MATRICES

CHAPTER 1

1.0 MATRICES
A set of m x n numbers or functions, arranged in a rectangular array of m rows and n
column is called a matrix of order m x n, read as m by n.
To indicate the position of an element in a matrix, denote each element by a letter
followed by two suffixes.
A matrix of order m x n with double suffix notation is given by:

a11
a
21

a12
a 22

a m1

am 2

... a1n
... a 2n
.

... a mn

The suffixes i and j in the element a ij indicate that the element a ij belongs to the i

th

row

and j th column. Thus a 23 belongs to second row and third column.

1.1 TYPES OF MATRICES
a) Row matrix a matrix that has only one row.
Example:
A 1 4

b) Column matrix a matrix that has only one column.

Example:
7
A 5
2

c) Square matrix a matrix whose the numbers of row (m) and column (n) are equal.
The matrix is called a square matrix of order n x n or n.
Example:

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d) Diagonal matrix it is a square matrix of whose elements except those in the

leading diagonal are zero i.e. a ij = 0 when i j .
Example:
2
A 0
0

0
1
0

0
0
3

A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are all equal is called a scalar matrix.
Example:
2
A 0
0

0
2
0

0
0
2

A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are all equal to unity is called a unit
/identity matrix denoted by I.
Example:
1
I
0

0
1

and

1
I 0
0

0
1
0

0
0
1

e) Null /zero matrix a matrix whose elements are all zero.

Example:
0
A 0
0

f)

0
0
0

0
0
0

Triangular matrix a square matrix whose elements either above or below the
leading diagonal are all zero.
Example:

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Upper Triangular Matrix

a11 a12

A 0 a22
0
0

a13

a23
a33

Lower Triangular Matrix

0
a11 0

A a 21 a22 0
a31 a31 a33
g) Matrix Transpose a matrix obtained from any given matrix A by changing rows
into columns or columns into rows and denoted by AT .
Example:
1

If A 4
7

2
5
8

3
1

T
6 , then A 2
3
8

4
5
6

7
8
9

h) Symmetric matrix if a square matrix A and its transpose AT are identical such
that AT A .
Example:
1
A 4
5

i)

4
3
0

5
0
7

Skew symmetric matrix if a square matrix A such that AT A

Example:
0
A
2

j)

2
0

Singular matrix a matrix whose determinant

If

A 0,

is equal to zero.

A is a non-singular matrix.

k) Adjoint matrix a matrix whose elements are the transpose of cofactor matrix.

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l) Equal matrix Two matrices A and B are said to be equal when they are of the
same
order and the element in the corresponding positions are equal.

1.2 MATRIX OPERATIONS

1.2.1

Addition / Subtraction

Two matrices A and B can be added /subtracted only if the order of A and B are the
same order (both have the same shape and size).
Example 1:
Given the following matrices:
1
A
3

2
2

3
1

2
AB
1

1
3

1
B
2

1 0
1 2

1
C
4

3
2

Solution:
3
1

0
AB
5

3
1

3
3

The expression A C, B C, A C and B C are undefined since they have

different orders.
Note: In general, matrix addition is commutative that is

AB B A

A (B C ) ( A B ) C

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1.2.2

CHAPTER 1

Scalar Multiplication

For any matrix A, we can multiply A by a scalar, to form a new matrix of the same
order as A. This multiplication is performed by multiplying every element of A by the
scalar.
Example 2:
1

Let A 3
2

2
0 . Find
4

2 A and

1
A.
3

Solution:
1
2A 2 3
2

2
2

0 6
4
4

4
0
8

1 2 13 2 3

1
1
A 3 0 1 0
3
3
2 4 2 4
3
3

1.2.3

Matrix Multiplication

Two matrices A and B can be multiplied if and only if matrix A has the same number
of columns as B has in its rows (i.e. A is the order of p x n and B is the order of n x
q). The resulting matrix AB will be of order p x q.
Example 3:
2

If C 1 3 and D
0

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1
2

3
, can the product CD be formed?
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Solution:
C has size 1 2 . D has size 2 3 . Since the number of columns in C is the same
as the number of rows in D, we can form the product CD. The resulting matrix will
have size 1 3 as there is one row in C and three columns in D.
2

Suppose we wish to find CD when C 1 3 and D

0

1
2

3
.
5

CD (1 2) (3 0 ) (1 1) (3 ( 2)) (1 3) (3 5)

Then,

CD 2

5 18

Example 4:
1
A
2

Given

2
6

4
0

1
B 1 ,
7

2
C 0
1

3
4 ,
5

D 1 2,

1 2
E
.
1 3

determine AB and AC . Solve for BD and CE

Solution:
1
AB
2

2
6

1
4
1
0
7

1(1) 2( 1) 4(7 )

2(1) 6( 1) 0(7 )
27

4
1
AC
2

2
6

2
4
0
0
1

3
4
5

1( 2) 2(0) 4(1)

2(2) 6(0) 0(1)

6

1(3) 2(4) 4(5)

2(3) 6( 4) 0(5)

27
30

*Note:

Matrix multiplication is not commutative, AB BA

Matrix multiplication is associative, ( AB )C A(BC )

1.3 MINOR AND COFACTORS

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1.2.2

CHAPTER 1

Minor

Definition: Let A be an n x n matrix. The minor, M ij , of the element a ij is the

determinant of the matrix obtained by deleting the i-th row vector and j-th column
vector of A.
Example:

a11 a12

If A a 21 a 22
a 31 a 32
1.2.3

a13

11
12
a 23 , then M 23
a31 a32
a 33

Cofactor

Definition: Let A be an n x n matrix. The cofactor, Aij , of the element a ij is defined

i j
by Aij 1 M ij , where M ij is the minor of aij .

The appropriate sign in the cofactor Aij , is easy to remember, since it alternates in

the following manner:

...
...
...
:

1.4 DETERMINANT
Definition: the determinant of an n x n matrix A, denoted det( A) or

, is a scalar

associated with the matrix A that is defined as follows:

a11 if n 1
det( A)
a11A11 a12 A12 . . a1n A1n if n 1
1 j
where A1 j 1 det M 1 j ,

j 1,2,3,..., n

are the cofactor associated with the entries in the first row of A.

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Example 5:
2

If A 0
2

3
2
5

1
4 , find det A .
6

Solution:
Expand the determinant along the first row:

det A 2

2
5

4
0
3
6
2

4
0
( 1)
6
2

2
5

2[(2 6) ( 4 5 )] 3[(0 6 ) ( 4 ( 2))] [( 0 5 ) ( 2 ( 2))]

16 24 4
44

*Note:
can

we

expand

the determinant by any row or column in the same way and obtain the same result in
each case.
1.4.1

Singular Matrix

Theorem: An n x n matrix is nonsingular if and only if det( A) 0 .

If det A 0 , then A is a singular matrix.
Example 6:
Determine whether the following matrices are nonsingular or singular.
1
C 2
3

1 3
4 2
5
7

and

2
D 1
4

3
5
7

1
2
3

Solution:
C is a nonsingular matrix because det(C ) 52 0 .
D is a singular matrix because det( D ) 0
1.4.2

Use the Determinants to find Vector Products.

If a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k, then

i
a x b = a1
b1

j
a2

k
a3

b2

b3

Example 7:
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If a = 3i + j - 2k and b = 4i + 5k, find a x b.

Solution:
i

axb= 3
4

j
1
0

k
2
5

= 5i - 23j - 4k
1.5 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
Theorem: If A is an n x n upper or lower triangular matrix, then
det A A a11 a 22 a 33 ... a nn

Example 8:
2

Let A 0
0

5
1
0

1
0 . Find det A .
7

Solution:
Since A is an upper triangular matrix, then det A 2 1 7 14 .
1.6 ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS (ERO)
There are three operations for elementary row operations:
a) Interchange rows
b) Multiply a row by a nonzero constant
c) Add a multiple of one row to another row
Notations:
a) R i R j : interchange row i and row j
b) R i kR i : multiply row i by the scalar k
c) R i R i kR j : add k times row j to row i

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1.6.1

CHAPTER 1

Elementary Row Operations and Determinants

Let A be an n x n matrix.
P1: If B is a matrix obtained by interchanging two distinct rows of A, then
det A det(B )

P2: If B is the matrix obtained by dividing any row of A by a nonzero scalar k, then
det A k det( B )

P3: If B is the matrix obtained by adding a multiple of any row of A to a different row
of A then det A det(B )
Example 9:
2

Let A 1
3

1
2
4

3
4 . Find det A by using the properties of determinants.
2

Solution:
2
1
3

1
2
4

3
4 R1 R 2 :
2

2
1
4

1
2
3

by [P1]

R 2 R 2 2R 1 :

1
0
3

2
3
4

4
5
2

R 3 R 3 3R 1 :

1
0
0

2
3
10

4
5
10

R2 R3 :

R2

0
0

10
3

10
5

1
1
R 2 : 10 0
10
0

2
1
3

1
R 3 R 3 3R 2 : 10 0
0

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4
3
2

by [P3]

by [P3]

by [P1]

4
1
5

by [P2]

1
0

1
2

by [P3]

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So, det( A) 10 1 1 2 20

P4: If A is an n x n matrix, then det AT det( A ) .

P5: Let A and B be n x n matrices. Let a1, a 2 ,..., a n denote the row vectors of A. If
the i-th row vector of A is the sum of two row vectors, for example ai bi c i , then
det( A) det( B ) det(C )

a1
a1

:
:
a i 1
a i 1

where B bi and C c i .
a i 1
a i 1

:
:
a
a
n
n
The corresponding property is also true for columns.
P6: If A has a row(or column) of zeros, then det A 0 .
P7: If two rows ( or columns) of A are the same, then det A 0 .
P8: If A and B are matrices of the same size, then det AB det A det B
P9: Let A be an n x n matrix and k be a scalar, then det kA k n det A

P10: Let A be an invertible matrix, then det A

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Example 10:
Evaluate

2 4x
5 3x
1 2x

4
3
2

2
3
1

Solution:
Apply P5 to the first column:

2
5
1

1
25
1

Since
Thus,

2 4x
5 3x
1 2x

4
3
2

4
3
2

2
4x
3 3x
1
2x

4
3
2

2
3
1

2
3
2

1
4
3 x 3
1
2

4
3
2

2
3
1

R1 R 3

and

2
3 2(0) x (0) 0
1

C1 C 2

by P7.

1.7 MATRIX INVERSE

If det( A ) 0 , A is a nonsingular matrix. Then, A 1 exists.
1.7.1 Steps to find the inverse of any matrix:
1. Find det A
If det( A ) 0 , A 1 does not exist. We stop all calculations.
If det( A) 0 , we proceed to step 2
2. Find matrix of cofactor.
3. Find adjoint matrix, adj(A)
4. Find matrix inverse,

A 1

1
adj(A)
det A

Example 11:
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Find A 1

0
3

if A 1 2
4 3

2
4 .
1

Solution:
1. Find det A :
3
1
4

0
2
3

2
4 32
1

Since det A 32 0 , A is a nonsingular matrix so A 1 exists.

2. Find the matrix of cofactor:

3 1
0
2

3 1
0 2

2 4

4
3
14
3
0

6
4 3
4
3
0

1 2

4
1
3 2

4 1
3
2

1 4

14

So, the matrix of cofactor is 6

4

17
5
14

17
5
14

5
9
6

5
9
6

3. Find adjoint matrix, adj(A):

14

adj(A)= 17
5

4. Find matrix inverse,

6
5
9

A 1

32

14
17
5

4
14
6

1
adj(A)
det A
6
5
9

4
14
6

1.8 ROW TRANSFORMATION METHOD

Row transformation method is another method used to determine A 1 .
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Example 12:
Use row transformation method to find A

if A 2
1

5
4
2

4
8 .
3

Solution:
Start with A | I , where I is an identity matrix.
6
2

5
4
2

4
8
3

:
:
:

1
0
0

0
1
0

0
0
1

reduce the LHS to an identity matrix

Use ERO:

1
2
R1 R3 :
6
1

R2 + 2R1: 0
6

R3 - 6R1: 0
0

1
R2
8

2
8
7

2
4
5

2
8
5

3
8
4

:
:
:

0
0
1

3
14
4

:
:
:

0
0
1

3
14
14

:
:
:

0
0
1

1
0
0

0
1
0
0
1
0

0
1
0

1
2
0

1
2
6

3 : 0 0
1
1 2
0 1 7
1
: 0 1

4
8
4
0 7 14 : 1 0 6

1 2

3 : 0 0
1

1
0 1 7
: 0 1
4
8
4

0 0 7 4 : 1 7 8 17 4

R3 + 7R2:

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1 2 3 : 0
0
1

1
1
: 0 1 7 : 0
4
8
4

0 0 1 : 4 7 12 17 7

4
R3
7

1 2 3 :
0
0
1

7
1
1
4
R2 R3: 0 1 0 :
4
0 0 1 : 4
1 17
7
2
7

R1 - 3R3:

3
44
1 2 0 : 12
7
2
7

1
4
0 1 0 : 1
0 0 1 : 4 1 17
7
2
7

R1 - 2R2:

1 0 0 : 2 1 12
7
2
7

0
1
0
:
1
1

0 0 1 : 4 1 17
7
2
7

the required A 12on the RHS

Therefore,

2 1 12
7
2
7
1
A 1
1 4
4 1 17
2
7
7

*Note: You should check this result by evaluating A A 1 .

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