BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

Concepts, basic principles

a. Horizontal Alignment
Fundamentals
Horizontal curves
Superelevation

b. Vertical Alignment
Fundamentals
Crest Vertical Curves
Sag Vertical Curves
Examples

c. Other Stuff - coordination

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

- The alignment of a highway is a three dimensional problem with
measurement in

x, y, and z dimensions

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

DESIGNING STANDARDS
Requirements which are involved for highway alignment
(generally):
MOST IMPORTANT:

LESS IMPORTANT:

- safety,
- smoothness and
- capacity

comfort
predictability
esthetic
forgiving

FOR DESIGNING WE ARE USING STANDARDS

(CZECH CSN, GERMANY HBS, POLAND WPD)

All of values (curves, superelevation,

grades) represent minimum or maximum.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

BASIC DESING ELEMENTS

design speed (tool used to determine geometric features of
a new road during road design - most important tool)
sight distance (for stopping or overtaking, in curves)
axis of the road (position)
horizontal curves (radius)
transverse slope (cross slope)
drainage gradient (resulting slope)
superelevation
(changing the slope between straight
and curve)
location of vertical axis (vertical curves, gradients)
lenght of gradient (lenght vs. slope)
coordination of horizontal and vertical alignment
others (depends on used design standard)

DESIGN SPEED
Design speed is a selected speed used to determine the
various geometric design features of the roadway.
USAGE:
The selected design speed should be a logical one with respect to the
anticipated operating speed, topography, the adjacent land use, and the
functional classification of the highway.
In selection of design speed, every effort should be made to attain a
desired combination of safety, mobility, and efficiency within the
constraints of environmental quality and others (aesthetics).
Once the design speed is selected, all of the highway features should be
related to it to obtain a balanced design.
Above-minimum design criteria for specific design elements should be
used (on lower speed facilities urban roads, use of above-minimum
design criteria may encourage travel at speeds higher than the design
speed).

DESIGN SPEED
Some design features, such as curvature,
superelevation, and sight distance, are directly related
to design speed.
Other features, such as widths of lanes and shoulders and
clearances to walls and rails, are not directly related
to design speed, but they do affect vehicle speeds. Thus, when a
change is made in design speed, many elements of the highway
design will change accordingly.

DESIGN SPEED
TYPICAL RANGE
(DEPENDS ON TYPE
OF COMMUNICATION,
TERRAIN)

DESIGN SPEED
EXAMPLE CZECH STANDARD (HIGHWAYS,
MOTORWAYS AND ROADS)
classification
Motorways (highways)
Motorwyas
(expressways)
I.class roads

appropriate technical road category

D 33,5/120, 100 a 80; D 27,5/120, 100 a 80
R 33,5/120, 100 a 80; R 27,5/120, 100 a 80; R 25,5/120, 100 a 80

S 24,5/100, 80 a 70; S 20,75/90, 80 a 70

S 11,5/90, 80 a 70
S 9,5/80, 70 a 60*)
II.class roads
S 9,5/80, 70 a 60
S 7,5/70, 60 a 50
III.class roads
S 7,5/70, 60 a 50; S 6,5/60 a 50
S 4,0/40 a 30**)
*)
can not use for international roads (marked E)
**)
mostly for reconstruction of III. class roads

S 11,5/70:

S road, type of communication (D, R highway, motorway)

11,5 space among guard rails or marker posts
70 - design speed

DESIGN SPEED
EXAMPLE AASHTO
Minimum Design Speeds for Rural Collectors

Rural arterials other than freeways, should be designed for speeds of 60 to

120 km/h [40 to 75 mph] depending on terrain, driver expectancy and, in the
case of reconstruction projects, the alignment of the existing facility.
- design speeds of 100 to 120 km/h [60 to 75 mph] are normally used in level
terrain
- design speeds of 80 to 100 km/h [50 to 60 mph] are normally used in rolling
terrain,
- design speeds of 60 to 80 km/h [40 to 50 mph] are used in mountainous
terrain.

DESIGN SPEED
EXAMPLE AASHTO
Minimum Design Speeds for Rural Collectors

Rural arterials other than freeways, should be designed for speeds of 60 to

120 km/h [40 to 75 mph] depending on terrain, driver expectancy and, in the
case of reconstruction projects, the alignment of the existing facility.
- design speeds of 100 to 120 km/h [60 to 75 mph] are normally used in level
terrain
- design speeds of 80 to 100 km/h [50 to 60 mph] are normally used in rolling
terrain,
- design speeds of 60 to 80 km/h [40 to 50 mph] are used in mountainous
terrain.

DESIGN SPEED
EXAMPLE UK STANDARD
Design Speeds for Urban Roads
Within the UK the design speed for an urban highway is chosen on the basis of its
speed limit. The value chosen will allow a small margin for speeds greater than
the posted speed limit. For speed limits of 48, 64, 80 and 96km/hr, design speeds
of 60B, 70A, 85A and 100A respectively are employed.

The suffixes A and B indicate the higher and lower categories respectively
within each speed band.

DESIGN SPEED
Changing the design speed
RULE: In the design of a highway segment, it is
desirable to select a uniform design speed (for the as
longest as possible segment of a highway).
However, changes in terrain and other physical controls may dictate a
change in design speed on certain sections. If so, the introduction of a
lower design speed should not be done abruptly but should be effected
over sufficient distance to permit drivers to gradually change speed
before reaching the highway section with the lower design speed.
Warning: Where it is appropriate to reduce horizontal and vertical
alignment features, many drivers may not perceive the lower speed
condition ahead, and therefore, it is important that they be warned well in
advance - the changing condition should be indicated by such
controls as speed-zone and curve-speed signs.

SIGHT DISTANCE
Sight distance is defined as the length of carriageway
that the driver can see in both the horizontal and vertical
planes.
Two types of sight distance are detailed:
stopping distance and overtaking distance
Stopping sight distance - is defined as the minimum sight distance required by
the driver in order to be able to stop the car before it hits an object on the
highway. It is of primary importance to the safe working of a highway.
Overtaking sight distance - is of central importance to the efficient working of a
given section of highway. Overtaking sight distance only applies to single
carriageways. Full overtaking sight distances are much larger in value than
stopping sight distances. Therefore, economic realities dictate that they can only
be complied with in relatively flat terrain where alignments, both vertical and
horizontal, allow the design of a relatively straight and level highway.

SIGHT DISTANCE

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

The distance itself can be subdivided into three constituent parts:
The perception and reaction distance (l1) length of highway travelled while
driver perceives hazard + length travelled during the period of time taken by the
driver to apply the brakes and for the brakes to function
The braking distance (l2) length of highway travelled while the vehicle actually
comes to a halt.
The safety distance (bv) distance between stopped vehicle and obstruction (CZ
standard)
Reaction time:
Czech 1,5 s
UK 2 s
US 2,5 s
Notice:
- depends on design /
standard speed and
longitudinal slope
- must be ensure on all
roadways

SIGHT DISTANCE
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
The perception and reaction distance (l1) calculation:

t r vn (s )

where: vn design speed [km/h],

tr reaction time

3,6

The braking distance (l2) calculation:

where: vn design speed [km/h],
2
gn normal gravitational acc. 9,81 m/s2,
vn ( s )
fv breaking force coefficient (coefficient of
2
2 g n 3,6 f v 0,01 s
friction for wet pavement)
s longitudinal slope [%].

The safety distance (bv) calculation:

Equal to the rounded result to the nearest higher 10 m if vn(s) 80 km/h and
nearest higher 5 m if vn(s) < 80 km/h.
This safety distance is calculated in czech standard.

SIGHT DISTANCE
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

CZECH STANDARD

SIGHT DISTANCE
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Stopping Sight Distance on Level Roadways

Stopping Sight Distance on Grades

AASHTO - US

SIGHT DISTANCE
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Stopping sight distances for different design
speeds according to UK standard

UK

SIGHT DISTANCE

Overtaking / Passing Sight Distance (OSD / PSD)

Full overtaking sight distance is made up of three components: lp, bv2 and l4:
lp - distance travelled within the passing manoeuvre (Overtaking Time) made up
from decision lenght l1, overtaking distance (measured separately) l2 and distance
travelled within returning to origin lane l3
bv2 - distance between the overtaking and opposing vehicles at the point in time
at which the overtaking vehicle returns to its designated lane (Safety Time)
l4 - distance travelled by the opposing vehicle within the overtaking time (Closing
Time).
- have to be ensure only on two lane
roads
- have to be ensure on as longest as
possible part of communication
- depends on design/standard speed

SIGHT DISTANCE

Overtaking / Passing Sight Distance (OSD / PSD)

Full overtaking sight distance calculation:

DP

where:

1,112 vn2( s ) 32 vn ( s )
v

bv 2

vn
v

design speed [km/h],

speed difference between overtaking and overtaken
car [km/h]; value is between 15 24 km/h.

bv2

equal to the rounded result to the nearest higher 50 m

SIGHT DISTANCE

Overtaking / Passing Sight Distance (OSD / PSD)

CZECH STANDARD

UK STANDARD

There is no full overtaking sight distance (OSD) for a highway with a design
speed of 100 (CZ) /120 (UK) km/hr since this design speed is not suitable for a
single carriageway road (undivided roads).
single carriageway road

double carriageway road

SIGHT DISTANCE

Overtaking / Passing Sight Distance (OSD / PSD)

CZECH STANDARD
Passing Sight Distance for Design of Two-Lane Highways

AASHTO - US

SIGHT DISTANCE
Comparison of Design Values for Passing Sight
Distance and Stopping Sight Distance

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

TWO BASIC ELEMENTS: TANGENTS AND CURVES

Tangents (straights)

Curves

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

HORIZONTAL TANGENT POLYGON

CONSISTS OF:
- STRAIGHTS
- CURVES
DUMB DESIGN

Two basic principles should be respected:

a)

Lengths of sides of the tangent polygon

should be balanced
(no short sides followed by long sides)

b)

Central angles should be in proportion

to the lengths of the polygon sides

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

STRAIGHTS
Straight - the shortest connection of two points.
BUT NOT THE BEST SOLUTION EVERY TIME
WHY: - Driving on straight roads is very boring - the driver doesnt pay so much attention
to the situation on a road, increases speed of a vehicle and his driving can be
dangerous.
- Drivers are dazzled by cars going in the opposite direction at night.
- In the spring and autumn mostly at early and late time of the day drivers could be
sun glared
- There is not many straights in the nature

IF IT IS NECESSARY :
MAXIMAL LENGHT OF STRAIGHT
SHOULD BE BETWEEN 3 5 km
(but the lenght is not limited in Czech standards)

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

CURVES
A horizontal curve - is an arc connecting two straight
parts (tangents) of the highway.

- The highway engineer must design a horizontal alignment to

accommodate (suit to) a variety of vehicles cornering
capabilities that range from mini - cars (via Mr.Beans
minicooper) to long trucks

TYPES OF CURVES:
a) Plain circular arcs
b) Circular arcs with transition curves
c) Transition curves clothoids
d) Compound curves

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

Straight

Curve

Tangent to
Circular Curve
Tangent to
Spiral Curve to
Circular Curve

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

CURVES
DERIVING THE MINIMUM RADIUS
The values for horizontal curvature are derived from the design speed, superelevation rate,
and side friction factors.
Figure illustrates:
- the forces acting on a vehicle of weight

as it is

driven in arc of radius R.

- the angle of incline of the road (superelevation)
is termed as .
-

p denotes the side frictional force between the

vehicle and the highway (p=tg )

- Fo is the centrifugal force acting horizontally on the
vehicle and equals:

G v2
Fo = . ,
g R

where G/g is the mass of the vehicle

As all the forces should be equilibrium, they can be resolved along the angle of
inclination of the road:
(Centrifugal force resolved parallel to highway) denoted as Fb=
(Weight of vehicle resolved parallel to highway) + (Side friction factor) as Tb

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

CURVES
DERIVING THE MINIMUM RADIUS
As all the forces in should be in equilibrium, they can be resolved along the angle of
inclination of the road:
(Centrifugal force resolved parallel to highway) denoted as Fb
(Weight of vehicle resolved parallel to highway) + (Side friction factor) as Tb

Fb Tb ,

Fo . cos G . sin f b G . cos Fo . sin ,

where:

- fb is side friction factor

than:

G v2
G v2
. . cos G . sin f b ( G . cos + . . sin ) .
g R
g R

and after resolving:

v2
1 - f b . p g f b p .
R

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

CURVES
DERIVING THE MINIMUM RADIUS:
The basic equation is:
Rmin

Where: Rmin
p
f
V

v2

,
g f b p

minimum radius of curve (m)

superelevation rate
side friction factor
vehicle speed (m/s)

or:
Rmin
Where: Rmin
p
V

Vn2
0,3
,
p

- minimum radius of curve (m)

- superelevation rate (in %)
- vehicle speed (km/h)

Notice: f is out it is small value

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

CURVES - TYPES

PLAIN CIRCULAR CURVES

A simple curve has a constant circular radius which achieves the desired deflection
without using an entering or exiting transition. This is the most frequently used curve
because of their simplicity for design, layout, and construction as shown.
Plain circular arc in highway design can be used only if the offset of the circle in the
clothoid R 0,25.
This condition means that the minimal radius of the plain circle arc must be R 800
2
m or at least R 0,375 V n

NOTICE:
For small radii and low design speed (prevailing design conditions for local
communications) you can use only circular curves without restrictions
above.

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

CURVES - TYPES
TRANSITION CURVES

These curve types are mainly used to connect

curved and straight sections of highway. (they
can also be used to ease the change between
two circular curves where the difference in
radius is large).
The radius of curvature of a transition curve
gradually decreases from infinity at the intersection
of the tangent and the transition curve to the
designated radius R at the intersection of the
transition curve with the circular curve so the

clothoid is a curve which radius of the

osculating circular decreases with
length of a curve

USING ???

WHY IT IS

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

CURVES - TYPES
TRANSITION CURVES

WHY IT IS USING???
It is difficult for drivers to travel imediately from a tangent section (straight) to a
circular arc, because of:
CURVATORY OF TANGENT SECTION IS 0, while CURVATORY OF
CIRCULAR ARC IS CONSTANT

Than the connecting between tangent and arc is not continuous and
could disturb drivers
Use of transition curves provides for a number of benefits:
-

Provides an easy path for drivers to follow: centrifugal and centripetal forces are
increased gradually

Provides a desirable arrangement for superelevation runoff

Provides a desirable arrangement for pavement widening on curves

Enhances highway appearance (travel looks better)

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

CURVES - TYPES
TRANSITION CURVES

Figure illustrates the situation where transition curves are introduced between the tangents and a
circular curve of radius R. Here, the circular curve must be shifted inwards from its initial position
by the value S (R) so that the curves can meet tangentially.
This is the same as having a circular curve of radius (R + S) joining the tangents replaced by a
circular curve (radius R) and two transition curves. The tangent points are, however, not the same.
In the case of the circular curve of radius (R + S), the tangent occurs at B, while for the
circular/transition curves, it occurs at T .

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

CURVES - TYPES
TRANSITION CURVES

WHY IT IS USING???

NO TRANSITION

WITH TRANSITION

esthetics

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

CURVES

OFFTRACKING, WIDENING IN CURVE

Offtracking is the characteristic, common to all vehicles, typically to the
larger design vehicles, in which the rear wheels do not follow precisely the
same path as the front wheels when the vehicle negotiates a horizontal
curve or makes a turn.
In that cases it is necessary to widen
the pavement on sharp curves to
accommodate off-tracking of larger
vehicles.
Widening of the carriageway is done
only if the radius of the circular is lower
than 250 m.

AXIS OF THE ROAD, HORIZONTAL CURVES

CURVES

OFFTRACKING, WIDENING IN CURVE

The widened portion of the pavement is normally placed on both sides of
the curve (according to czech standard).

Where curves are introduced with clothoid transitions, the widening occurs over
the length of the clothoid. On alignments without spirals, the widening is
developed over the same distance that the superelevation transition occurs. The
centerline pavement marking and the center joint (if applicable) should be placed
equidistant from the pavement edges.

TRANSVERSE SLOPE (CROSS SLOPE)

1. Gutter; 2. Shoulder; 3. Sub-base; 4. Base course; 5. Asphalt

Cross slope or camber is a geometric feature of pavement surfaces:

it is the transverse slope with respect to the horizon.

It is a very important safety factor:

Cross slope is designed to provide a drainage gradient
so that water will run off the surface to a drainage system
such as a street gutter or ditch.
Inadequate cross slope will contribute to aquaplaning!!!

TRANSVERSE SLOPE (CROSS SLOPE)

On straight sections of normal two-lane roads, the pavement cross
section is usually highest in the center and drains to both sides.

In horizontal curves, the cross slope is

banked into superelevation to reduce
steering effort and lateral force required to
go around the curve.

TRANSVERSE SLOPE (CROSS SLOPE)

VALUES
According to Czech standards:
Basic cross slope in straight is 2,5 % (2% extraordinary) for high-type
pavements.
For low-type pavements in straight 3 % (and more for i.g. gravel).

According to AASHTO:
Normally, cross slopes range from 1,5 to 2 % for high-type pavements.
A cross slope of 3 to 7 % is desirable for low-type pavements.
High-type pavements are those that retain smooth riding qualities and good nonskid properties in all weather under heavy traffic volumes and loadings with little
maintenance required.
Low-type pavements are those with treated earth surfaces and those with loose
aggregate surfaces.

DREINAGE GRADIENT
FLOW FIRECTION

Drainage gradient (M) is a term in

road design, defined as the
combined slope due to road surface
cross slope (P) and longitudinal
slope (S).
(drainage gradient resulting slope in close czech
translation)

Urban roads
Rural roads

Most road design manuals

require drainage gradient to
exceed 0,5% (minimal value), in
order to drain water and prevent
excessive skid accidents.

DREINAGE GRADIENT
Effect of insufficient gradient
Due to the normal cross slope and the interaction with grade, road sections with
insufficient drainage gradient are few and short (still, they account for an
unacceptable number of skid accidents).
These hot spots are found at the entrances and exits of
banked curves, where the cross slope changes direction in
order to create superelevation. As the outside edge of the
curve is raised (or superelevated) to create the bank, it
passes through a point where the cross slope is absolutely
flat. If there is not enough longitudinal grade, water will
collect at these spots.

Problem segments may be found at the

summits (or sags) of vertical curves,
where the longitudinal slope is close to
or at zero value.

DREINAGE GRADIENT
Minimizing insufficient drainage gradient
Roads should be designed so that sections where the cross slope change
direction (and sign), are located where the road is going uphill or downhill.
Otherwise the pavement will get an area with too little drainage gradient (<
0,5%), resulting in unacceptable skid accident risk.
When designing road curves in a flat landscape, it may be necessary to
design long wave undulations on purpose. These "synthetic" longitudinal
gradients can then be used to reach a sufficient drainage gradient, in
sections where the cross slope is close to zero.
Another option to minimize crash risk due to low drainage gradient at
entrance or exit of banked outercurves, is to move the superelevation
further from the curve and out to a straight road section. This results in a
banked straight lane.
Other option is to within the superelevation transition section increase
the cross slope "tilt rate" within the zone where the cross slope is between
- 0,5 % to + 0,5%.

SUPERELEVATION
superelevation = roadway banking
It is normal practice for horizontal curves to be superelevated. This allows a
component of the vehicle weight to provide some of the centripetal force
that is needed for the vehicle to move in a circular path.
All the forces should be in equilibrium :
(Centrifugal force resolved parallel to highway) denoted as Fb
(Weight of vehicle resolved parallel to highway) + (Side friction factor) as Tb

Fb Tb ,

Fo . cos G . sin f b G . cos Fo . sin ,

than:

Rmin
Where: Rmin
p
f
V

v2
,

g f b p
-

minimum radius of curve (m)

superelevation rate
side friction factor
vehicle speed (m/s)

SUPERELEVATION

Selection of p (superelavation
rate) and fb (side friction factor)
Practical limits affecting superelevation (p):
- Climate
- Constructability
- Adjacent land use
Side friction factor (fb) variations (changes):
- Vehicle speed
- Pavement texture
- Tire condition

SUPERELEVATION

Superelevation rates p
Czech stadndard recommends the use of superelevation rates between 2,5 and 7 . Maximum rates
across other world standards varies from region to region. Values of superelevation rates are affected by a
climate, terrain, development density or frequency of slow moving vehicles.

EXAMPLE:
USA restrictions
(COMPARE WITH CZECH
STANDARDS)

SUPERELEVATION

Side friction factor fb

Design values of the side friction factor (also coefficient of side friction) vary with design speed.
Design values represent wet pavements and tires in reasonable but not top condition. Values also
represent frictional forces that can be comfortably achieved. They do not represent the maximum side
friction that is achieved the instant before skidding.

EXAMPLE:
AUSTRALIA

SUPERELEVATION

Side friction factor fb

EXAMPLE:
AASHTO

SUPERELEVATION
Superelevation rates using minimal p
It is normal practice to superelevate all curves to a value that is at least equal to the normal
crossfall on straights (this is normally 2,5% in order to ensure adequate surface
drainage).
However, there are situations where the application of superelevation can cause pavement
drainage problems. In some situations when the grade is nearly flat, water will not run off the
road properly at places where the crossfall is also nearly flat (0%).
Problems with drainage of the pavement surface may be overcome by modifying the
combination of the grading, the superelevation and the application of the superelevation:

If the horizontal curve radius is large enough, there may be scope to leave
the curve unsuperelevated (called adverse superelevation).
design/
standard
speed
in km/h

Minimal
Radiii with
basic
transverse
slope 2,5%
(2%)

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

250 450 700 950 1300 1700 2200 2700 3200 3800 4500

SUPERELEVATION
Minimum Length of Superelevation on Horizontal Curves
The superelevation ramp is mainly designed in the length of the clothoid

p2 - p1
. a
L
s

Or the lenght is given by:

Where:

s slope of superelvation ramp

a - distance between edge of pavement and the axis of superelevation
in m
p1 crossfall of pavement at the beginning of superelevation
p2 crossfall of pavement at the end of superelevation

tab. Max. and min. slope of a superelevation ramp (s)

max s (%)

min s (%)

design speed
in km/h

a 4,25 m

a 4,25 m

50

1,2

1,4

60 a 70

1,0

1,2

80 a 90

0,7

0,85

100 a 120

0,6

0,7

a 4,25

a 4,25 m

0,1 a

0,07 a
( max s)

SUPERELEVATION
Achieving superelevation
Superelevation development length could be defined as the length required to rotate
the pavement from the point of normal crossfall to the point where the full
superelevation for the curve is achieved.
This superelevation development length has two components:

1. Tangent

run - out

This is the length from the point of normal crossfall to the point of zero
crossfall.

2. Superelevation

runoff length

This is the length from the point where the pavement has been rotated to
zero crossfall to the point where the full curve superelevation has been
achieved.
Supperelevation runoff

Run-out
Tangent

Normal crown

e
e edg
Insid

4%

8%
Runoff

0%
e
edg
e
sid
out

Relative gradient

SUPERELEVATION
Achieving superelevation - methods
1) Rotate pavement about centerline (b, d, g, h)
2) Rotate about inner edge of pavement (the outer edge of the inner horizontal
marking) (a, c, h)
3) Rotate about outside edge of pavement (for dividing roadways e, g, f)

SUPERELEVATION
Achieving superelevation - methods
Rotate pavement about centerline
Cross section (-1-) is the normal crown section
where the transitioning begins (with basic
transversal slope 2,5 %)
Cross section (-2-) is reached by rotating half the
pavement until it is level.
Cross section (-3-) is attained by continuing to
rotate the same half of pavement until a plane
section is attained across the entire pavement
section, at a cross slope equal to the normal crown
slope.
Cross section (-4-) is achieved by further rotation of
the planar section, the entire pavement section, to
attain the full superelevation at a cross slope.

h0 =

s . p0
200
Lz =

h=

2 . h0 . L
h
+ h0
2

s.p
100

SUPERELEVATION
Achieving superelevation - methods
Rotate pavement inner edge of the pavement
Cross section (-1-) is the normal crown section
where the transitioning begins (with basic
transversal slope 2,5 %)
Cross section (-2-) is reached by rotating half the
pavement until it is level.
Cross section (-3-) is achievedeby continuing to
rotate the same half of pavement until a plane
section is attained across the entire pavement
section, at a cross slope equal to the normal crown
slope.
Cross section (-4-) is achieved by further rotation
(but by the inner edge) of the pavement to the full
value of superelevation.

h0 =

s . p0
200

h=

s.p
100

TANGENT RUN OUT

IS THE SAME FOR
BOTH METHODS

SUPERELEVATION
Some important factors have to be consider when
designing horizontal alignment:
-

Horizontal alignment should be as smooth and as direct as possible

while responsive to the
topography. Flatter curvature with shorter
tangents is generally preferable to sharp curves connected by long
tangents. Angle points should be avoided.
Maximum length of straights is not limited, but recommended length of
straights is between 3 5 km. Also recommended is to have no
straights if it is possible.
Broken back curvature (a short tangent between two curves in same
direction) should be avoided because drivers do not expect to encounter
this arrangement on typical highway geometry.
If compound circular curves are required in an effort to fit the highway to
the terrain or to other constraints, large differences in radius should be
avoided. The radius of the largest curve should not be more that 1.5
times the radius of the smaller curve (except for highway ramps). On
ramps, the ratio of the larger curve to the smaller curve should not
exceed 2:1.

SUPERELEVATION
Some important factors have to be consider when
designing horizontal alignment:
-

Horizontal curves should be avoided on bridges whenever possible. These

cause design, construction, and operational problems. Where a curve is
necessary on a bridge, a simple curve should be used on the bridge and any
curvature or superelevation transitions placed on the approaching roadway.
Plain circular arc can be used if the displacement (shift) of the circular in the
clothoid R0,25m. The minimal radius of the plain circular arc must be R 800
m or at least R 0,375 m.
Broken back curves should be avoided because they are unsightly and drivers
do not
expect succeeding curves to be in the same direction. If it is necessary
there must be insert straight of minimal length above 2 vn (design speed).
If possible, the minimum distance between reverse plain circular arc should
be at least 2 x vn (design speed). When it isn't possible to obtain the desired
distance between reverse curves, than the transition curves may be placed there.
Transition curves should be design as clothoids with parameter (A):
Ro
A Ro
3

notice: using of other curves is also allowed

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
VERTICAL TANGENT POLYGON
CONSISTS OF:
- STRAIGHTS
- CURVES

The design of the vertical alignment is started after completing of

the horizontal alignment:
The design of vertical alignment consists of:
1.Drawing of terrain into the longitudinal section
2.Design of the vertical alignment by using vertical polygon (according to the same
principles as at the horizontal alignment see dumb design)
3.Rounding polygon sides by vertical parabolic curves

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
VERTICAL TANGENT POLYGON

hi
s i 100
li
Vertical alignment terminology:
si
Vi
li
Hi
hi

slope in percent
point of intersection of the two adjacent grade lines
V1 SAG, V2 - SUMMIT
length of segment with same grade (projection onto horizontal surface
corresponds to plan distance)
elevation of each point of intersection and start and end points
elevation difference betwee start and end point of the segment with same
grade

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
VERTICAL CURVES
A vertical curve - is an arc which provides a gradual change
between two adjacent grade lines

CURVE IS PARABOLIC ONLY !!!

R
s1 - s2
T
200

yn

x1 = R

s1
100

x2 = R

s2
100

t2
=
2R

x2
yx =
2R

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Some important factors have to be consider when
designing vertical alignment:
-

Longitudinal slope is mainly leading by type of terrain and

design speed.
Minimum value of longitudinal slope is about 0,5 %
(exceptionally 0,3 %)
Lengths of sides of the tangent polygon should be
balanced. The lengths should correspond to the lengths of
vertical curves tangents.
Avoid vertical straight between two curves in the same
direction.
Polygon sides breaks must be round by vertical parabolic
(second degree) curves.
Parabolic curves have to agree with length of sight
distance (minimal value of vertical curve radius is derived
from minimal sight distance).

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Balance curvature and grades

-

Use of steep grades to achieve long tangent and flat curves, or

excessive curvature to achieve flat grades, are both poor designs.

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Balance curvature and grades

-

Vertical curvature superimposed

(like cascades) on horizontal
curvature generally results in a
more pleasing facility. Successive
changes in profile not in
combination
with
horizontal
curvature may result in a series
of dips not visible to the driver.

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Curvature in the horizontal plane should be accompanied by
comparable length of curvature in the vertical plane.

(horizontal curvature should lead vertical curvature a bit)

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Curvature in the horizontal plane should be accompanied by
comparable length of curvature in the vertical plane.

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
No vertical curve overlapping beginning or end of the horizontal curve
-

If a vertical crest curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a

horizontal curve, drivers have little time to react to the horizontal
curve once it comes into view. This condition can be unsafe,
especially at night, if the driver does not recognize the beginning or
ending of the horizontal curve. Safety is improved if the horizontal
curve leads the vertical curve, that is, the horizontal curve is made
longer than the vertical curve in both directions.

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Unexpected combinations of curves and tangents in both the
horizontal and vertical planes should be avoided
-

i.e., "broken back" curves in vertical or horizontal alignment

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Horizontal curvature should lead vertical curvature
-

i.e., the horizontal curve should be longer than the vertical curve and the
ZZ/KZ and TK/KT (or TP with transitions) should not be at the same
point.

Horizontal alignment

Vertical alignment

DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR COORDINATION

VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
rounding by the concave
parabolic curve is covered with
horizontal arc

rounding starts ahead the

horizontal arc

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Ideally the vertices of horizontal curves (KK) and vertical curves
(VZ) should coincide (same position) or be within 1/4 phase of
each other.

Horizontal alignment

Vertical alignment

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
The alignment designs should enhance attractive scenic views of
the natural and manmade environment, such as rivers, rock
formations, parks, and outstanding man-made structures.

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Fitting the Road to the Terrain

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Fitting the Road to the Terrain

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

the driver can see before the peak of the parabolic curve to
which side the road turns.
clothoid is not used

with clothoid

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
In the next two pictures it can be seen the influence of the radius of
concave curve in the horizontal straight on the optical deformation.
If the radius is small, the road seems to be like broken.

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Similarly as in the horizontal
alignment the sequence of vertical
curves with a short
interstraight causes deformation - it
can be seen on old roads where the
interstraight is designed for a bridge.
Sequence of convex and concave
curves with small radius in a
horizontal straight is also not a good
solution lost road.

Direct connection of convex and

concave curves (inflex point) also
does not look well.

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

small radius of vertical curves

This sequence is sometimes
called flying road for its big
visual deformation.

Twice lost road

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

OTHER MISTAKES

EFFECTS OF ROAD CATEGORY,

ALIGNMENT AND GRADIENT
ON CAPACITY

EFFECTS OF ROAD CATEGORY

NUMBER OF LANES
The primary parameter for determining the capacity of
a roadway is the number of travel lanes.

COMPARE THE CAPACITY

EFFECTS OF ROAD CATEGORY

LANE WIDTH
The ideal width for a roadway is about 3,5 m (3,25
3,75 m).
Narrower lane width = decreasing capacity
Wider lane width = increasing capacity
Narrower lanes are acceptable only on low volume and low speeds.
Below a lane width of about 2,5 m capacity deteriorates rapidly.

EFFECTS OF ROAD CATEGORY

SHOULDER WIDTH
Shoulders

Provides

portion of the roadway contiguous with the traveled way that

accommodates stopped vehicles, emergency use and lateral
support of sub base, base and surface courses.
a refuge for temporarily stopped vehicles, increasing sight
distance on horizontal curves, improving capacity and
operations, space for snow removal and storage, more space
for signs or guardrails, improved drainage on a traveled way

Normal shoulders width is 0,5 m (unpaved)

1,5 m (paved) - see lecture 1
Shoulders on the roadway= more comfortable
operations (sight distances) = increasing capacity

EFFECTS OF ALIGNMENT
CURVES
A tightly and close curving alignment in rural areas can
cause a reduction in free-flow speeds* and decreasing of
capacity.

LOWER SPEED = LOWER CAPACITY

HIGHER SPEED = HIGHER CAPACITY

*Free-flow speed:
(1) The theoretical speed of traffic, when density is zero, that is, when no vehicles are present;
(2) the average speed of vehicles over an urban street segment without signalized intersections, under
conditions of low volume;
(3) the average speed of passenger cars over a basic freeway or multilane highway segment under
conditions of low volume.

EFFECTS OF ALIGNMENT
CURVES
Tight and close curves causes poor sight lines and forward
visibility. This delimits overtaking of slow moving vehicles
and reduces overall capacity.

NO OVERTAKING OF SLOW MOVING

VEHICLES = LOWER CAPACITY

OVERTAKING IS ALLOWED = HIGHER

CAPACITY

EFFECTS OF GRADIENT
SLOPES (GRADIENTS)
Heavy vehicle speed heavily deteriorates on a combination of
gradient and length of gradient.

SPEED

EXAMPLE:
Original speed 80 kph
Length of gradient 1500 m
Gradient 6

35 kph
LENGTH OF GRADIENT

EFFECTS OF GRADIENT
SLOPES (GRADIENTS)
Additional climbing lanes (for heavy trucks low speed
vehicles) are designed on long steep gradients

Normal traffic lanes