~=~========~

La Museologie est. dans mon concept, "la "i:'lence du

fait muse~ ou museologique.

Le. tatt museologique est

entre l'homne, sujet connaissant,et l'objet,

quelle

p~tie

.-

Ie rapport profond

de la reelite a la

l'homme appartient egelement et sur laquelle il a Ie pouvoir

d' agir ." I.e fat t museologique

se realise
dans l' enceinte insti tutionnall:.
s~e du mus~e
24B


(11 ne ~eut pas dire que 1e fait est,toujoUB, consider~ inser~ de.ns un
processus. )

..

"

Alors, qu' est ce que c' eat cet objet, "par1;ie d 'une re.!!.

1it~ ~ laque11e h'homme appartient egalement n ?

"Vu tradicione1lement,l' objet de musee est un objet

~ trois dimensions ayant une.certaine si~nification (curie~,
historique.documentaire, estetique, cOl1lJllemors:tif ,d' apparte n~~ce) et jouant un role dans Is structure ~onctionelle
du
!llus~e.". (9)

Et l'Auteur ajoute encore:

" l'homm~ est l'hoDU:le
A
,
au travers de Is pult~re. Grace aux collections des m~sees,
nous contribuons a l'elaboration d'ane nou~el1e realite cul~
ture1le.
Mais,si co1lectionner ~our un musee est remplir
c~tte mission cu1~Jre1Ie, nous ne pouvons 1a consid~rer isolement 11 est essentiel pour cette

mission, qu'el1es soient preservees les collections dee

mus~es,pourtant, ne peuvent accomplir leu. mission sans tenir
compte de la conscience sociale"(OO)

Schreiner donne un nom special ~ ces objets,il leur di

sige "MUSEALIA".

Voil~ Is definition:

....

"MUSEALIA are part o~ our cuI tural and natural heri t~~""
MUSEALIA are such movable authentic 3bjects wich
as irre~utable evidenceB~exempli~y the deve1opm~nt o~ nature respect society ~or a long time, are set to a ~ixed state, and were chosen and acquired for the collection stock in
order to preserve, to decode, to exhibit them resp ~or further use in research, teaching, education and recreation."
(U)

Et l'Auteur dit encore, de fa90n plus speciflque

" We subdivide in objective-substancial,written,figurative

and acoustic musealis,that means on sound-carriere preser ved Bounds.
~roSEALIA often appears in combination,e.g., a paper illus
trated with pictures, a Bound ~ilm or eimilar. "
(12)Mathilde BELLAIGUE-SCALBERT s'occupc de ce que Strans

kY

avait nomm~e 1a "consOience social"e" comme un ~iltre et un catalisateur

de la mission culturel1e des objets et des co11~ctions des musees.

El~

ajoute :
n . I.'objet n'est pas un fin en 80i, il est
Ie moyen pr~mier
de 1a connaissance.

par
,
..
,
f

sa materia1ite meme, non seulement i1 serta l,in~o~

mation, mais i1 est l'information.
Son app~oche
est prura1el objet-signe,objet-symbo1e,~ged'his
toire et -- ici souvent -- d'affectivite."
(13)

,Jusqul~ ce moment nous nos avons occupp~ de l'objet

realit~ objell.tive et externe

source materielle
d'information.

a l'homme{OB+JECTmt)-

en tant que
249

Mais a quoi servent les autres

objets,realit~jeeti-

ves et externel! ;.. l'homme en tent que n'~tant pas dee substances lllat~riel-

.!!1
On peut nommer,par exemple: la

fa~on

de

sen~ir,de

pen -

ser at d'agir qui se traduit en langage gestuel,orale,lengvge des jouets

,
"
des grimaoes Et l'extense et protond reseau des valeurs affeetif$ ?
II faut souvenir que des fagons de production et des

r~

..

lations sociales, pour nommer seulement quelques exemples les plus fla ,
grants, il y a des temoins materiels directs et des temoins ma~eriels in
directs; mais,il y a aussi des t~moins imat;riels, tandia que dobjets
L'ex2mplaire d'un Code, Ie texts ecrit d'une r~gle ou
d'un r~cit normatif; un m~oanisme resultat d'une loi ou d'un prinoipe
soientifique; ce sont des temoins direots
d'un comportement,d'une action ou

et des objets repr~sentatifs

relao~ion

hUlllaine ou sooiale ou d'une

orea tion humaine (Le Droit, la Soience)

~

Les temoins indirects sont les objets consideres per

analogie et par aproximation quand on adopte comme reference une action,
relation, oomportement humal ou une creation plus abstracte de la pensee humaine ou de la vie sooiale.

Par exemple: une cerandque,un vase,

une urne a l'usage dans un ritual, oe sont des objets que se lui refe

rent, mais que ne nous donnent qu'une

information tres partiale et t~

lointaine ~ son sujet (du rituel); aussi de fafon indirecte ils r;ferent

les habitudes, les traditions ou l'eehelle

des valeurs sociales.
La filmographie at la sonographie qu'enregistrent les
langages gestuel et ritmique ce sont des t~moins directs de oea langa ges dans un certain moment; mais les langages sont,elles aussi, des

cre~

tions abstractes e~ imateri~eles de l'homme,.tandia qu'clles s'expresscnt

au moyen des elements materi\lls (le so'n;le geBte enregistr~). Mais l'u!!,
ge de ces lar'.gages e1. leurs enregistremen't"s"(temoins aussi de la technique d'une epoque) ne traduisent que partie~ e1. lointainement toute la
richesse de In creation des habitudes,des croyances, des valeurs, ni
normement nombreux tissulage des

rapports de l'howne avec son

l'e

enY~ronn~

ment et avec les autres hODlllles.

Ce qu'on demande meintenant c'est si ces objets "imm~
teriels",qui representent des aspects significatifs de l'identite,

ront

ou ne aont pBS "mus~alisablea". En tant que "realite objective", en 1.ant

que partie de la realite a laquelle l'homme appartient sussi, doivent C~
objm

rester PQtenoielltment museologiques ?

Ce qui saute ~ la vue est que Is Museologie actuelle

ne peut pas tout simplement et tout court ecerter Ie fait mlseologique
250

dans lequel le rapport l'howme/l'objet pr~sente comme objet Ie r~aeau

des rapports et de :r.~J ationt3 hULluinee et socif..\..l :8; C1urtout par'~ft que

,
,
ce reseau est ineere entreles plus fre'1uentes et Ie plus profondee

so~

cis et p~;ocupstions de l'homme de notre slecle

Evidemment Ie mus;allsation de tels oeje 1.G

complexes

exi.ge des nouvelles techniques, des nouvelles .,;thodes, des nouveuux types d'enceintes mu.a~ale", c'eat

a dire,

une nouvelle typologie lllus';olo -

gique, et, aussi, '.m mue~olog'le qui soi t un acientifique plus complet et
un traval11eur soclal plus

a l'action

A ,"on avis, le processus gestatoi i;'e des musees au plein

...

4'

,.

air et des musees de slte,suivi,enrichi at bov.leverse per les eco-llusee,\

nous am~nera ;. vne Museologie enr!lcln~e sur 1 'Historique et 1e Social e.t,
pourtant, directement engag;'e ~ ls dynamiqu~ de l'tdentite Culturel1e
Dro s ce sens, je auis d'accord avec Mensch (1~) quane
11 critique 1e limitation de notre actuelle m~thode de musealisation.
Mensch fait reference surtout ~ la pr;serv~tion qu'entraine des proced~
res de restauration physique;
.. , A stuffed tiger in a mUae:Ulll is a stuffell tiger
in a museum but not a tiger (Hudson-1971). In this
case the museum object 1s but a faint shsdow of its
original, stripped of its essence: life. "
Cetts observation peut etre elargie quand elle noe fait
peneer aU fait museologique, ~ ce qu'on a l'intention d'eriger en fait
museo1ogique, dans cs qui c"ncerce sux objets abstracts, ~ les rPUit;s
objectives immaterielles; '1U6,.."Id on 1es ecarte,ou qu.and on les con"idere
lointainement ou partie11ement, ce qu'on fait est vider 1e faIt muse~
de tout cela que lui conne sa signification mene Car on les transforme
dans spectres videa de

v~e.

81 jusqu'a ce moment ;ie in'ai occu~ aau1ement de l'objm

,
-ternoin et de l'objet dans le fait museal, cs ne veut pas dire qu'on ne
consid';,re pss l'!Iomme, sujet connaissant~dans Ie rapport l'homme!l'ob -

jet qui const1tue te fait museo10gl'1ue

L'hoIlll1le dont on parle ost toujours Ie modiflcateur de
son monde, Ie createur des artifacts,des relations,des valeurs, des s~
boles, des significtaions.

11 est surtout Ie constructeur de son !IiSbi-

re et qui, en Is construisant,il (L'homme) se fait et

que projet inachev; 0

30

re-fsit en tant
251

La rapport :.'hornwe/l'ohjet eat una rapport ouYert,dyn~.

dan~

mique, dialectiquB,
1. as

lequel l'homme ae connait et ae reconnait

et aU travera des artifacts

qu I j,l a cr~e et dans 1. es et au travers

des objets de la nature auxquela il a donne de valeur par l'attributioD

des significations.
Dans cette r~nouvelation constante de l'Homme et

de

l'Objet en interaction (action r~ciproque) dans un rapport ~galement dyil'i

,
,
,
,
namique,"catalise" par l'encetnte musee, egalement toujours renouvellee,
revivifi~e, on revitalise Ie fait mus~ologique, que permet la reconnais-

sance, la pr~servation, et la communication, c'est ~ dire la permanence

et la reconstruction ue l'identite des peuples,groupes ou nations.

-6-

LE PROBLEME ACTUEL DE L'ACTION MUSEOLOGIQUE

=~====================~~===~===============

J amaiu comme dans Ie moment actuel, l'individu et les

,
, ,
...
colectivites ont ete tellement vulnerables aax essais tentatifs d'une
~

descaracterisstion
culturelle
Ii 'une

telle~ent

flagrante.

11 ne s'agit pas

universalisation, mais reellmnent d 'une"descaracte"risationZ Elle

ne serait pa~ mauvaise,l'umiversalisation qui pourrait aboutir

a l'HU-

t~IE en respectant les diversites et la plura11t; culturelle.

Ce que

me semble

m~vaise

c'eat 1a

ge~eralisation

des modismes dictes au tra-

vers des moyen\ de c(Jn.lIlunic ..,tion, par' des "petits comit;s" pretensivement
d'avant-garde, psrce que ces Modi~es se pretendent te1lement renouva

teurs a poiLt (.e rnepr~srr ~'Hist~i e. r.h b~en, les hommes ce sont dee
;tres historiques

et c'est f'lsns Itexp~rip.nce v~c\le et partag;e qu'ils

se connaissent les uns ;.. les a:ltres et qU'i!," se reconnaissent ;.. ewe _

memes

~~ .."r~it'!mp.n": 18. M~7101::''e n' e"st pas seu1.emsnt Ie pas3~,

mais aussi Ie proc~ssus , l'IPENT!~E--contruitp. su long de l'experience

partagee et v~cue-- l'est ausai (un processus).
C'est
moine culturel

u~een~

da aavoir cs qui nos reste comma patri -

at quelle est notre contribution a ce

patrimoine;c'est

urgent reconnai tre notre vi Gage ,lu~. meme.

Si

l'Europe,~ee,

esaaye

aUjo~rd'hui,

surtout au tra-

vers des "exposi tions-dialofiues", se reconnsi tre et se promouvoir en tan t

qU'identit~; quelle tache Rppartient aus mus;es latino-americains, des

bases effec tives du "fair~ mus&olog1que" ?

Selon Rcn6 BERGER, "p~re" des expositions-dialogues (rei.
tea d'abord avec Ie collaboration des mus;es d'art,surtout dlart modeme~
ces expositions-coloques ont pou~ but, au moyen des ~onfrontations p;ri
252

diques, non seulement la reconnaissance des musses comms des "vrais moyes
, ,
..
d' information", mais aussi~_Qmms des elements du reseau c_~':'l'_~ex~__ ~~""':ravers
duquel se construit peu ~ peu~'imags de notre identit~ culturelle en ev

lutioR" (par rapport ~ l'Europe et l'Occident); et encore, - et surtout, au

,
,
travers de Is "fonction regulatrice" des musees d' art moderne, en donnant
ndes informations sur l' art

contemporainet

-sur

II est possi,le que cetts

fondie

1s --recnercoil dOe-oJ: 'rden-e-:r--

propo~ition,

elargie et

appr~

a taus les branches de connaissance et ~ tous les types de mus';'s,

nous conduise ~ une com~~nsion plus profonde entre les hommes, en don nant sa contribution ~ la Paix (Comme Ie songe TSURUTA, dans sa d;fini~on
de Mus;010gie-(16) )
5i toutcela est annonc~ en Europe lors de la Conf;rence
de Delfos (1981), qu'est ce que c'est qu'on peut songer pour l'Am;rique
,
,
Latine?
Cette ~eune Amerique,nee pour Ie Monde quand, en Europe,la R~

'..

naissance etait a

..

cette Amerique sur laque11e le Colonialisme

l'apo~ee;

et le Mercantilisme se sont fortement exerces, et sur laquelle aujourd'

~

hui encore les forces des intereta economiques,politiques et culturels

,.
,
.....
'"
etrangers
essayent de la reduire
a une chasse-de-reserve.
Et comment pourra la Mus;ologie non seulement compagner

mais auxilier 1 'histoi'l:e, resul tat de 1';ac1;ion humeine, dans cette notre
Am;rique dans lsquelle l'aspiration maxime e5~ 1 'affirmation de l'identi
t; dans un dialogue ;gal et fraterne,
n

la revolucion ganada por el propio

impulso, doe esa
,
carne e esa sangre de ls Hiatoria de las cuales y en
las cuales desso maximamente que mi ser sea " 7
(17).

R;ferences:
==========

" Le fenomene de la perte de l'id"ntit~ peut changer d'intensit;

avec laquelle ~l ae manifeste,mais sa dissemination est universel
Ie." - lUGALHAES,ALOYSIO - E TRIUNl"O? A QUESTAO Dos BEN5 CULTURAIS
DO BRASIL - Rio de Janeiro ~ Nova Fronteira,Fundag;o Nacional Prol4em~ria - 1985
-

- DURHAN, Eunice Ribeiro - TEXTO II, de la partie destinee ~ "CULTURA, PATRIMONIO E PRESERVACAO" (Cul ture,patrimoine et preservation),
in PRODUZINDO 0 PASSANDO (En produisant le pass~), organise par
l'antropologue ARANTES,ANTONIO AUGUSTO - Ed.Brasi1iense- S;o Paulo
1984.

- Che. n~us, les bresiliens, il y a deja longtempa j'insiste sur 1a

qualite CULTURELLE de la reconnaissance et, par consequent, la mi
se en valeur du payaage, de l'ambient physique naturel (C'est un;
253

attitude culturelle). Le paysa"e, l'8IIlbient recOnnU,lIIill en vafeur par

l'homme est un bien cul:urel. (Vo;r: RUSSIO~Waldi8a, TEX~O ~I:, C~ 1~
partie et oeuvre referees au numero 2, antericur)
(4) Un cas tipique: l'indisn bresilien. Des 900 nations existentee
il y a qua tre siecles, ne restent que 180 groupes et nations msintenant.
La dispa ri tion de taus ceus groupes et la pertde de l' enl-egistrement de

leurs
cultures ont laisse des lacunes sensibles, de grande "vides" dans
notre identite. Tout cela sans y parler dans les aspects hurnsiDe et au~
si sur notre formation nationale.
(5) - FABRIZIO,CLAUDE -EL DESARROLLO CULTURAL EN EUROPA-CAP.-3-LA !DENTl
DAD CULTURAL EUROPEA (p. 374) ,!!l EL DESAROLLO CULTURAL,EXPERIENC;AS REGIQ
NALES. 1982-UNESCO/PARIS. Vo.1la
la version fran<;aise:
"L' identi te cul,. turel
,.
,
le, aujourd'hui de fa<;o~ generale, esta abrangeante d'un certain nume~~
des ceracteristiques specifiques dans les comportements d'une cOZmunaute
humaiile relativer.lent homo~ene et qui se sont reflect'issables dans les
fS<;Qns de vivre, les systhemes des valeure, les manieres ~e produccioD,
les rapports sociales et, finalement, la produccion intelectuelle et ar cul~tistique , ! .. D'ailleur~, la notion d'identit~
relle entraine des conotations relstives a Is reivindicatioD d'egalite
devant
d'autres
elle
est atta
, .
.cultures
"etrangeres plUS fortes, rt,
,
chee s Is notion d'unite promotion d'une identite culturelle na
tionale."
-

(6) CHAuf,Mar11~t alli1 - POLITICA CULTURAL - (Politique Cu1turel~)

Editions de la Fond~tIon Wilson Pinheiro- 2eme.ed1tion- Edi<;oee Mercado
Aberto-Rio Grande do Sul (p.65).
(7) et (8) - ARANTES,ANTONIO AUGUSTO (organisattur)- PRODUZINDO 0 PASSADO (pref~cio)- En produisant le pass~-Le preface- Ed.Bra i11ense- S60 Pau
10 - 1983
(9) et 10 - STRANSKY, ZIlYNEK - "Une check-list provocative" - IN: Calle..
ting tod~ for tomorrow/Collecter aujourd'hui pour demain - Symposium de
l'IDOFOM a Leyden, octobre-1984
(11) et (12) - SCHRElNER,Klaus - "MUSEUM OBJECT. WHAT AND WHY?/ L'OBJET
DE UUsEE: QUOI ET POURQUOI?" - - Symposium de l' ICOFOM ~ Leyden, octobre
1984.
(li)- BELLAIGUE-SCALBERT, Mathilde - DERISOIRE ET ESSENIlIEL,L'OBJET ETHNO
GRAPHIQUE - Symposium de l'ICOFOM ~ Leyden - Octmbre-1984
(14) - I~NSCH,Peter _ Society,object,museology - Symposium de l'ICOFOM ;
Leyden - 1984
(15) - BERGER, Ren; - in CENTRO DE ARTE MODERNA,FUNDACAO CALOUSTE GULBEN
KlAN, 28/3/1985 - EXHIBI~ION-DIALOGUE _ON CONTE~~OR.~Y ART IN EUROPE.Voi~
sutout : Birth of a concept. The exhibition diabogue -Art and cultural
identity; The new role of museums, et Refining the concept of the exhibi
tion dialogue (texte en Anglais et au Portugais) l4ma Maria Teresa Goms
Ferreira m'a fait connaitre le texts (Directrice du 1fu~ee Calouste Gul benkian-Lisboa-Portugal)
(16) - TSURUTA,Soich1ro - La Museologie -- science au oeulement travail
pratique ~u musee ?-!!l DOTRAhVMUWOP nO 1/1980 (Voir,surtout: Definition
de la museologie - On fait rnention,1c1, de ~e parie ~inale du concept de
Tsuruta: "La Museolog1e

Leurs resullats devra1ent viser

contribuer au bonheur de l'humani te et

254

a la paix mondiele"

CHACOn, ALFR~ - Buriepe,Ensayo sobre la realizec:l.on del sentido

en ls actividsd magicoreligiosa de un pueblo venezolano - Universidad
Central de Venezuela- 1977 - Voiei Ie texts cit~, en veraion fran~aise
~
"
II
la revolution gagnes par l'elan lui meme, de eette ehair et de es
sang de I' histoire dusouela et dans lesquels je veuJ( IJax1mement
que mon etre soi t " . (CURIEPE- page 11)

(17):

..

255

Tereza C SCheiner - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

The concept of Identity implies the presence of traits that are

proper and exclusive of an individual, a relation of correspondence common to all its variables, and which, by special formu
lation, makes it unique and identifiable among the others.
Identity thus qualifies and defines the individual - giving

it

a proper and specific character, and at the same time ( through

this specific character) makes

it recognizable among all.

Hence, identity is representative of individuality, of singularity.

Identity is not a trait in itself, but a reality which is recognizable by human perception and which derives from a very proper
and specific composition of traits, thus made possible in a given
circumstance. These traits are arranged and coordinated in a
special manner, hence forming a unique whole - a construction
of Nature, of the senses or of the mind.
Identity is thus plural, whereas consistent of multiple traits,
and at the same time unique, as a whole, as a cohesive unity
thus identifiable. And by such peculiar character identity not
only defines but also represents and personalizes the individual,
serving as basis for its analysis while "objectum".
This relationship "objectum & identity" becomes particularly
interesting to us when we es.tablish as "objectum" of analysis
Museums and Museology:
The correspondence between museums & identity is wide and com plex.

On a first level of interaction, it encompasses the

identification of Man as an individual himself: museums

are
institutions created by Man and for Man. They are thus settled
in human scale and imply all the levels of a direct interme diation with the individual, from the very concept of "museum"
- which starts from the idea of collecting, of memory,

of

study, of conservation, of ordenation, of exposition ( as intrinsecally human activities ) - to its field of action: Nature
as it is understood by Man and Culture as a construction of
257

Humanity.

This correspondence encompasses the physical space

of the museum itself, which pressuposes not only the object, the
specimen, but also the individual as content.
spea;, of a direct relationship between museum

We can thus
& human identity -

a relation of space, of form and of idea, as if the museum could

possibly be, at the same time, both the reflection and the
sy,nthesis of human nature, and since it contains human production, be entitled to say to Man: see who you are.
On a second level, we will find the close correspondence between
museum & cultural identity. Whereas museums not only contain
culture , herein understood as memory, as the product of human
societies in all times and everyWhere ) but are also agents of
production of culture, thereupon we see revealed the implicit
richness of this duality: the double cultural dimension of
museums. For the one side, the museum appears as the reinforcer
of cultural identity, acting as the vehicle of expression and
of recognition of the cultural identity of a given human group;
on the other side, there is the museum as questioner of this
same identity and creator of new cultural forms which will be
incorporated to those already existent - creating, perhaps, new
identities.
It is the dualism museum-tradition x museum-ruptur~
a symbiotic relation where memory and creation, permanence and
change alternate and coexist.
There is still another relation between museums and cultural
identity: it is the possible identification of museums with
Specific cultures. As well as there are museums of traditional
cultures, others represent contemporary cultures and societies.
An interesting approach on the matter .is made by umberto Eco *
when he describes the correspond~nc~b~tw~enmuseums and northamerican culture in contemporary soci~ty; side by side with the
museum-memory, devoted to cultural heritage, thrives the museum
as creation: the temple of fake, the sanctuary of fantasy, the
museum-as-showhouse where re-creation and interpretation of
reality are taken to their ultimate consequences.

Some museums

exist, also, representing a given and specific cultural group,

and not a whole culture; others are devoted to a specific cultural area.

Viaggio nella irrealita quoditiana, 1983.

256

The matter of cultural identity and of cultural production

a human group leads us to another question, more delicate

of
,

because of less simple definition: the correspondence beLveen

museums & national identity. Theoretically, museums of a given
country should reveal and reflect national and cultural identity
of that country and of its people, being such identity based and
developped from a specific and peculiar "ethos", from a cultural
and politic personality of each nation, and which impregnates
each one of its cultural traits, each one of its realizations
and thruths
We know, therefore, that while the revelation of national identity is a clear and definite matter for some countries, others
are still in the process of defining identity - either because
of their plural origin ( being such plurality reflected in
their cultural forms and in the. political and social behaviour
of their people ) - or else because those are nations emergent
from a recent colonial past, where the force of an imposed
culture and "ethos" come into conflict with forms of expression
and of culture that are "authentically" national.
There are countries, moreover, in which national identity

and

cultural identity do not blend, yet are intersected with other

nations' and peoples' identities - making difficult the task
of identifying the traits that compose the complex of their
specific personality, of their uniqueness. That is a matter of
croRs-cultural relations. Thence, in .several nations a dylemma
is posed: should museums deal with national identity? But
this identity, what is it maqeof? Should we consider
as
"national" what is pative, and as authentic only that which denies or becomes exemptof external influences?

If it is true

that identity grows and .takes fOJ:lllfrom the past, how should we
deal with this concept in those countries where valuable traits
from the past have been systematically put aside by the colonizer? On the other side, wouldn't it be authoritarian and unreal
to deny the obvious influence ~f the colonizer over the nature
and the culture of a country and its people? How to identify ,
in the melting pot of experiences, ethnies, cultura.l forms and
traits, modes of occupation and of exploitation of land and of
nature which form the history of a nation and shape its reality,
those which could have been more or less valuated?

259

And how should museums deal with the concept of "national"

those countries with strong regional identities?

in

And in coun-

tries that have been, or that are still occupied by foreign

forces ?
We should also examine the correspondence between museums and
identity, concerning those nations that, submitted to a rapid
process of industrialization, are undergoing a deep and rapid
change i~ their costumes, traditions, material production
that is, in their cultural forms and traits - which certainly
interferes in the shaping of their identity and in the ways
they find to express it. There is a strong politic dimension
in the

~on~ept

of nationality and this dimension is transfer-

red to museurus as long as the idea of national identity implies

the concept of ideology. Will museums be able to reflect and
reveal identity without compromising with specific ideologies?
And after all, what signifies the relation between museums and
national identity, in a world where the advancement of science
and of communications breaks physical and cultural barriers,
depriving traits of their original characteristics and bUilding
a global identity? Museums do not exist only of the past, as
we all know.

How will this relation with identity be worked

out in the museums of the future?

We must be prudent in dealing with such questions.

There is a

risk that - while trying to build or to reflect a " national

identity"
museums withdraw from what is more necessary to
their work: the measure of national reality, thus denying its
dyn~ic

and rioh variety of traits to tend to present to the

public nostalgic crosscuts of. the 'past or crystalized versions

of the present. Therefore,' more than reftecting national and
cultural identity of the nations, museums would be entitled to
perform the delicate task of revealing their realities, thus
acting as reflection and synthesis of each culture and of each
nation.
On a third level of interaction, we will find the relation of
the museum to its own identity, that
traits that make

of

the museum recognizable, as an institution,

throughout the world.

260

is, to the complex

This is the dimension

given

by

Museography, and which aims at attributing to museums a definite

identity, understood by all individuals, a strong and proper personality that make museuIT's recognizable as such, thus assuT.ing
them a definite position areong the several institutions created
by Man.
The museum deals with the idea of identity in all its working
shperes.

The selection of objects and of data for collection

is made taking as basis the traits that are identified by the

museum as subject to preservation; these traits will give identity to the museum collection - which, once constituted, will
reinforce or legitimate the museum's identity within the field
of Museology: museum of art, of history, of sciences, etc. The
study of the object 1s no more.than the analysis of its identity, of the ccmplex of traits that render
among all others.

~5

it unique and special

fo= preservation and conseT.vation, these

tasks aim at no more than maintaining in the object the physical

characters through which it may be identified - thus maintaining
the identity of the object whereas symbol of an idea.
But the museum "identity" is expressed mainly through the exhibition, the vehicle of communication between society and the
museum itself: such identity is revealed in the recodification
elaborated by the museum around the idea of Nature and of Culture, through the object-symbol.

There would lie specifically

the identity of the museum as institution: not in the selection

for memory and heritage, not in the preservation of and for
identi ty, or in the research which reveals the object's trajectory for these activities are also performed by other institutions but in that the museum has 6f lllO~e peculiar and of more specific: in the reconstructi0J;l of the. idea of Nature, of Man and
of culture through the idea and the form of the object itself.
Nevertheless, it seems to us that this so very defined identity
refers much more to the traditional museum ( the "museum-type"?
than to those institutions where the limits between museum and
centre for the production of arts, museum and monument, museum
and natural heritage areas integrate and interact..
will all museums be truly identifiable as such?

As it is,

Will all

them have proper and strong identity to be recognizable

of
as

museums?

261

At this moment, museums seem to be going through an identity

crisis, as a reflection of a bigger general crisis of cultural
identity.

The new pro?ositions, concepts and action goals that

are being developped in the museum field have been generating

realities that go far beyond the traditional museum experience.
Those are realities such as the Centre Georges Pompidou, the
complex of La Villett.e of the ecomuseums - where the composition
of identifiable traits divert from the formulas originally
set by and for the traditional museums.

In some cases,

the

denomination "museum" itself is avoided, as in many museums of

technology.
One of the questions that can be made is therefore about the
capacity of museums in dealing with their own identity: isn't
it already time to redefine the very concept of museum identity?
This also puts on quest the hability of museums to deal
other forms of

identit~

with

- how is it possible for an institution

not yet sure of its own identity, to deal with the matter,
concerning other fields of knowledge?
We then come to the more polemic relation between museums

and

identity: that wh;'.ch aims at defining the identity of Museolo-

sy.

Here we could pose the following question: what values

Museology as an object of study and as a field of work, to the

point that ve intend to consider it a science?

The answer

could be: research on the object - if such research had conclusive methods of its

01<'11

.-

and in case all museums had objects.

It could also be M'-1seological Theory - if a theory existed ,

so well developped and definitive that it contained in itself
the necessary "pJ:"axis" - and in casetha';: theory could encompass
all those institutions nominated as' "museums", or as such
comprehended.
The question then remains: of what is composed the identity of
Museology?

In which unique way does .it gather traits that are

found in various other fields .of knOWledge - sciences or techniques?

In which way does it create its own codes?

Could

Museology be - whereas trying to find a form and a language

through which it be personalized - a science in construction?

262

We believe so.

But if it is indeed, then Museology is going

through a process of elaborating its own identity -

as if it

could possi1:Jly be, at the same time, the reflection and the
synthesis of itself, and as such be entitled to say to Man:
see what I am.

263

..
Klaus SChreiner - Alt Schwerin, GOR
Museology can help to develop and consolidate cultural and
national identity
Identity means sameness of essential character, sameness in all
that constitutes the objective reality of & thing or phenomenon,
selfsameness.
There are identities in many fields, e. g. in logic, mathem~tics,
science, nature, society. In the reality of the historical development of the human societ~ there were &nd there are, by
reason of different conditions, also cultural and national identities of different human communities and peoples of our earth.
The re8pec~ development, and furtherance of the cultural and
national identit~ of a people corresponds to the principre of
equalit~ of rights and right of self-determination of peoples,
corresponds to the aims and principles of the charter of the
United Nations and to the pertinent rules of international law.
The 14th General Assembl~ of the International Council of Museums (ICOM), meeting in London, 1983, adopted in the resolution
No. 2 'Museums and development' "that true development can only
take place through an improvement in the quality of life, hence
of the cultural dimension in each society', rooted in the cuI tural identity of each people," "that museums are the repositories of that cultural identit~ and the principal agents contributing to its understanding, protection and renewal," "that
museums contribute also to- the peaceful evolution of nations
within the securit~ prOVided by the comprehension of their own
culture 6B well Be that of others and to the assimilation of
change by society;.,,1)
Cultural heritage is an essential element of identity for a
given community', for e;.nati'on, and for 8lpeople. The decoding,
preservation, care, and social utilization of this proper cultural heritage is of great importance for all peoples, nations,
states, but especially for those who are about to overcome the
heritage of the colonial and semi-colonial
past and are on their
.
I
wS to consolidate their political independance, on their way
to economic and social renew~. In these ".countries the question
is to realize a national cultural mission the intention of which
is to overcome the cultural consequences of colonialism and to
realize the prope:r: national identity evel1 in cultural aspect.
The annihilation of many traditional cultures in Africa, Asia,
America, and Oceania was linked with the establishment of the
265

colonial system. Hence cultural and national consolidation

often even means the regaining of one's proper identity. Such
cultural changes have alread~begun in a lot of Latin-American
countries in the firs~ haIf of the 20th century as well as in
India and the countries of the Middle East. For the majority
of the countries this was only possible b~ the collapse of the
cqlonial system after World War II. Since this time the number
of the young national states on earth tripled.
In the countries of the "Third World", particularly also' in
the Y1Ju.ng national states, the realization of the national
sovereignty is linked with the exploration, decoding and revival of cultural traditions, which were typical to the way of
living of these peoples before the colonial conquest, resp.
which were preserved or newly formed by the peoples even in
times Q~ colonial and semi-colonial oppression.
That takes place not only on the basis of a given young natio~
nal state, but also in association of an existing multi-natio_
nal country, including several states. It is the question of
creating and consolidating the national state resp.. multi-na;.tional identity of the country in question, of developing n~
tional feeling, national consciousness, national dignity and
of sovereignty. This, ax the same time, means the development
of political, economic and culturwl equality of rights, the
acting against neo-colonialism, r~ism, epartheid, mgainst
o~pression of national minorities, against cultural tutelage,
against disdain of the own history and culture. Certainly it
is the question of a complicated and a. protracted process under
regard of the conditions of the country at the time.
The cultural identity of a countEW arises from and consolidates
only by integrating the entire richness and the variety of the
cultures and cultural elements of peoples,
nations, sets of
.
peoples, tribes, nationalities, groups. oJ population, classes,
and strata. but not by oppression or even removal of cultures.
It's here where there lies the use, in the cocial interest oJ
the country, and the wide field of museum work. Museums and
their collaborators oan make an important contribution to the
development and consolidation of the cultural identity of a
country. There is to note that the individual nations differ
essentially by two groups of Bociai phenomena from each other:
1. by Buch aspects o~ the economic, social, cultural, and
intellectual developnent, that have become historic, as for
instance standard and particularities of the national economy,
'..

.266

pecularities of the Bocial structure, pecularities of the

political organization, stage of evolution of culture, and
mental life;. 2. b:r specific ethnic differences as languag'l,
characteristic distinguishing features of culture, way of
living, customs, habits, and traditions as well as by specific traits of mentality and social psyche.
The first group of phenomena doesn't include epecific national
features, for it is in each case only a special expression of
the general social evolution, and it is subjected to its general regularities. On the other hand, the second group of phenomena includes specifically national features, which are
connected with the ethnic basis of the nation and, for the
most part, have formed together with the l1Btionalities, long
time before the origin of the nation. Whereas the first group
of phenomena, the 80cial side of the nation, is subjected tm
a process of approach and internationalization, within the
frame of the existing economic social formation, the second
group of phenomena, the ethnic side of the nation, shows great
constancy and changes only slowly wi thin a nation under the
predominant influence of the social side. The national part on
each historic stage of evolution is a dialectic unity of economic, social, political, ideological, cultural, and ethnic factors.
In this connection the term 'nationality' obtains $ specific
content: It serves for fixing and expressing the total complex
of ethnic features of the nation -- or other social units, too.
Hence it is considerably-more narrow than the more comprehensive term nation, because it comprehends only & particular sphere
of the national, that is to say the ethnic component.
The movable cultural properttcollected, preserved, decoded,
and socially utilized :l.n the ,museums play; an important part;
in developing and consolidating,the national and cultural
identity of a country;. As a part of the cultural heritage the
museum obj ects (museali.a). serve as means for satisfying specific social mental-cultural and scientific requirements. They
are such objects that, as visual aids and concretely perceptible evidences in their authentic references by comparison
with other ones, prove the durable historic development of nature and society. They were selected and acquired for the collection stock for being preserved, decoded, and exhibited, purposefuly' to be used publicly or to utilize for social mentalcultural and scientific work. Their pUblic social utilization
267

takes place by means of exhibitions as well as further forms

of communication for education and aesthetic enjoyment or, by
means of research, for obtaining new overall social cognitions.
This social utilization is potentially given at all museum objects, although it doesn't take place immediately. The voluminous stocks in the stores prove it, which e. g. surpass the
number of the museum objects exhibited many times, as a rule.
That includes to place the musealia at disposal and to preserve
them for their future utilization. In order to. preserve them
the museum objects are brought into a fixed state by conservation and preparation, if necessary, and are put away at ~
protected place. From the multiplicity of objects existing in
nature and society there is always only a selection possible
and required for the museum scope. Thus questions come forward
how to vsUue the objects and what are the criteria of their
selection for the collection stock of the museums. The selection takes place by men and according to special aims and purposes in order to, satisfy special social requirements. The
valuation decides whether the objects are qualified for a museum (museum worthiness1. Here the responsible part of the mu~
seum staff members of a country becomes evident, for it depends
decisively on them and their selection and ccllection of objects whether the stock of museum objects can be applied
socially effectively and usefully or not. Here, for instance,
the questions come out: Ha:ve we only got a collection of objects which were compiled by chance, uns~stematically and not
very; profi table, or is the question of planned and systematic
collections o~ high value for education of the people or for
research? Have we got a collection for a flower or for the
interests 0f the working people? Social valuation criteria for
selecting suitable objec+,s for the coifection stock~ the museums are necessary to orient in a sen~ible and effective museum work. The question e. g. is ;0 collect more than before
objects from the past, but alreadr from the present time, too;
objects from the workaday life of men, production, utensils,
cultural evidences from the life cf the common people. It is
the question of the development and shaping new museum exhibitions by means of didactic and ae~thetic methods of exhibition
that please the people of the coux,try, particularly the masses
of the common people, that touch 'lliem emotionally, influence
and educate them in the sense of Lational consciousness.

268

In our days efficienc~, rationalization, effectivity, quality

as well as the most economic application of all capacities and
financial meane 1e required. Of course, this applies to the
museum work., too.
Theoretical. fundamentals as compass for su~cessful, purposeful
practical museum work are urgently required. Science helps on
this occasion. The fundamental task and social function of any
branch of science is to create particular theoretical fundamentals andtcchniquee for suitable acting of men in the special scope of reality, the matter of research of the concerned
branch of science is turned to. Practice belongs to theory,
acting to knowledge. The connection of science and practical
operation, the unity of theor~ and practice, between museology
and practical mUBe~~ ~ork obtains growing importance in museum
domain. The museology' is the science of collecting, preserving,
decoding, and utilizing museum objects (musealia).
Just as a teacher o"f history, phj"Bics or biology should not
only be a historian, physicist or biologist respectively, but
also an expert on education, a, member of the academic staff of
amuseum should not only" know his special subject, but also
museology.
In the rules of the ICOM International Committee for Museology
(ICOFOM) it is said that the committee shall "establish l'\useo>logy' as a scientific diDci~line and stimulate the museological
research". (Intel'nal Rules of ICOFOM, article 3e);. 2)-i The work
of ICOFOM confirms the international trend that the social
requirement, within the bounds of world-wide preservation and
care of the cultt~al and natural heritage, grows to work out
progressive theoretical fundamentals of the museum work and to
utilize thee practically, whler thecondi tions of 81 peaceful'
living toget~er of peoples on all continents. Its aim is t~
increase standard. quality, and 'effectiVity of museum work in
each country and for a world that is developing. The question
is to laY' the foundation of the museum work scientifically for
the sake of a humanistic effect, to separate this operation
from the sphere of pragmatism and, at the same time, to develop
scientific museological training programmes for the vocational
junior staff of museum experts. Consequently museolog~ serves
the development and consolidation of the national and cultural
identity of a country. -

269

1} ICOM 8), Proceedings of the 13th General Conference and

14th General AssemblT of the International Council of
Museums, London, 24 July - 2 August 198), International
Council of Museums, Paris 1984, p. 141
2): Museological News 6, Stockholm 1984, p.. 29

270

Raymond Singleton - Hinckley, Leicestershire, UK

Comments on the paper by 't?,nislav

Sol~

I have read Tomislav Sola's paper several times with great interest, and
have found that, every time, my reactions to each successive paragraph have
followed an identical pattern.
I start by nodding my head in happy agreement with the first points which

he so felicitously makes.

These are (if I may summarise them less eloquently

but more succinctly), that identity and change are in perpetual conflict; that
identity depends on a measure of cohesion and stability; and that museology is
still in its infancy. with its character not yet fully formed.
Eut when (on p.2) he seems to be suggesting, firstly that muspums should
act to preserve identity, and then that imitation and imposition have no part
to play in the creation of national identity, I find my eyebrows rising in
some uncertainty as to whether our earlier agreement can last.
My own feeling is that, whilst museums should do more than simply reflect
the past, and should in fact demonstate how that past has i.nfluenced the
present and will also influence the future (up to which point my viewR coincide
with the author's), museums should not venture beyond the role of drawing
attention to such influences. They should not, I suggest, attempt to exert
an influence of their own, which is what the author appears to be advocatin~
at this point in his paper, and which indeed he proposes almost as a duty of
museums in his later paragraphs.
Our disagreement becomes clearer and more profound when, in quotin/(
Carlos Fuentes with apparent approval, and then in posing questions relati.ng
to "our endangered planet", Tomislav Sola seems to be urging museums to
engage in some kind of rescue mission. Surely, however, in the nature of thin~8,
identity itself is (and h~s to 1:e) a changing fMture; i t oannot be permanently
arrested. Colonialism and neo-colontalism, which may be deplorable, are only
modern manifestations of the migrations, invasions, subjugations and mergin~s
of cultures which have been characteristic of the complex pattern of tribal and
racial history from man's earliest nays. National identity is the product of
such foroes.
Similarly in the natural world, the origination, development ann extinction
of species has been the normal order of events since Ufe first appeared on this
planet. The part played by man in this process is only 0OP.. very recent, factor
among many older ones/ and when man himself becomes extinct, the process will
stU I go on.
271

The author's final question, "Are museums hers to document passively the
d is"strous trends, or to do something about them?", serve:3 to confirm my
disagreement to the point of exasperation: it does thi:3 on two counts, and at
the same time. perhaps intentionally, provides ample justinca tion for hi s use
(and yours. Mr E<titor) of the word "provocative" in describin/!' this pa.per.
Fit"St there is the author's emotive use of the word "disastrous" in this
final question, which may neatly serve to illustrate my own viewpoint. It would
undoubtedly be a museum's function to draw attention to the trends which he
describes, but, to label them "disastrolls" would, I think, be an act of
subjective jlmgment, almost amounting to an indulgence in propaganda, which
would be inconsistent with a museum's duty to maintain a professional
impartiality, and would therefore be damaging to the credibility and integrity
of all museums,
Then, even more seriously, there is his ple" for action by museums, To my
mind, the role of museology is to examine the role of museu~~ and to assist them
to fulfil their functions to the best of their abilities; and the role of museums
is to preserve and to present the facts, the truth, impartially and without bias,
difficult thoup:h this is when practical considerations impose a me"Sure of
selectivity in all presentations. For a museum to do otherwise, to seek to take
deliberate nction in order to influence the changes, cultural and natural, which
are features of all existence, is to undermine the authority and reputation which
museums have gained as dependable custodians. presenters and interpreters of
"all things real",
Such conduct would be
museums must itself change

272

dan~erous,

unless one accepts that the identity of

for the worse.

Judith K Spielbauer - Oxford, Ohio, USA

Introduction
Identity has become increasingly popular as an expressive term for the need
to find stability and order in a rapidly changing world.

Recent awareness

of the potential implications for socio-cultural and environmental relationships embedded in the concept of identity reflects. I hope. a changing hun,an
consciousness that will have a significant impact on the direction of museum
development as a social

institution within a widening sphere of

responsibility.
Much of what has been written about identity has focused on the maintenance
of the past cultural connections found in ethnic identity and ethnicity in
contemporary society.

However. the accumulated past alone is not sufficient

to encompass the concept.

phenomenon.

Identity is a current. contemporary and dynamic

As will becoCle clear. I hope. in the follol/ing discussion. I

consider the temporal dimension Of identity to be only one aspect of a

broad, cOClplex system whose primary foci are the liVing individual, the
groups and categories in which he holds membership, the ramifications that
such membership has for physical. behavioral and intellectual life. and the
consequences that resulting actions have for the CUltural and natural world.
now and in the future.

As such, I take a human oriented perspective I/hich

begins with the basic assumption that the natural and cultural worlds
interact in a reciprocal loop relationship, each influencing the other in a
continual process of readjustment.
of nature define natural identity.

In this relationship. human perceptions

While natural identity is frequently

viewed as autonomous, _it, natural-identity as opposed to nature. is based in

human perception and is an integral part of the complex systems of identity
in which each person participates.

Identity then becomes one mechanism for

adapting to one's self, one's experiences and one's environment in all of

its societal. technological, and natural aspects.
With the wide range of variation in human sooiety and perception (Bloor
198~,

Hamill 1985, Maruyama 1980, Schelleken 1979) and in historical

experiences, finding a single set of criteria to define identity applicable

to all conditions will necessitate a very general structure.
therefore,
more

I will,

concentrate on a few basic ideas. letting others, speaking

kno~ledgeably

than myself, present specific problems and situations

emanating from the impact of identity on human society and nature.

273

Because any definition is structured, in part, by its use, the components of

the concept of identity discussed here are those that, I think. pertain referentially to museums, ll!useology and their responsibili ties in society.
clarify the following discussion,

1'0

the tel'm society is used to refer to a

group of individuals that is bound together by mutual interests vested in

such things as a common language, ideology and patterned behaviors in political, social and economic networks, all of which are oaintained with basic
self-sufficiency, often though not always, through sevel'al generations.

society can be small and relatively homogeneous or large with multiple

subgroups.

The concept of cuI ture used here refers to these binding

mechanisms. these commonly shared and structured behaviors, expectations and

beliefs, as well as their tangible products, that form a unique combination
of attributes associated with a specific group of people, a society.
Identity is not synonymous with society or culture.
faceted concept. that is manifested in self-image,

Identity is a multiin consciously shared

coto1nonality and awareness, in belonging (De Vos 1975), in the recognition of

the past, the present and, quite possibly, the future. in perceptions of
differences, boundaries (Barth 1979) and the natural environment, and in a
systeLJ of contextually determined affiliations.
considerations of real

This concept must include

and idealized phenomena, selectiVity,

and the

external forces that impinge on the formation and recognition of identity.

For the individual, one's identity is the self perception of who one is in
relation to the cultural and natural world and the concommitant sense of
belonging.
and

the

It is a statement of one's place and positions in these worlds.

acceptance of the rights,

responsibilities,

behaviors,

expectations and symbols associated with those positions.

beliefs,

Identity is this

auareness of self that is expressed in the. network of relationships and

resulting actions that exist among the indiVidual, the categories or groups
in which one holds membership and those in which one does UQt hold oembership.

Identity can be a dynamic or fluid phenomenon that changes thrOUGh

one's lifetime with the accumulation of new affiliations, the potential loss
or rejection of old affiliations.

Some affiliations are ascribed, such as

family membership, and others are chosen, such as reOFOlI.

As such, an individual's identity is not a single homogeneous entity but
rather a changeable composite of identities, each defined and determined by
a distinctive set of criteria,

and each establishing a specific set of

relationships to others, to nature and to technology.

national

identi ty,

identity

(the conneotion of the past to the present through perceived

274

terri torial identity,

For example, there is

hister1 cal identity.

ethnic

kinship ties--consanguineal. affinal and fictive--associated with a specific

recognized combination of selected cultural attributes).
affilica~ions

(the contemporar'Y and changea' Ie

relationships).

social identity

stl'ucturing interpersonal

family identity. reJ,igiou5 identity. societal or cultural

identity . and human identity.

This list is not inclusive.

nor is it

necessary that an individual hold or acknowledge all possible categories.

Several

catego~ies

being typically.

will

~n

most lnstarces coincide. the paraQeters of many

but not always. congruent.

lihich affiliation or COCl-

bination ther'sof tal<es precedent in determining behavior depends on the

s1 tuational condi tiolls at the time.

This is especially evident when

interaction involves non-group members.

While one 1 5 total conoii!cd iocnti ty i.s ur.lo.jue. the very essence of belonging
~he

and of afflliat!ng ncce8sitat.cs the recognition of group ?,nd

the outl:ard expressions of cohesiveness.

sharing of

The importance of acknowledging

the indi\ridual as the basic elenent in identity lies in the fact

al though a I':roup is often represented as uniform and consi'ltent.

that
there

alway'l exists variation within the group and thus the potential impetus for
change and adjustment to circumstanoes.
Recognizing the potential variabilitr in ar.y group and that the individual
is the actual means through which action ooours. it is possible to consider
the group as an entit7 and diRCUSS thp. ramifications of non-membership. the
ideal and real.
general

sen~e

select~vity.

to identify a

and

ccte~iv~

indicate an:r pa;'ticular so. -l!:'

I use the term group in a very

~y~bols.

~~21~ction

cr::'tp.~ia

of people without having to

used in formation and in definillb

membership.
The formation of or acceptance of_membership' in a group imcediately results
in the recognition of non-group . tho o/'Aat.ion of symbols of &lembership and
the establishment and operation of

.naintaining onechanisms (Barth

th'\t estaoUsn pattc",ns 0;." !!It,,rgroup relations.

1969)

creates a self defi.neo image :Jf

other

~oundary

group~.

~.tself. ~.t

e,lso creates its

These identities seldom if ever noir-cide.

While a group
0110

image of the

We do not usually

view ou,'sel ves as others see \10. ncr do we vie'" others as they see themselves.

although wh?;: we thil'l', of ourselves is often influenced by what

others think of us.

Part of the reason for this rests in a group's value system.
provides the model l:;y

N,~iC:1

teristic" "s ldealized :lehav!

essence.

;;:10
,I'S,

?;r~llp

This system

selC:lts. as symbols. such charac-

~eliefs.

and objects to define it" own

In the sac" manna~, us~~g ~ts own value system and own perceptions
275

the real behavior of others. the group selects the critel'ia fop defining
imposed identi ties of corresponding groups,

The selective nature of

identity is most easily seen in the perception of the past. such as ethnic
or historical identity.
ideas.

Here tbe acc=ul:lted elements.

facts.

events.

and symbols that compose toe fran;e>for', of ldenti ty are chosen or

emphasized on the basis of current value systems. not those that operated in
the past. and on the need to use such identi ty in support of group maintenance in the face of contemporary internal and external interactional
conditions.

In the attempt to maintain the inteGrity of the group. cocmon-

ality is sought in the emphasis of selected, self-supporting behavioral and

ideational attributes that respond best. to the co",parati ve and sometimes
oompetitive nature of intergroup relations.

1'he specifics of these. of

course. are unique to each group and situation.

However. in principle they

represent the self-assessment and description of current value systems and

the perception of reality as conditioned by these values within the prevailing external circumstances.
While the elements of identity are usually internally satisfying and sustaining.

to he effective within a larger sphere of interaction. some

elements need to be visually apparent.

This is accomplished through the use

of symbols: objects. rituals. decoraticns. adornments. behaviors, ownership.

language,

rights.

announce identity.

responsibilities,

among other possibilities.

Symbols

They inform or communicate to members and non-members

alike who is and who is not part of the group.

symbols produces a response.

The recognition of such

Whether or not this response is appropriate

from the perspective of the group symbolized. depends on the immediate

circumstances and the degree to which the internally derived and externally
imposed identities correspond.
Identity must be effective internally .in mair)taining group integration by
meeting member's needs and interests and externally in mollifying any forces
that may tend to act against

the~.

As'long as such forces remain in equi-

librium through constant slight readjustments. change is gradual and nondisruptive.

When. however. internal or external pressures increase beyond

the range of easy reconciliation. identity stands at risk.

Museums and Identity
The museum has several roles to play within the framework generated by the
concept of identity. because the museum is both a symbol of a specifiC
identity configuration and a tool used in the creation and the maintenance
of identity.

I wish to emph2size here that I

as an internal,
276

self-defining. mental

distir~uish

between identity

phenomenon from the process of

identifying. classifying. defining. and categorizing perceived .'eality which

produces an imposed identity on others. although these concepts are often
considered synonymous.
I

agree with Taborsky (1982)

that.

as traditionally def1ned.

the museum

developed as an integral part of a specific cultural system that is broadly

European in tradition.

Over the several hundred years of museum development

this cultural system has experienced a wide range of varying subgroups and
subdivisions.

If you look at this historical sequence in terms of varying

identities and the museum concept as one of the elements in identity that
has been used to represent values. the museum first appears as a symbol of
group identity within the realm of the elite. the elite being defined in
terms of wealth. power and knowledge.

From there. the museum along with its

symbolic nature has been incorporated into the identity structure of an

increasingly inclusive group.

The museum. endowed with elements from the

value systems of these incorporated subgroups. has become a functioning part

of intra- and
formation.

inter-group relations and

thus a factor in identity

This shift from elite through general public to the conscious

attempt to be relevant (or impose relevancy on) every segment of society has
brought about (or resulted from) changes in the perceived functions of the
institution and in the responsibilities emphasized.

This symboliZing

process extended beyond the internally structured perceptions to include the

imposition of museums.

their philosophy. and their imposed perception of

others on external groups. forcing them into the process of adjustment in

the face of cultural contact.
I t is in this dual nature of identity.

imposed. that museums play a part.

the internal and the external or

Museums have been essentially one-sided

in their approach to the selective collection of the symbols of identity.

The collection and criteria used in selection are based on the current value
system of the group collecting and area reflection of self-perceived
identity.

This has been the case. w,hether "objects" have been collected

from within the group or from without.

In using the museum as a statement

of identity. the collecting group has seen itself as i t has wanted to be

seen and has seen others as it has wanted to see them.
of identity.

when materialized in museums.

The selective nature

has tYPically presented an

idealized vision of self and a vision of nature and of outsiders that will
support.

substantiate and rationalize this self image.

This image of

outside groups, whether as subgroups within the larger society or as other

cultural entities. does not. of course. coincide with the equally selecttve
and idealized image that these outside groups hold of themselves.
perspective of identity.

internal as well as imposed,

From the

it is crucial to

realize that museums do not operate in a world of absolute truth.

Even if

277

such exists to be humanly perceived. identity as presented in museums is a

self-structured version of reality.
A time perspective produues the same phenomenon.

The past. as an aspect of

DOst if not all identities. is always viewed from the present in terms of
current understanding.

awareness and knowledge and is structured by the

value system of today.

Our view of the past. both our own and that of

others. is as equally selective as our view of the contemporary world.

We

take the same supportive view of ourselves in selecting the best (by today's
"tandards) and rationalizing away. if not completely ignoring. the worst.
While this is certainly most evident in museums that work directly with
history. it is an aspect of all museum presentation and preservation.
In the current state of awareness and sensitivity.
strongly negative connotations.

imposed identity has

From the point of view of internally

oriented self-image. however. museums have been an increasingly positive and

supportive institution.

Museums.

by expressing the values and ideas of

identity through things collected and the ways in which they are presented
prOVide one focus in the process of socialization.

Huseums confront the

individual with structured perceptions and information about himself. his

past. his group affiliations. and his world. sometimes more effectively than
others.

that

experiences.

produce

response in him

based on his own

personal

The essence of this response is potentially incorporated into

his understanding of what it means to be who he is.

Museums today are slowly becoming aware of the incongruity of identity. past
and

present.

as portrayed wi thin its insti tutional structure.

and are

beginning to face the .realities of imposed identity and the effects that
such imposition has on people both members and non-members.

Too often. in

reinforcing self-irr,age. the museum institution as group representative has

acted at the expense of other groups . both in the process of collecting and
in the interpretation given the objects collected.
culable effects.

for

the individual.

This has had incal-

both internal and external.

his sense of identity and. thus. for intercultural relationships.

and

People

interact on the basis of what they know (what they know is a fundacental
aspect of identity formation) and what they have learned froD museums about
others is.

more often than not.

inappropriate.

The boundary (or group)

maintaining mechanisms of identity that establish intergroup relationships

are built of false or distorted premises.
It is one of the roles of museology to provide guidelines for mediating the
impact that these aspects of identity as accentuated in museums have on the
current state of the world.

278

Museology and Identity

Ini tially. let me define museology as the organizational and relational
theory of. the acc'lmulating knowledge necessal'y for.

and the methods and

methodological framellork needed in making preservation an active integrative

participant in the human experience.

Even though this definition encom-

passes all of the functions and activities of the museum institution. it is

perhaps far

too broad for SOI!le.

I do so.

however.

to facilitate the

increasing awareneS3 of personal and institutional responsibility that is

gradually appearing in human consciousness and to encourage the creatt ve
growth and development of the concept and form of mU3eums within a widening
cui tural context.

begin with the premi3e that change is the primary

influencing characeristic of the human experience as well as the natural

world and that all societies. past and present. are an integral part of that
experience.

All societies change.

While preservation is the process of

retaining elements of the past within the present and for the future. the
essence of preservation is the documentation of change.
the present as the present will become the past.

The past was once

The essence of CJuseology

is found. I think. in using the understanding gained from the preservation

process. both philosophically and as fact. in a way that directly influences
the future by affecting the present.
Identity is very muah a factor in preservation. in the present. in museums
and in museology.

but it is not the only factor nor the only approach.

Identity and museology should intertwine at a very fundamental level. that

of facilitating integrative preservation through identity development in its
fullest variety.

Individual museums. for political, economic. ideological

or practical reasons. take a limited or partiCUlate approach to identity.

It is my belief that one of the primary functions of museology is to expand
this particulate approach without losing the significance of preservation
and museums to the local community _or limiting the importance of specifically focused collections.
part. on

wl~ther

uni versal need

Whether or not you agree with l:Je depends. in

we hold the same premises.

(ll There exists a fundamental

in today's \Iorld to value human di versi ty and to foster

respect for these differences in human relationships.

(2l There is a basic

human tendency to seek self worth -at the expense of others and that all
hucan societies possess -the elements of ethnocentrism.

Ol Thel"e is

sufficient accumulated knowledge and experience to indicate the need to

develop an appreciation for and an acceptance of self-restraint in the
interaction of the cultural and natural worlds.

If so. then museology can

be seen as one potentially effective way of facilitating the awareness or

consciousness of human identity and the acceptance of the rights. obligations and responsibilities to other members and to the natural world that
279

accompany such affiliation.

Museology. as integrative preservation. and the museum. as a basic tool in
that process.

face responsibilities in meeting the problems of identity

accentuated by the museut.l, .itself, as a specific socio-cul tur'al institution

as well as those .curren't in the state of human affairs.

Huseology must

begin by recognizing the political. economic. arid ideological forces that

impact on the museum and on the process of preservation.
hope.

will cooe understanding and

With knowledge, I

the ability to accoomodate

to such

influences.
Collecting must then be done with sensitivity to the implication inherent in
the structure of both internal and imposed identity.

Emphasis on self-

restraint and a world view in collecting from others is apparent.

I would

hope to see museologically structured collecting evolve into an exchange

procedure between groups.

This would eventually break do,m some of the

barriers imposed by a particulate view of identity. while at the same time

supporting the basic integrity of identity.
In the same manner presentation, exhibition. and interpretation of what is
preserved of identity must be done with the

s~ae

sensitivity and awareness.

Past actions are no longer adequate or acceptable in light of current

understanding.

and

imposed identity must be understood within this

framework.
The presentation of anY group's identitities must increasingly emphasize the
wider human experience. cultural. technological and natural, and recognize
the need to be honest in self appraisal. accepting the ideal and the real.
the good and the bad in history, changing technology and the buman impact on
nature.

The presentation. incorporation or comparison of identity through

the manipulation of the symbols of that

perspective,

~dentity

must be done within a wider

tempering self-interest with responsibility.

realities of politics.

money.

The practical

ideology and ethnocentrism make the accoo-

pl1shment of the ideal difficult if not impossible.

Every group must be

given the opportunity to express themselves honestly in others in ways that

ae meaningful
others.

to

themselves while at the same time understandable to

Unfol'tunately not all cultural phenomena are translatable into

another cultural framework.

The

tradi tionally structured museum institution is also not necessarily

adequate for effective integrative preservation because it is so much a part

of a specific cultural development.
ology and value system.

280

It is encumbered by a specific episleo-

Huseology needs to create and foster a symbiotic

relationship between the realities of preservation andthe variable cultural

mechanisms that will make a1 tarnati va forms of preservation meaningful to
life as well as

to identity.

New forms are already developing within

industrialized societies and by such societies for incorporated groups

(Crispi and Greenberg.

1986).

Creative insight and impetus must come

additionally from different cultural traditions if museology is to extend

beyond the limits imposed by the. tradition in which it grew. ' The support
and maintenance to identity in all its D,agnificent. dynamic diversity should
be a universal effort.
museology.

It is not the sole responsibility of ItsueUlllS

0"

In the end. we must return to the individual and the ramifi-

cations that his understanding of identity has on his action.

It is the

response of the individual to the information presented in museums and the

effective integration of preservation into his life that has the potential
of affecting interrelationships by modifying self-perception of identity.
Words are

(relatively) easy to produce; action is far harder.

lihUe

sweeping generalizations and ideals may be self-satisfying. the realities of

life make their realization diffiCUlt.

I do not believe that the problems

of today's world. large or small. can be reduced to simple statements of

identity.

However. recognition of the impact of identity on inter-personal

and intercultural relationships and the effects that museulUs and liIuseology
have on that impact. can not be ignored.

Papers ci ted and addi tional references

Barth. M. B and D. Campbell
1979
Ethnic Groups and Boundaries.
Bloor. David
1984

Boston: Little. Brown

"A Sociological Theory of Objectivity." In: Brown. S. C ed.

Objecti vi ty and CuI tural Divergence.
Royal Institute of
Philosophy Lecture Series: 17. PP. 22.9-245.
Can,bridge
University Press.

Crispi. Muriel. and Adolph Greenberg

1986
Man and the Biosphere: The Need for a Processual Hodel of the
Human Cuomponent.
Paper presented at the First National
Symposium on Sooial Science and Resource l1anagement. Oregon
State University. Corvallis. Oregon. May 12-16. 1986.
281

De Vos. George. and Lola Rooanucoi-Ross. ed.

1975
Ethnic Identity: Cultural Continuities and Change.
Mayfield Publishing Coopany.

Palo Alto:

Greenberg. Adolph. and James Morrison

1982
Group Identities in the Boreal Forest: The Origins of the
Northern Ojibwa. Ethnohistory. vol. 29 (2) pp. 75-102.
Haolll. James
Theory in Ethno-Logic.
1985
pp. 85-102.

Symbolic Interaction. vol.

Handelman. Don
The Organization of Ethnici ty.
1977
pp. 187-200.

"E.ktahaniol..cl<-.lolG:.l:r.!olo.l!u.l!p3.s.

(1)

vol. 1.

Luria. Alexander
1971
Towards the Problems of the Historical Nature of Psycholoeical
Processes.
International Journal of Psychology. vol. 6 (4)
pp. 259-272.
Maruyama. Magorah
1980
Hindscapes and Science Theories.
vol. 21 (5) October. pp. 589-608.

Current Anthropology.

Schellekens. H. M. C.
1979
Experience and Environment: Perception of Environmental
Quality. Urban Ecology.VOl. 4. pp. 151-159.
Satamone. Frank A and Charles II. Swa''on
1979
Identity and Ethnicity. Ethnic Groups. vol. 2. pp. 167-183.
Taborsky. Edwina
1982
The Sociostructural Role of the Museum. The International
Joyrnal of tluseum Management and Curatorship. vol. 1.
pp. 339-345.

282

Petr ~uler - Brno, Czechoslovakia

The nole of Nuseolo':Y
If history was a flowing river f.1Useum exllilJi ts ':;ould be
the stones standing out in the water. Or t::> lise Q !;',o(;c:en
image, if history was a running express bus mU1:eum e:xhibits
vlOuld be the milestones at the sides of the i'oad.
Seeing museum exhibits we find the old Vlorld filled with
rational and emotional security and fellucid order.
The question is whether the world really used to ue like that.
In fact we cannot be sure at all that the past ages left
for us things that were most valuable and most important.
On the contrary, we know that lots of human discoveries,
products and works of art were destroyed in the c:mrse of
time and unimportant things remained untouched' instead.
Therefore I do not believe that museum collections ond
historical monl~ents can give us a real idea of ~hat tile life
vms actually like in the past. And as for the har:;;ony of
the post aees, I wonder whether our ancestors really had the
feeling of cultural and national identity we are noVi longing
for in vain. I agree with Mr. ~ola in one point: it is
museology that can make many of these things clear oefining
the function of museums in seeking identity in the present
world.
Let me now explain some of the terms I have used.
I have mentioned harmony, order, rational and emoti.onal
securi ty. I'fhat I actually meant was the extent to \,hich
a defined group of elements is organized in a chosen space,
in short, I would like to deal with entropy. The present man
has a feeling of chaos, emotional uncertainty, ethical
poverty. This means that he, expects equal numbers of elc,I:ents
in all parts of the space he is able to grasp. !!owever, if
some parts of the space contain much more elements than
others and some other parts contain no elements of' the same
kind, and if there is a rep,ularity in this, we cal~~Seak
about a well-organized system,or a system having >:1 st.cucture,
that is a system with low entropy. Human longinf, for harmony
is in fact longing to make entropy of all elements acound us
lower. This is not a feeling typical for the modern man only.
The whole history of culture is an endless effort to
understand things, to achieve symetry, harmony, ideal order
of things.
283

A good e::amplc is Brant's Boat of the Fools,which

attracted readers of the whole Europe by the image of
vlorld in disorder, in chaos, through which the auti10r
tried to show the rieht order of' things. Hwnan longing f'or
identity therefore is not a ",odern phenomenon but a
funda~ental principle of culture in general. In other words,
identity is connected with the effort to lower entropy of
distinctive emoti::mal and ethical el<jments of social
consciousness of every historical society. This is why we can
say that the existence of structures with low entrop:>' is
not a natural phenomenon but a rQsult of a conscious social
ef'fort. As relics of saints were to verify legends, which
served as cultural aud political concepts, the museums too
are not mere places of rest for old things - symbols of
eternal values, symbols of identity, but places where cultural
i(entity is coming into existence, where structures of
ethical, emontional and rational elements are formed, not
juzt preserved. This means that museums choose ce~"tflin elements
from the reality and, having interpreted them, make systems
out of them. Consequently, identity of objects is changeable
and socially controlled. This statement can be docUfJented
by the fact that the reason why a museum preserves an object
changes many times in the period in which the object is in
its possession, which means that one object can be accepted
by a nUDber of different concepts or ideologies.
The museum jUlit chooses from all the concepts or phen,)mena
for which the object is acceptable as authentic evidence;
the one most 8uitable for the topical conception. All the other
phenomena are at the moment redundant facts which can even make
the contro:led process of .communicating the comception more
complicated,
Conclusion 1: Identity reflects dynami~m of changes rather than
permanent values.

The actual contribution of museolo[',y to the creation

of' cultural identity system has two parts linJeed together:
al fo~ming collections
bl preparino;; exh.ibi tions '" communicating ic'enti ty to the public

284

The p:.'ocess of forming museum collections is the first

stage of inte~pretation of the 3iven material because the
..
b~'n~.
reulJ. t,Y ~s alreadyYsnaped ~n the process. 1'he only gUH1'llntee
that U:e result of the shaping is not wrong is the celation
between identity and authenticity of each object1which
shows whether the object should become a part of' B .. callE-ction
or not. In my article "Originals and Substitutes in 1;luseUIllS"
I have already pointed out the importance of the relstion
between identity and authenticity, in fact creating prerequisites
for the existence of museology. Authenticity means here
the originality of the material object, identity means the
ideal position of the object in the structure of a natural
or social event. To be able to show identity of an object
the collection must have a structure. 'l.'he situation is much
more co~plicated when the object is to be exhibited.
The person preparing the exhibition first formulates in words
what he or she wants to communicate by the exhibition,
and then tries to translate it into the "language of exhibition".
To do that well he must know perfectly the era;~mar and the syntax
of the exhibition language. Ignorance in this field may be the
reason why many exhibitions failed.
There is another problem connected with the exhibition
language. The person working with it must work on two
different levels of utterance: the syntagmatic one and the
system one. The syntagmatic level places elements of utterance
!museum exhibits! into structured sequences. This lowers
entropy of the exhibition and eliminates redundant elements.
The rules of. the sequencing must be generalized and verified.
The system level is the level of associations. rach exhibit
creates in the mind of each visitor a chain of associations
deter:Jined by his knowledge. e:x:perience and emotLmal attitude
conYlected with tlJe communicatel',facts. These associations
can lim~t the results of the communicativeness of the
exhibition as much as a mistranslation into the exhibition
language. This is where individual.and social identity plays
an important role. Mr. Sola ir right pointin~ out that euch
identity con~ains myths; legends, real history, prejudices;
in one, even if not very exact word, tradition.
1.:cterial monuments are parts of the tradition too but
they also evoke associations. The person who prepares
the exhibition must therefore consider all possible
285

Hssocintions and association chains, and evoke and control

the ri,o:ht ones intenti:mally. In other words, museums help
t::> create identity, but their basic means is formine and
controlling the already existing feelings and ideas ai'
identity. This may be why it is so difficult to change
COI:lIllOn at ti tudes to some eleJ;lents of the trad i ti:.>n: to break
.
~""(\c\e .... -t
these att~ tudes is easy but not 81'lel:lgn. ~luseums must create
ne~ ones by changing existing association fields.
Conclusion 2: f.:useology tries to create new icJen ti ty.
The octtlefield is the tradition and its reElection
in human minds.

I knoVl that I have given museology a very complic8ted

task ta}:ing away its basic support: the feeling that it is
nrotecting permanent values. It is because I think
that museology must create its sUIJPorts by itself.
Its social ir.lportance is in creating neVi social BVllH'uless,
s!:o..: ing the way fro!J chaos to order.

286

Pelr &Jlei- Brno, Tchecoslovaquie

R("LE DE LA MUSECLOGIE

Si l'on imagine l'histoire comme Ie courant d'une rivi~re, les objets dans les collections des musden peuvent
epparattre comme des pierres emergeont du courant. (u, dans
les conditions actuelles, si l 'on imagine 1 'histoir'e comme
un express international roulant
toute vitesse, les objets
ap~araissent comme des bornes au bord de l'autorGute. Lt on
pense, avec un brin de nostalgie, aux temps anciens pleins
de certitudes sentimentaJ.es et rationnelles, au mende
l'
ordre limpide dont nos objets sont des temoins muets. }'ais
en est-il vraiment ainsi?
En e~~et. nous n'avons aucune certitude que les temps
passes nous aient laisse les chos~vraiment importantes et
de valeur. A vrai dire, il est s~r que beeucoup d'inventions
importantes, d'oeuvres d'art et de resultats uu travail humain ont ete detruits au cours des si~cles et que ce sont
souvent des choses de moindre importance ou sans importance
qui se sont conservees. Je mets donc en doute l'avis que les
monuments culturels donnent une image adequate du passe. Lt
pour ce qui est de l'harmonie des siecles passes? Vivaient
nos andhres Ie ressentiinent de l 'identi te cul tur;. lIe (;t
nationale opr~s lequel nous soupirons en veine aujourd'hui?
En une chose, Sola a incontestablement raison: c'er-t ~uste
ment In museologie qui peut nous eclaircir beaucoup de ces
questions et determiner la ~onction des mus6es dans la recherche de l'identite de l'homme et de la soci~te dans Ie
monde d'aujourd'hui.
J'essairai maintenent ~e me libersr du lest des teI'llles
equivoques qui puissent re~dre.notre analyse plus Jif'f'icile.
J'ai parle de 1 'harmonie, de I' orJre, des certitudes ser;timentales et r~tionnelles. II siagit en e~~et du probl~me de
la disposition des objets donnes dans un espece donne, ou,
~ormule exactement, du probleme de l'entropie. L'horr~c contemporain vit un chaos universel, des con~usions sentimentales, une pauvrete ethique. Cele veut dire qu'il bttend,
dans l'espace qu'il est capable de saisir, Ie mSme nombre
d'elements - avec une probabilite relativement grande dans n'importe quelle partie de cet espace. tlais si les
elements sont cumules dans certains endroits et absents
dans d'autres et que l'on peut y trouver un certain ordre
....
'"
ou systeme,
on peut parler d '"rI,
_,systeme
organise a, besse ..

287

entropie. Le desir de l'homme de l'hermonie mentinne ci-dessus est done Ie desir de Ia reduction de l'entropi~ de tous
les elements qui l'entourent. Mais s'agit-lG vraiment du senriment de 1 'homme moderne? rJ'oublions pas que toute 1 'histoire de la culture est un effort tenace de comprendre I'ordre
des choses, Ie desir de symetrie, de 1 'harmonie, de I'ordre.
Un exemple des plus appropries est Ie 1avire des fous de
i,rant qui - etant 1 'image du monde en chaos e:t desordre et
tachant de montrcr,
l'aide de cette situation.negative,
l'etat correcte de la societe - a attire l'attention des
lecteurs de l'Europe tout enti~re. La desir de l'identite
,
' . ,
,
n est done aucunement un phenomene nouveau 11e a 1 homme ou
aux nations modernes. Cet effort constitue Ie principe fondemental de Is culture en general. Autrement dit, l'identite
est toujours en relation avec l'effort de la reduction de
l'entropie des elements sentimentaux et ethiques distinctifs
dans la consience sociale de toute societe historique. Cela
signifie entre Butres que la naissance de ces lignes structurees ~ besse entropie n'est pas un phenoID~ne naturel !!lois
qu'iI s'agit d'un effort conscient de la societe. P.ex. les
reliques des saints devaient confirmer les legendes q~i remplissaient Ie role des conceptions et programlnes culture Is
politiques. Ainsi Ie musee n'est pas un lieu de rep0s des
objets symbolisont les valeurs eternelles et etant Ie moyen
de l'expression de l'identite culturelle. Le musee participe
1 la creation de l'identite culturelle, c'est-~-dire ~ la
creation des lignes structurees des elements ethiques, emotionnl'1i!1 et rationnels. Cela signifie que Ie musee choisit
certaines parties du monde reel et
l'aide de I'interpretation en forme un systeme. L'identite des objets est done
variable et dirigee par Ie societe. La,preuve de cette affir;nation peut ~tre Ie changeme~t de~ motifs de la conservation
,
des objetsj en prenant n importe quel objet historique dont
on peut suivre l'histoire, on constate que les raisons et
la fonction de sa conservation changent plusieurs fois au
cours des annees. Cela veut dire quel'objet peut ~tre identifie avec beeucoup de phenoIDfmes et de qonceptions, pour
lesquels il est aufhentique. L'interprete - dans notre cas
Ie musee - choisit de cette multitude de phenomenes auxquels l'objet est identifie la signification qui correspond
Ie mieux
Ie conception voulue et qui fait partie de l'entite des solutions possibles. Toutes les autres donneEs
sont considerees comme redondantes et peuvent m~me compli-

\,.

'

288

quer Ie processus dirige de communication.

Ces considerations nous conduisent
Ie pr~miere conclusion portielle: L'identite est plut~t une preuve du dynamism(O~s changements que de Ie stebili te des val.eurs.

,.

La museologie, comment psnticipe-t-elle concretement a

la creation du systeme des identites culturelles? En principe, Oil entre dans ee processus social par deux activites
.
,
"
l~ees 1 une a 1 autre:
al par Ie formation des collections ,
,
bl par la creation des expositions, c est-a-dire per la
comncunication
.....
A prc'm~ere vue, les deux systemes
ne semblent pas '"etre
interconnGdCs rr.ais il feut. se rendre compte de ce ~ue Ie
processus-merne de Ie formation des collections est un modelege de la reslite dOImee, donc Ie premier deGre de l'interpretation du materiel. Le travaillEur du musee n'a qu'une
seule Gorantie de la veridicite de son travail - Ie jugement
detaille de la relation de l'identite et de l'authenticite
de tout objet qui justifie l'incorporation de l'objet dans
Ie structure de la collection. Dans mon artitle sur Ie theme
"rrigineux et substituts aux musees" j'ai rouligne l'importance de c~tte tension entre l'authenticite at l'identite de
.
.
1 'obJet,
tens~nn qui cree les conditions pour 10 naissance
de Ie ~us~alite. Si l'on comprend l'authenticite comme originelit~ du cgtd materiel de I'objet, l'identite doit ~tre
con9ue comme une place optimum de I'objet dans la ligna
structur~e de l'evenement naturel ou social. Four Ie jugement de l'identite de l'objet - ou mieux, pour Ie jueement
de la capocite de l'objet de participer
10 creation de
1. 'identitd - Ie besoin interne df; la structur, de 18 co11?ction est decisif. La c'ormnLU1ic;tion de 1 'objet, c' e~Jt-~-c1ire
son incorporation dans l'ensemblede l'exposition est b0aucoup plus compliquee. Le communicateur f'ormule Ie ccntenu
de sa comri!unication dans la langue courante et apres il
t~che de Ie traduire en un langage specifique d'e}:posi tion.
11 s'agit d'une activite professionnelle supposont une bonne
connaissance. de la grammaire et syntaxe de cet te langue. ,.Ie
s~s persu~~de que beaucoup d' expesi tions echouees ont ete
Ie resul tat de l' ignorance de la gramrnaire du longbge. d' exposition, donc d'une mauvaise traduction intersemiotioue.
II y a ici encore un probl~me, typique au langage j'exposition. I.e communiceteur - auteur eu c1estinataire de la

...

289

- 4 communication - doit travailler sur les deux niveaux de

,,,

cette expression lingulstique. lei j ai en tete Ie plan

syntagmatique et systematique de discours. Au plan syntagmatique on incorpcre les element a individuels Idonc les
signes representes par ree objets de musee/ dans les lignes
ctructur~es. On reduit donc considerablement l'entropie de
c .. tte manifestation et on exclut les elements redondants.
II est clair que les principes de cet alignement doivent
ovoir Ie caractere de l'usage generalement accepte et qu'il
feut trevailler avec illes sentences verifiees. En m~me temps
il faut cependant compter avec Ie second plan formant directement Ie profil de"l'enenciation, Ie plan syatematique done
en principe d'associations. L'utilisation de tout element de
l'enonciation evoque instantanement dans la pensee du destinetaire des chetnes d'assQciations conditionnees per la
connaiseance de la problemetique donnee, par l'approche
emoionnelle de l'individu et de la societe, par les experiences personnelles etc. La pensee du destinataire.est donc
un stockd'associations dont l'element utilise est un membre
virtuel. L'etendue des champs d'essocietions du destinataire
et leur qualite joue, dans Ie creation de l'expcsition, un
rale eUBsi limitant que les mwtques de la traduction intersemiotique.
C'est ici qu'entre en jeu, de ra~on tres prononcee, Is
question de l'identite de l'individu et de Ie societ~. ~ola
signele 8 toute raison que "toute identite englobe toute une
gemme de mythes, de l'histoire reelle et de l'epique, de
legendes et prejuges, done tout ce qu'on peut designer pas tres exactement - comme "tradition". Une partie de cette
tradition est sans doute constituee par les monuments materiels qui evoquent nature.llement lesassociations des spheres
mentionnees ci-dess'ls. Le dev"ir dp ).' auteur de l 'exposi tion
est donc de prevoir l'etendue des cha~nes d'associations
evoquees par son oeuvre, les provoquer et diriger. Autrement dir, Ie musee participe
Ie creation de differentes
identites et l'instrument principalde ce travail est de
nouveau la formation et direction des sentiments 6 idees
dej~ existants. c'~st peut~~tre pour cette raison qu'il est
tellement difficile de changer l'attitude de la soci~te
vis-1-vis de certains elements de la tradition - il ne s'agit pas seulement d'eliminer les idees precongues. Ceci est
relativement facile mais nous nevons creer des avis, attitudes et identites nouveaux surtout par la transformation

290

au profil existent des champs d'associations.

Et c'est la seconde conclusion partielle de mes reflections: La museologie t~che de creer, dons lea conditions
dcs lieux de travail mus~al, des identit~s nouvelles, Ie
champ de baLaille etant Is tradition et son reflet chez
l'individ~ et dens Ie soci~te.
Je me rends compte de ce que je viens dE donner un devpir bien complique ~ Ie museologie; en plus je refuse de
lui eccorder les b~quilles sous forme de l'impression de
Ie sauvegarde des veleurs eternelles. Non, la museologie
doit creer ses certitudes elle-m~me, former la nouvelle
conscience sociale, trouver Ie chemin du chaos vers Ie syst~me. Et c'est eussi la garant.ie de son caractere irrempla~able et de sa necessite pour Ie societe.

291

Jerzy Swiecimski - Krak6w, Poland

Re~rks

on the problem of IDENTITY land correlatively of-!QN-IDENTITY/ of objects

collected,conserved,restored and presented in museum exhibitions
When in contemporary museology and in contemporary museum practice X/we are
dualing with the problem of mat 8 r i a l o b j e c t s of cuI t u r e
or or nat u r e and,6specially when we are analysing the principles according
to which thess objects are used.s 0 0 D V e y r s
of i n for mat ion
we meet a gnoup of questiona of a very speCial significance.The significance of
theee questions ariaes trom the fact that they relate to the problem of IDEIi'1'ITY
/correlatively. of NON-IDENTITY/ which,especially in discus8ioos 00 contomporary culture received the value of a crucial topic xxI.
The importance ot these questions tor m use urns is great so rar.that they
strictly relate ~o the proble. ot TRUTH aod NON-TRUTH aod of FIDE1ITY TO TRUTH
in acience and in art.IDENTITY.underatood as an object's quality or value,
appears in museum objects' con ten t. for m or s t r u c t u r e under
special conditions,some of which are oonnected with the methods by which museum
Objects are con8srved or restored and with tho purposes for which they are u8ed,

i] It. !s-necessary to stress the difference between theSe two notions,since there
is still a lot of misunderstandings and confusion about their meaning and range.
This problem was broadly di~cussed in MUSUM WORKING PAPERS /Stockholm/.According
to the statements I have formulated there<:n cocordance with some authors and
~~oppositi to the others), m u e 0 log Y should be regarded as a science,
Calling museum practics "museology" -a8 it oftsn happens.even in professional
literature- is a misunderstanding.Ruseum practice may bacome,at least .an Object
or museological dissertation,.
xxI As one can learn trom various discussions which appeared in rocent years.
the notion: IDENTITY has got special Importance.becomlllg a aort of a "key" for
evaluating c~ltural phenomena. It was due to tho stressing of one of its meanings:
and namely.IDENTITY is not interpreted there in a traditio~el sense of a
r e I a t 1 v s quality which ~y appear only oetween s eve r a I objects
(compared one with another).but as a quality which can be ascribod even to s i ng I e Objects and is essential for their evaluation. In this meaning IDENTITY ia
understood as a gebsral"mark" .founded on such object's detailed qualities as:
AUTH&NTICITt INDIVIDUALITY. or "SAMENESS".At the snm~ time,objects marked by the
quality of IDENTITY are contrary to anythiDg which is transient,changesble,acciden
tary.tempora(y or even secondary and untypical.This way IDNTITY becomes the
meaning close to that of object's ESSENCE.characteristic ot its stability.Discussions about ."total crisfs of identity", which is supposed to appear in our
contemporaneity Characterized somet;mss as "the time of transience" or, by "adhocracy" <,Alvtb Tottler: The Future Shock) or about the efforts to "croah Identitj'''
and to "defense identity" (e.g.ib national culture> are derived exactly from this
interpretation or the term.
293

Most generally these questions can be formulated in following pointsl

l.w hat is IDENTITY ot a given object regarded as a who I e or,of its
particular elements,selected qualities atc; does in particular cases IDENTITY mean
.nea~e same ,<(is it always one aDd the same t y p e ot quality or value~
or is i t possible to speak about various ..types" of IDENTITY and abou~
various kinds ~r r._s at its val u e.
2.h 0 wand under which necessary
con d i t ion s IDENTITY is f 0 u nd e d on the quality of TRUTH in a given objact: in particular,what kind lit role plays in this foundation the oincumstance that, a~given object (that of culture or nature) bncomes m use u.
0 b j e c t,i.e.becomes included into
museum collection.is preserved,conserved.sometimes restored and is preaented
for research-scientific . .,informatory or creative purposes,
--,
l...in the case',
3.h 0 w can the object' s IDENTITY 'be p r a s e r v e d ~heri1t' 'has a tendenCy to dissapear from i~ or how can it be a chi eve d (in a case when in
a given Object it is not present.ag~ it was lost~ in the process ot tho
object's conservation.restoration or.even.presentation -especially in eXhibition
conditions.
4.What are the way a of exposing the object's IDENTITY or stressing
its
AU'fHENTICITY("SAMEliSS") and whep object's IDENTITY becomes destroyed!
Irrespect've of theoretical importance,the solution of these questions
determines the pro g ram m e s of practical actions in museums.pertormed
in relation to ~articular t y pes of Objects and also determines the
kiD d o t
e val u a t ion we make ot the actioDs slready accomplished
and ot their results <:.8.ot museum eshibitioDS already designed and opened to
the public;>.
The aspects which make us treat these moments in a special way is thoir
&enesis.Although they relate to mat e r i a 1 objeuti/dnd different kinds
ot ted:nica1 operations.they have their ultimate source in the sphere of our
COD c' e p t u a 1
w 0 r l' d.They
arise directly
trom our cog n i t i v e
.
.
or
c rea t i v e a t t i t u d e a
to cultural Objects or to nature,
from our systems of evaluating lor
... clas'itYing~ various ,cultural qualities ,distinguishing different types ot ,values we encounter in the world which is our
surroundings.Their solution forms.theretore a "projection" of our philosophy
,~

__
xl

"

' C , o . ' . c.o.~r,~).

"

It is an obvious simplificatlon(when we speak about a 1 I cultural Objects as

", material ones.ln the works of art only the SO-Called "mater1Hl foundalllent of
being I"at~rielles Seinstundament,Materialny fundament bytowyl has the charact~r
"
of a material
t h i n g <Sach.,rzocz/,~e essential part or the work is of
i n ten t i a 1 character, It has' its paraleH foundamant in the perceiver',
act ot perception and conllciousness. AI' such it exIsts only "for us ...who can
perceive and understand it.
294

in the field of cultural questions,especially in the rield or norms,standards

and ways of j U d g i Q g objects,process9s or ideas.
These questions are &I1so speolal,becaus9 they throw light 0\1 the Ii e p e nden c e which occurs between our cognitive and creative attitudes,our value
systems.ways of understanding,etc.,and the 0 b j e c t s ~f different cathegories7 to which these attitudes reter.In the same way they detine our r e spo. s i b i i i t y
for
the
0 b j e c t s
of cui t u r e and
of nat u r e,on which we formulate jUdgements and -which are subject to our
actions.This is a problem tor the existence of these objects,for their fate,
development,duration or,tor their damage or destruction.1herefore,not without
reason the problems constituted by these questions are defined In the cathegories of & t 11 i c 1\ 1 questions: these constituile
the field which caD be
defined aa the f i e 1 d 0 f e t h i a s o t
cuI t u r a 1
val u e s.
IDEl~ITY and NOT-IDENTITY, TRUTH and
U~TRUi'H can,thesefore be regarded as
etgicel cathegorieiMuseum theory and museum practice takes an important pa~t
in the solution of these problems, I wpuld now like to deal with some points
connected with this field.
The range of discussion
The range of the above problems is very wide: it covers all types ot material
cultural objects ~her.eve~ they become subject to our judgement and practical
activity.Even in museology and in museum practice this range is very wide: it
embraces the whole field ot museumiactivities,e.g~choiceof creation of their
topics,function,e~pecikmpr)U~Jlein the process of development various societies,
etc~In the present discussion I will deal with a definite fragment of this vast
whole and namely with the problema which refer to the question of IDENTITY ot
those objocts of culture or.nature which appear in m use u m e x h i b i ti 0 D s.beco.ins museum exhibits and also to the questions which relate to
the
a use u m e x h i b i t 1 0 n,in particular to its content ,structure
and form.
Shrting poiDt

As I have already said.each cultural o~ject is in some way d 0 pen d eDt

on our co.'nitive or creative attitudes towards it.When an object performs the
function of an e x h i b i t ~xponat.AusstellunSObjekt7,thisdependence becomes especially clear.
We have to stress first of all,thst an y object,as soon es it becomes an
exhibit,changes its original fun c t ion and .in the same way its origibal
(erimar y)
e sse n' c e.Such an object is.in a certain senne "detached" from
everydlly "life" conditions.Its natural (Ilite ll) fun.ctions dissapear or become
modified/and new functions appear in their plece.The exhibit becomes an object
which exists first ot ell as an 0 b j e c t o t
0 u r e o g n i t ion.
This cognition oan be directed to the primary funtion of the object; it., GaD
295

be oonoentrated as ~ell OD the sec

d r y fUlctlcD/the objeot plays
already a s a n x h 1 b i t <primary,geDulD6 fUDctiOD
the object loses

or

its signlfioanbe in this caae/.SecoDdly,cognition realized in the situation of

auseum exhibition is accomplished above all through p 0 r c ~ p t i 0 D
~mostly vidual oneIl an object intended for cognition is Dot giveD through
"being used~ in a way correspondiDg to its primary function,nor through "lite
activity"t its primary function can only be "read" from ~hat is B h 0 v. to us,
often in a specifically d. for m e d wa1.Consequently,the f a c t u a l l y
presented object becomes reduced to an i l l u s t r a t i 0 a,by the perception
and uDderstanding of which we learn about its d 0 s i g nat 0 I a m~tarial
object,a conceptual object Ian "idea",objeot of a detinition,gereralized,.ometime~ abstraot),a process ~Q~l or cODc.ptual,sometimes hypotheticalli~nt,an inter-objactive felation,a sample of object's qualities etc.In .eme caaes the factually presented object "point. at itself",presenting what factually ~ShOWD to
the viewer ~e.g.the Object's mom.ntary phenomeno~ of its appearencel t .ometimes
the obje~t illustrates its p r i aa r y
stAte of existence,which differs
from the tactually presonted one.The cases of "pure" pre.entation are typical
first of all to the auseums of~wher. exhibit. are shows mostly tor their
arti.tic qualities,given as a directly perceiTable phenomenoD.ln the majority ot
L~
other musevms we usually find the prepresentation,when preaented objects are
intended to tell' us something more thaD it could be ascribed to them as the pro
perties or pheDomenary appearences of their ovn.
The ~epeDdence of exhibits on our oognitive and creative r.lates above
all to the con ten t ,"sense",expre.sion <.ometime. generalized a. the
mea n i n g I of the object, or to the objects f o r . which is founded in
the feDo of the object's momentary a p p are D c e This dependence
has_two "s teps". ~Lower.which appears in the case ot the per 0 6 i v 9 r
e.g.of tho exhibition visitor.ln this.2Bge the role of perception iA ~ore or
le.8 passive.for it does not re.ult in. action. which could change phJsical
qituation ot the perceived object,the .whole activity being reduced to tho epkere
at the percoi~er. 8ubj~ctive ~hi. own"> world ef tkought and impreGsionn.I. thi~
ca~e the ~eceiYGr gets iD touch with scmething that is r a a d y ro~ ob.arvatiob,underataudins or teeling. ~Higher,Which appears iD the case ot the exhibition d e a 1 g n e r ,who 0 rea t the exhibitlon~form and content,chaDging it constantly in order to find the best,_o.t aocurate solution and.as the
re.ult,when he has immediate i n t 1 u e no. on the way in which particular
exhibit~ are u ~ e d 8S element. ot the exhibition conoept,hecoaing Jx&XzxltJ
subordinated to it, o~ giving it their impact.Here the observation presents
only 8 basis for a concrete ,creative activity..
~bat is being .hown
t h ,r 0 u g ~ the exhibit. (eXhibits are used in auch a .ituation a8 a .eans of
illustration/ depend. on how the de.igner uses th.m,~hat kind it ~ntormatioDhe
"order." thom to convey.It is entirely this qituation,where we ca~ ~alk of
r 0 s p 0 ~ i b i 1 i t Y tor the eXhibit,tor ita cODtent ans~ or valu8,as well

,-

-296

as

for the content and value ot it.

d.

i g nat.

we intend to show by,

meanl of it.In ,thi. respect the probl of IDiNTITY of axhibit. rective. variou5
dimensionl,accordingly to the kind of object or idea tbe exhibit ~n particular
cases reters.The problem of TRUTH <correlatively on UNTRUTHI which 1s 1nteDded
to be "read" from the exhibit by the viewer,or which is read faotually despite
the designerl intentiona,receivel the value ot crucial significaDce.,
Let U8
explain this question more in .etail.

-- The exhibit in the axhibition situation ca8,above all,be 8 how 8 in various

ways. It call be shown in II IDllnller con a i s tell t with i til
"own" content.In can be shown,howevar,ill a way whell this content becomes more or lesa
modified; IIlld so, the exhibit'~. "own" content Call be stressed or IItrenghtened,
its expression becolles in such a oase 1Il0re distinot or,even "slllarp".On the CODtrary,there a~e cIIse',when the exhibit oan be shown in such a way that its content (its "un.... ,meaolltg7 and,'ooDseqUently,Us yalu8S-are deteated,debased or
eveo destroY8d~R.8ponibility tor the exhibit and for what the exhibit presents
or represents <e.g.illu.trates) begins theretor~ a 10 the mo. e 0 t
i 10
i I
pre sen 10' e d.The exhibition situotion displays the special
"defnoeleunen" of exhibits ~gaiD8t our decis1oll8 and actlY1t1es,and also
agalllst the way the cOlltent and value ot the exhibit 15
u 0 dar 8 too d
and
i n 10 a r pre ted by the author ot the exhibition script and deSign.
Paralall to this there is also a relatioD between the exhibits alld the ideas
which are manifested through thell,eg.scientific ooncept. which we illustrate
in museuas when usillg different killds of exhibits.This situatioll is practically
characteristic for .ciellce museuae,eg.natural-histofY and technical museums,but
it sometilles occurs in histor~cal,ethDographical,archeologicalmu.eums too,and
even in such lIuseums as the aUS8U.S ot literatura.Scientific ideas,although
.
i'
usuelly accepted 88somethlllg ,non-lIIdividulIl, '
are, nevertnelus ultimately 0 u r ideas 10 ths seose
that although
we usually do DOt c rea t e
I '
,
.
thell,they are n c c e pte d and-cotrsspondingl~- t ran s m 1 t ted by
USI mainly as objective truths'.The exhibH,contellt"b here related to the
c hoi 0 e or ideas (e.g~of ,scientlfic concepts,~ypotheges,iotellectualconstructioos etc) which we intend to' dlspl~y through jhe exhibition and the exhibit ldeu.which 'orll the topic of museUII exhibitioll
oall also be SUbject to
,
Y~rious i n d i v i d u a 1
II 0 d i t i c . t i 0 0 This-happells especially
,
i
in those 08see whell thay are ,~iYen
ill
a
sillplitied,
pop u 1 a r i zed torm.
,.
-,
The way In which pa~ticular ideas are theo moditied ans the way ot si~ificatiolls
or abridge.ents are made,has a clear influence oD~he content traDsmitted by the
exhibits,a",therer6re -on the content ot the exhibits ltself. Exhibits which
serve to illustrate ld88S ollly trumlt.. a "dose" of iDformatlon which the contont
gives thell aod to which they are linked.The opportunity tor "mallipulating"
the content of exhibits ,thelr lense and expression is Ysry gaeat in: this case.
';

297

Io can be atlxSlt stated that in tact it i. pos.ible to do practically a 0 yt h i n g with the exhibit which serv to illustrate some topics it can even
be made to "speak" a g a i t its own cOlltent and contradict its e. 1I fl no e.This meaDS that iD a certain sense thl exhibit 1. already des t roy e d.
As it can be seln from above,the questions of responsibility for the content
and value of the exhibit appear b. t o r I we enoounter cases where the
questions of 0 0 D S e r v.a t ion
and
res tor at i 0 D becom.
essential I the responsibility occurs already in all those cases where we use
exhibits which basically do not require any conserya.ion or restoration work,
in particular,when we heve exhibits which p h Y s i c a l l yare unchanged
in relation to their orighal shape at our dispo.al.
It sholld ,however,be noticed that io cartaio cases restoratioD work ia
carried out on exhibits whioh could
<or even should) appear in the exhibition
in their authentic form,even,if this form is changed by some natural processes.
The decisive moment 18 the vary "adjustment" ot the exhibit to "suit" the
o 0 n c e p t u a l o b j e.o 1. ~.g.an intellectaal oo.struction) which is to
be illustrated through them.The exhibit 18 then supplemented with some elements
which torm an illustratioo of that objeot and its u the n 1. i c features
are deformed or even destroyed.Thi. situation already involves p h Y s i 0 a 1
damage of the authentic object.It than has to be a,ked, w hen such damage
ill justified aod
w hen it is to be avoided.lt S98.S that a aolutioll to this
dil&mm& 11a5 in the val u e
0 f
t h.
0 0 n c e p t u a lob j e c t
which
is
displayed
through
the a u t h e o t i o
o b j e 0 t,and especially the d u r . b i 1 i t : of the oooceptual object
"'
(e.g.the objeot of a scientific hypothesis,construetion etc/.lt
is aoother matter
that the use of this material ror reoollstruotillg conceptual objects often makes
it impossible to r e t u r II to the autheotic ro,~ it had betore ~he reconstruotion was carrie4 out.As a conceptual objeot whioh 15 "concretized" by the
us. of an auth.ntic thing may ~urll to b. f.lse atter a number ot years (many
scieotitic concept g.in paleontology and in arctlology were ooly e~hemeral>
d.struction of the auth.ntic oPj.ct canbean irre"reible 1 0 S s.
However,to obtain a clear picture of thQ role ~lay.d by tho oogoitive lactor
<or,our aognitive attitud.&~ wien manipulating exhibits,and aleo the exteot to
which it is possible to talk ot our respoo.ibility !or the exhibit's IDEHrITY
aod the TRUTH
by which ~his IDENTI1Y il fou~ed,we must stay a little
longer with the question of th, e x h i b i t i 0 ,
1 i t u a t ion
uoderstood 81 a sample of conditions under whioh e~ibits are preeeoted in museums
Truth and Untruth in the exhilition dtuatioa
It should be stated straightaway that designs a wseull exhibition always
creates a situation of c h 0 : o. between a cert.llI amount of TRUTH aDd 8

298

certain amount of UNTRUTH. When talking ot UNTRUTH WI do not,ot course,hava ib

mind

t a l l e i 0 t o r a a t lOb

which should be introducad to tha

exhibition 8S a conscious scientific 1 t UNTRUTH which appears in the exhibition situation is strictly linked ~o the character of this situation and
arise I from the meaDs used by the exhibition to transmit information or,aven,
to present exhibits in tha museum architectural Ipace.
UNTRUTH in a museum exhibition il caus.d,ab,ve all,by the fact that objectl
which serve the furetion of exhibits,.re always in an artificially-created,and
therefore,untruthCul.un-natural aituation.The untruthfullne~s can D eve r
be avoided.Obj acts ..hieh we norll1a11y meet in an open landscape ,on becoming axhibits are Corced into a closed interior lpace.O_jects linked with the environment
of natura are put into urban lurroundings,mainly it lome interior Ipace or even
inside pieces of furniture /e.g.show-cases etc~.Objects which in the natural
'-.
situation nover appear side-by-sida ,are sometImes put together and in this way
they form artificial sots.As a result ot these phenomena the mea n i n g
COD t ext in which exhibits are ahown to the viewer is changet and daformed,
in relatio~ to authentic conditions.
UNTRUTH in the exhibition situation can also relate to the most basic,individual features of the objects transformed into exhibits.Most radical are,of
course,those changes linked with a change in the s t a t e
0 t
e x i . t e
o e ,e.g.a change from a living to a dead state.Something which in the natural
situation is a living orgenism is shown al a dead object,otten greatly deformed
in its individual shape and oolour and sometimes,even in its morphological featurei zi.e.in features of scientific-descriptive signlficance>.Changel in shape
can also appear In non-living objects just becaus~ 01 the loss of thair original
tunctlon.Sthnographical exhibitIons presenting cost~es give here the most oharacteristic sT.amples,alld show,that the detorll8t!oll ot '.h. prssented objects il
sometimes 80 groat that ona hardly can imagine how .hey look lik~ whsn they are
normally used "in life".FlIally,objectB transformse! ;1Dto axhibitll change their
a p p 0 a r 8 n c 8 .u~d8rstood as a mosentary phen~~enon,provided with specific
aesthetically-valid qualities .and giv8lltn a dl:rect ;ctof perception .lt/somethin~,
which in a natural situation 1s viewF4 ind$y-light .nd in colour typical for
this lighting,being sho~n in an artiticial light,oh61ges ita coloristic character,
appearing sometimes co~pletely difterent from that ~9kDOW from "life". Something
which takes 011 its expressioll iD_~right sun-light I.,g.carved and drillad elements
oC late-antique mediterra~lan architectural decorathn/,is shown in a dilpersed,

xl

I stress this interpretation. in order not to cOl'use the notion ot moaeDtary

and phenomellary a p p " are n c . with the noti~ of s hap e ,Which . .ci
relstes to the objeotivity,otten n 0 I - per 0 e It 1 b 1 s as a directly giveD phelloaenoD. For hlltaDce, a hap. ot three-daelliional objects il "constructed" intollectually throush a synthesia ot a seriesof appearences and II eve r
appasr. t 1 a who 1 e in the senlual data,gven directly in ourperception.

299

"neutralizing" lighting of aD exhibition hall ,and losel completely its genuiDe

aesthetic character,appearing dull and grey: for the perceiver ~ho often has DO
opportupity to see similar objeets in natural surroundings,it becomes a conveier
ot false inforroation.Kxtraction of the authentic objeot trom its
authentic
.ilieu involves a ohange of the colour background.On becoming a museum exhibit
the authentic object is shown against a new background and because of this it
chang811 itll colour appe,arenc~x.(1t "100111' differently.
Of course,changes in appaarance cal,in many casell have an aesthetically
p 0 s i t i v a value,e.g. they can dillplay in the objects exhibited featut811
and effectll which in normal conditions'would Dev.r be noticed.They can,even
ere ate lluch features so,that the objects which we know frcm everyday lite ,
<in tachn"al musaumsitools tor instanc.,in geological museumsirocks and fossilsl
Oil,'?
beoome aesthetically fascinating and takersometimell
the quality of works of art.
UNTRUTH about these objeots
mUllt then be .valuated p 0 s i t i vel y
-at leaIt in aasth.tical senlla- yat it i s always a kind ot UNTRUTH.
The inevitability of UNTRUTH in the exhibition situation forces us to wonder
whet should be und~rstood as the 0 p p 0 s i t e of this untruth,i.e.in what
sense one can speak about TRUTH in museum situation and what should ba the
ballis tor the FIDELITY TO TRUTH which 10 otten deman~ed in the presentation of
exhibitll in museums.Moreover if such fidelity to TRUTH is possible,we llhould
wonder ,what it actually relates to.
The starting point for Bolving thill dilemma should be tae state.ent that tha
museum exhibition i8 not and cannot be a r e p l i e .
0 t
rea 1 i t y.
Nor ill the e~hibit,8v.n an authentic ODe ~o be more exactl one formed trom the
authentic obje!tkPPom. pre-muse":, surroundingd ~u, into exhibition situation) a fragment of the'world known to Ull trom "daily"lite,but at molt a "concoction" (a "prepar.to"> of a fragment of this world.The reality which we meet in
the museum exhibition is a new
rea 1 i t Y which at most can poi n t
t 0 everyday lite,although the
r a a Ion of its exilltence i2f itll being
created in ita specific for.) aay lie equally-well, in its dilltintion and
through this distintion it may ~e valuable. for us: as a dill C 0 V e r y
or as a p r 0 d u c t o t
0 rea t l' v e t h 0 u S h t.
In this context th~ notion at TRUTH and FIDKLITY TO TRUTH {correspondingly,
.

--xi

' .

Contrary to the point of view charaoterilltic tor all kind of BeieDces dialing
with mor~hological descriptions and definitions ~D natural-history,for instance~
according to which colour is to be considered
objective" cathegories as
something which "belongll" to material things all "their own" feature,I shere the
view based on painterll' experience,according to which the object'll oolour is
nothing but an unstable p han 0 men 0 n tependent in its detailed quality
on the r s 1 a t ion of the perceived object and its baekground.The so-called
"local" colourll do Dot exist in obllervational reality and are only conlltruetion
of lIIind.
Besides,when we consider that colour backgroud which is /unavoidablyl/ applied
for exhibits may often have the significance of a II i g n /"iconic sign"/,the
context of the backgroud and the exhibit presented against it ~~y create a dafite eon ten t,a massage transmitted to the perceiver.There are cases,when
such a cootent correspo~ds with the "own" content of the exhibit; there are,
howe7er,cas8s when it ift completety absurd.
300

'I

IDgNTI'l'Y and FIDELITY TOWARD IDSNTI'rY) .

f4l.lst beinterpretsd not ill Olle ,but

in two differen~ ways: 1.TRUTH can be understood 88 the ace" ~ a c y

in expressing by the exhibition means s scientifically true statement. or ldse
~n partilular,a statement which speaks about the real world) and 2~TRUTH can
be understood as the accuracy ot the eXhibition.work grasped in its 8 r t i at i c or a e s t h e t i c
aut h 0 II 0 II , : for example when exhibits
put 011 display present/due to their arrangem~nt, new and aesthetic~positive
phenomena irrespective of their relation.to "natural" appearances of the displayed objects
met 111 pre-muleal surroundings.The exhibition aituatloll which
is produced in this way should be considered aa a reality exist~o~s~o~m~e~
_
extent tor its own sake !having its RATIOgXISTENTIAS in its own,or.more flxRctly
in aesthetic qualities it presentsl and understood aft a
w0 r ~
~ t
II ~ t
ot a speCial\~Scientitic message which usually is trasmitted by lIueh
exhlbitiona lM'y\/and often hI. 11 II r a 1 e1 1 fat: t III r,'.h1c:h "collaborates" with aesthetically-acUYe elsmtlnts of the ell;hibi tion worlt and servo as
"technical lIledia" of information.It is nailely the case wholl olle can IIpeak that
artistic form of the exhibition beoomes the for a 0 f t h co e x h ! b it i 0 ll'S S 0 i e n t i t i c o o D ten t, an immediate means of its
expression.Autonomous character of this form dOGe bot dissapear in such situatioll!
although being used .s a meallS ot scientific iDformatiob,exhibition form can be
perceived and e~aluated irrespective of its fUDction of a message conveyer.Making
a comparison it is a case analogous to all those,when a work at art providad
with a function of representing'a reality is a masterpiece of formal composition
and when its a r t i s t i 0 value can be regarded irrespective of ita paralell
value of an "illustration"; ill other words when a p II r t ot the TRUTH /accuracy/ of representing things one can llpGak about aril1stically-autonomou::J ''TRUTH''
of the work itself ts "accuracy assuch"~~ xl
UNTRUTH Ino".in the sense of a falsifioation of truth. or simply lie~/ besiD~
where the authentic object's. state of being,the ohange of !ts appear~Dne as produced by the 8xhibitioll situation leads til the formation of hatuX'ul1 which aX'"
inconsistent with the object'. e s fi e II ~ e: e.g.wheb as a result of the way
it is shown ,a I113sterpiece of art take. 011 the appearence of a k.i tsch.tlhs 0 a
cuI tural object of a definite p rim a r y function is "!Qrcfld" to".peak"
about this function something oompletely false.when an arrangement of exhibits

----xl

Opposite to tradi~ional poiDt of view I always stress the opinioll that any
t y p e
0 au.eum exhibitioD i iD its essence always b 1- f U.ll ~ ~ 0 n a I,
what mean. that it. informatory side is only aDe part of the whole function.
Well or badly deaigbed an exhibitioD acta alway. *hrough its to I'm and aesthetic
expression. Popular opinioD that "aesthetic oan be avoided in ~Oi6IlC. ~U8~um oxhibitions" ill therefore absolutely untrue. i t is ayoided only in t.ne dUigller' Ii
I D teD t i 0 D to ayold it,but always exists as a phe.o~ellod.a~ a Zact.
301

contradicts their g e II u i D. m8a~lng so tar,that the viaito~ raads

the exhibition set talse data and constructs on their basis t a l s e

rrC~

t a-

t e m eDt. UNTRUTH in this sense is particularly deatructive,beeause it

involveR aut hen t i 0
0 b j e 0 t . aa its conveyare.
Presentation.oonservation and r"lItol:'ation ot exhibits and the prllnc1ple ot
FIDELITY TO TRUTH
!verything which has been said so far refera -as I have already mentionedto tho situation where the exhibit is not bSllically given Bny conller~ation or
restoration trestment,or even when it ill aocepted that the 0 h a II g e d
p h 'I II loa 1
s t a t e of the exhibit is cor r . c t for II x p 0s i t ion a l p u r p 0 s a .However.wheD ~uch a treatment is necessary,
the lIituation becomel complicated,slnce conserwation treatment.and e~en more
reltoration work are determined to a very considerable degree by our cognitive
attitudeDI in n gi~8n case Dot 0 a 1 y towarda the mat e r i 8 1 object
which is given Buch treatment,but also towards the con c e p t u a 1 object
which ~e lbteud to "concretize" by meaDa of conaervation or restoration work.
In this situation responiibility for TRUTH or UNTRUTH takes on additional
dimensioD~ since factors linked with conservation and
reconatructiou .anipulat
ions 0 v e ~ 1 Q P with factors determined by the exhibition situation in its
"pure" character. i.e.when the objects are s how n
in sOlle specific way.
wben they ar-e involved 1n some
con t ext
as the result of which they
receive n 8 w mea n i a g _.atc.but physically are unohanged.UNTRUTH which
caD appear withi~ objects gi~en conservation treatment and,the so more.in those
given restor-atlon treatment ma'l be .caused by a
f a 1 s ely - d e f 1 Dad
aut h 0 ~ t i c
0 b j e c tl e.g.a false hypothesis about ita original state
of existeDce,lts original shape.It usually results 1, des t rue t i 0 D
of the authen~'.a r e l i c.the ahape of which !'Ie try to "adjust" to the conceivod
shape of tbe unknown whole which is only an object of our speculation.
In this context all restoratiol solutioDs which cODtaiQ c08sclously~/
.
:...
often}
. ')'
-intro~uced aloplificstions or abbreviations ~short-cuts"/ areiconirovpraial.As
a ruu;.t of t.hese opratioll exhibits are actually deformed and their actual cOllten'
eo lo~g SM ~t is not completed with corrective information,presents false judgements about the original structure of the restored object.Such solutions are
frequently encountered 1~ the case of large architectural restorationl (especially in arche610gy! which are not exhibited in an open space but in mueeu~ interiors
creatinR always technical limitations for the presentation.Such exhibits someti.es
ditfer f~om the auth~ntic objects iD size or proportions (e.g~vhen particular
parts of the exhibit which is too large to be presented iD a museum hall are
removed and when despite ot this the exhibition i8 intended to transmit correct
information about the exhibit or-to be more exact- about it. des i g nat e/

xl

I do not have in mind.of course.that ago 0 d eXhibition is only auch a

one which contain" "complete" set of illformations~First such :a situation is
never yossivlp and secondly exhibitioll of such type woulds!mply b~ ovorlaaded
with content and practically unreadable

It is thus possible that such a factually

*1

s a,although unvoluntary

intom1tted intormation can be "tixed" in the visitors memory.

A special situation arb.. when III ate r i a 1 'l 1\ 1 u e or IlIlUSllSl
r a r i t Y ~~g~Uniqueness)r is regarded as 8 factor ~hich makes exkibiting
of the given object impossible.The situation ot ohoice between s 0 m e TRUTH
and
s 0 m e UNTRUTH ~or the presence of TRUTH and UNTRUTH i, In such ca~e,
only partial~ results tro. rep lac 1 n g authentic objects by replicas.
Although replicas are sometimes very similar to authentic object ,this similerity
is limited only to the object's external form and
n a v e r ~o the whole
of its properties; besides, even the best replicas can never be absQlutely
ide n t 1 c a l with authentic object they replace.The most essential moment
which differs them from original objec' is a feature which only authentic object
possessr it is thill very special "mark ot authenticity",
difficult to grasp
but becoming essential when it COllles to e III 0 t ion a 1 contact of the visitor
with the presented object.AD exhibitlon based OD replicas is alw.ya very poor
in its actioD: it is limited exclusively to aD emotionally-neutral transmiesion
of echematic information,deprlving the visitor of something that should distiaguish
m use u from all other maes-aedia,irrespect of thelr social importance,
of the possiblilty to get in touch with 30me AUTH&NTICITY,which,aa a phenomenon._
or a val u e ls unreplaceble eveD by the best and most accurate imitations. xl
And finally one cannot overlook the eituations in which the impossibility pf
exhibiting authentic objects ste.. trom the impossibility ot preserving them
for expositional purposes.. v. I u a b 1 e
e x h i b i t s li.e.exbibits
which are a b I e to transmit given amount ot information)~Such casoe are
typical especially tor th, museums of Natural Hietory.A whole series of a~thontic
objects,whicb have value mr res e a C h,hsve DO value as expositional aa-

---

xlIt cannot be doubtedtbat In a whole series of caaeB,exhibiting the authentic

object can be destructlve for it.He*e I have in mind objects Which aru .ensitive
to various physical condlUoDs Inauseum 8nYirODment.a.g.light,dust etc.The situatioD ot this problem h,he_ever,of t e ,c b. n ,i, c a l lind
II 0 t of general
nature.It can be assured 11at when the appropriate expositional c nditioDe are
applied (or inveDted',it ,Lll be possible to ~revent damage ,of euch objects.In ay
discussion I aa referring tot techical probleas,but g e n era 1
a t t l t udes to certain priDciphs of museum practice which are used ofteD completely
uncritically.Natural Hist(~y mUSeums are eepecially characteristic in this respect.
It may be supposed that r'ally
u n i que specilll8ns ~.g~holotype~ are relatively rare and the huge Ila~rity ot 'specillleDll are collected in large seri8l'l~It dbtingul.Jes Natural-Histol' museum trom most ot the other ooeD,ln partiCUlar trom
the ~alleries of lrt,wher. a D y museum object presents some kind ot UNlCUM.

303

terial.This kind of situation relates to the cases whers l.the authentic objsct

"
is too small to b~ used as an exhibit (Oog.sF8clme~s of ~lcr~copic si~eJ.2.where
it 15 too largo

and its size make" any conservation process practically im-

possiblo (e.g.Whales) and finally.'. when the transition from the state of
life to death aDd further.the process of conservation makes +.he specimen deformed
80

Buch that it prectically loses it value as

possible false

intorm~tion

about it authentic

Using replicas le io any of these

s 0 me

a~

eXhibit.becoming the source of

~ppeare~ce

or even structure.

unavoidable.although it brings always

C8S0S

UNTRUTH wlt" it.ThG UNTRUTH which ineVitably accOl4panisll such "substiacc~pted.since

tution" has to be

it

~elates

to

the !eatures which are u.essential

wheD the objeQt is io t.he functioll of an exhibit <e.g. the "stuff" an object ia
"liade Offt) or beoaua6

..

eplica is the

~""y

solution when nothing else is practi-

cally left. Nevertheless 1t alway is a kind of

I:!I

a 1

nee e s

U 1lI

a r i u

xl

II.

Architectural "tralle" 8N an exhibit.Conflict of the principle of ;oneerva tiOD.

restoration and adaptation ot architeoture interipra to tha
purpose of exhibition
i
The situati.nll i!l which th8 architeo:tural"trame" of the exhibition posaossell
the value of

a~

a +. h

i c

o b j

c t.

ill a vary serious

ot conflict81 when tho building intended tor tue nUlleum exhibitioD

furnishnent 1n an exhibition is also Ina sense of
Bris~

bacau58 of the

is old

Io~

~e08ssity

the cias ot

a~

60u~ce

or when the

e r h i b i t,Contlicts

or adjusting 3uch "framo" which.as a rule.

museu~ praotic~.These

confliots

ere particularly sharp

-_.-xl

ftll thecs cosell uit~ Q case.when lIodele.

\
or aDy other lt1!ld of artii"act.!Jl .(8ooueo:ry e~bibits/ ail's ufled ss Ulustl'ati.ons,
It is important

II 0

to

~onfnso

or "concretizations" or pur-ely

"0

/I

e e p t u

1.1

obje~ttl ~dGa!l.detinitions)

as it happens especially otten in llciElDCe DlusdulIl!!.In suchl,case! there is 110

"substitution" ot RDytfilng authentic by eomethlng artificlal,becaus8
J/~j

tie

t h i

viauali~e

appear

something that

abstractioll.
304

ther~
i~

only

and(~olo

of 8D exhibit

~ 0

~ ~

1~

authon-

:imited vxclusivGly to

as a kind of intellectual

~hen

exhibitions which are introduced to an interior with historic value,have

not h i n g i n
c o . m 0 n bot only with history but also with the
character of the buildlDg,itll ,'elltcetic expr&lOsio!! and "clil!'.ato": for example
when a natural-history exhibition is organized lnsi~e an old palac& or church
or,~hen interiors which originally have the character of a reeidence,are actually
used for a historical exhibition,but ooe,which is designed on the principle of
a populer text-book and so,is
d e t a c h e d from the structure of the
interior.
Similarly,the conflict appears when the principles of cons~rvation and partiCUlarly of restoration Ifor in cany caseD the building obtained for mussum puposes 1s in a ~tage of ruin) are 8 epa r a t e d from the principles of
museum exhibition design.With such a division,the oonservation-restoration
programme is deterllli~ed exclusively by the original shape and Driginal function
of the building: and 80 a demolished palace is rebuilt as a palace,a demolished
church remains a chu~ch etc.The circumstance thataa museum exhibitioD which is
to be located in such a building is cOQpletely a l i e n in character and
that aut h eDt i 0
r e l i e 6 of the bUilding form sometimes only 3
small part of the constructed h 0 1 e,seems to have DO significance in
such casesx/~Exhibitlon elements are in iD this CBse introduced to an interior
which is recoDst~ucted as primary,authentic form or,at least in a form close
to the original xx/ and which is
DOt a d j u D ted to 1ts actual,socondary
function.The combination of alieD element~1 of modern museum iDstallations
le.g.aodern museum furniture~ and exhibits des t roy s
the
1 n t e ri'o r's
0 h a r a c t e r.This hap a negative effect OD the character of the
exhibition which oan D eve I' then be de~igned in accordance with the function
it is to serve.ln Il\Qny CBSaS the juxeposition of a historio interior with exhibits which ere aliea to it oreates aD absurd oontext for the exhibits.Confli.tS
arising when aDtique furniture .(also ~ld musev~ furniturel~
used for oontemporery exhibitions,have very similar cheraoter.They differ ,may be,in degree,but
not iD ItiDd.

---x/It seama thE.t such a programme,'is baded on- theoroUcal'rrinc16le,according to

which any "type of interior is f.ood for -8 n "J tYPll of tluseum e xhibi tioll and
that adjusting works caD succ~asfully be carried out in any.eveD the most controversial case.ln tact many decisions about the 0 h 0 i,c e of the building for
exhibition purpos9s,aO well the n hoi c e of ex~ibit!ono for the obtained
building have nothing _
in comaon with any m USe 0 log i c a l proble8s
aDd are often quite a~cidentary.The result in,of course destructive for both sides.
'xxIE.g.in
'
a form which is correct in respect ot its stylistic features,but which
does not repr08uce aay deta61s ~f th~ original which nimply are not known and
cannot therefor be restored~In such cuses the srchitectural design ot the building 1s of creative characte~ 11t is a quasi-restoration/r. .tyle is
its singlo
authentic factor
305

However,situation of thi8 type,when cODsidered from the point of view of the

designe~

reliability and the conservation duties are Dot always hopeless,

In many cases,indeed,the only sensible solution is simply to abandon the use

of an antique interior for purposes alien to ita ori&inal functio~ snd,first ot
all,destroying its kUTHEh~ICITY and uniformity or aesthetic character.But this
neg a t i v e solution relates only to two types of situation: l.whon
the antique interior basically requires no reconetruction but at moat only
conservation treatment or -ill other words- when every "unfamiliar" insertion
is.in a sense its
d 0 8 t r u c t ion 2.when in the cafld of recoostructioD
the existing docu.entantion and ,at the same time high va~uo of the building
determines only 0 n e direction of reconstruction work,i.e.the reproduction
of the 0 r i 8 ! D a 1
form of the building or,at least a form which is
p 0 0 a i b 1 y
0 los e
to the original.Hoveeer, solutioDS which augur
po. i t i v 8 re~ult can arise in situations ~hen the building intended
to be a muoeum,although it is of histori~.l intersst. and at one time had a
different tunction In nOD-~u~eal ODe or,a tUDotion of e muoeum in traditional
seDse,contemporaty out-ot-date/,in fact requires restoration, but what d i r e ct ion this restoration will take,haB not been clearl~ defined and contains
too many uncertain points,thus leaving a great amount of f.reedom to the designer.
Conclusions
The above remarks leRd us to formulating SONe conclusions: IDENTITY,understood as a quality or value ot a ~utieu~ exhibit can ~mbrace everythiag an exhibit
is consisted ot ar,it may be li=itad only to Q~~e fragment of the exhibit le.g~
to its put in a sense of a physicol olement.(.'or to a selected group of its
qualit1es.Consequen'.;ly i f ~!e spea'; about the ",xhibi~ IDENTITY we always have
to ask 0 f
~'h a <~ tbi!! IDENTITY entirely is, tor i t lDny often happen that
IDENTITY which is found in an object "coeT-lsts" with some UN-IDENT~TY~which
should be defi*ed too,in respect to its range,and,to its value.

IDENTITY may,bes1dss,be of. "al'iol's charllctor lind hectluse ot being related to

various elements of a givan Object it lIIay pres"t1tv"rious v e I u !I II! ~.g as
aesthetic.scientific,documeDtary~intormative
- one et~.ODe shoald notice , however ,
that p 0 s i t i ~ 0 v~lue {e.g.iDfor~ativ~ or aeethetic on~ may have the
elements or qualities of a giVGDobjsot which cannot be qualiCied as marked by
IDENTITY,e.g.when they are von-nuthe~tic in RDY or possible 7arlouR senses.
SpeakiD~ rof the objects' ~DENTITY as aqu~lity which 10 fouDded OD the
object~' TRUTH or AUTHENTICITY we ofter. have to
Q.~~rst~nd th~ term IDENTITY
in a senss of Ii
!' e 1 a t i \" e
quality: it ruultll fl'om tln~ W.;\' !.n which
the obj ect\ s ideDtity 18 found aDd tlamelyt'rom 1\ com P iii l.' i 8 0 n we make
between the given Object ~r its qualities~ ~1th Bome other object,a definition.
an idea,a conceptual conc~pt!o~ e~c,In such a ~aSG object's IDENTI~Y becomeR

306

its IDENTITY WITH

SO~mTHING

with
-another objeot to 'which the described and quali'ied

one refers~an object which,in such a cese becomes a kind of "model", .. "standard~
"norm" or "type" selected for comparison.In such a case one always have to ask
about the kind ot' ralatioD which is Ill8de and ,first of all about the "other partner" ill the comparison. Itt is important,since ODS can obtain in such a situa~on differelltJ'somatimes controversial) types of IDENTITIES,some of them having
positive,80me of apparently negative value ~.g.when an IDENTITY of something
in a given exhibit with a f a 1 s e conceptual Object is found/.
Looking tor IDENTITY in exhibits and in exhibitions is a fundamental ta8~
which must be fulfilled in any process of museum design,in any sitauation wh~~
objects of sciontific,infofmative or aesthetic value are presented in exhibitions
aDd when exhibitioDs are created as conveyers of information,or as artistic creations.In this discussion I did not answez the questions which regard d e t a i
led qualities ot museum exhibltios.limiting myselt exclusively to the most
general ones.And 50,1 did not answer what kind of top i c s should,for instance,museum exhibitions illustrate and how,by the selection of such or another
topics achieve their IDENTITY in relation to cultural needs ot our contemporaneity.Similarly,I did Dot answer ~hat kind of f Utg~ t ion museum eXhibitions
should be in our contemporaneity be subordinated(,in other words,which function
should guarantee museums' IDENTITY in regard~ostly)to aocial demands.I do not
deny these questiona are important: in contrary,I find them tundamental,especially
for designing the pro g ram m e s of mua8ums for today and tor the future.
These questions demand,however,to be responaibly answered special research
and it is not certain their -aolutions would be always the sarna for different
cultural regions in which museums have to tulfill their function,be effective
and ans,,er the expectation of aocieties' demands. 'rhl.s topic it far beyond the
range of museumc t h a 0 r Y ,a fragment of which I all~w8d myselt to .
preEdbt in the above discussion.

307

Te Warena Taus - Auckland, New Zealand

Thib pap~k ~ th~ autho~'~ ~pok~n eon~~bu~on
to th~ In~~naf~onat Conn~~ne~
on ~eum& and tile Crd:tuJc.a.l Conti.nu.i:ttj & Idl'.1lti.;tlJ 06 IntUguwtU. PeoptlU>
~n Jokkmokk, Swed~n - Jun~ 1986

A museuvi is defined by the Living Webster Encyclopedia Dictionary

(1973) as "A building or area used for eXhibiting interesting objects
connected with litarature, art, ,science, history or nature".
In nlost western countries buildings set aside for such purposes are now
commonplace and range from national institutions known to specialists across
the world, to very small places located in small towns and villages.

The

museum as we know it today is a highly specialised organisation that has

become integrated into socio-economic, technological, philosophical and
artistic contexts of western nations.
Developing nations hesitate to become involved in such a complex and
demanding institution and some must wonder at the wisdom of becoming
committed to what seems like a foreign idea.

The Maori analoaue

-=-"-,-=:;.c...o..-",,..;;..c.~

Yet is the mU$eur.l rea,l1y as forei gn a structure as it now seems?

In trying to answer this question on'e inevitably becomes enmeshed in
definitions.

$0

at the outset, let it be clearly stated that we are not

intereste4 in the detail of what a western museum is, but rather in its
basic function of storing objects of value,

~f

exhibiting them to persons

other than their producers, and of being a structure that is itself valued
because of how' it is used and what is in it.
The analogue of the museum in Maori society is the carved meeting
house - the whare whakairo.

It is the focus of group pride, the centre 'of

community gatherings, the place where the dead are biden farewell, and the
309

place where visiting groups may stay.

several types.

In~ide

will be found woodcarvings of

Large ones representing illustrious ancestors line the walls.

There are wall patterns in lattice work and paintings on the ceilings and
walls.

Most houses have wooden bare floors (sometimes carpet) upon which

are laid the finely plaited flax mats.

In most modern meeting houses will

be found a co;lection of large framed photographs (sometimes paintings) of

deceased relations.

When a death occurs the photographs of close relatives

are exhibited around the casket which is draped with rare cloaks.

On the

death of a very iw.portant person, cloakS, greenstone artefacts and prized

traditional weapons are put on show for the duration of the mourning
ceremoney which uSIJally lasts three days.

In fact, it is during a

tangihanga (death ritual) that the artefacts associated with the meeting
house are brought out to the porch of the house so they can be seen by all
who come to the ceremony.

For that occasion valued art objects, heirlooms

and photographs are arranged for maximum impact, the dead person being the
focus of the entire display.

People who sleep the night will have the

expected privilege of doing so in the midst of some of the best art work the
village can produce.

Painted effigies of the ancestors on the wall indicate

that the Maori hovsebuilders of the late 19th century were already moving
towards the idea of a museum.
labelled and

prope~ly

In some houses the photographs are a11

identified.

in others, tloo:cs are stored.

Feather cloaks hang in some houses, while

The essential point about a Maori meeting-

house is that display is not a primary functi"on.

In the majority of cases

the carved house is not open on a daily basis to tourists and casual visitors.
It is a structure IJsed by the corrmunity at various times for meetings, church

services, mourning ceremonies, unveiling of burial monuments and so on.

such times tre
occasion.

bUildin~

is opened to the 'public' that has been drawn to each

A group of people might be present in the house for a meeting that

lasts only one day.

This group meets in an artistic context and anyone who

is bored with the talk can look at artwork instead.

310

At

Another group may sleep

the night while others stay for several days and nights.

What is important

is that the people who sleep in the meeting-house are able to contemplate
the art work for a much longer period of time and in a much more relaxed
manner than the crowds who visit any museum in the west.
contemplation is quite different.

The manner of

The visitors who stay overnight may be

from other tribes or SChools, universities, sports clubs and government

departments.

More often than not they are related kin or have been

accompanied or recommended by a member of the tribe.

But whoever they are,

the visitors must be formally welcomed by the tangata whenua (people of the
land).

Visitors to a marae are not usually the nameless, unidentified and

unprovenanced people who visit western museums by their thousands.

The

marae and carved house are more like the small town and rural museums which
handle smaller groups of people at intermittent intervals.

The museum of a western country is integrated into the way of life of

the people in a quite different way from its indigenous counterpart.

If the

people of the Pacific are to be encouraged to establish culture centres,

perhaps they should be advised to model such centres on the indigenous
museum and fit them into the way of life of the people in a more traditional
mode.

The western museum seellis designed for large urban settlem",nts

\~here

people are happy to be anonymous andpr,efer to look in their own particular

way without fuss.

The' trouble

w~th

this model is that it is too specialised

and requires too many trained people to operate it.

furthermore, the

training favours those who pursue western-type education and who are quite
capable of operating their own familiar structures.

In the latter case,

training in the oral traditions might be far more important than getting a
university degree.

311

The matter is not really an either/or choice but i"ather one of priorities, given the nature and function of a local museum.

Western museum

experts could unwittingly give the wrong advice to aspiring museum curators
of Oceania and fill them with all sorts of information that is largely
impractical.

The local museum or cultural centre ought to be a structure that is

integrated into the life of the people and of the cOl1lllunity: a structure
that is modelled on the western concept is not only too expensive to build
in the first place but is also too difficult to maintain.
white elephant.

It will become a

For New Zealand I would see the carved meeting house as

providing the right model for the Maori people.

Rather than dismantle the belief system of indigenous people for the
sake of setting up a European-style museum, one should work within that
belief system as much as possible.

For example, in most Polynesian

structures the articles kept within them have been rendered tapu (taboo) so
that neither security officers nor padlocks on doors al'e strictly necessary.
This seems to me to be a very important aspect of the indigenous form of
museum - the whole structure and everything within is tapu.
is that there is a real contrast between how

valu~d

What this means

objects are treated in

Oceania and in western countries. The tendency of branches of western

knowledge is to secularise knowledge.

While INis has the effect of making

knowledge available to everybody which is

else.

co~"endab1e,

it also does something

It makes knowledge itself, the means of knowledge, and the valued

objects that are part of history all very common - and subject to
theft.

co~n

Why should the Societies of Oceania fo110wthe western mode?

Why

should they secu1arise their meeting-house, their valued objects and their
know1dge.

312

To accept the western model is to lose control over the culture

itself and especially the indigenous philosophy and educational system.

Modern societies would find it valuable to look again at their own museumlike structures and at their own ways of managing them.

Perhaps now is the

time to revise them.

313

Manfred Tripps - Heilbronn-Bockingen, FRG

Museoloi>ical-Pedagogical Research and

Complex of Problems related to

j. ts

IIj~Iu8eology

l1elevance for the

and Ide"ltity"

The eim of ffiuseological-pedagogical research is, by

ap_lying the methods of related sciences, especially the social
sciences, anthropology, media pedagogy, educational science and
didactics etc., to inquire into one area of human reality,
namely the way,pedagogical processes are influenced by the
coa.lunicative situation created by a museum or En eXhibitiow. 1
20r only if we consider this problem in depth will ve succesd
in setting in motion a process in the visitor which will
enable him to identify with the museological event, i.e.
vlill lead him to recognise the didactic aims &nd, via ide,:.tification, to adopt them as insights and maxims which will influer..ce his life, thinking and actions. Ultimately, chis
process should bring about changes in his be:,e.viour, since
true learning is always char.acterised by SUCll cna'l/::Gs.
In order to achieve this' aim, ideally ge"erEtinG this
proces:, on the largest 'possible' scale, in ot;ler vlOrcls to
succeed in getting an exhibition to "go dovll1 weIll! v:ith the
visitor, muzeological-pedagogical research makes use of various
methods of evaluation which serve to describe and

c~tegorise

scientificaily human actions and reactions durin;; En,: ,,'.f'cer

a visit to a museum,whereby behaviour in a mUS2tU<l is deter,,tilled
by trio components: the actions of

J~he

organisers &nd tllOse

of the visitors. In view of this, evaluation takes account

315

of the behaviour of both the visitors and

be~laviour

"~l1e

orzanisers; the

of the latter manifests itself through the

prr~ctical

realisation of the their plan, through the form of the

presentation and,under certain

circ~~stances,through their

reactions to the ",isi tors' behaviour once the display or

erllibition has opened.
If evaluation is understood as a monitoring aild testing
of whether the aims and intentions of the displays have been
achieved, the "messages" e.nd effects have been received then
the monitoring must concern itself with two major factors:
it must discover
1) how far the exhibition itself, its aims, its subject
matter and the means by which they cOllIDlunicate the
museological idea or theory of exhibition underlying
the collection of erllibits are an adequate expression
of the broader museological conception and make
full and proper use of the museum equipment utilised
(testing of prognoses and anticipations of the production side);
2) how far the target groups. as a. rUle the "exhibition
visitors", actvally recognis8the intended "meHsages"
of the organisers and constructors of the exhibition,
and, if they do recognise them, to discover the extent
to which they accept them and haw they make use of
"
2
them.
The

presentat~on

forms of

both permanent displays

and, more particularly, exhibitions must be looked upon,

for the reasons mentioned above,

316

8S

systems of cODuflunication which,

by means of various api':.-opriate media, convey .lmesEag0s' of

many different kinds. Recognising this, Heiner Tr'einen
rightly sees exhibitions 8S essentially sharing the

characteristic~

of the mass media.] This is the main justification fer

employing in museological evaluation not

on~.y

empirieal-

analytical procedures but also, parallel to them, beayiourorientated descriptive methods to research into the

~nt~cipated

and actual human behaviour in the museological area"

'.rhe danger of the more empirical-analytica::;. prQ;;eriures
resides in their superficial concen'(;ration on quantification
with respect to the behaviour of the target groupes) and the
exhibition organisers. Asa reSult,basic research into causal
relationships is possible on only a very limited scale. In
other words, in view of such research criteria, an tl:::hibition
is only successful if, in addition to large nw"bers of visitor"
from amongst the target group, the visitors'

~ehaviour

corresponds to a high deg!'ee to that expected. If th.,F; coe"

not happen, research concentrates on eliminating tLp. "ce::388"
of the visitors' "inappropriate" behaviour by meaDS of
tecl-nical modifications, without, however, at the

s~ae

tL::e

inquiring 5.nto the real :i.nt,erests, needs and expoctatii!,ns of

the visitor8.
But the basic difficulty in evaluation lies i'1:;hi8
very arc,a: discovering the needs and inte':'ests of

.~.",?

'/iai to]. r.-

and the expectations that arise out of them,. j'h1:: is e8pecially

the case with those visitors, particularly indi"id;;.a2. visitor;;,
who are only interested in permanent direct displ2.ys. The
more empirical-analytical research

proced~~os

can only be

employed wi thin the area of a broader b8.se:". museD] cg:tc ~.:.

pedagogy.
J!'or their part, the methods of be;1avioural research also
r"'quire fields of interaction in Vlhich, by means of acquired
insights (cognitive aspect), together with critical reflection
and non-suthori tarinn discourse .( the comtnunicative aspect),
they lead to changes in behaviour (the behavioural aspect).4
Thu.s, if the museum aims to be democratic, behavioural research
is o:lly pOSt;i ble if it concerns itself wi tb. two other means
of influcn:::e: the

~emporary-,direct

display and participation

in the organization of personnel and didactic planning. The

preliminary phases of behavioural research into the interaction
of forces in the mus80J.ogical field seem, therefore, to be
characterised by the attempt to establish a correlation
between the values and norms of the objects of the research
(the museu:n and the target groups) and thOSE: of the research
group itself. This, of course, does not mean that the research
group iderrtifie&, as it were, naively with the target groups
and theil'

"~'(j:>:'ld8.

1mt rather

tha'~

they inquire critically into

them and allo\" 'thm;)selve& to be inquired into critically.5

E::''':\.:l

:7.26

ei3tabJ.ished that Hevery museUiil has its ovm

v:~s::" t ~.r tY),,,e <' :'t,lmost as umni$talca,hle asa finger--print. ,,6

Ii:' thi" :i_E' tlw cai:Je, then the so-called "normative gap" arising
in many

t:2\S',f'

f'r01TI 'the' disc!'Apancy between the expectations

::ind predi,:poGi ;;io;:1s of the ITiaj ori ty of visitors

011

the one

hsncl and. the l.sa.:rn:i.ng opportunities offered by t;1e exhi bi tion

on the ot.h':lI' cem b>e olosed by achieving as far as poscible

"identi:l~ica~:tcl1l1 or '.'identi ty". 7

By reference to Klein's example of a display

- 313

011

the

subject of "Car Production,,8 in a science museum it vlill

become cleare:r' how behavioural research as one aspect of
evaluation can lead to changes in presentation, both at the
planning stage and after the exhibition

or display has

be~n

opened to the public. Together with a worker and a representative

of "i;he management

01

a car firm, the researcher looks critically

at the subject matter and presentation of a sequential-direct

d~spl~y

by asking the question:how successfully does the display

simulate the real situation at work? How do the employees

see themselves portrayed? What meets with their eilJotional
approval and disa,proval, In this I'lay both the worker and the
management representative test a display piece against the
background of their experience of life and the real world of
work. At the same time it is conceivable that the display
organisers for their part actually get to know

~he

working

conditions they wish to present by working as "temporary

employees" in an appopriate firm, experiencing this "working
envi!.'0nmert" over a certain period of time. After the display
has been constructed those whose working lives are depicted
have the opportunity to express their emotional and rational
rouc"aons to the display with regard to its authenticity. Any
"n0rmative gaps" that become apparent are recorded, for example,
en tape, in interview transcripts, on video (using unconcealed
cameras) and are then passed on to the exhibition team, so
that they can make the necessary

~odification6

to their display.

Direct partioipation by members of the target groups (repondents

and visitors) in the planning stage of the presentation of an
exhibition or display would, in my view, be an even better
f0r~

of evaluation through behavioural research with the

319

aim of achievine; identification/ identi ty via applied "'useology.

ro sum up: as I have pointed out, behavioural research
seems to offer ideal opportunities for gaining information,
via evaluation, which makes exhibitions possible whose intentions are grasped,by means of idelltification, by the ITisitors,
because they match the "real" historical or present-day
world which the exhibition or display intends to represent
and inquire into didactically. This is possible firstly, because the displays take account of the cleeds, inter;:,sts and
emotional states of the target groups of the museum or exhibition; secondly, because actual life experiences of the
respondents have been directly incorporated Gnd

t~us,

if

necessarY,have led to modifications(learning process); and

thirdly, because in this wa:/ the so-called "normative [;aps"
can be greatly reduced and ideally closed

altoget~er.

This

does not ;,lean, however, that the museum display must continually change its appearance. It would only have to change if
the personal worlds of those whose lives have been depicted
chal1;:;ed l'uudamentally. Taking the the!l1e

n Car

:Production"

as an example: new expe:ciencus with computers and robots

at

~h~

?lace of work lead to changes in the display at the

science Hiuseum which take account of the ne... techaology

and

t~1e

llew social situation it gives rise to.

In this way a museUilldisplay or an exhibition is always

directly con.nected \Mi th the lives and experiences of their
target groups. 'fms

~.s

also the case when, as with art gal-

leries, natural history museums, social history or science

;uuseums, it is a question of providing information about
anci illSights into the complex origins of the present-day

320

worlds of the

target grcups. The personality of

th~

museum

visi tor .. age, sex, previous knowledge of the subject mat ter,
social class, schooling, cultural background, inc OL,e .:nd
financial situation, religion, personality Rtructure, motivation, psychological and physical state, expectations and
role

complex~

is always an inherent part of the pedagogical:

situation of the museum.

Only at the exhibition or in the museuw do the visitnr's
expectations, interests and needs
exhibi~ion

vis~a-vis

the museum or

take shape and confront the didactic aims (museo-

logical and thematic) of the organisers. As research Aas

shown, they crystallise out only when the visitor is confronted
by the prsentation forms.
The presentation forms create a complex experiential
learning situation and shape the visitors' behavioux in a
museum or exhibition and his normative attitude towards
it. It is the pedagogical practice of a museum which decides

whether normative attitudes to the museum or the exhibition

harden or change. In this respect it is of decisive importance
how far the visitor identifies with the theme and aims e.nd
accordingly

in the ideal case - is able to achieve identity.

Basic prerequisites for this are that the visitor

~as

exhibi tion or museum experience, has fore-knowledge of

previous
'~he

subject matter, is basically motivated and is in the right

emotional and physical condition durinG his visit. In this
area it is

~lso

probably the general impression the Visitor

gains of a museum or exhibition which in turn h.as a considerable

effect on future visits.
At the same time, the form of the presentation af/ects

321

the normative attitudes of the

viAi~or

to culture and

80C-

iety. whereby together with the question of authenticity

of IDuseological and museological-pedagogical practice we must
also take into consideration the fact that exhibitions and
displays always have an ideological colouring or bias; they
can never be neutral. This is founded in the cultural, political
and economic life of the societies involved and their psychological condition. This is why, if these facts are taken account
of in the planning and realisation of displays and exhibitions,
they vlill always allow identification with society and ita
social and economic structure to take place.

Notes
1 Cf. Otto Mayr, "Das Eracheinungsbild deo deutschen
l;.useums," in Ausstellun e lanun
Ausstellun sdesin Evaluation (Aiunich~
, pp.

sa e
Koster. I.lUsew,lOtUdayOgik: Versuch einer Stendortbesti~~ung (Frankfurt a. D.:

983

2 Bernhard Graf. "Evaluation als Basis zur Planung

von Luseen und Ausstellungen," in BeY/ahren und Ausstellen:
Internationaler S m osiumsbericht des lCOM - Deutsches l:ationalkomi tee i,iunich. New York, Lon on. Paris. pp.

3 Graf. p. 168.
4 Graf. p. 166.

5 ibid.
handeln und Reflexion
Vienna. Ba t1illore: 9
(I.iunich: 1977).
6 H.J. Klein. "Besucherreaktionen auf visuelle tjedien
in r~useen." in MuseumsausstellunfYen ~. Planun - Desi"'n Evaluation. eds. b. Gra G. Knerr. Munic.: 19 5.
4.

7 See the definition of the "normative gap" in Graf

and Knerr. p. 52.
8 Cf. Graf and Knerr, p. 57.
9."
12"9.
~. K"os t er, p.
322

Hugues de Varin6 -- Paris, France

Th~ papek V~ the authok'~ ~poken eontk~b~on
to the rntekno;tiona! Con6ekenee
on ~~ and :fA'!. CuU:uJr.a1. Con:ti.luLi.,tq & Ide.n.t.Uy 06 Ind.i.genoru. Peoplu
~n Jokkmokk, Sweden - June 1986

RETHIN~ING

?HE MUSEUM CONCEPT

This intervention may be considered as an anti-climax.

Before such an academic assembly, here I

am, neither a museum

professionnal, nor an anthropologist, nor even a member of

those minorities we are talking about. I

must consequently

give at least the beginning of an explanation for my attendance

at this conference, and for an intervention titled (but not
by me) "Rethinking the Museum Concept", subject which I

find

rather ambitious, but also challenging.

I

happen to have been, for a period of ten years, director

of the. International Council of Museums, ICOM, an organization

whi~~

30me of you belong to. But that was ages ago, betweeri

1964 and 1974.

Since then, I.have maintained selective relations with a
few r.1Us'mm friends,

includi,ng s6me in Sweden, others in Canada,

India, Portugal and, of. course,. France. Because I have in 1971,

by Accident,

invented the word "Ecomuseum"

(the word only, and

not the contents, which were developed by Georges Henri RIVIERE),

because I h31'e been involved in the establishment of the museum
in L9 Creus~t (when it was no~ ~et called an ecomuseum), some of
these friends have continued considering me as a sort of outside
observer of the evolution (or of the non-evolution ... ) of the
museum institution and of the museum profession.
I shall add th&t, in the last 12 years, both as a voluntary

~~~b~r

0=

local community movements and in the service

323

of the French administration, I have been constantly involved

in

communi~y

ctevelopment projects and, for more than 2 years,

in a cooperation scheme with, and within, Portugal, where I

renewed my long-standing acquaintance with the museum "milieu".
During all this period, I have been more and more convinced
that the museum has to find its place among the most prominent
and effective instruments of research, communication and action
in the service of the overall development, be it cultural,
social or even economic. But this only if the museum, its professionnols, the professionnals around it and the authorities concerned are able to revise their theories and their practices
concerning its Objectives, its functions, its methods, and in
general its role in society, thus leading to a dramatic revision
of museology and museography.
In order to organize a little my presentation of a few
personal - and perhaps very controversial - ideas on this
subject, I shall study two different points
- replacing the museum within the context of economic,
social and cultural change in today's societies,
- confronting the museum with the challenge of development.
In the end, I shall try to qualify what I think is the fundamentally political role of the museum, in dominated, or dependant,
communities, whether ethnic minorities or others.

1. The museum in a changing world

This conference, like many others, is concerned mostly
with the safeguard and enhancement of the cultural identity of
minority groups which have been, for centuries, forgotten by

324

;$
a "classical" history whichVwritten only by big powers, in the
still semi-feudal world we are living in. Almost the same
meetings are often held on behalf of other oppressed groups.
In my own country, I can think of the Basques, the Britons,
the Occitan language regions, the near million Portugueses,
the 850 000 Algerians, the Gypsies, and so many others. There
are also the subcultures which derive from our modern way of
life or

the refusal of it, in the industrialized countries:

the so-called "Fourth World", the young ..

But what is cultural identity? Like 1.0. cards or
passports, it is something useful, sometimes even vital, to
be shown to those people, organizations, groups which hold the
real power, which, in other words, are "superior". In itself,
the need to demonstrate one's cultural identity is, I am afraid,
the symptom of an inferiority complex.
Defending such an identity, the right to one's existence
as a community, a society, even a nation, is a defensive
measure, made essential by the very aggression which has been
a~still

is, by various means, imposed on the isolated, the

marginalized, the oppressed, the exploited, even the decimated

groups (think for instance of the Indian tribes of Brazilian
Amazonia). But it is not enough: you don't win a battle, or
a war, by defensive moves alone. Even more, if practiced as
a unique strategy, the promotion of cultural identity might
maintain, and also reinforce, the inferiority complex, without
in any way compensating it.
As long as Spain," for insta~ce,has used it~ historic,
artistic and even legendary image to foster its development,
she merely attracted millions of tourists. Now that she is
also a major

economic power in Europe, she is respe=ted, even

feared.
There is no doubt that museums can, and must serve that
defensive fight for cultural identity; they can often be one
ot the best 1.0. cards possible. But the big, world-famous,
over-nationalistic museums in Mexico City have long ago become
mostly tourists spots, I should say "tourist traps", like 50
many others.
325

To balance, on the offensive side, this cultural identity

objective, I would advocate Community Initiative. In our world,
if a society wants to be respected and trusted, it has to
create, not only works of art or crafts, the first being generally copied on the fashionable works of the great cultural
centres, the second being too often based on traditi6ns which,
having lost their primary functions, cannot offer more than
a superficial satisfaction or an exotic impression ..
In other words,

society has to create new, adapted

forms of life, new wealth; it has to show its strength and its
ability to master the vital challenges of modern consumption,
changing techniques, worldwide competition.
In order to aChieve that, a museum has to become a lot
more than what it is right now, in most cases. It has to
become an active agent of overall development, and that,
because it has been first a symbol and a repository of
cultural identity. But such a museum must cease to concentrate
solely on Culture, in the traditional, artistic sense, on the
conservation of cultural or natural heritage for its own sake,
on acquisition and presentation of segments of scientific
knowledge.

The museum, as I see it, is thus to

become an original

communication media, using - as it is the only one capable of

it - the language of the real thing to contribute, among others,
to the global development of the very society to which it be~
longs.
We can, in that perspective, outline four different functions of this new museum.

326

1. To be an object/data bank, serving the demands of the

present and of the future, in terms of links with the

roo~of

the community, and of useful information on the total ecology

of contemporary man. This is what GANDHI's India did when it
establish~d

the "Cottage Industry Policy, which included a

special museum to demonstrate the crafts and techniques of the

past to contemporary craftsmen and clients alike.
2. To serve as an observatory of change, witnessing the impact
of modernization, in the light of existing (and possibly disappearing) values and customs. This is because a community must
always be ready to intervene, of its own will and with its own
car.efully prepared weapons, in the plans and policies which
threaten its living and moral standards.
3. To become a laboratory, a workshop, a meeting point, at the
disposal of the whole community, as an incentive to initiative,
in order to let the people themselves imagine, experiment, realize (at least first on a limited scale), creative activities,
and thus show what the community may do by and for itself,
while taking into consideration and readily assimilating, by
independant choice, any useful material or information which
can be picked up from the outside world.
4. To offer a showcase of the present state of the community,
with its treasures from the past, its consciousness of the
present, its

~lans

and projects for the future, illuminated

by the values it recognizes as important for its continuity

and expansion.

*
*

2. Museums versus Development

The following will be only personal thoughts. I shall
certainly not give advice to professionnals, as to how they
should run their institutions. On the other hand, the very

327

conditions of the development of the minorities represented

here are such that r would not venture to give an uninformed
opinion on their own business.
Which museu~ could aChieve all these new functions,
without necessarily abandoning the old ones, at least those
which will not hamper its present role?
First, I'd rule out the inadequate solution of simply
using a new word, like ecomuseum, and thinking that it can
suffice to renovate the old concept and the old institutions.
I have already, in an

artic~published

years ago in the

Canadian Museum Association Gazette, told the story of that

word and of the subsequent confusion which led to various
theories and definitions of the ecomuseum. I shall not repeat
it today.
Instead, let's use the fundamental diagram of the old
museum. to build from there a new instrument, adapted to the
needs of present day communities, which we have already tried
to define.
Like all other development tools, it has to be able to
work simultaneously in three ways : action, training, research.
I don't want to classify these three ways, nor to give them
priorities. Each is dependent on the others : none can be implemented alone. Sothe whole new diagram will be organized to respect
this fundamental principle, which existing museums seldom
follow (they usually concentrate onresearch, sometimes they
have training programmes, they practically never embark on
action),
A unique language
The museum (this concept being extended to all kinds of
exhibitions,whether permanent, semi-permanent, temporary, travelling) speaks the. language of the real thing, as Duncan
CAMERON put it in 1970. This is perhaps the only fact in
common between the old and the new museum.

328

Two very different diagrams

"Classical" Museum

Community Devebpment Museum

Building (s )

Territory

Collection(s)

Heritage (cultural and/or natural)

plus all the available resources present
in the community

SCientific discipline(s)
and expertise(s)

Global developnent, interdisciplinary

approach.

Public (voluntary, amateur,

captive)

a) the population of the community

b) the visitors to the community

Pursuit of knowledge,
education, entertainment

Capacity of creative initiative

You will notice that I did not mention conservation. It exists

as a function of the classical museum but not,

I think, in the

new museum concept. Of course, conserving some objects may be

needed, but not as means of achieving the museum goals, not to
perform a specific function, useful by itself. For me,

the

cultural and natural heritage from the past must be considered

as the raw, or semi-refined, material left at the free disposal
of our contemporaries and of

their successors, to help them

build their own project.

Let's talk, for once, in parables: a man wanted to build
a house for himself and his family. After selecting and acquiring a plot of land and marking his territory, he has decided
on a blueprint and on the general principles governing his
future home; then he has selec.ted, probably from a nearby
store or from local building contractors, the materials needed
like stone, cement, bricks, etc., and also the elements for
the roof (slates, tiles, shingles ). When the walls and roof
were up, he chose the windows, the doors for the entrance and
the inside. Thenhe proceeded to equip the house with plumbing,
electricity,

~eating,

etc.

After that, he has decided which

paint or wall paper he wanted for each room, and about the
furniture

329

What this man has been doing is a typical cultural process, using real things, objects. In a museum, like in a
store, we must be able to select the materials for our
decisions, for constantly rebuilding our society and the
future of our children.
Defining the museum's goal~
What do we want from our museum ?
to increase our knOWledge, but then for whom,
and for what purpose ?
to foster tourism,. or to educate tourists?
to act as an auxiliary to school teaching or
to adult education, in a pedagogical way?
to please the elite, the educated pUblic, the
learned amateurs ?
to help its curator become "a private collector
with public funds" ?
to help with global development, which includes
mastering the inevitable acculturation?
Whatever the answer, it has to be clear, honest, explicit.
Defining the methods
Of course, there is no model, for such a museum. I'll
have here to give you an example of what happened in Le
Creusot. That museum has been considered, for years, as a
sort of pilgrimage for museum people looking for new ideas
and new solutions. Not on11 these "pilgrims"have invaded an
institution in the making, causing a damaging loss of time
and energy to staff members and volunt~ers, but also they
have misunderstood most of the important features about Le
Creusot. Among French museums, the result was striking:
scores of old and new museums copied what they saw in Le
Creusot, without noticing what was due to local circumstances.
The by-laws, which I had written fol~owing long and difficult
negociations with the local governements, associations, tradeunions, firms, central administrations, have been made com-

.330

pulsory for all "genuine" ecomuseums by the Directorate of

French Museums !
On the contrary, we have to establih, in each case, the
suitable method, and to keep it flexible enough, so that it
could follow closely the evolution of the project and of the
community itself. Such a method may include some of the
following items :
- awakening, selecting, training leaders, activists, volunteers,
professionnals, from the community itself,
- listening to the community and provoking its reactions
through experimental actions (what I call in French "les
actions-prjtexte" I ,
- promoting cooperation between actors, in various fields
and disciplines,
- creating a situation of self-confidence ( en essential condition for

taking

initiative) among the people, through the

establishment of specialized groups, the realization of testactions, particularly exhibitions of a preliminary and explo-ratory nature, even if they have to be very improvised

and

amateurish,
- implementing basic and sophisticated exhibition techniques
using local talent and materials, refining the language of
the object, its vocabulary, its grammar,
- adopting techniques and realizing projects aimed at
education and information, respecting what I like to call
"simultaneoussubjectivities".
The latter can include : increasing and deepening the
observation capacity,

~valuatin~critically the

heritage and

values of the past, and also the ,influences coming from outside,
seizing new opportunities, etc.

Defining the means

The means to achieve the construction and functioning
of this new museum can be classified according to three
basic phases in its development :

331

a. an initial assistance, with money and technical advice

from outside of the community: one must accompany the process
in its difficult initial stages,
b. then a partnership between the maximum number of individuals and of private and public agencies or corporate companies,
which are, or should be, concerned with the object of the
museum,

c. finally, as soon as possible, a self-financing, in order to

enable the community to express itself freely and to use the
museum in its own way.
We must, in this respect, always keep in mind the enormous
differences which exist in the means available to museums in
diffirent countries, in ter'ms of manpower, knowhow and finances.
Once again, there cannot be any models, and experts from a
country are generally useless in another country. We must
also remember that the new musem is the expression of its
community: too much money can asphyxiate such an institution, it
can give it a very bad image among the members of the community.

*
*

The political message of the museum

The average modern community wants to be able to say
" I have established my museum,
hence I exist "
I am sorry, but, to me, such a statement is meaningless,
over and above the immediate, sentimental and short-lived
impact of the opening activities of such a1museum.
Not every museum can perform correctly' and effectively
this role of being the necessary political expression of the
existence and vitality of a community .
. 332

- FIRST, the community, as a whole, has to recognize itself

fully in its museum,
SECOND, it has to make use of it, as a tool for its own
development,
- THIRD, it has to control it permanently.
Finally, I don't think there is anything like a "permanent
revolution". This new concept for a museum serving the
neeCkof community development might be a revolutionnary
one. But we. must not attempt to preserve this movement
toward change forever : normally the museum will tend to
become a "normal" institution, either because it will loose
after a number of years its initial originality and creativity,
or because the "establishment" will succeed in regaining
control over it, or even because the whole museum movement
will evolve and rejoin the former "revolutionnary museum".

As a last touch and as a parting message to AJJTE, I'll say

to its leaders, present and future: make your own mistakes,
but recognize them, correct them, and keep going.

333

John J Whitlock - Carbondale, Illinois, USA

RELATIVISTIC THOUGHT:
Who am'I?

CHARTING THE FUTURE OF MUSEUMS

Where have I been?

Where am I going:

How shall I get there?

These are time worn questions that make up the fabric of life and guide us as
we navigate our lives on a journey that is usually done without a map!
These are the same questions that we as professional museologists must
ask as we pursue our work, guide our institutions through the traditional
concepts pertaining to the collection, preservation, conservation and exhibition of art and artifacts for the enlightenment of humankind.
We must study our past and be aware of the historic continuum upon which
our institutions in general and our museums in particular have traveled,
which will enhance our ability to reflect on the nature of our museums, what
we have accomplished, what our future directions ought to be, and in what
manner we should achieve our goals.
After having read Tomislav Sola's excellent paper, "Identity:

Reflec-

tions On A Crucial Problem For Museums," one can posit that change is inevitable--it is natural--in human institutions and in nature; therefore, as museologists we must look upon the dynamics of change as a challenge.

Through

change and various forms of interaction, the identity of our museums, their
missions, and how they will achieve their respective goals will vary in a
myri ad of ways.
If we are absolutistic, in our' thinking, we will have problems with our

identity as educational institutions in the form of museums and archives-simply because we all become accustomed to following certain modes of
thought, as well as our own established methods of problem solving.
In order to bring fresh thoughts to our profession and to 'our',daiII work,
this writer would suggest that some form of relativistic thinking be exercised by museologists as the new roles and functions of museums are being
tested in harmony with our existing functions.

We can anticipate conflicts

and questioning as our peers observe changes of direction in our institutions;

335

however, that is to be expected and welcomed as we look to the twenty-first

century.
When the ICOM International Committee for Museology met in Zagreb,
October 1985, the theme of the meeting was focused on original objects and
substitutes in museum exhibits.

Tomislav Sola reminds us that "we do not

have museums because of the objects they contain but because of the concepts
or ideas that these objects help to convey."
inevitable question:

This statement raises the

Is the object both the medium and the message?

We

pride ourselves in maintaining our collections--our past; in order to exhibit

them now--the present; and give our fine art and historical artifacts long
life--the future!

Here lies the dilemma.

We must continue to acquire art

and artifacts, conserve and preserve our collections, and exhibit the objects
in an aesthetic, pleasing manner, while we educate our public.

Museums assist

people as they gain new insights, modify old thoughts, and simply enlighten
themselves.
The role of the museum regarding our endangered environment and our disharmony with nature and our planet Earth is a subject that must be addressed
by the museum community.

Science museums have been paying some attention to

environmental problems and recommended solutions; however, most other museums

have been burying their heads in the sand like the ostrich.
This writer feels that most museums have not been willing to approach
controversial issues and have instead mounted "safe" exhibitions of a traditional kind, thus avoiding criticism for entering areas of concern that might
be cons i dered "off 1imits" for museums.
.

,I

have. a feel i ng tha t when Tomi slav

..

Sola talks about an "identity crisis" and "the protection of identity," that
he is really saying that the museums of the world need to collect art and
artifacts and mount educational exhibitions that assist people in their quest
for the basic questions that I noted in the ffrst paragraph of my paper, viz,
"Who am I? "Where haveI been?" Where am I going?" and "How shall I get there?"
Perhaps helping people answer these basic questions that pervade all of life-for all time--is what Museology is!
The ICOM International Committee for Museology needs to address all of
the questions raised in Tomislav Sola's thought-provoking paper on identity
336

and develop a position paper on the philosophical, ethical and practical

directions that museologists and their institutions need to consider as they
chart their future course.
I would like to close my paper with a quotation from an article by noted
theologianProfessor Harvey Cox that appeared in the October 15, 1969.
Saturday Review, entitled:

"In Praise of Festivity."

Western man gained the world with his rational calculations and sobriety. But how will destiny treat a civilization that has lost its capacity to dance and dream?

337

Bachir Zouhdi - Damas, Syrie

La contribution du musee 11 la confirmation de l'identil.c not.ionaJe el. humaille.
L'homme contemporain affronte de profonds changements et de probJemes
multiples (economique, social, psychique . ) dans un monde qui semble
souffrir de la lutte permanente entre la "Societe Humaine" et les forces
de l'agression. Le partage du monde, le dechirement interieur, Ja perte
de confiance et de l'espoir, les conflits .. revelent le sentiment
d'inquietude.
L'homme contemporain semble choque par la brutalite. Tout lui semble
bouleverse par des evenements tragiques, il y a beaucoup d'emigres,
d'expatries, de famine, de secheresse, de souffrants ... 11 regarde son
avenir assombri de problemes multiples et divers. Sa voix humaine semble
tonner dans un vaste desert. 11 semble vivre l'age de destruction
epouvantable dans un monde plus

o~

moins endormi. II se sent ainsi qu'il s'ap-

proche de la mort. L'humanite lui semble sur la voie de suicide colIect.if.

D'apres Andre Malraux, ... aucun n'a ete si puissant, aucun n'a ete 11 ce
point etranger 11 ses valeurs. Pourquoi conquerir "La lune" si c'est pour
s'y suicider . Tout ceci

traduit

et reflete l'angoisse et le pessimisme

de taus ceux qui semblent de,us.

Les intellectuels d'aujourd'hui, comme ceux du passe, semblent se donner
le sentiment de la responsabilite humaine et assumer leur devoir en face
du danger. Rimbaud a bien dit: ecrire pour changer Ja vie, decouvrir un
monde au n3US sayans vraiment un monde ..
En effet, l'homme est toujours assezsensible 11 la beaute de 10 nature.
11 s'est enormement interesse 11 son patrimoine culturel qui reflete son
identite dont la

protectio~'est

devenu tres importante. Est-ce que Ie

musee peut contribuer 11 la confirmation de l'identite? Des q"eslions se

posent:

a) Qu'est ce que l'identite?

b) Est-ce que Je musee est utile pour.la confirmation de l'idenlite?
c) Est-ce que la museologie peut contribuer 11 la creation d'un avenir
meilleur?
L'identite
Les diclionnaires litteraires et philosophiques nous renseignent tout ce .
qui concerne "l'identite". On remarque que le sens du principe d'identite
339

n'est pas tojours entendu de la meme maniere.

L'identite est, en general, Ie caractere ou la qualite de ce qui est
identiqJe, reste Ie meme, demeure identique

soi-meme ... Ceci nous fait

rappeler Lautreamoht qui dit: " ... vieil Ocean, tu es Ie symbole de

l'identite, toujours egal, toi-meme, tu en varies pas d'une maniere
essentielle ... " Les grandes nations semblent ainsi comme l'Ocean, rnalgre
les conquetes, les invasions, les oppressions, les problemes diverses .. ,
elles gardent pour toujours leur identite.
L'identite est aussi la condition primordiale de toute pensee. Le principe
d'identite resle la pierre angulaire de la pensee.
L'identite semble aussi l'acte illuminant qui permet de comprendre tout
et la faculte de sentir la dignite et Ie sentiment de rester toujours
soi-meme malgre son evolution. Elle est ainsi la vitalite forte !VIS VITALIS!.
Elle tire 1 'homme de son angoisse, de son inquietude, de sa solitude, de sa
perte, de son egarement et de son hesitation.
L'identite contribue

la formation de l'homme et de Is Societe Humaine.

C'est ainsi que chacun semble fier de son identite pour laquelle iI se
livre une bataille individuelle, collective, nationale et humaine. De plus,
chacun semble pret

etre martyr pour la vie de sa nation, l'honneur de sa

patrie et la dignite de la Societe Humaine.

L'homme demeure toujours fidele

la regIe ancestrale de la clemence, de

la prudence avisee et constructive, de l'energie contageuse, de la tenacite

inebranlable, de coutumes, de costumes etc. 11 s'agrandit par l'exemple
des ancetres. Tout ceci

montr~

'lequel en s'id,entifiant

la fidelite de l'homme pour ses ancetres

leur esprit semble'l1ivre"pour toujours.

La conservation de ses biens culturels, la restauration de ses monuments

historiques, son interet pour les sites archeologiques et ses etudes
historiques et litteraires ... tout ceci confirme son interet pour tout
ce qui

co~cerne

son passe et son identite natlonale naturelle, culturelle

et humaine.
II est

noter que Ie pere de l'esprit des lumieres, J. Locke, est Ie

premier qui ait fait voir ce que c'est que l'identite. II est aussi

340

signaler que R W Emerson est l'auteur de l'ouvrage

"identit~

et

r~aljt~"

en 1908.
Le musee et l'identite
L'homme sent de la nostalgie pour son passe et pour ca cuJture qui
personnifie son identite. Jl semble Ie gardien jaloux de son heritage
cuJtureJ. JJ est toujours fier de son patrimoine cuJtureJ et de son
identite nationaJe et humaine dont i l s'enorgueille.
des

mus~es

J]

a partout cree

pour y conserver des collections diverses du passe. JJ a aussi

fait construire Je musee qui fait rappeJer Je passe et confirmer son

identite. Le musee de SKANSEN est un meilleur exemple. Beaucoup de musees
portent Ie nom "Musee National" qui confirme l'identite cultureJJe et
nationaJe.
En effet, Ie musee conserve des biens culturels des generations du passe
aux generations montantes. La conservation du patrimoine culturel
exprime Ie grand respect pour les ancetres et leur heritage culturel
qui confirme l'identite culturelle, nationale et humaine. Chaque
generation semble ainsi

l'heriti~re

de l'apport de la culture precedente.

Tout objet d'art et d'archeologie semble au musee un signe d'un certain

sens culturel qui exprime l'identite naturelle, cultureJle, nationale et
humaine. Le musee semble ainsi un moyen d'expression relative

la dite

identite. II figure Ie milieu et la Societe Humaine. Ses collections

expliquent les besoins de l'homme, son habilete technique, son experience
professionnelle et son influence culturelle. Dans un genre de refJexion,
de contemplation et de meditation, l'homme arrive ~ confirmer au musee son
identite naturelle, culturelle, nationale et humaine.
Le musee garde, avec beaucoup de fidelite, les souvenirs des generations
du passe pour celJes d'aujourd'huietde 1 'iwenir. II expdme l'idee de
la continuite et personnifie la

consc~ence

de l'identite.

Le musee a activement contribue au reveil "du sentiment nationaJ" chez Jes

peuples opprimes par des agresseurs. Les ennemis ont beaucoup detruitdes
monuments et des biens culturels. Le memoire populaire a soigneusement
garde les

souv~nirs

de tout ce qui concerne la dite identite.

Le musee a energiquement contribue

convaincre les esprits de "J'unite de

l'identite" nationale et humaine. 11 nous rend

consc1ents de ce que nous

341

avons ete

travers les siecles. D'apres Ruskin, les grandes nations

ecrivent leur autobiographie en trois volumes: Ie livre de leurs actions,

Ie livre de leurs mots et Ie livre de leurs arts. La civilisation de
l'o~jet

semble deborder de beaucoup celle de mots. Le musee semble charger

de la protection des biens culturels et de la confirmation d3 la dite

identite naturelle; culturelle, nationale et humaine. Tout ceci fait que
l'homme s'arrete

au musee pour respirer Ie par fum de la culture ancestrale

au. racines lointaines et originales.

La contribution de la museologie

la creation de l'avenir meilleur

C'est grace au. nouveaux moyens d'informations et aux nouvelles

institutions de la culture que l'homme contemporain semble sociable,
comprehensif de

son interet national et humain, ouvert

l'esprit de son

epoque et assez soucieux pour l'avenir de son humanite. 11 peut partout

savoir tout ce qui se passe

chaque instant. II est ainsi devenu un

homme d' une "culture generale et uni verselle".

En effet, on organise partout des congres divers, des expositions
temporaires et circulantes, des voyages d'etudes ... etc. Tout ceci contribue

developper la capacite de l'intelligence,

rapports sociau.

faciliter les meilleurs

l'echelle nationale et internationale,

toutes les divergences et

effacer

grouper tous ceux qui travaillent pour Ie

"progres de l'homme et son bonheur". L'hom:ne porte en lui Ie stimulant Ie

plus energique du progres, Ie sentiment Ie plus humain, Ie sens Ie plus
fin et culturel, l'orgueil de sa mission la plus noble et humaine et
enfin la haute conception du devoir humain. Notre generation a Ie
privilege de voir les premiers hommes passer leur pas sur la Lune. Cette
importante realisation. est l'objet de la fierte de tous.
Certes, aucun n'accepte d'atre coupe de son.passe, depourvu de son identite.
Le musee nous fait plonger nos regards dans -le.passe et dans l'avenir. 11
semble au service de tous. 11 est vraiment impartial. II est donc 1 'objet
de 1a fierte de tous. C'est au musee qu'on decouvre la dite identite et
qu'on trouve aussi tout ce qui est mervei11eux. L'individua1ite se
dissout dans 1a collectivite, la singularite est assimi1ee

1a

collectivite. C'est ainsi que nous sommestous fiers du plus anciens

musee du monde, "Ie musee d'Alexandrie", aussi bien que nous sommes taus
fiers du plus recent musee, Ie "musee de 1a conquate de l'espace". Le
m"see semble ainsi Ie lieu de rencontre des trois dimensions de temps:
Ie passe, Ie present et l'avenir. II semble un amical foyer de rencontre,
de connaitre et de se reconnaitre. 11 semble aussi un memoire collectif

342

de la Societe Humaine et Ie traite de tous Ies traites. II contribue

la confirmation de la dite identite, 8 la formation du goOt, 8 la

diffusion de la culture et au developpement des meilleures relations
sociales. La museologie est done la base de la culture de l'homme
d'aujourd'hui et celui de l'avenir meilleur.
Conclusion
La museologie contribue 8 la protection des biens culturels, 8 la conformation de la dite identite et

la diffusion de la culture humaine et

universelle. Le musee n'est pas un musee magasin, i l est un "musee ecole"

et un "musee club" ou s'assurent Ie respect de la culture traditionnelle,
la diffusion de la culture moderne et contemporaine et la creation des
nouvelles ambitions humaines. II s'adresse au public Ie plus large de
tous les 1Iges.
La civilisation demande un minimum de prosperite et exige la confiance
dans la societe ou l'on vito La museologie contribue
"droits de 1 'homme et de son bonheur" dans un monde

a
Oll

la protection des
"I 'ordre et Ie

progres" semblent les regles de la meilleure conduite qui peut nous

servir de meilleur guide

un avenir meilleur;

Le langage museal, comme celui de la musique, semble humain et universel.

11 nous apporte tout ce qu'il y a de meil1eur

dans l'homme etdans sa

creation. 11 semble une lumiere d'esprit, Ie havre de la paix, une

occasion de collaboration et une raison de progres et de bonheur.
L'humanite a besoin d'une "Science de bonheur". Holbein a bien dit: la
conditio, du bonheur individuel est la pratique de la vertu. L'homme exige
la protection de la nature, car l'amour de la nature est derive de la
nature de 1 'homme. 11 ,repete avec Franz Fuhman ... Qu' i l ne sait cause de
dommage ni

la terre, ni ,8 la mer; '!'ii' aux "arbres Verlaine a bien dit:

"Ma vision de la'nature est,la vie de-mon esprit."

343

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