Nervous System

Homeostasis (balance): maintenance of a steady state within the cell or organism.

Biological systems are used to maintain homeostasis:
– Nervous system (electrochemical system)
– Endocrine system (chemical control)
Common properties of biological control systems:
– have limits
– require operating energy
– use feedback (-) response inhibits stimulus
– can experience overshoots
– ability to correct errors
Components of the Nervous System:
a) Stimulus
– any change in the environment which activates a receptor
– stimulus may be mechanical (pressure, pain), temperature, vibrations (ear),
light waves (eye)

a) Receptor (reception)
– detects a certain kind of change in the environment and initiating a signal, the
nerve impulse, in the nerve cell to which it is attached (receptor is changed
chemically by the stimulus)
– sense organs are stimulus receptors (eyes, ears, nose)

a) Sensory Pathway (transmission)

– involves the carrying of a nerve impulse from a receptor to the brain and/or
spinal cord (Central Nervous System – CNS) via a sensory neuron

a) Modulator (interpretation)
– involves brain and/or spinal cord
– nerve impulses are interpreted based on priority and past experiences
– sensations exist only in the brain and not in the organ that detects the stimulus
– general anesthesia (unconscious): brain is unable to interpret stimulus and
hence no sensation
– phantom pain: amputee can still feel pain in the missing limb (from remnants
of sensory neurons)

a) Motor Pathway
– carries impulse from the CNS to the effector via the motor neuron

a) Effector
– carries out the appropriate response
– major effectors are muscles and glands

NOTE: association or interneurons are linking neurons between sensory and motor
neurons found only in the CNS.
The Neuron:
– a nerve cell
 – there are 100 billion neurons in the brain
– research is showing that nerve cells can be regenerated or new cells can
replace lost ones (use of stem cells)
– Parts + Functions of a Motor Neuron:
○ Dendrites:
- conduct information toward cell body
- branched to increase surface area

○ Cell Body:
- contains cell nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles
- control, manufacture neurotransmitters (chemicals)

○ Nucleus:
- contains DNA (instructions for reproduction)
- overall control center

○ Axon Hillock:
- site of formation of nerve impulse

○ Axon:
- conducts nerve impulses away from cell body

○ Schwann Cell:
- found in Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- supporting cell
- form myelin sheath and neurilemma

○ Node of Ranvier:
- no myelin sheath
- salutatory conduction: impulse jumps from node to node

○ Neurilemma:
- protection, support
- regeneration powers of axon
- in all PNS
- not in CNS

○ Myelin:
- white in colour
- insulation – prevents escape of ions (allows for faster transmission)
- found in some CNS and PNS neurons
- formed by oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann cells in PNS
- are cell membranes of Schwann cells
○ End Plates (Synaptic Knobs):
- releases neurotransmitters (chemicals)

STS (Science, Technology, and Society)

 – Multiple Sclerosis:
- progressive loss of coordination
- disruption of nerve impulses due to deterioration of myelin sheaths
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072437316/student_view0/chapter45/animations.html#

Resting Membrane Potential (RP):

– refers to the electrical potential (voltage) difference which exists between the
inside and the outside of all cells (membranes)
 -70mV: neurons, muscle cells (excitable)
 -20mV to -40mV: RBCs, epithelial cells (not excitable – charge stays the
same)
 Excitable cells are AP generated (move from -70mV to +45mV)

Factors which determine Resting Potential:

a) Produced by movement of ions across cell membrane
- movement depends on concentration gradient and/or relative permeability of
each ion
b) RP of nerve and muscle cells
- key ions are Na+ and K+
- sodium-potassium pump is important for maintaining gradients
- selectively permeability of cell membrane
 K+ have high permeability
 “-“ charged substances are impermeable (Cl-, proteins and nucleic acids
are too large)

Intracellular (cytoplasm) Extracellular

K+ 150 5.5
Na+ 15 150
Cl- 9 125
Charged proteins/Nucleic Acids 106.5 -

 Results in net negative charge

 If only K+ ions were moving then the RP would be -85mV
 Na+ ions are less permeable than K+ but some do diffuse into the cell (due
to concentration gradient and electrical gradient – opposite charges attract)
 Since the membrane is charged, we say that it is polarized

http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp44/4401s.swf

Q: How is the RP Maintained/How are the concentration gradients maintained in RP?

A: Because of active transport – Sodium-Potassium pumps  specialized proteins in
membrane.
– Sodium pumped out (3)
– Potassium pumped in (2)
– Maintains the concentration gradient

Action Potential:
– electrochemical signal (ions, chemicals, charges)
– Changes in membrane potential are due to gated ion channels
– Stimulus opens a sodium voltage-gate (closed during RP) and Na+ ions rush
inside through facilitated diffusion  depolarization (makes the inside less
negative)
– If enough Na+ ions enter cell and reach threshold (minimum stimulus to get
an AP) more voltage gated channels open

a. Threshold
b. Depolarization
(includes threshold, but you can have this without threshold – there
just won’t be an impulse)
- initiated by a stimulus
- stimulus makes the membrane potential more positive
- sodium voltage gates start to open
- as threshold is reached, many sodium channels open
- through facilitated diffusion, Na+ diffuse across the membrane
causing depolarization
- potassium voltage gates being to open but more slow
- depolarization occurs because more Na+ diffuse into the cell than K+
diffuse out of it
c. Maximum Depolarization:
- sodium voltage gates begin to close and the diffusion of Na+
decreases
- potassium voltage gates remain open and K+ continue to diffuse out
of the cell
 d. Repolarization:
- diffusion of K+ out
e. Hyperpolarization:
- the increased K+ permeability lasts slightly longer than the time
required to bring the membrane potential back to resting level because
of the slow closing of the potassium voltage gates
- membrane becomes more negative than resting potential
f. Sodium-potassium pumps restore resting potential
- active transport

AP recordings  clinical applications

– EEGs (electroencephalograms) – brain (flatline=brain dead)
– ECGs (electrocardiograms) – heart
– Electromyograms – muscles and nerves

Action potential or nerve impulse is defined as the depolarization and repolarization of

a neuron.

All or None Response

– Once threshold is attained, active potential fires with the same magnitude
regardless of stimulus strength
– Neurons fire maximally or not at all

Q: How does the CNS differentiate from a minor and a major emergency?
A: Intense stimulus (much greater than threshold) can increase the number of neurons
stimulated and the frequency of action potentials in each neuron

Refractory Period (time period)

– Neurons have a limited maximum rate of firing
– Refractory period refers to a time period during which a new action potential
cannot be produced unless a very intense stimulus is present
– Can be divided into the absolute refractory state and the relative refractory
state
– Action potentials cannot be produced during the absolute refractory period
because insufficient Na+ gates are activated
– Action potential can be produced during the relative refractory period
provided a very intense stimulus occurs

Saltatory Conduction
– Impulse jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next, skipping the myelinated
regions
– Ion gates are concentrated in the node regions
– Action potential forms only at the nodes
– Results in a faster transmission of action potential than in a nonmyelinated
neuron
**Action potential generated at one location on the axon acts as a stimulus for the
production of an action potential on the adjacent region  “battery effect” (wave of
depolarization)

NOTE: the velocity of the nerve impulse is proportional to the axon diameter
– A larger diameter results in a faster velocity

Electrical Synapse
– Gap junctions are pores between the two neurons that allow ions to cross from
one neuron to the next. This allows the wave of depolarization to pass
uninterrupted from neuron to neuron

Synaptic Transmission (Chemical Synapse)

– Involves the transmission of the nerve impulse from the end of the axon
endings of one neuron to the dendrites of the next neuron
– Neurons are not physically connected – there is a space or gap called a
synapse (chemical)

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072437316/student_view0/chapter45/animations.html#

– Once a nerve impulse arrives at the axon terminal a series of events take
place:

1. Through facilitated diffusion, the flow of calcium ions into the axon
terminal causes the release of a substance known as a neurotransmitter which
is secreted by the synaptic vesicles, diffuses across the synaptic cleft and
attaches to the receptor molecule of the post synaptic membrane (dendrites)

2. The attachment of the neurotransmitter to the receptors changes the

 permeability of the postsynaptic membrane. The neurotransmitter will either
cause depolarization (closer to threshold – excitatory) (make the inside less
negative) or hyperpolarization (further from threshold – inhibitory) (make the
inside more negative)

3. Once enough neurotransmitter has been released the nerve impulse may
either be continued (depolarization) or inhibited (hyperpolarization)

4. Neurotransmitter after completing its action is either rapidly destroyed by

specific enzymes, diffuse away, or are taken up again by the synaptic vesicle
(reusable)

5. Mitochondria provide energy (ATP) to release (through exocytosis) the

neurotransmitter and inactivation of it

– Neurotransmitters:
a) Acetylcholine
○ Secreted by fibers of the CNS and postganglionic (collection of
cell bodies) fibers of the parasymphathetic and preganglionic fibers
of the autonomic nervous system.
○ Causes depolarization at postsynaptic membrane
○ Destroyed by the enzyme acetylcholinestrase (colonesterase)

b) Noradrenalin(e) or Norepinaphrian
○ Secreted by fibers of sympathetic (postganglionic)
○ Causes depolarization of postsynaptic membrane
○ Reabsorbed by presynaptic membrane

– If neurotransmitters are destroyed, nerve impulses do not reach effector

– Insecticides or various nerve gases used during war times

destroyed acetylcholinesterase (colonesterase) which resulted in the
continual contraction of muscles leading to possible death
(the neurostransmitter is not destroyed and will continue causing
depolarization) “continuous contraction”
Laryngeal Suffocation: muscles around the larynx continually contract

– Curare
 prevents passage of impulses into effector because it competes with
acetylcholine for receptor sites and therefore results in paralysis
(neurotransmitter cannot attach so gates won’t open so there is no
depolarization) “no contraction”

NOTE: acetylcholine and noradrenalin are also released from the adrenal gland and travel
through the bloodstream
– Acetylcholine (slowing down)
– Noradrenalin (speeding up)
 Both can also be hormones
Depolarization: “On Switch”

Hyperpolarization: “Off Switch”

– Inhibition of nerve impulse
– Just as important as stimulation
– Provides even more precise control of muscles besides simply the failure to
stimulate

STS (Science, Technology, and Society)

- Ecstasy
• When ecstasy is put into synapse, it causes vesicles to release too much serotonin
(neurotransmitter)
• The chemical floods the synaptic gap and over-stimulates neighbouring receptors
• Ecstasy keeps serotonin from being reabsorbed, further increasing its
concentration in the brain
• Extreme serotonin levels cause temporary feelings of euphoria or bliss
• Ecstasy may cause nerve cell endings to initially swell, and then wither and die
• Neurons that attempt to grow back function abnormally resulting in a slew of
behavioural problems including depression and sleep disorders
- Cocaine
• Blocks the reuptake pumps which act to remove dopamine (neurotransmitter)
from the synapse
• More dopamine accumulates in the synapse, resulting in feelings of intense
pleasure
• Prolonged cocaine use may cause the brain to adapt, such that it comes to depend
on the presence of cocaine to function normally, “down regulating” the amount of
dopamine present naturally
• If the person then stops using cocaine, there is not enough dopamine in the
synapses and the person experiences the opposite of pleasure – depression,
fatigue, and low mood.
• The immediate, worst symptoms are called withdrawal
• Even long after the person stops using cocaine, brain abnormalities can persist,
causing feelings of discomfort and craving for more of the drug to relieve these
feelings
Summation
– The effect produced by the accumulation of neurotransmitters from two or
more neurons
– Spatial Summation
○ Several different synaptic terminals, usually belonging to different
presynaptic neurons, stimulate a postsynaptic cell at the same time and
have an additive effect on the membrane potential
– Temporal Summation
○ Synapse occurs one after another but not at the same time

E = excitatory synapse
I = inhibitory synapse
a) Subthreshold – no summation
• E2 occurs after E1 ends

b) Temporal Summation
• E2 occurs right after E1

c) Spatial Summation
• E1 and E2 occur at the same time
 d) Spatial Summation of EPSB and IPSP
• Hyperpolarization

The Spinal Cord

– Runs from the base of the brain down the backbone
– If dorsal root is cut, it will results in a loss of sensation in a particular part of
body (because it contains the sensory neurons)
– If ventral root is cut, there will be muscular paralysis of that part of the body
(because it contains the motor neurons)
– Two major functions
○ Connects peripheral nervous system with the brain
○ Minor coordination center for simple reflexes
– Withdrawal reflex
– Knee jerk reflex
– The reflex arc involves peripheral nerves and the spinal cord
 ○ It does not involve the brain, goes in and out of spinal cord
– Simplest unit of structure in nervous system is the neuron
– Simplest unit of function in nervous system is the reflex arc
– Withdrawal reflex:
1. stimulus is detected by receptors in the skin
2. initiates nerve impulse in the sensory neurons leading
from them to the spinal cord
3. impulses enter spinal cord and initiate impulses in one
or more association neurons (only found in spinal cord)
4. association neurons initiate impulses in the appropriate
motor neurons
5. when these impulses reach the junction between the
motor neurons and the muscles, the muscles contract
and your hand withdraws
– neuromuscular junction: synapse between motor neuron and muscle

– involves both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves

– consists of sensory and motor neurons running between the central nervous
system and various internal organs
– autonomic nervous system is responsible for detecting certain conditions in
the internal environment

Autonomic Nervous System – on/off Somatic Nervous System - on

– Involuntary actions – Voluntary actions
– 2 groups of motor neurons are – 1 group of motor neurons is
used to stimulate effectors used to stimulate effects
 Preganglionic – Can only stimulate or not
 Post ganglionic stimulate its effector
– Can inhibit and stimulate its
effector
– Sympathetic Division
○ Usually secretes noradrenalin into its effector
○ Excitatory division
– Stimulates heartbeat, raises blood pressure, moves blood away
from the skin and various internal organs to skeletal muscles,
brain and heart, dilates pupils, inhibits peristalsis, converts
glycogen to glucose
– Parasympathetic Division
○ Secretes acetylcholine into its effector
○ Slows down heartbeat, lowering of blood pressure, increases blood
flow to skin and internal organs, constricts pupils, promotes peristalsis
○ Is antagonistic to the sympathetic division to maintain homeostasis
The Brain

– White matter is inside

– Grey matter is outside
– Brain receives 15-20% of cardiac output
– 20% of oxygen requires 400 kcal of energy per day
– Metabolism is steady and continuous
– Consciousness may be loss in about 10 seconds if blood flow ceases
– A lapse of a few minutes may be irreversible
– Brain interprets impulses on the basis of
○ Where the impulse came from – type of receptor and location
○ Where the impulse has travelled to in the brain
○ Frequency of impulses and number of axons carrying impulse
– The cerebrum, hypothalamus, cerebellum and medulla oblongata are major
regions of the brain
– The brain is encased in bone (cranium) “skull”
– 3 membranes cover brain and spinal cord
○ Membranes are called meninges
○ Between inner two membranes find cerebrospinal fluid which
functions to cushion the brain, to allow exchange of nutrients and
waste, and helps to maintain proper ion balance
 – Brain receives nerve impulses from the spinal cord and cranial nerves
(directly to the brain – doesn’t go to the spinal cord )
– Three distinct regions of the brain which is most evident in the embryo stage
of development:
○ Hindbrain (back, bottom)
– Medulla oblongata
– Pons
– Cerebellum
○ Midbrain
○ Forebrain
– Hypothalamus
– Cerebrum
Hindbrain
– Medulla Oblongata
○ Lowermost part of the brainstem directly connected to spinal cord
(swollen tip)
○ Stimulates vital reflexes (essential to life)
– Controls heart rate, breathing rate, constriction and dilation of
arterioles, swallowing and secretion of digestive juices
○ Controls nonvital activities as well
– Vomiting, coughing, hiccups, sneezing
– Pons (bridge)
○ Connects medulla to cerebrum
○ Connects cerebellum to cerebrum
○ Connections between two halves of cerebellum
○ Lower portions of pons has a role in respiratory regulation
– Cerebellum
○ Second largest part of brain
○ Consists of 2 hemispheres – right and left
○ Convoluted surface (folds)
○ Important in controlling coordination of muscle activity
– ** not the center for muscle activity
– If damaged could walk but not in a coordinated manner
○ Deals with movement below the conscious level called proprioception
– Posture, balance, equilibrium
Midbrain
– Quite small and inconspicuous in man
– Connecting link between cerebellum and forebrain
– Relay center for optic nerve, auditory nerve to ears
– Coordination of reflexes for sight and hearing
– Contains reticular formation and thalamus which contains neurons which are
responsible for arousal (“being awake”) and consciousness
○ Also filters incoming stimuli and determines importance
○ Thalamus activates the forebrain
○ Destruction of the reticular formation leads to a permanent coma
 ○ Reticular formation contains reticular activating system which has a
general arousal function
– Involved with habituation
– Provides decreases response to a monotonous stimulus. Eg.
Ticking of a clock
Forebrain
– Hypothalamus
○ Directly connected to the pituitary gland (endocrine  produces
hormone  known as the master gland)
○ Produces ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
– Controls water content
○ Controls appetite
○ Controls blood pressure
○ Controls overdrives (sex, thirst, hunger)
○ Emotions (fear and rage)
– Cerebrum
○ Sets man apart from all other vertebrates
○ Largest part of the human brain (9/10)
○ Whole surface consists of folds (cerebral cortex)
– Increase surface
– Grey matter – neuron cell bodies
– Thinking part of the brain
○ Divided in right and left hemisphere connected by corpus callosum –
where fiber tracts travel form one side of the brain to the other
○ Contralateral control: right side of brain controls left side of body and
vice versa
○ Sulci: grooves or furrows
○ Fissure: like deeper sulic
○ Left Brain
– Rational, analytic
– Controls speech, reading, writing, math
– Reasoning
○ Right Brain
– Emotional, intuitive
– Spatial relationships
– 3-D patterns, art, reading maps, drawing
–
Left eye open, right eye closed  sensory neuronright side of brain  corpus callosum  left side of brain  read image
Right eye open, left eye closed  sensory neuron  left side of brain read image

If the corpus callosum is damaged, the brain will not be able to interpret the image.

Cerebral Cortex is divided into 4 major lobes on each side

– Front Lobe
○ Deals with voluntary movements
– Eg. Walking, speech
○ Contains centers for higher mental processes
 – Intelligence, creativity, judgement, insight, memory
– Personality
– Volition (will power)
– Temporal Lobe
○ Responsible for hearing (auditory sense)
○ Damage can result in loss of speech, loss of olfactory sense (smell),
and/or loss of language understanding
– Parietal Lobe
○ Interpretation of sensations of the skin (touch, warmth, etc)
○ At higher level processing and integration of sensory information
– Occipital Lobe
○ Visual interpretation
○ Damage – will see objects but will not be able to associate them with
past experiences

Receptor Stimulus Information

Taste Chemical Taste buds identify specific chemicals
(dissolved)
Smell Chemical Olfactory cells detect chemicals
Pressure Mechanical Movement of skin/changes in surface
Proprioceptors Mechanical Movement of limbs
Balance (ear) Mechanical Body movement
Hearing (ear) Sound Signal sound waves
Eye Light (electromagnetic) Signals changes in light intensity,
movement, colour
Thermal Regulators Heat Detects the flow of heat