Design of Process Equipment Exchangers Design

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DESIGN OF
PROCESS EQUIPMENT
SELECTED TOPICS

KANTI K. MAHAJAN P' E.

SECOND EDITTON

PRESSURE VESSEL HANDBOOK


PUBUSHING, INC.
P.O. Box 35355 Tulsa, OK 74153

t)tist(iN otr t,tt(x'tiss tiQUt pMtiNT,


Scc() (l Ir.(lilion

ERRATA
PREFACE
Page 27

Fig. 11 the illegible word should read: Grooves


Page 88

reference at the bottom should read; *See note on page


90
Page 113,

t5,

117 and 129

Equations should read:

d=te+t p=14/ te+l


Page I 19

Equation #2 should read:

M^".:^sn#-zpt u
Page 125

Equation should read:

IMY

V S,;

'fhc design of process equipment such as shell-and-tube heat exrlrlrrgcrs, pressure vessels and storage tanks requires a familiarity with a
virr icty of sources of design data and procedures. The purpose ofthis book
i$ to oonsolidate the scattered literature and present the material in simplilro(l li)rm so that it can be easily applied to design problems. Typical exirrrrplcs have been included to illustrate the application of the relationships
rrrrtl procedures presented in the text. Therefore, the designer should find
tlris book to be a convenient and useful rcference.
This book is based upon the author's several years of design exper-

ic

and extensive researchinto previously published literature. The topics


l)r'cscnted were selected based upon t}le problems most frequently encrountered by the author.
Every effort has been made to eliminate effors during the develop0r0r1t of this book. However, should any euors be noted, the reader is enoouraged to bring them to the attention of the author. In addition any
comments or questions related to the topics within this book are invited
l)y the author. Neither the author nor the publisher, however, can assume
tcsponsibility for the results of designers using values or procedures contained in this book since so many variables affect every design.
The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Frank R.
llollig for editorial work and to Eugene F. Megyesy for his help in preparce

ing this book for publication.

The author also wishes to express his appreciation to the American


Society of Mechanical Engineers, Gulf Publishing Company, Chemical Engineering, The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, The Intemational Conference of Building Officials,

Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc., Eneryy Products


Group, Chemical Engineering Progress, McGraw-Hill Book Company and
to other publishers who generously permitted the author to include material from their Dublications.

Kanti K. Mahajan
Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE
to the Second Edition

ln this second edition several new topics have been incorpofatcd. The additions are as follows:
Solved examples have been included for design of major
components in the chaptet of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers'
Chapter on Flange Deslgn has been expanded to cover design of
llanges with full face gaskets.
A new chapter, entitled Air Cooled Heat Exchangers has been
irrcluded in three parts. It covers fully the design method of Air
(

ixrlers.
At the request of users of the first edition sevenAppendices have
bccn added to Dresent the derivation of various formulas.
Chapter on Deslg n of Tall Stacks has been enlarged and rewritfcn under the title: Mechanical Design of Self-Supported Steel Stacks.
lt covers more detailed design methods of wide variety of stacks.
And finally, two chapters: Vessel Codes of Various Countries
antl Equivalent Materials ofVarious Countries havebeen deleted due
to the lack of information necessary for updating the data of those
(

llapters.
The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of those, who

carefully checked the material of the first edition and called hrs
irttcntion to errors and omissions.
Kanti K. Mahajan

CONTENTS

l,

Shell-and-Tube Heat

2, Flange

Exchangers

...

Design

.......

.
4. Stress Analysis of Floating Heads
5, Fixed Tubeslreet DesUn. . .
6. Flanged and Flued Expansion Joints
7. Pipe Segment Expansion foints.
E, Vertical Vessels Supported bylugs..
9, Vertical Vessel l-eg DeslSn .
Division

ll.

VIII, Division

.......

59

...........133
. .......t47
. .... .......161

3, Rotauon of Hub Flhnges . .

10. ASME Code, Section

.... .. ..

. . . . . .159

....

.....185

. . . . . . . . . . . . .195

..... .......207

2 and Its Comparison to

1..

................

.227

Mechanical Design of Self-supported Steel Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

.......259
*,y 12. Vibration Analysis of Tbll Tbwers . . . . . . . . . .
.' > [3. Design of Rectangular 'Ibnks
.
:
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . . . . .267
.

14.

Air Cooled Heat Exchangers


Co4structional Details..
Part A

.... ..,281
Header Box Design....
,....,...290
Coverplate and Flange Design For Header 3s1 . . . . . .302

Part B
Fdrt C
Appendix

I-

Appendix 2

Derivation of ASME code formulas for shell and head


thicknesses of cylindrical vessels for intemal pressure 313
Derivation of fornulas for checking thicloesss at various levels of vertical vessels.
. . . . . . . . , . . . .317

Appcndix

Appendix 4

Dcriv$tion of formulas for anchor boh chair dcsign for


ve ical vessels ..
. .. . . . . .321
Derivation of TEMA equation for non-fixed tubesheet
thickness or ASME equation for flat unstayed circular
larSe

heads

Appendix

Appendix 6

Appendix 7

in

bending

......327

Derivation of TEMA equation for pressure due to differential thermal expansion for lixed tubesheets . .. .. .333
Derivation of TEMA equation for flat channel cover
thickness .
...............337
Derivation of formulas for calculating allowable buckling
stress in tall cylindrical towers...
......341

I
SHELL-AND.TUBf, HEAT EXCHANGERS

lntroduction

A heat exchanger

is a device used to transfer heat from one

fluid

to another. This type of equipment is mostly used in petroehemical


plants and petroleum refineries. Proper selection of such equipment
cannot only minimize the initial plant cost but can also reduce the daily
operating and maintenance costs' The project or process engineer
does not have to be familiar with the complete design aspects since
these exchangers are generally designed by the manufacturer'
The project or process engineer, however, must understand the
methods ol designing and labricating heat exchangers in order to obtain
the best suited unit liom the manulacturer. By knowing these methods,
he can cooperate more closely with the manulacturer and this can save
them both time and money in exchanger applications.
Several types ol heat exchangers are available but only lhe major
types along with their design leatures will be discussed in this chapter.
Applications of Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers are used in a wide variety of applications ln


petrochemicai plants and petroleum relineries. The functions of the
major types are:'

Chiller
The chiller cools a process stream by evaporating a rel'rigerant. lt ls
tusually employed where required process temperatures are lower than
those attainable with cooling waler.

.s'
I)tist(;N ()tr t,tr,(x:liss li(?tI

,MLiN I'

SHELL-AND.TUBE HTJAT IjXCHANCERS

(irudcnscr

Sterm Generator

l'hc condenser condenses vapors by rcmoving heat to cooling water,

The steam generator generates stam lbr use elsewhere in th plant by


using high level heat from any available Iuel.

atmospheric air or other media.

Superheatel

Partial Condenser

The partial condenser condenses vapors at a point high enough to


provide a temperature dillerence great enough to preheat a cold stream
oi process Uuid. lt saves heat and eliminates the need lbr providing a

The superheater heats a vapor above the saturation or condensation


temPerature.

!hporizer

separate preheater using a Iurnace or steam.

The vaporizer is a heater which vaporizes part of the liquid led to it'

Final Condenser

Wast Heat Boilel

The linal condenser condenses vapors to a linal storage temperature ol


around l00oF. It generally uses water cooling which means that the
translerred heat is lost to the process.

generator'
The waste heat boiler produces steam and is similar to a steam

Cooler

The cooler cools process streams by removing heat to cooling water,


atmospheric air or other media.
Exchanger

except that the heating medium is a hot waste gas or hot liquid byproduct produced within the plant.
To perform these applications, many types of heat exchangers are
available. However, their design and materials of construction must be
suitable for the desired operating conditions. The selection of matrials
of construction is mainly influenced by the operating temPerature, and
the corrosive nature of the fluid being handled. In each case seleclion
must be both economical and practical.

The exchanger exchanges heat from a hot to a cold process stream.

CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heatr
The heater heats a process stream by condensing steam.
Reboiler

The reboiler connects to the bottom of a distillation column to boil


bottoms liquids and supply heat to the column. The heating media can
be steam, hot water or hot process stream.
Thermosiphon Reboiler

With the thermosiphon rboiler the natural circulation ol the boiling


medium is obtained by maintaining sufficient liquid head to provide lbr
circulation of the fluid material.
Forced Circulation Reboiler
The lbrced circulation reboiler uses a pump to lorcc liquid through thc

reboiler ol

distillation column.

The classification oI heat exchangers is primarily defined by their


type of construction of which the most common is the shell-and-tube
type. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are built of round tubes mounted
in cylindrical shells with their axis parallel to that ofthe shell. These have
extreme versatility in thermal design, and can be built in practically any
size or length. Tbe majority ofliquid-toJiquid heat exchangers fall in this
typ of construction. These are employed as heaters or coolers for a
vaiiety of applications that include oil coolers in power plants and the
process heat exchangers in the petroleum refining and chemical
industries. This type of construction is also well suited to special
applications in which the heat exchanger must be made ofglass toresist
the attack of highly corrosive liquid, to avoid alfecting the flavor offood
products, or the like. Figure I shows some of the various kinds of most
iommonly used shell-and+ube heat exchangers.2
The general construction features of common shell-and-tube type
exchangers as well as the nomenclature involved is illustrated in Figure
.r2

t0

tl

w,

l)lisl(;N ( )l; Pl..(x:liss

SHELL.AND.TUEE HI]AI' TJXCHANCERS

IIQLJIPMUN't

igurc 2 shows sections ol typical exchangers. The tube bundle is


up
made
of tubes, tubshets and cross baflles. The channel at the front
end of the exchanger serves as a header to feed the fluid into the tubes.
The tloating head at the back end ofthe tube bundle is the return header.
It moves freely with the thermal expansion of the tubes in the bundle.
The shell unit is essentially a cylinder with a bolting flange at each
end. The channel bolts to th front flange, and the shell cover bolts to the
rear flange. Figure 2 also shows some ofthe variations available in shelland-tub designs. Each variation has certain advantages, and also has
some disadvantages. The major types of shell-and-tube heat exchangrs
depending on their mechanical conliguration are discussed below.r

STIELL TYPES

ti

FRONT END STATIONARY HEAD TYPES


N

SPLIT FLOW

ONE PASS SHELL

TWO PASS SHELL


WITH LONGITUDINAL BAFFLE

DOUBLE SPLIT FLOW

nr--l----n

LfLr_____ilJ
DIVIDED FLOW

X
CHANNEL
AND REMOVABLE COVER
KETTLE TYPE REBOILER

cRoss FLow
CHANNEL INTEGRAL WTTH TUBESHEET AND REMOVABLE COVER

REAR END HEAD TYPES

BONNET (INTEGRAL COVER)


FIXED TUBESHEET

FLOATING HEAD

LIKE "A'' STATIONARY HEAD

WTTH BACKING DEVICE

SPECIAL HIGH PRESSURE CLOSURE

CHANNEL INTEGRAL WITH TUBE_


SHEET AND REMOVABLE COVER

FIG.T. SHELL.AND-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

(Courresy

of Tubular

Exchanger Manlfacturers A$ociation-)

t2

FIXED TUBESHEET

PULL THROUGH FLOATING HEAD

LtKE "B" STATIONARY HEAD

FIG.r. SHELL-AND-TUBE HEAT EXcHANGERS (Continued)


(Courtesy of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Asociation.)
IJ

l)l1Sl(;N ()lr Pl{()(:liSS l;(.1(,IPMtiN I'

SHELL.AND.TUBI] HI.IA'I' IIX(IIIAN(iIJRS

FIXED TUBESHEET

U_iUBE BUNDLE

LIKE "N" STATIONARY HEAD

EXTERNALLY SEALED
FLOATING TUBESHEET

OUTSIDE PACKED FLOATING HEAD

FIG.I. SHELL-AND.TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS (CONtiNUEd)


NOMENCLATURE OF HEAT EXCHANCER COMPONENTS

l. Stationary Head-Channel
2. Stationary Head-Bonnet
3. Stationary Head Flange-Channel
Bonnet
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

or

Channel Cover

20. Slip-on Backing Flange


21. Floating Head Cover-External
22. Floatine Tubesheet Skirt
23. Packing Box
24. Packrr'g

Stationary Head Nozzle


Stationary Tubesheet

25. Packing Gland

Tubes
Shell
Shell Cover
Shell Flange-Stationary Head End
Shell Flange-Rear Head End
Shell Nozzle
Shell Cover Flange
Expansion Joint
Floating Tubesheet
Floating Head Cover
Floating Head Flange
Floating Head Backing Device

27. Tierods and Spacers


28. Transverse Baffles or Suppod Plates
29. Impingement Plate

26.

30. Longitudinal Baffle


31. Pass Partition
32. Vent Connection
33. Drain Connection

34. Instrument Connection


35. Support Saddle
36. Lifting Lug
37. Support Bracket

AJW

38. Weir

19. Split Shear Ring

(Courtesy

kntern Ring

39. Liquid I-evel Connection

of Tubular

Exchanaer Manufacturers Association.)


14

FIG.2. HEAT EXCHANCER CONSTRUCTION TYPES

(Courtesy

of

Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association.)

t5

I)l1lil(;N ()lr l'R(X:liSS li(.ltllPMliN

Iil,t.-ANl)

t.u$ti

I.:A,f |]X( t tAN(il,RS

l.'ixed-'l'ubeshcca l.loul llxchangeni


F ixcd-tubcshecl oxcbatrgcrs ilrc [scd n]()rc (ttcn thatr r)y otllcf lyltc.
-fhcy have stlaight tubes sccured at botlt
onds in tubcshccts wcldcd to
the shell. Usually, the tubesheets extend beyond the shell and scrve ers

CFU

llanges lbr bolting tubeside headers. This construction requires t hat shcll
and tubesheet materials must be weldable to each other.
are no gasketed joints on the shellside, fixed_
_ Because
-there
exchangers
provide maxrmum protection against leakage of
lgbesheet
fluid
to
the
outside. Since clearance betwe; th; oui..rn.r,
5Sellside
lgbes and the shell is only the minimum required for fabrication, tubes
may completely fill the exchanger shell. However, this type has
lirnitations such as: (a) the shell side cannor be mechanically cleaned or
inspected, and (bl t hereis no provision for dillerential therrnut
ot rne ruDes and the shell. An expansionjoint may be installed in
"iounrron
ihe shell
1e provide lbr difl'erential thermal expansion, but this req;ir;;;;retul
design and high quality fabrication, which for large sizes."rufi.,n o
substantial cost increase. Tubeside headers, channel covers, gaskets erc.,
are accessible lbr maintenance and replacement, and tu-bes can be
replaced.and cleaned internally. The shellside can be cleaned onll oy
6sckwashing or circulating a cleaning fluid.
Fixed-tubesheet exchangers tjnd use primarily in
services where the
_.
56ellside fluids are nonfouling, such as steam, refrigerants, gases, certain
heat transfer nuids, some cooling waters and clean process streams.

g-Tube Heat Exchangers

In this type, both ends of U-shaped tubes are fastened to a single


stationary tube-sheet, thus eliminating the problem ot aifiereitiat
llermal expansion because the tubes are free to expand unJ
The tube bundle can be removed from the heat ixchanger "o"i.u",.
shell foi
inspectron and cleaning or replacement.

The U-tube bundles provide aboul the same minimum


clearance
between the outermost tubes and the inside ofthe shell as fixed_tubesheet
exchangers. The number of tube holes in the tubesheet for anv sivcn
5hell, however, is less than for the fixed_tubesheet kind becau,ie of
lirnitations on bending tubes. The number of tubeside passes must
always be an even number, the maximum is limited only by ft" nu.U".
of return bends.

. Tubeside headers, channels, gaskets etc., are accessible lbr

AKT
FIG.2. HEAT EXCHANCER CONSTRUCTION TYPES
of Tubular Exchanger Manufactuiers Association,)

maintenance and replacement. BundG tube replacement i" ifr"


rows presents no problems. Tlrc others can be replaced only when "r,rt"
sDeclal
tube supports are used, which allow the U _ tu bes to be spread apart so
as

(Courtesy

16

l'1

SHELL-AND.TUBE HEAT EXCHANOERS

l)llsl(;N olr Pl{(x)liss [(lulPMtiN'l'


to gain acccss to tubcs insi<lc thc bundlc The insidc of thc tubcs may be
cleaned only with special tools and then only when the bending radius of
the tubes is fairly generous. Because of this, U{ube exchangers are
usually found in non-fouling service, or where chemical cleaning s
effective. This construction is widely used for high-pressure applications'

Outside-packcd, lantern ring units are generally limited to 150 pst.


and 500 F. This construction cannot be used when leakage ofeither fluid
to the outside is not acceptable, or when possible mixing oftubeside and
shellside fluids cannot be tolerated.
Pull-Through Bundle Fig. 3(c)

Floating-Head TyPe Exchangers


The floating-head type exchanger is generally preferred in the petroleum
industry because both the tube and shell sides may be inspected and

mechanically cleaned. Also the floating head is free to move, thus


compensating for any di{ferential expansion between tubes and shell
without costly expansion joint provisions. This type is qulte expensrve'
The basic variations are:
Outside-Packed Stuffing Box Fig. 3(a)
shellside 0uid is sealed by rings of packing comprssed
within a stufling box by a packing'follower ring. The packing allows the
floating tubesheet to move back and forth. Since the stufling box only
contacts shllside fluid, shellside and tubeside fluids do not mix, should
leakage occur through the packing. The number of tubeside passes rs
limited only by the number of tubes in the bundle Since the outer tube
Iimit approaches the inside of the floating tubesheet skirt, clearances
between outermost tubes and shell are dictatd by skirt thickness'

In this type,

Used

for shellside services up to 600 psi. and 600"F,

these

exchangers are not applicable when leakage of the shellside fluid to the
outside cannot be tolerated.

Outside-Packed Lantern Ring Fig. 3(b)

rinls of
weep
provided
with
ring
packings (or O-rings) separated by a lantrn
Here. the shellside and tubeside fluids are each sealed by separate

iroles, so that leakage through either packing will be to the outside The
width of the tubesheet must be suflicient to allow for the two packings,

the lantern ring and for differential thermal expansion A small skirt is
sometimes attached to the floating tubesheet to provide bearing surface
for packings and lantern ring.
Since there can be no partition at the floating end' the number of
tubeside passes is limited to one or two. Slightly larger than required for
U-tube eichangers, the clearance between the outermost tubes and the
inside of the shell must prevent tub-hole distortion during tube rolling
ncar the outside edge of th tubesheet.

l8

This type ofexchanger has a separate head bolted directly to the floating
tubeshiet. Both lhe assembled tubeshet and head are small enough to

slide through the shell, and the tube bundle can be removed without
breaking anyjoints at the floating nd. Although this feature can reduce
shellside mainlenance, it increases tubeside maintenance. Clearance
requirements (the largest for any typ of shell-and'tube exchanger)
beiween the outermost tubes and the inside ofthe shell must provide for
both the gasket and the bolting at the floating tubeshet.
The number of tubeside passes is limited only by the numbr of
tubes. With an odd number of passes, a nozzle must extend from the
floating-head coYer through the shell cover. Provision for both
dilferential thermal expansion and tube-bundle removal must be made
by such methods as packed joints or internal bellows. Since this type of
exchanger requires an internal gasket between the floating tubesheet and
its head, applications are usually restricted to services where never
visible failures of the internal gasket are not intolerable.
Inside Split Backing-Ring Fig. 3(d)
In this design, the floating cover is secured against the floating tubesheet
by bolting to a strong, well-secured split backing-ring This closure,
located beyond the end of the shell, is enclosed by a shell cover of large
diameter. Shell cover, split backing-ring and floating-head cover must be
removed [or the tube bundle to slide through the shell.
Clearances between the outermost tubes and the inside of the shell
(which are about the same as those lbr outside-packed stulling box
exchangers) approach the inside diameter of the gasket at the lloating
tubesheet. This type of construction has the same limitation on the
number of tubeside passes as the pull-through bundle, but is more
suitable lbr higher shellside temperatures and pressures

19

t)lisl(;N

)1,

SItIil,I,-ANI).TUBL I It]AT EXCHANCERS

l,l((x:l.ss liQt,lPMIN'l

FABRICATION OF SHELL-AND-TUBE
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Standards

The TEMA'? (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association)

1&
_!. Q
9Z

^x
e

exchangers:

l.

Class

"R" Exchangers

This type is specified for the generally severe

requirements of petroleum and related processing applications'


Equipment fabricated pr this class is designed for safety and

duraLi[ty under the rigoroirs service and maintenance conditions rn

(,

such applications.

z
F

has

published detailed standards for the design and construction of.shelland-tube heat exchangers. The mechanical standard has been divided
into three parts rePresenting the following three diflerent classes of heat

c0>

oo

2. Class "C" Exchrngers This is specified for the generally moderate


requirements of commercial and general process applications'

Equipment fabricated in accordance with this class isdesigned for the


economy and ove.all compactness consistent with safety and service
requirements in such applications.
3. Class "B" Exchangers This cl4ss is specified for chemical process
service. The equipment is designed for the maximum economy and
overall compactness consistent with safety and service requirements
in such applications.
Fabrication Procedure''s
Shells
The shell portion ofthe heat exchanger is made ofeither seamless pipe or
rolled and welded cylinder. These are fabricated from pipe with nominal
pipe diameters up to 12" as given in Table 1. Above 12" and including 24"
the actual outside diameter and the nominal pipe diameter are the same.
Shells above 24" in diameter are fabricated by rolling and welding steel

plates in accordance with the ASME Code Section VIII, Division l, for
Fressure Vessels. Automatic welding is used almost exclusively on the
longitudinal sams and also on most of the circumferential seams.

20

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standard. Four principal tube arrays employed in shell-and-tube heat


exchangers are triangular, rotated triangular, square and rotated square
as shown in Figure 4. The triangular arrangement gives the strongest
tubesheet for a given shell-side flow passage area, whereas the square

arrangement simplifies some fabrication and some maintenance

cicici

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Tubesheets and Tube Hole Pattern

Tubesheets are cut either mechanically or with welding torches from


plates or forgings ofdesired materials. Tube holes cannot be drilled very
close together, since too small a width of inetal between adjacent tubes
structurally weakens the tubesheet. The shortest distance between two
adjacent tube holes is th clearance or ligament, and these are now fairly

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II

temperature ratlngs.

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Fl

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body flanges require careful facing operations. Flanges made to


recognized standards can also be used at the assigned pressure-

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ar(t
oi-r

I . , , l.oo!oo9
. , . l<()f)
-i..ii

z 3

v)

ro!
6-c) loorao
l!(|N
lon
cj--'l-.j-'l;ci

l{l\e
looo

Flanges

Flanges are designed and fabricated in accordance with the ASME code.
Forgings are mostly used to make these flanges. The channel and shell

--.
od-

Ir69lF.!q
l-oo lpo.o
q-d
| !v)N Ilo!olt\O- lxoc,
ldN.,) looo
iooo
ocici I cjcio lood lcicio lodd ldcid

@o({
.vtoa o.9o
-!c|
:!'1,?
\qq
ooo
oo-

|,,
I

SIl11t,l,-AND-'I L.lllli HEAT ITXCHAN(;ERS

I
I

lol..\
v)c).o lofl
q19 t('.o
\q
F(r
---

I
| , | ,

E]

I | , , lcrovl
t-oat
, ,,lqc':
lo-| ! | t
|
t,
',
I

:R

Ll

l.r
|N . , l . ,
lqo ,

lE:e

operations such as tubes being accessible for external cleaning. Square


pitch also causes a lower pressure drop when fluid flows in the direction
shown in Fig. 4(c). The tube pitch is the shortest center-to-center
distance between adjacent tubes. The common pitchesfor square layouts
are i" O.D. on l" square pitch and l" O.D. on 1|" square pitch. For
triangular layouts these are l" O.D. on i*" triangular pitch. In Fig.4(d)
square pitch has been rotated 45", yet it is essentially the same as Fig.
4lct.
After being laid out in their proper pitch and orientation the tube
holes are drilled in the tubesheet with a slightly greater diameter than
outside diameter of the tube and then lwo or more slooves are milled in
the wall of the hole.
Baflles

It

is apparent that higher heat hansfer coefficients result when a liquid is


maintained in a state of turbulence. Outside the tubes it is customary to
employ ba{Iles which cause the liquid to flow through the shell at right
angles to the axis ofthe tubs. This causes considerable turbulence even
when a small quantity of liquid flows through the shell. The center-tocenter distance btween balfles is called the baflle pitch or bame spacing.
Since the ballles may be spaced close together or far apart, the mass

velocity is not entirely dependent upon the diameter of th shell. Tierods

SHF]LT--AND-'t'UI]F: }IDAT LXCIIAN(;T':RS

l)l,Sl( iN ()lrl'lt(X:l.Sli li(l(lll'MIN l

l6] 3*:88
(4,

(b)

&
trE
X

(d)

(c)

FIG. 4 - TUBE HOLE PATTERNS

Shell flange

are screwed into the tubesheets placcd secttrcly at thc eorrect spacing lor
the given exchanger. Baffles are then slipped onto the tie rods and Iirmly
located in their proper place by use ol spacers between I hem as shou n in

Fig.5.
There are several types of baffles which are employed in heat
as
exchangers, but by far the most common are the segmnt baffles
generalplates
are
which
are
drilled
baffles
shown in Fig. 6. Segmental
be
ly cut to some percentage of the shell inside diameter' Baffles may
90o
be
rotated
or
may
flow
for
"up-and-down"
arranged, ur rho*rr,
to prJuid" "side-to-side" flow, the later being desirable when a mixture of liquid and gas flows through the shell' The baffle pitch not the
percentage cut detlrmines the effective velocity of the shell fluid'
Other types of bames are the disc or donut, and the orifice baflles as
in Figs.7 and 8 respectively. Although additional types are
sometimes employed, they are not of general importance.

shown
Tubes

Heat-exchanger tubes are also referred to as condenser tubes and should


Channel flange

not be confused with steel pipes or other types of pipes which are
extruded to iron pipe sizes. The outside diameter of heat exchanger or
condenser tubes is the actual outside diameter in inches within a very
strict tolerance. Heat exchanger tubes are available in a variety ofmetals
which include steel,copper, admiralty, muntz metal, brass, 70-30 copper-

FIG. s ' BAFFLE SPACER DETAIL (Enlarsed)

nickel, aluminium bronze, alurninium and stainless steel. They are


obtainable in a number of wall thicknesses defined by the Birmingham
Wire Gage, which is usually referred to as the BWG or gage of the tube.
These tubes are available in various sizes, of which
are most common in heat exchanger design.

ffi*ss-$
Fs88888?

6gm

*,*ttj

\oooooo/ ./
N9-,/-o'ittihg

FIC. 6 - SEGMENTAL BAFFLE DETAIL"

24

O.D. and 1" O.D.

The choice of a tube material for any particular application may


at all in many cases but may be a dilficult and
complex problem in severely corrosive envitonments. All the known
presnt no problem

factors which influence or contribut to corrosion such as past


performance of materials under similar service condition, type of
corrosion experienced in similar units, etc. would aid an engineer
materially in selection of most economical and most serviceable tube
material for the job.
Duplex Tubes

It
(l,r')rI "l'ft'c{ss l-lcnt Transfer" rv Donald Q. Kern - Copvdghr r9s0
I'v Mfl irnw llill ll.x)k Cornprny)

i"

is not uncommon to find conditions where the fluids both inside and

outside the tubs are extremely corrosive, and in addition require a


dilferent amount of corrosion on each side. Tubes which combine two

25

SI

r)rlsl(;N ()lr Pl{(x;liss lxll.J IPML|NT

orific\[l

r------l

ir

O. D. of tubes

r--1
nl
(a)

IELI,.AND.'TUBE HtsAT I]XCHANCERS

problem'
differrent metals called duplex tubes can be used to meet this
of two
tubes.
bonding
mechanically
by
Duplex tubes are manufactured
way
In
this
contact'
in
intimate
are
they
that
so
different metals or alloys
non-ferrous
or
ferrous
of
combinations
it is possible to choose various
alloys to combat successfully a certain type of corrosion at the^outside
surface and entirely different type of corrosion at the inside surface'
Ferrules
passing
Where contact of the ends of th outer tube with the fluid
replaced
tfriough tlt" toUe isconsidered objectionable, these ends may be
ferrules
with flrrules of the same alloy as that of the inside tube' These
the
place
when
need be only long enough to ensure their bing held in
have
distinct advantage to
tube ends are rollid into the tubesheets' It is a
furnished as an integral part of the tube to facilitate

(b)

Detail

FIG. ? - ORIFICE BAFFLE

iil."-1".tut".

ir,.Lttutiott. The construction of duplex tubes with attached ferrules


shown in Fig. 9 and 10 before and after installation respectively'

is

Tube Rolling

fixed in
Tubes are passed through the tubeshets and baffles, and are
preliminary.fashion
in
a
place by an expanding operation. They are set
from
Ly forcing u piog ug"intt the tubes. The plug preYents the tube

Doughnut

FIG. 8 , DISC AND DOUGHNUT BAFFLE

'

FERRULE
(Same material
as

inner tube)

rotatrng
turning when the roller expander is inserted' The roller is a
limit of
elastic
the
mandr-il having a slight taper. It is capable ofexceeding
that it
so
the tube metai and transforms it into a semiplastic condition
and
A
simple
seal
flows into the grooves and forms an extremely tight
a
tube
is shown in Fig. 11. Tube rolling is a skill,since
""u.ll.
"ornrnon
by rolling too thin and leaving a seal with little
Ou-og"O
U.
-rvstructural strength.

Turning
Slot \

Tube wall
FIG.

FIG.9

DUPLEX TUBE AND TUBESHEET


JOINT

I)UPLEX TUBE

(lr,'rn

'11rxrcss

lltl't Transfer"

hv M, (;rxw llill lr,xrk (l)mpany)

TO

Donald Q. Kern

- Copyrisht

1950

FI6. 1T . TUBE ROLL


(From "Process He.t Transfer"

FIG. I2 - FERRULE
Donald Q. Kern

by Mccraw-Hill Book ComPany)

27
26

'

Copyright r95O

l)lisl(;N olr

Plt.(

sllDl,l--ANl)-ltJttli

)(il'lss llQtrlPMuN'l

ln some industrial uses it is desirable to install tubes in a tubesheet


so that they can be removed easily as shown in Fig. 12. The tubes are
actually packed in the tubesheet by means of ferrules using a soft metal
packing ring.
After completion ofthe bundle assembly, it is brought to a test rack
where a hydrotest is applied. Bundles are then lowered vertically into the
exchanger shells and linal hydrotest of the exchanger is made. After the
outside ofthe shell is painted with a rust-preventive paint and all flanges
are covered to prevent damage, the unit is ready for shipment.

Design of rnajor shell and tube heat exchanger components is


illustrated in the examples given below.

llliAl lix(

l{AN(il:Rs

DESIGN CAI,CULATIONS
Shell Cylinder
Reference: ASME Section

VIII, Division 1'

Paragraph UG-27(c)

P = Design Pressure, Psig : 50 PSig


n = C..t A"i inside radius, in. = 28 125 in'psi
=
temperature'
J : eilo*uuf" stress at design
:
85
E = Welcl joint efficiencY
C.A.: Corrosion allowance, in : .125 in'

13'800 psi

Now

t = Minimum cylinder (hickness'


: >* PR
C.A.
SE _ ,6P
_

50(28.125) _i .125
13s00(.85)

EXAMPLE NO.

=
Usinghand calculation method, mechanically design all the components ofa
carbon steel, 56 inch inside diameter having 16 feet long tubes, TEMA
'AET" type of shell and tube heat exchanger for the following conditions.

SIDE
50
400
Va
l4

SHELL
Design Pressure, Psig
Design Temper'ature,'F
Corrosion Allowance, In.
Number of Passes

.125

.6(50)

'2452

in , use

72" (SA-285-C)

5O(28.t25) + .25
13300(.85)

420
'/a

.1202

Shell Cover CYlinder


Reference: same as shell cylinder

TUBE SIDE
250

in'

.1202

-125

.6(s0)

'2452

in , use /2" (SA-285-C)

Shell Cover Head (2:1 ElliPsoidal)


Provide solid soft steel gasket at the floating head and steel j acketed asbestos
gaskets at all otherjoints. Use ASME Section VIII, Division l6 and TEMA
"R" design criteria in calculations. Also, check the reinforcement requirenrcnt for an 8 inch 300# R.F. nozzle on the tubeside.

28

Reference: ASME Section

VIII, Division

l'

kragraph UG-32(d)

P : Design Pressure, Psig : 50 Psig


R : Corr;ded inside radius, in = 28 125 in'

S : Allowable stess at design temPeratue' psi


E = Weld joint efficiency = '85
C.A. = Corroiion allowance, in = 125 in'

13'800 psi

l)liSl(;N ( )lr I'l{(XilrSS lQtJlPMIN'l'

SHTJI,I--AND"TUBE HEA'I' T.:XCTIAN(itJRS


itn(l

Now

r = Nominal head thickness,

8r

in.

Now

.lP

50(28.125\

13800(.85)

i 199

.1(s0)

.125

-F .125

.0625

.u025

.3O'14

in.,

use

1.5(eo)

1.5( 875)

Therefore, the flange can be designed as an integral type as shown in


Fig. 1a of Chapter 2. Now assume (64) lVt in. dia. bolts. From Table 3. in

26" nom. (SA-285-C)

Chapter2, for lVq in. dia. bolts, we

Now

Reference: Same as shell cylinder

c=B+

420(28.125\

17500(.8s)
.8078

.125

VIII, Division 1, Paragraph UA-48

-+

Welding neck flanges are used in design. Both channel flanges will be

independent hub flange in chapter 2 and using SA- 105 flanges and SA-193have

p:
S' :
S" =
Sr"
Sr"

1.5(go)

Thus in corroded condition

2(1.75)

62.s in-

C + 2(E) = 62.5 + 2(r.25) = 65 in.

B:
8" :

56.25 in.
875 in'

Chapter

2, for an iron jacketed


m = 3.75

asbestos filled gasket

7600

Assume

N=
Fig. la.

0.625 in.

of Table 2 in Chapter 2,applies to our situation. So,


n 6t5
= 0.3125 in.

Therefore

1.5(1.0)

in

25,000 Psi

= 17,500 psi
= 17,500 psi

and

25'000 Psi

: Vb^
h
-22
-:-

Vc.:t

U.L|YJ

n.

Now

8:56in.
80: t': l0in'

gr

From lhble

A/
6 =::::
22

420 psi

Also in uncorroded condition

Assume

Gasket and Bolting Calculations

identical as they are independent because tube side design pressure is


conffolling the design.
Referring to the nomenclature, figures, tables and design steps for

87 bolts, we

A:

2(1.375)

.9328 in., use 1" (54-516-70)

Channel Flanges at Cover and Thbesheet


Reference: ASME Section

t) + 2(R'):56.25 +

2(g

and

C.A.

.6(420)

have

R : 1.75 in.
E = 1.25 in.

Channl Cylinder

t =

l '375 in

: 1.3125 in. (min'), use 2'25 in'


k, - 2^l (1.375 - R75) = o.2222 < 0.333
(rone =E
h ---:------------2.25
h

PR

st

- 2(b) : 62.s - 1.2s - 2(0.2s) = 60.191 in.


Assume rib area : RA : '{0.7018 in.2
Therefore W.r: 10.2795 (n) 60.191 + .5(40.7018)l 7600
: 556,344 lb.

G
1.5in.

Ho

2(0.25)

= 12 (n) 0.279s(60.19r) +
= 230'590 lb.
3t

40.70181 3.7s(420)

2(2195)

l)lisl(;N ( )tr plt(x:liss uQUlpMtrNT


1t

It
W^,

= -(60.1910), 42o

|,195,097

SHELL.AND.TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

'l'hcrclurc,

t,t95,097 tb

230,590

Mo =
1,425,68l. tb

Actual bolt spacing

thus

. r,425.687
". =J5poo = 57.0275 in.z
From Table 3 in Chapter 2, the root area of a
per inch is .929 in.2 which gives

Ao
Since

A,

A-,

64(.929)

1 ya

in. dia. bolt having

threads

Miximum bolt spacing

64 = :.00S in.

r,456,044 rb

Since, Actual bolt spacing (

.25) +

*9
^:
(J. /J + U.)'

2(1.25)

5.0625

'"-t
N>

N-r,

(59.456) 2s.000

=zrr?oooioo.rsl = o5l7l

" ='u#-=

in

therefore chosen gasket width is adequate.

tu

Flange Moments Calculations

HD:-4

55.ite

t.681.003 ( t.0)

29,884

56.25

\56.25)2 42O

1.043.j23 tb

Deiermining Shape Constants

H6 = Ho

= 230,590 lb
Hr= 1,195,097 - |,043,723 = t5t,3j4 tb
hp:1.75 + .5(1.375) = 2.4375 n.
hc= .5 (62.5 - 60.191) : t.1545 in.
hr=.5 (r.75 + 1.375 + 1.1545) : 2.1398

fr\

: _ --:l= l.t))o
^ )b.zi
From Table 4 in Chapter 2, for rK

in.

Mo=

1,043,723 (2.4375)
2,544,07 5 in-tb
Mc = 230,590 (1.154s) = 266,216 in-Ib
Mr:151,374 (2.1398) 323,910 inlb

1.1556

13.487

and

Therefore,

Z:1.8565
z = 6.9647

Now

U:14.8209
Now

Mo = 2,544,0'15 + 266,216 + 323,910

3,134,201 in-lb

Hc:

1,456,044lb.

= r.57l4

8o

Now, for the gasket seating condition

ho

g.e+l in.
7.5625 in.

maximum bolt spacing, the chosen bolt spacing


< normal bolt spacing, the correction

is O.K. and also actual bolt spacing


lactor CF = 1.0.

'I'hus, the calculation factors are

..

inlb

tr(62.5\

2(1

Normal bolt spacing

and

Since

59.456 tn.2

59.4s6) 25,000

t(O
=-:

1,681,003

Assumet:5.0625in.

therefore (64) lVq tn. dia. bolts are adequate. Now

0.5 (57.02'15

1,456,044 (1.1545)

:\6r.25.r;, = 7.0156
33

l)Hst(;N ( )tr PR()cEss EQUIPMENT

h=2.25:
ho 7.0 t56

SHELL.AND-TUBE HEAT EXCHANOERS

.S,, =

^rn

From Fig. 4 in Chapter 2, for

P,
"

8o-

1.51

t4

and

s,.
''

- = .320i

ho

r.84( 55.719)
---(5
| .4467

.0625)2

2,765 psi <17,500 Psi O.K.

ss Trorl? aRTl\

=-#-(5.0625)'

Sincc S,

> S^,

6.9647(2,765)

there fore, 0. 5(24,484

10,064 psi <17,500 psi O.K.

10,064)

17,274 psi < 17'500 psi

o. K.

we have

F=

0.8736

(;sskt Seating Condition

Similarly from Fig. 5 in Chapter 2,

1.20r9{ 29.884)

s- ==
.446'1 ( | .37 5\2

V = 0.3488

l3.l32Psi >26.250

Psi O.K.

= 1.483 Psi <17.500


=-1.4467(5.0625\2

Psi O.K.

and ftom Fig. 8 in Chapter 2,

S-

f = r.20r9

1.84(29.884)

29.884(13 .487

0.8736

p
- =-:

s.,, =::j:=-: ::
'''
(5.0625t2

l)A\

7.0156

14.8209

laRR

228.2333

5.0625 (.1245)

+|:

3/

I .63

^,
' =-=
5.062s

.8782

1.63

t=

l.E4

1.4467

Calculating Stresses

5,398)

9,265 psi <17,500 psi O'K.

flange.

24,484 psi <26,250 psi O.K.

50 psi

Since, the flange and bolt materials are the same as for the independent
flange, the values of Sr, S- S" and St remain unchanged. Noq in the
uncorroded condition

^ -r
60
- ',

s.,

All stresses in both the operating as well as the gasket seating conditions
within
allowables. Thus, the inde_pendent flange design is O.K.
are
Next we will discuss the design of the shell side or the dependent

Operating Condition
1.2019(55.719)
^ :lZOt,r:tsr,
,"

P=
.5685

Refer to Figure and design steps on weld neck dependent flange design
calculation sheet in Chapter 2. Here we have

.5685

5,398 psi <17,500 psi o.K.

Shell Flange at Tubesheet

R7R,

(5.0625)3
d- =-=

therefore,

0.5(13,132

B =14
\ \s.oozsr.l245)

i:

6.964i (1,483)

s.
(7.0156t (.875)2

Calculating Other Stress Factors

c=

Since

and

l)

<i-n
- v.J 'u.

Assume

8r =

0.8125 in'

l)tist(;N oF Pt{o(iEss EQUTPMENT

SHELL.AND.TUBE HEAT EXCHANCERS

Thus, in the coroded condition


and

H<;=W^t-H=l'425,691 - 142'273: l '283 '411 Ib


Hr = 142,273 - 124,252 = 18,021 lb
ho : 2.4315 + .5(.6875) : 2.7813 in'
hc : .5(62.50 - 60.191) = 1.1545 in.
hr= .5(2.4375 + 6875 + 1.1545) :2.1398 in

8r

>

1.5 Go)> 0.5625 in. O.K.

0.6875 in.

Assume

h=
Slope

'

2.0 in.

ro 6R?5 :--:

Nrtw

Mp

n 17sl

.1563 <.J33 O.K.

2.O

Mc

Mr

Therefore, the flange can be designed as an integral flange as shown in

Fig. la of Chapter 2.
Since, both the flanges are to be bolted together, the number and size of
bolts, and diameten B, C, G and A will be the same as for the independent
flange. Also, the values ofn and y will remain unchanged since thi gasket

material is the same.


The value of radial clearance R will be greater than the minimum
required for this flange, because its bolt circle dia. C has to match the bolt
circle dia. of the independent flange and its g, is smaller than g, of the
independent flange. So in this case

c
+ 2(8 )l
156.25 + 2(0.6875t1
-----;R _ - lB
=A5
=
z

2 4315

124,252(2.7813) = 345'577 in-lb


l'481'718 inib
r,283,4r7 (1. 1545)
inlb
1398)
38'561
r8,02r(2
=
=

'l'hcrcfore,

Mo

345,577

Hc=W:
Mo

in'

556'344 Ib

19,820 lb

*The values of

Wu

l'681'019

inlb

4.8125 in.

Normal bolt spacing will be greater than the actual bolt sPacing , thus

Cr

u:ffff=zz,nr
lnd

r'r

as earlier, thus I7

also be the same.

zr,tss

since the value of is the same as in the independent flange the values of
Y and U will remain unchanged.
Now

l,
(so)

={Se:

I)etermining Shape Constants

will

Flang Moments Calculations

H" =X66.zs)2

Thus, the calculation factors are

W^r* = l'425
'691lb'

A.

inlb

A$sume

142,273

which will result in the same

1,865,854

t.0.

2n (.2795) 60.191(3.75) 50

H = 160.191.t, 50

l'456'045 in-lb

1,456,M5( 1.1545)

the independent flange. Now

38,561

'l'hcrcfore,

The width and the effective width of the gasket will be the same as for

Ho

Now, for the gasket seating condition

Gasket and Bolting Calculations

W^za :

1,481,718

124,zszrb

I and W-2 are taken ftom independent flanse

L=@:
Lo

0.375

r.srrs
ho =\/s6.2s(0.37

s) = 4.s928

r)Esl(;N oF PR(rcESS EQUIPMENT

h:2'o :
4.5928

ho

From Fig. 4 in Chapter 2 for grl80

SHELL.AND"TUBE HEAT EXCHANOERS

1.8333 and hlho

0.4355 we have

0.8442

t,,

f = 1'2179
Now

=-=
4.5928

14.8209

0.26j 1@.5928)

o.5 (20,720 +14,047):17 ,383 psi< 17,500 psi O'K

(0.375)'z

35.8386

(4.8125)l

1.0151

1.8846

+ I :2.t794

t.ot:t

-; =-:35.8386
I:

+I=

^ =
,s^

|.2t79(33,17t)
=

.1251(.687 5)2

2.1794(33,171)
4 .

t251(4 .8125)2

^20.720 psi <26.750 psi O.K.

^/57 psi <17.500 psi O.K.

38

-:

12,655)

s^,

15,661 psi <17,500psi

All the stresses in both the operating

oK'

as well as the gasket seating

conditions are within allowables, thus the dependent flange design is O'K'
Additional desired thickness for raised face, counterbore, tongue or
lroove should be added to the calculated thickness / to obtain the final total
thickness of the flange In the above example we added %o in. to the
thickness of each flange Jor counterbore.

VIII, Division l,

Para-

graph UG-34(c)

4.1251

Operating Condition

Rcference: TEMA hragraph R-8.2, ASME Section

Calculating Stresses

,S.. =

s.

12,655 psi <17,500 psi O'K'

(lhannel Cover

J.ii

+ 3.11 =

8,667 Psi <26,25oPsioK'

Since

0.5(18,667

)a.8l2s(0.1838)

r' =@:
1.8565

.687

lhcrefore,

4 8125(0.1838)

p :( r

=4H9=
.1251(
5\2

^ 4.125'(4.8t25)2
. 29,885(r3.4871)
.\... = ----------------- - o.vo,+r(682) :
(4.8125\2
'

0.1838

Calculating Other Stress Factors


cr

o.K'

. 2.1794(29,88s) -^^ psr <17,500 psi O.K.


S.. = ___________- _: 6EZ
'

and

d=

14,047 psi <17,500 psi

(;o8ket Seating Condition

and from Fig. 8 in Chapter 2

0.8442

S. > S^'

llrcrclbre.

0.2671

6.s647(7s7)

Sincc

Similarly from Fig. 5 in Chapter 2

s, -1U{114!D
(4.8125)2

o.+zss

P:

Design pressure, psig = 420 Psig


G = Mean gasket diametel in. = 60.191 in.
Norninal bolt diameters, in. = 1.25 in.
h" Radial distance betwen mean gasket diameter and bolt circle, in'
1.1545 in.

d,:
:
=
A,: Actual total cross-sectional area of bolts, in.z = 59.456 \n'2
i : Required channel cover thickness at the bottom of the pass partition
groove, as determined by the TEMA equation or the appropnate
ASME code equation. whichever is greater, in.

)tjtit(;N ()tr t,R(xIiss ti.ltJ ,MINT

sHttlL-ANt),',t

('.r'1. - Cornrsion allowancc


or dcpth ol pass partition groove, whichever
is
greater,
:

in.

.1975 in.
C = A factor for method of cover attachment
= .3
S., = Allowable stress for cover materi2l
ar-^.^r.-,;^ ,---^-^...-_
naterial ar
at atmospheric
temperature, psi

: 17,500 psi
^ : Allowable
J"o
stess for cover material at design temperature'
psi
: 17,500 psi
E : Elastic modulus of cover material at design
temperature, psi
: 28.4s(10)6 psi
lV : Design bolt load for sasket
rb

w-,

legu_,r9g

bort road ror

= 1,425,687 tb

r,4s6,044 rb

"0"#l';":"::?fl,i:'

,=l*y".r#y1,,
_lt

l{cference: TEMA Paragraph R-7.1


P = Design pressure, psig = 420 psig
S Allowable stress for tubesheet material at design temperature, psi
= 17,500 psi
G: Mean gasket diametet in. = 60.191 in.
Tirbesheet constant
1.0 (for tubesheets having straight tubes)
C.A. Shell side corrosion allowance plus tube side corrosion allowance or
depth ofpass partition groove, whichever is greater, in. = .3125 in.

10)6

F:
:
:

Effective thickness of tubesheet, in.

:iv;*
FG Tp

+ cA

-422-$0.l9l)4 420+0.5(t.1545) 59.456(60.t91)


28.45(

IiAI Ix(]]tAN(]trRs

'lbbesheet

Now
7

TEMA Equation

ulrlt

28.45( t0)6

t/i$

.1744 in.

l06

j,,t +
J

,^

C.A.

1.0(60. 191)

l87s

= 4.6624

0.3125

.3125

4.9749 in.

Use 5" thick tubesheet (5,4-516-70)

ASME Equations

Notes:

Operating Condition

r-

(2) Floating tubesheet

to'

60.191

60.191

1.9288 in.

will

(ct,
|

- "'
C.A.

TEMA F4uation Conhols: Use 7.25 in. thk. (5A-516-70)

Intemal design pressure, psig = 420 psig


Pc = Extemal design pressure, psig = 59 nrit
S" = Allowable bolt stress at atrnospheric temperature, psi = 25,000 psi
Sr: Allowable bolt stress at design temperature, psi = 25,000 psi
Sra = Allowable stress for flange material at atmospheric temperature, psi
25.000 osi
Sn: Allowable stress for flange material at design temperature, psi
= 25,000 psi
Srr = Allowable stress for head material at design temperature, psi
= 17,500 psi
C.A. = Shell or tube side corrosion allowance, in. = .125 in.

.9fl,456.044) 1.ts45
17,s00 (60.19t)3

have sma er valui of G but both

VIII, Division l, hragraph l-6 & Appendix

P:

Gasket Seating Condition

/t.9twhl a+aA
s.,

is

Floating Head
Reference: ASME Section

5.5177 in.

t=U.,-

for bending only is calculated and it

tubesheets of the same thickness are used.

17.s00 (60.191)3

Ihbesheet thickness

assumed that shear does not control the desisn.

cP*.;;*
r.9lw_,) h-

t=G

(l)

41

SHELL.AND.TUBE HEAT BXCHANOENS

DESIGN OF PR@ESS BQUIPMBNT

L = Inside radius fo( dished only head, in'


=.8(B) = '8(51.25) = a1.0 in.
Rr = Rib area, in.2 = 19.22 in.2

Materials of Consnuction
SA-193-87

Bolts
Flange
Head
Gasket

SA-105
5^4-516-70

Flange and head will be designed using corroded dimensions becguse


conoded condition results in greaier thickness. Thus in corroded condition

Solid Soft Steel


Use 7r in. x 7a in. single nubbin for gasket facing.

trlange Design
Allolving % in. clearance between the LD. of the shell and the O.D. of the
flange, we get

A = Outside diameter of flange,

in. = 56

.375

55.625 in.

Assume (56) I % in. dia. bolts. TEMA recommended minimum wrench and
nut clearances are not used for the flange design since this is an intemal joint

and exchanger design does not require to comply with

ApI

2(.125) = 55.375 in'


A = 55.625
B = 51.25 + 2.\.125') = 51.5 in.
L= 41 + .125 = 41.125 rn.
W., = Minimum required bolt load for gasket seating, lb
= (bnG + .5Ra))
= [.12s(tt) 51.625 +.5(19.22, 18000

Il,

660

requirements.
C

Bolt circle diameter, in.


=A - Nut dimension across comers

:55.625
From Table

2.0

Il

53.625 in.

=loct p

of Chapter 2, for solid soft stel gasket, we have

n = Gasket factor : 5.5


) = Gasket seating stress, psi = 18,000
Assume N = Gasket width. in. = .375 in.
also w = Nubbin width, in. = .125 in.

= -.(5r.625)2 420
psi

= 879,143 lb.
W-r = Required bolt load for operating condition, lb

Fig. (2) of Table 2 in Chapter 2 applies to this situation, so


bo

= Basic gasket seating width, in.

w+N
D

= 537.896 lb
= Total joint-contact surface compression load, lb
= (2ttbG + R)mP
:12(tr) .r2s(51.62s) + 9.nls.s@n)
= 138,060 lb
= Total hydrostatic end load, lb

.125

.375

.125 in,

= Effective gasket seating width, in.

bo

=H+HP

: 879,143 + 138,060
= 1,017.203 lb
A,, : Total required cross-sectional
W^r
^
: Urearcr
-:-or-;oI^W,a
J"

.125

n.

= Greatr

Also
G = Diameter at location of gasket load reaction, in.

=C

:G_N

= 51.625

.3?5

d_537,896
ztmo -

t,Ot7 203

zsooo

From Table 3 in Chapier 2, the root area ofa I % in. dia. bolt having 8 threads
per inch is .728 in.2 which gives
Aa = Actual total ooss-sectional area of bolts, in2

= 56(.728)
51.25 in.

J,

= 40.6881 in.2

Bolt hole dia. - .375 - N


= 53.625 - 1.25 - .375 - .375
= 51.625 in.
= Inside diameter of flange, in.

area of bolts, in.2

Since

A,

A-,

40.768 in.2

therefore (56) l% in. dia. bolts are adequate. Now

l'

DEStcN oF PROCESS BQUTPMBNT


W

= Flange design bolt load for the operating condition or gasket


ing, as may apply, lb

SHBLL-AND.TUBE HBAT EXCHANOERS


seat_

= .5(A^ + A) S"
= .5(40.6881 + 40.768) 25,000
= r,018,201 lb
and

.lf-,

Minimum required width of gasket, in.

2ryG

.1746 in.
therefore chosen gasket width is adequate.

= Axial component ofmembrane load in


at the inside of the flange ring, lb

:!8,

the spherical segment acting

1T

= -(51 .5)2 420

:Ho

= 138,060 lb
1{. = Difference between total hydrostatic end force and hydrostatic
end
force on area inside of flange, lb

:H-Ho

Ilr

874,8m

= 4,253 lb
= Radial component of the membrane load in the spherical segment,
tb

_f v_4L, - B'r=874,8e0L--=;:J
:""La I _ _^^f vai.nf=,7;rv1
:

Ii.

in.

I/r,

in-lb

=Hoho = 874,890 (1.0625) = 929,571 in-lb


Mc = Moment due to llc, in-lb
138,060 in-lb
= He hc = 138,060(1.0)
Mr Moment due to I1r, in-lb
= Hr hr = 4,253(1.0313) = 4,386 inlb
Mn = Moment due to llR, in-lb

Mo

:
:

Hn hn

1,089,471(0)

0 in-lb

Total moment acting upon the flange for the operating condition, in-

lb

:WC

= 874,890 lb
= Gasket load in operating condition, lb

:879,143

=MolM6+Mr+MR
=929571 + 138,060 + 4,386 + 0
: |,072,017 in-lb
Mt:Mal moment acting upon the flange for the gasket seating, in-lb

Ilc

flange Moments Calculations


11o

Ma = Moment due to

40.768(2s,000)

N) N,,r,

Since

Now

2r(18,000) 51.625

Radial distance ftom the bolt circle to the inside of the flange ring,
m,
=.5(C a) = .5(53.62s 51.5) = 1.0625 in.
ic = Radial distance from gasket load reaction to the bolt circle, in.
51.625) = 1.0 in.
= .5(C G) = .5(53.62s
frr = Radial distance from bolt circle to circle on which
acts, in.
=,s(hD + he) = .5(1.0625 + 1.0) = 1.0313 in.
hn = I-ever arm of force 11^ about centroid of flange ring, in.

=0

:Aus"
_

io =

I,089,471 lb

1,018,201(1.0)

1,018,201 in-lb

Flange Thickness Calculations


Intemal hessure

P8\,6I;-;
8S&(A

A)

4206r.s\v4(4r.125)2
8(17s00) (55.37s

- 1.5)2
- 5l.s)
(5

=2.557

M.o/A+B
:"+(^-"
) =;iff#ft(
= 32.81

44

45

55.375

51.5

55.375

51.5

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUTPMENT


, = Rcquilgg_qEe thickness for opcrating condition, in.

+\/F7
=2.557 +\EmTffir
=F

8.83 in.

, = Required flange thickness for gasket seating condition, in.

SHELL.AND.TUBE HEAT EXCHANOERS

Mr= H, hr"
= 507(.0313)
Ho h^

Mp:

16

inlb

:129,698(0) = 0 in-lb
Moe = Ibtal moment acting upon the flange due to extemal pressure, psi

=Mo*M,rM*

#;"r->

=6,510

16

+ 0 = 6,526in-lb

p.B\/trL -

1,018,20r,,55.375
5l

8 Sf" (A

i(lr5oo)(553?5

B,

B)

50(51.5) v4(41.12s\2
= 5.5821 in.

8(17500) (55.375

Extemal hessure

= .3044

p :YoG, p,

:f,u.azsl,5o =
no:!SP

ru,66o lb

Hr=H =

lo4,l53 rb

+n

- B
6.526 .,55.375 + 51.5

104,153

sr

sl.s

: Required flange thickness for extemal pressure,


:F +!F2 + l
= 30da f/(304o2 + .?I

.8454 in.

507 lb

Total thickness of flange= 8.83 + .1875 + .125


= 9.1425 in., Use 9.25 in.

Ilead Thickness Calculations

t*,'slfV{4#l
5t.5
L

hp"= ho - h6
= 1.0625 - 1.0

hre: hr -

.0625 in.

Intemal Pressure
r2e,6e8 rb

/azr = Minimum required thickness of head plate, in.

_ .833 PL
sl{
.833(420) (41.125)

hc

= 1.0313 - 1.0 = .0313 in.


ha=o
Mo= Ho ho,
: 104,153(.062s) = 6,510 in-lb
46

in.

Thus the flange thickness for operating condition controls. Adding %o in.
counterbore and ys in. for shell side corrosion allowance, we get,

Ho

104,660

51.5)

J(r?Joor(5si?s
:0.20

r"

=itsr.sy so :

=Moe1e
B S/"\A

51.52

17,500

0.8222 in.. sav 0.875 in.

Extemal Pressure

tno = 0'875 in'


L = 41.125 in.
47

for

t)t.:st(;N ( )tr t,t((xltjss lt(lrJ ,MtjN,t.

Lltt , = 41.1251.875 =

sHIit-1.-ANI)-ltJBli

47

A = Code factor to obtain B

(max

:{*, .125 ..l= .l2s


* =.0021
From ASME Section

VIII, Division l, Appendix 5, Fig. UCS-28.2

:
t,:

sEt

Maximum allowable pressure Po is greater than the extemal design pressure

tube side C.A.

forming

/,,-

VIII, Division l,

dix L

PR"

s"E

.6P

paragraph UG-37 and Appen_

Corroded inside nozzle radius, in. = 3.9375 in.


Corroded inside nozzle diameter, in. = 7.g75 in.
Er = Channel cylinder joint efficiency
1.0
E: Nozzle neck joint efficiency 1.0
S: Allowable cylinder stress at design temperature, psi = 17,500 psi
S": Allowable nozzle stress at design temperature, psi = 15,000 psi
Corroded cylinder thickness, in. = 0.875 in.
Corroded nozzle thickness, in.
0.375 in.
S, Allowable reinforcing pad stress at design temperature, psi
:17,500 psi

t:
t,:
:

s- (max
15.000
= 1.0)=-=.8571
"/,, = J
17,500
-

1.0, =

.6(420)

u. r rZr rn.

A = Area of reinforcement required, in.2

P = Design pressure, psig = 420 psig


C.A. : Corrosion allowance, in. = .125 in.
R : Conoded inside cylinder radius, in. - 28.125 in.

R,:
d:

:0.6849 in.

.6(420)

Required nozzle neck thickness. in.

15000(1.0)

f..r = (lesser of S, or Sp)/S (max

420(3.931s)

.125

Calculation of Reinforcement for Thbe Side Nozzle


Reference: ASME Section

:dt,F + Zt"t,F (1 -

f,r)

:7.87s(.6849) (1.0) + 2(.375) (.6849) (1.0) (l


= 5.467 in.z
A, = Excess area in cylindet in.2
: Larger of the following
: d(EJ - Ft,) - 2t, (EJ Ft,) (.1 - f,)
= 7.875 {l(.875) - l(.6849)} - 2(.375){l(.875)

- ttt'

.8571)

l(.6849r(l

.8571)

1.4767 in.z

of

:2(t + t.) (Ert - Ft.) - zt"(EJ - Ft)(l - f,)


= 2(.875 + .37s) {l(.875) - l(.6849)} - 2(.375) U(.875) l(.6849)) (l - .8s71)
: .3369 'n.2
42:

Excess arca in nozzle, in,2


Smaller of the following
:5(t" t,") f1 t
.1121) .8571(.875)
= 5(.375
= .9858 in.2

or

I /,)UU
-!f,

375 in.

.6P

17500(1.0)

P" of 50 psi thus the head thickness is adequate.


or thinning allowance
: .875 + .125 + .125
: 1.25 \n. nominal thk.

420(28.r2s)

shell side C.A.

PR

:
B . 13.900
=l*/
l_-=2e5psi
+r
\LlrHD/

=,r/D +

in.

Required cylinder thickness, in.

B = 13,900
P" Maximum allowable external pressure for bead, psi

Total.head thickness

17.500

= 1.0):-:1.0
17,500

a = Outward nozzle weld leg size,


F Correction factor = 1.0

+r

\LnHD/

I tAt lixcltAN(itsRs

:5(t"- t,")fit,
=5(.375 - .1121) .8571 (.375)
49

SHELL-AND.TUBE HEAT EXCHANOERS

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

.4225 in.z

Ar = Area of outward nozzle weld


= (a)2 fa
= (.375)2 (.8571) : .1205 in.2
Total available area of reinforcement

Since

Ar + Az+ A4<A,

Additional arearequired

: A, -t A, !

Ao

:1.4767+.4225+.1205
= 2.0197 in.2

use additional reinforcement

: A=

EXAMPLE NO.2

(At + A2 +

5.467

2.O197

A4)

3.M3

rn,-z

Try 15.5 in. O.D., .5 in. thick SA-516-70 pad thus , Dp outside diameter ot
15.5 in. and, t,
reinforcing pad thickness, in. = .5
reinforcing pad, in.

in.

:
=

Ar :
:

Area of reinforcement required, in.2


5.467 in.2

A, = Excess area in nozzle, in.2


= Smaller of the following

=.9858

t,")

f^ t

in.2

Let c =

Aor:

fa

(.375)2

or

.5} .8s71

(.857l)

.1205 in.2

hd

to cylinder weld leg size, in. = .375 in.


Area of pad to cylinder fillet weld

= (c)z f,z
= (.375)2 (1.0) = .1406 in.2
As : Area of reinforcing pad

288'F

= 2147

200

Y8

Y8

130

Use TEMA "R" and ASME Section VIII, Division 1 design criteria for
calculations . Assume that there is no shell expansion joint and check to see if
one is required.

Reference: TEMA Paragraph R-7

3.4375 in.z

= Ar + A2 + A4r + 442 + As
+ .1406 + 3.4375 = 5.8231 in.2

.6478 + .1205
Since area a\ailable for reinforcement is greater than area requircd, the
opening is adequately reinforced.
50

TUBE SIDE

75
360

Fixed Thbesheet

Total available area for reinforcement

SHELL SIDE
Design Pressure, Psig
Design Temperature, 'F
Corrosion Allowance, In.
Number of hsses

DFSIGN CAI,CULATIONS

:(DD_d_2t)tef5
: (15.s - 7.875 - .75) .5(1.0) :
= 1.4767

in. O.D., 14 BWG min. wall, 12 ft. long

Design Conditions

.6478 in."
Area of outward nozzle-to-pad fillet weld
ta)z

3/4

Carbon Steel (A-214)


Mean tube wall metal temperature

.1121) .8571(.875)

:2(t" - t,") (2.5t" + t") f,l


= 2(.37s _ .rt2t) {2.5(.37st +

:
A., :
:
:

Tbbs

Carbon Stel (A-516-70)


Mean tube sheet metal temperature

|.4767 in.z

s(t" :5(.37s

20 in. O.D., Carbon Steel (4-106-8), % in. thick


Mean Shell metal temperature = 298"F

lhbe Sheet

Excess area in cylinder, in.2

Shell

( 284,

Check with rtinforcing pad added

Using hand calculation method, design a fixed tube sheet for a TEMA
"NEN" type of shell and tube heat exchanger for the following data:

ASME Section VIII, Division 1, UG-23(b) & Appendix

Ps = Shell side design pressure, psig


P, = lhbe side design pressure, psig

Do = Outside diameter of shell,

in. =
)l

75 psig
130 Psig

20 in.

ff1

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

= Outside diameter of tubes, in. = 0.75 in.


," = Corroded shell thickness, in. = 0.25 in.
,r ='IUbe wall thickness, in.
0.083 in.
G: Corroded shell I.D., in. = l9.5in.
N = Number of tubes = 284
E": Elastic modulus of shell material at metal temperature, psi
28.21(10)6 psi
4= Elastic modulus of tube material at metal temperature, psi
= 28.26(10)6 psi
E Elastic modulus of tubesheet malerial at metal temperature, psi
= 28.63(10)6 psi
d" Coefficient ofthermal expansion of shell material at metal temperature, in./in. "F
6.596(10)-6 in./in "F
a, Coefficient of thermal expansion of tube material at metal tempera-

SHELL-AND.TUBB HEAT EXCHANOBRS

4(r) 28.21(10)6 (.2s) [6.s96(10)-6 (228) - 6.


[20 - 3(0.25t [1 + (1) .3135 (3.82)]

do

:
:

'F =

ture, in./in.

6.576(10f6 in./in. "F

O" = Shell metal temperature - 70"F = 228'F


O, = Tub" metal temperature - 70"F = 218"F
Mr = Total flange moments in operating condition, in- lb = 0
M2 = Total flange moments in gasket seating condition, in - lb= 0
F = Thbesheet factor
I (for tubesheets with straight tubes)
Rctor
I (for shell without expansion joint)
S = Allowable tubesheet stress at design temperature, psi = 17,500psi
?= Assumed thickness of tubesheet, in. 1.25 in.
Z = lbbe length between inner tubesheet faces, in. = 141 in.
D; = Expansionjoint inside diameter, in. = 0 (since there is no
expansion joint)

Now

- t")
Et\N (4 - t)

=@=.,..
28.26fl0)6 (.083) 284 (.75 F.=

.25

+ (F

= (n2?- (G)3
',t
Pr"

= o (since

M, =

g;

Equivalent bolting pressure when tube side prcssuro is zero' psi

6'?

M"-:

= (n2 (G)3

o (since

M" =

g;

f"=t-"fo)'
:1-2s4(4,J2:.Siee

.083)

,G, 31tta
.6) l=:-{;l
L KLE \t/ JI
1300 r. E-

(,*) I

Equivalent differential expansion pressure, psi


(oc"

O"

* rrr.t +/")) -

,L-

P! = P forir,s
_

l.rrsrr+rr-e-orffi

_ 4./ E, t"

Equivalent bolting pressure when tube side is under pressure' psi

75r.4(1) u.5

-L

P=.5(P"'

^^
:.25+t-.6t1--" ?rn/ ?s) 28.21(10)6 zl9.5ri-lt/a: ^3'62

P,

Pr, =

:J(e'

(t + .lKF q\

- 5 29.379 osi
1+l(.3135)(3.82) I =
+

.3135 (1.5

.5799)l

P = Effective shell side design pressure, psi (will be the greater absolute
value of the follorings)

E" t" (Do

,,

216.89 psi

J:

a, O,)

(Do_3t")(t+JKFq)

=P: =

- P) = .5(29.379 29.379 psi

46.89)

: -

8.76psi

P=Pas=0
P=.5(P! - Pa- Pns) = .5(29'379 - 46.89 - 0) =
P = .S(Pas + P7) : .5(0 + 46.89) = 23.45 psi
P : P"' - Pes = 29.379 - 0 : 29.379Psi

8.76 psi

The maximum absolute value of effective shell side design pressue will be

29.319 psi.

Now

f,=1-*(+'
)J

SHELL.AND"TUBE HEAT EXCHANCEN,S

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

r.75 - 2
=l-284l-ler

Ss

_ (D.

''[uffiffi@]:zs'sznsr

= Effective tub side design pressure, psi (will be the greater absolute
value of the followings)
=.s(Pi + PE, + P) = .5(75.87 + 0 + 46.89) = 6l.38psi
= Pt! + Pat : 75.87 + o = 75.87psi

Thus the effective tube side pressure

T:

r") (C" P"'*)

4t"

.25)

S" (allowable) = 15,000 psi (tensile)


S" < S, (allowable), shell is O.K. in tension

Where

C. = 1.0 (from TEMA Paragraph R-7.22)

will be 75.87 psi

(20

.25\

of effective shell or

(min.) + shell

side

C.A. +

greater of tube side C.A.

1.5 in. (54-516-70)

tubesheets thicker than computed are


permissible provided neither sheU nor tubes are overloaded.

She[ Longitudind Stnecs Calculations

75.87

54.13 psi

P,* = Pr = 54.13 Psi


I - 29.379 psi
or P,* =p
orPr+= - Pa = - 46.89psi
or Pj* = Pr + P"' = 54.13 + 29.379 = 83.5 psi
orPr*:Pr - Pa = 54.13 - 46.89 = 7.24 psi

Pa

=Pr + P"'

46.89 : - 17.511 psi


54.13 + 29.379 - 46.89 = 36.62 psi

29.379

Pd

(2O1.5)

Using maximurn positive value of P"* we have

54

.003l

VIII, Division l, Fig. UCS-28.2

=B=

14,9000 psi (compressive)

S, <S, (allowable), shell is O.K. in compression

S.:

It is O.K. to \se ly2 in. thick since

130

S" (allowable)

l75oo

- P,'=

.125

or use r = 1.25 + .125 + .125 :

=Ps'

926 psi (compressive)

From ASME Section


B 14,900

EE

.642 in., use 1.25 in

tube side design pressure

or groove depth

or Ps:*
or Prt

//'6.89).

A= .r25 | (DJzt")
gxeater

r(rg.5\
V

Pr -Pr

4(.25'l

P is tlle

P"t we have

Using rnaximum negative value of

IF

2y

(83.5)

I,649 psi (tensile)

Requircd tubesheet thickness

FC

(l)

4(.2s)

P,' is positive

Since

P
P

=.74s

1.0 (from TEMA kragraph R-7.22)


= Maximum effective longitudinal shell sness

Cs
'z

_ (20

=
P

(.083Ir

shell material yield stress

.9is") = .9(35,ooo) :
Ls(E) : L5(1649) :
1.5(S,)

35,000 psi

31,5oopsi
2,474 psi
at hydrostatic test

<.9(s'), shell is O.K.

Tube Longttudlnal Stress Calculatlon

p, = p,' -+@) =
Fq '

7s.87

= 50.52 psi
-#(130)
1.8:.

zg.37g -ft99
= 17'99 nsi
-Lrr-,
Fq " =
';(75)
P,* = Pr. : 50.52 Psi
or Pr* = - Pr: - 17.99 Psi
or P,a : Po = 46.89 Psi
or P,* : P, - Pg : 50.52 - 17.99 : 32.53 Psr

P.

P-'

55

r
DBSIGN OF PROCESS BQUTPMENT

SHELL-AND-TUBE HEAT EXCHANOERS

ot P,r = p, +

Po = 59.52 + 46.89 = 97.41 psi


ot P,4 =-P3+Pd: -17.99 + 46.89 = i8.9psi
or P,* = p, - P3 + Pd = 50.52 - 17.99 + 46.89 =

Since

S. = Allowable tube compressive stress

S, (allowable)

3.82 (19.5)2 .5 07.4tl


4(284) (.083) (.7s - .083)

<

.9(S,)
1.5(,9)

10,000 psi (tensile)

S, (allowable), tubes are O.K. in tension

Using maximum negative value of P,+ we have

C,:1.0

^
''

(from TEMA kragraph R-7.23)

3.82 (19.5\2

(17.99\

("08ilJ5:ls3):
.s, : lhbe maierial yield stress :
r : Radius of glration of tube
: 0.25Vdo2 + (do - 2r)z

1.5(S,)

:
:

in tension or

Sc

Pr*

416 psi (compressive)

+,2g4)

= .9(26,000) : 23.400 psL


= 1.51a161 = 624psi

<.9(SJ, tubes are O.K. at hydrostatic test

P,* = Pt: 50.52 Psi


orPr*=-Ps=-17.99psi
or P,* = P, - Pz = 5O.52 - 17.99 =

32.53 psi

50.52 psi (Greater absolute value of the above)

Now
26,000 psi

W; = Maximum
1l

= ;;

1.0 (For unsupported span between two baffles)


Equivalent unsupported buckling length of the tubes
1(60) = 60 in.

Fo

P,* (G)2

4(284')'

so.sz eg.5t2

:203 lb

A, :

Nominal transverse cross-sectional area of tube wall

= .7854

vs.

fL-ldo2 -

:.78s41

.7s2

LJ

2(n)2 28.26(10)6

effective tube-io-tubesheet joint load

: ar3.82l

IGFE.
,(

(do

(.15

u,)21

.166)2)

I = .1739 in.z

Allowable tensile stress for tube material at design temperatue , psi

= 10,000 psi
= hctor for the length of the roller expanded portion of the tube
= 1,0 (For joints made with roller expanded tubes in grooved tube

26,000

kl
r

= smaller of S, (allowable)
= 3,417 psi

Calculatlons of TubeToTubesheet Jotnt Loadg

= 0.25 V.75)2 + t .75 - .t66)2 : .2376 in.


= Maximum unsupported tube span
= 60 in. (span between two baffles)
kt

3'417 Psi

S, <S, (allorvable). tubes are O.K. in compression.

1,125 psi (tensile)

S, (allowable)

S,

tP E, _tr2 (28.26)106
_
:
=r@y=
,eoLory
\r,

Fo G2 Ct Pt+

4N4@o- t)

79.42 psi

Using maximum positive \alue of P,* we have


C, = 0.5 (From TEMA hragraph it-7.23)
S, = Maximum effective longitudinal tube stess

c"

60
.2376

holes)

56

57

)rist(;N ( )tr t,l{( x:lis:i ltlutPMtN't

/;. : Pactor for reliability ofjoint


= 0.70 (for rolled joints having two or more grooves)
:
4, Ratio of tubesheet yield stress at metal temperature to the tube yield
stress at metal temperature

=
17,

expanded
1.0

(allowable)

whichever

is less, for roller

Maximum allowable tube-lo-tubesheet joint load

= A, (s") f" (f) fy

=
17,

or 1.0,

joirts

.1739 (10,000)
| ,217 lb

FLANGE DESIGN
l

(0.70) I

<lV, (allowable), tube-to-tubesheet joint is O.K.

All the

stresses are within allowables therefore, the tube sheet design is


adequate and expansion joint is not required.

REFERENCES

l.

Morton, Donald S., "Heat Exchangers Dominate Process Heat


Transfer," Chemical Engineering, June ll,1962, pp. 170-176.
2. Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th
Edition. 1978. New York.
3. Lord R. C., Minton P. E., and Slusser, R. P, "Design of Heat
Exchangers," Chemical Engineering, J anruary 26,1970, pp. 96 -l18.
4. Rase, Howard F., and Barrow, M. H., "Project Engineering of Process
Plants," John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1957.
5. Kern, Donald Q., "Process Heat Transfer", lst Edition, McGrawHill Book Company, New York, N.Y., 1950.
6. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, "Pressure Vessels," Division I, ASME, New York, N.Y., 1983.

The flange is the most essential part of pressure vessels, heat


cxchangers and storage tanks. Flanges are used on the shell ofa vessel or
i|n exchanger to permit disassembly and removal or cleaning of internal
parts. Flanges are also used for making piping connections and any
other nozzle attachments at openings.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code permits, and even
cncourages, the use of flanges made to recognized standards such as
"Steel Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings," ANSI 816.5, 1973 or 19'11

cdition. Flanges conforming to this standard can be used without


calculation at the pressure-temperature ratings assigned in 1977 edition.
Certain other standards, however, that are not nearly as well
known, also provide designs which may be lound acceptable,
particularly in the sizes above 24" which is the upper size limit of the
ANSI 816.5 standard. Thus, it is often possible to find in a recognized
standard the exact flange type, size and material neded for a particular
application.
The following are typical flange standards:

MSS SP-44 was developed to establish uniform flange dimensions for


use with high pressure pipe lines of26" through 36" size, and classes 300
through 900. It is now revised to include class 150 and sizes 12" through
60'.
API (American Petroleum Institute) Standard 605, Large Diameter
Carbon Steel Flanges, 75, 150 and 300Ib rating in sizes 26" through 60"
inclusive.

Taylor Forge Standard, classes 75, 175 and 350 in sizes 26" through 72"'
92" and 96" respetively.

58

59

ii

t)tist(;N ( )t t,t{(xjiss l1(?lIIt,MIrNI.

AWWA (Anrcricarr Watcr Works Association) Standard C207-55.


classcs B, D and E, in sizes 6" through 96".

The flanges included in the API Standard and the several Taylor
Forge Standards are designed in accordance with the requirements of
thecode. When flanges to other standards are considered, only allowable
ratings in accordance with the code need to be checked instead of the
development of an individual design.

Taylor Forge Catalog No. 722 lists all of the above and also other
large diameter flanges. A lot of unnecessary flange design time can be
saved by choosing the appropriate flange from this catalog. Howevcr,
due to the variety of sizes and pressure and temperature combinations
required for process equipment, manual designing ofthese flanges is not
very uncommon. The design analysis of various types of flanges along
with the sample design calculations for eash kind are included in this
chapter.
We will cover the design ofcircular flanges under internal pressure with
gaskets entirely within the inrer edges of the bolt holes and with the outer

rims of the flanges not touching under the applied loading as discussed rn
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel coder and EPG Bulletin No. 502,2 Thesc
are classified as circular flanges as illustrated in Appendix 2 of 1983 edition
of the ASME code Section VIII, Div l, Paragraph 2-4 and Fig. 2-4. The
following are types of such flanges:
1 Intgral Type Flanges. This type covers designs where the flange rs
integral with the neck or vessel wall, butt-welded to the neck or vessel
wall, or attached to the neck or vessel walt by any other type of welded
joint that is considered to be the equivalent to an integral structure. In
welded construction, the neck or vessel wall is considered to act as a
hub.

Fig. la through ld represent flanges of this type. For flangcs


having tapered hubs, the dimension 9o is defined in the code as the
hub thickness at the small end, but for calculation purposes it is more
convenient to let go equal the wall thickness of the attached cylinder.
Also, th hub length I extends exactly to the point where its slopeline
meets the O.D. of the vessel or nozzle and thus ft may actually be
shorter or longer than the hub length as manufactured.
The dimension B in this case will be the inside diameter of both
the flange and the vessel or nozzle.
2- Loose Type Flanges. This type covers designs where the flange has
no dirct attachment between the vessel or nozzle and those where

Irl.AN(il; l)rlsl(;N

l-ig. lc shows the original application of this type. The hub can
ho made of any length or omitted entirely. Bsides lapjoint, slip on,
threaded and socket type flangs are also classed as loose typ. For
hubbed flanges ofthis type, there is no minimum limitation on i or go.

I{owever, values oI go less than 1.5t, and

lcss than go are not

vessel or nozzle.

While designing loose type flanges, B should be taken as the


inside dianeter of the flange but not the vessel or nozzle.

Optional Type Flanges. This type covers designs where the


attachment of the flange to the vessel or nozzle wall is such that the
assembly is considered to act as a unit which should be calculated as

an integral flange, with the vessel wall taking on the functions of the
hub. This obviously includes welded construction with no apparent
hub, as shown in Fig. 1g and lh, or constructions with such small
hubs that do not merit inclusion in the loose typ group. The term
"optional" is used because the designer may calculate the
construction as a loose type flange provided none of the following
values is exceeded:

B .^^
,o:i Incn. ..i :J(^J
Design pressure

:300 psi

Operating temperature

700"F

Thus the integral flanges that come within the above restrictions
can also be designed as loose type flanges. This simplifies the calculations and may result in som economy.

BOLT LOAD AND GASKET REACTION


In bolt-up condition the bolt load is balanced only by the gasket
reaction as shown in Fig. 2a. As internal pressure is applied, the bolt
load is balanced by lhe sum of gasket reaction and the hydrostatic end
force due to pressure as shown in Fig' 2b. Thus, while designing a
flange, both the above conditions should be analyzed separately.

the method of attachment is not considered to be equivalent ro


integral structure.

60

recommended. Ifthe hub is too small to meet these limits, it is best to


design it as in Fig. 1f, but ofintegral type, using hub thickness equal to
(t r + t,) at large end, t, at small end and B as the inside diameter ofthe

6l

lrl.AN(ili l)l1Sl(;N

Itr.qrir(d llolt Lords


INTEGFAL TYPE FLANGES

TOOSE TYPE FLANGES

{rl

lflet Disc-Type Gaskets: Operatirg Conditions

llrt: r'cquired bolt load, tIl.r, shall be sufficient to resist the hydrostatic
r'|l(l li)rcc, H, exerted by the internal pressure on the area bounded by the
,lrrrrrrctcr of gasket reaction G, and, to maintain on the gasket or joint, {,ntircl surface a compression load. tl, Thus'

w^t:H+He::G2P+2bncn?
f. 8. tu1., At Nii-p.irt Ot Carocr B.1..., n@0. Ard Lop t.d.p.nd.nt Of

whete Hub Stope Adiacen! To Flange


E ceeds 1:3 Use Dataits (1b) ot (1c)

(l)

llolt-up or Gasket Sating Condition


lkrlilrc a tight joint can be obtained it is necessary to seat the gasket or

ro!nt-contact surface properly by applying a minimum initial load, l/,r,


wr tlrout the presence of internal pressure. This load is a function of the
prrskct material and the effective gasket area to be seated and can be
r'U)rcSSed aS:

W^z:brGY
tk.w

OPTIONAL TYPE FLANGES

FIG.2a

Fu

Loodlnt And Dlhutto.s

FIG.

^=-,4

Pcr.r.o

;A

Ba.k.hle

At. fha

SoD.

As

. TYPES OF FLANGES

(Courtesy of Energy Produds croup)

FIG' 2b

FIG. 2-BOLT LOAD AND CASKET REACTION


(Courtesy of Energy Products Group)

62

63

(2)

)lisr(;N olr Pl{(xtLss LQUTPMEN'I'

l.t.AN(iti Dl1st(;N

ts

=I;
-a
zt
4a
<rr
21

,:
'd

3i'^ ^

-^*:i

.Y

!o
yc7 E
-9'Z

<F

5a$#'

iis
d'j:

*E

:Ei i
s
:tj. E?.i

R?RC9 83338

E:{:i
rz
i i+

;ts

I, I

-3FE i ;
iE.s
I

Errij I

<t

;h.:::'
- !.n

FC

F='d:
- >,+!:

-;36s?
coo ,a
: c o\o
e:a.
q,

.9

! Ed : ;

=7.

! -o : ;

:o,Y3
E*.i=3

" oir:? o
::5 5'! ::5 5 (!
::6
,i.,i.:>6i+i .i.d,:> e i.,i:>6

,r.

o i9

3i

.iJ

J -o
.=

3-

;r,,ib

Jo

-'

=9:-.
o o-< !l

: O;:E

tE:6

3P

ai

93
!l

rr1

64

3,
h u-.:>e

].
6

::5
i.ti.:=i

o- d

Ya
.:=

ii

F';

=i,i.

): ti

>
=

E7i-,
= i *!!

:E:'9n

ar

;: i;;

!g=t=
1'r' vE I
;;E+

c
F
E

<
E

f $E!! ;

E;-E9

F d } OF

-1

Fv

?.a

iE

z=E !.=
5!E ti

cc.

<!
F

.;

>iE

;I

z1

<E

iE

E 5i+;,*r

mftum

$M

i:

cz

65

l)lrsl(;N ()F PI{O(ILSS tiQUIPMENT

FLANGE DESI(]N

/:

--\

-l

al
+

*:=+i+t
{'s

-l

l'+

{:..-

dj o:<

r! ce

i.9 E=

sj"

+ 16l

r;: ; 1"s"{

!!:

!r,

i;

5>

o L-E

Ei;*:i[;

:5

EI

.-E

FT

=l

g-

F
r{

*'|

l^r

^l

E]

F
H

,i

El

\z$

3
F

$z

ZF

']i

<
-l

Iv

I
cl

;.$
(,*

l-"'lc

l.r
vtl

Ftil

{Ff

laF
3N

T+

vll

l-'-

IN

a>

iNNRB

2A

-{1tzN
'|| rt

;=
?:
T:

rt

lrl
_'t]*1.r_

ZN

z7

,=

a^

oo

.:

67

L
r,t

t)list(;N ( )tr pR(xitiss l]Q(itpMI]NT


For flange pairs having a tubesheet in the middle as in exchanger
application or for any other similar application wher the flanges and
or gaskets are not the same, W^, shall be the larger of the values
obtained from above formula as individually calculated for each
flange and gasket, and that value shall be used for both flanges.
Code suggested values of gasket factor ,|| and minimum design
seating stress / for various gaskei materials are tabulated in Table I
and effective gasket seating widths for different contact facings are
given in Table 2.
(b) Self-energizing Gaskets: Operating Conditions

The required bolt load for the oprating conditions, t/,,, shall be
sufficient to resist the hydrostatic end force, H, exerted by the internal
pressure on the area bounded by the outside diameter ofthe gasket. H, is

to be considred as zero for all self-energizing gasket except certain


seal configurations which generate axial loads which must be con-

trt.AN(;li I)|]st(;N

lk)lts must

be spaced close

enough to assure adequate gasket pressure

l)clwcen bolts.

Seltction of Bolt Spacing

lhc minimum bolt

spacing based on wrench clearances limits the

rrrrrrrbcr of bolts that can be placed in a given bolt circle. The maximum

lxrll spacing is limited by the permissible deflection that would exist


lr('twocn flanges. If the deflection is excessive, the gasket joint will leak.

lil'(i Bulletin 502 "Modern Flange Design" recommends the following


frrrpirical relationship for maximum bolt spacing:
Bolt spacing (maximum):2a
'

6-L
+.(m + 0.5)

l,lstsblishing Bolt Circl


I lrc thickness of hub at back of flange
Ir)llows:

sidered.

Bolt-up or Gasket Seating Condition

L:

1.25

g, should first

o to

be calculated as

2.590

Self-energizing gaskets may be considered to require an inconsequential amount of bolting force to produce a seal. So ttl.2 can be assumed
equal to zero. Bolting, however, must be pretightened to provide a
bolt load sufficient to withstand the hydrostatic end force I/.

Table 3 lists the root area, minimum bolt spacing, radial distance
ofbolt size. The minimum bolt-circle
tliirnreter will be either the diameter necessary to satisfy the radial
' lcirrances,i.e. B * 2(tr + R) or the diameter necessary to satisfy the boltrpircing requirement,i.e. N(Bolt spacing)/z, whichever is greater. The

Determination of Bolt Area

,rptimum design is usually obtained when these two controllirrg


(lr meters are approximately equal.

If S, denotes the allowable bolt stress at the operating temperature,


and S, the allowable bolt stress at atmospheric temperature, then
the minimum required total bolt area,4- is obtained as follows:

l,'lange Design Bolt Load, W

. w^,
A.:
!' or
Jn

w^

'2. whicherer

J,

is greater

rrd

edge distance etc. as functions

lhc bolt loads used in the


For operating conditions

Selection oibolts to be used shall be made such that the actual total

cross-sectional area of bolts, lr, will not be less than 1.. Excessrve
bolting may have to be provided while designing relatively thin flanges
for low pressure service because of the following,

l.

Due to the danger of over-stressing smaller size bolts during


tightening, a minimum bolt size of /z " is usual in most piping and
pressure vessel work,

2. For practical construction reasons, bolting is mostly provided in


multioles of four.

68

design of the flange shall be the values

()btained from the following forrnulas:

W:W^,

(3)

t 4,-r
u,:. .^ Ab\5.

g)

For gasket seating

ln formula (4) S, shall not be less than that tabulated in Subsection C of


thc ASME Section VIII, Division t code. In addition to the minimum
fcquirements for safety formula (4) provides e margin against abuse of
thc flange from overbolting since margin against such abuse is needed

plirnarily for the initial, bolting-up operation which is done at

69

|)tist(;N otr PR(xtuss tiQtjlt,MUN'I'

! sN{
5E

i3

lrl.AN(;li I)l1Sl(;N
| || rr rrl)llcric tcnrpcta(t||c ltrd bcforc applicatiott tlf intcrnal pressure, the
llrrrrgc tlcsigrr is rcquircd to satisfy this loading only under such
( ll (lrll()lls.
Whcrc additional safety against abuse is desired, or where it ts
r( ( cssirt y that the flange be suitable to withstand the lull available bolt
.r

ss sss s

sNs ssN

.E!

ioJ

- s*s sss

SSs

ssx

s:s;s

s5

l,

& Er,r

,!.E

ssF 5ss sss sss

lilurge Moments

ss xs

I lrc various axial forces on the flange produce bending moments. The
rrrorlcnt ol a load is the product of the load and its moment arm. The
Ir()l|tcnt arm is determined by the relative position ofthe bolt circle with
I rsllcct to that of the load producing the moment. The forces and the
I vcr arms for a typical integral-type flange for operating condition are
',lrown in Fig. 3. The total moment must be equal to the sum of the
nr()u)cnts acting on the flange:

z2
55s sss ss sss sxs sx
!!a
E6
o

3l

tr

sss Sss 5Ss

o
zt

J
F

EE

iE

NS

na9

ci ct

rt atc,t{

a.

sss sxs

ss sN5 sss ss

!
!ro
tsi; d<;'

!Ei

nqc?

c.i

t't .q

z:
<i
6(,

EEi
d<;'

qqc! 9\q

i.:

t\94

=o
3#"

i.:
s-

kt <t 6

a?c\ 99

;.P
I

nge Loads

Lever Arms

Moments

rt,,:9.195432 o

hr:n+i

Mr:

ll,:H-11o

,
"r-

R+ gt+

Il,:ltY-g

CG

!j

FI

sNs

SN

ss

5d
FE]
E*

:.

sxs

ss

sxs xxs

ss x

rrrrl. t hc llange may be designed on the basis of .4r(S,).

lrr

hc

i/, -u

(5)

(6)

(1)

Thus the total moment will bc

Mo:

M D+

Mr+ Mo

(8)

ln the case of loose-type flanges in which the flange bears directly on


rhc gasket, the force Il, is considered to act on the inside diameter ofthe
llange and the gasket load at the center line of the gasket face. The lever
irrms for the moments are:

, C.B
"2
t" _hp+
2

70

Hoh,

'71

hc

(e)

(10)

I)llsl(;N ()lr l,l{(xil-ss li(.ltJll'MliN f

h.:=

trt.ANCll l)tisl(;N

(ll)

These lever arms also apply to optional type flanges when they are
designed as loose-type flanges. However, exception to the above is taken
in the case of lapjoint flange Fig. 1e in which the lever arm ho is given by

equation (9) and lever arms lrr and lo are identical and are given by
equation (11).
For gasket seating, the total flange moment Mo is based on the
flange design bolt load of formula (4), which is opposed only by the
gasket load in which case

Mo:I'Yq:G)

ir2)

The moments obtained by the above formulas are valid only if the

bolts are spaced sufliciently close to produce a reasonably

even

distribution of gasket load. This spacing can be called normal spacing


and is assumed to be equal to (2d+ t). Thus, ifthe actual spacing exceeds
the normal bolt spacing, the flange thickness must be increased in order
to maintain an even distribution ofgasket load. This necessary increase
in thickness can be determined by giving the total moments a
corresponding increase, the thickness increase being proportional to the
square root of the moment increase as derived from formulas for

ii t
-o l.E" I
- ;tr i
'rP
<! -3

calculation of S^ and St, the radial and tangential stresses in the flange
respectively. So the total moment can be multiplied by a correctron
factor as derived from the above relationship and given by:

^
tr:

'a

/ actual bolt spacing


a/ 116rmar uort .spacins

FIG. 3 - FORCES AND LEVER ARMS FOR INTEGRAL FLANGE


IN OPERATINC CONDITION

'ra

73

...'

Itl:Sl(,N

()l l,ltrx:l

SS

tirlll ,MtlNt

lrl

-AN(;li I)liSl(;N

u)

,1

3 oOoSB ci3

ci

,no

'.q

3E

'-i
PE

.3 :g
- o

35
^ >d
: cas

.rI

3
5

o
''oooo
'co@sc) N

_qq9c?
ooooo

o.o(o dr N
-

!-

33 3E
:33
-do
c; ci oo

-J

E
3

>r .:

,u

o
o

P9

6i

!+

<9
>9
,'i
o

o
A

74

!5 o
vE

75

)list(;N otr pt{(xjliss IiQtJtpMuN'1.

trl.AN(iu l)lisl(;N
it

||(l

Mocr
B

Factors T. Z. y and U can be determined from Table 4 as a function


ol K, the ratio of the outside to inside diameter of the flange.
Factors F, \ Fr,Vrandf canbe obtained from Figures 4 through 8.
l,irctors F and Iz apply in designing integral type flanges while F" and I/,
rrlc used for loose flange calculations. The hub stress correction factor jf
is of significance only when tapered hubs are involved, as its value is I for
hu bs of uniform thickness.
Flange thickness t must be initially assumed. Using the assumed
value of r, the various factors c, B, y, d and ,t can now be determined (see
thc attached calculation sheets) and used in the formulas for calculating
lhc flange stresses.

For integral fype flanges &s well as for optional type flanges
ctlculated as integral type and for loose type with a hub which is
considered in the design, the stresses in the flange for the operating
condition are:
l.onsitudinal hub stress

fM

sI| : .-2
^gr
l{adial flange stress

Frc.

,-:0!
-" fu2
E _

VALUES OF/(UA-51.6)
(Hub Stress Correction Factor)
(Reproduced from ASME CODE Section VIII, Div.
t)

Calculation of Flange Strsses


.The

stresses in the flange shall be determined for both the operating

condition and gasket seating condition, whichever controls. In order to


simplify calculations, the following factors are introduced in operating
as well as gasket seating conditions bydividing their respective moments
by the flange inside diameter B:

'I

angential flange stress

.MY-^_ ZSj
5-:
'1 .,
For loose type flanges without hubs or with hubs which are not
considered in design and for optional type flanges calculated as loose
type without hubs or with hubs which are not considered in the design'
the flange stresses in operating condition are:

Sa:0

Sr:0

M:Mocr

and

S":
't'

MY
,

The stresses for gasket seating condition in either case can be found
by substituting M in place of M in the above equations.

76

77

l)l,Sl(;N

)l

l'R( X liSli ll(.!( Jll,MriN

l l AN( ilr l)l

TAI]LU 4 - T.'ACTOITS INVOLVING K

T
I

r.9l

|.002
l.oo3
|.004

r.9l
| 9l

r.oo

r.005
r.006
1.OO7

r.008

r.009

r.ot0
l.0t

r.9l
9l
9l
9l
9l

9l
r.9l

r.012

l.9l

r.0t 3

1.9 |

r.9l

r.015

r,91

l.0l

t.0 t6
t.0
t_0 t8
1.0 t9

t.90
1.90
1.90

lo

r.90
t.90

.021

r.90

.o22
.023

1.90
1.90

.o2a

r.90

1.0

|.90
|.026

t.o27
1.028
LO2 9

t.90
t.90
r.90

t.030

t.90
t.90

1.03 |

1.90

r.032
r.034
r.035

|.90
t.90
|.90
r.90

r.036

1.90

t.o37
t.038

1.90

1.039

1.90
1.90

1.03 3

r.0r0

t.90

l-041
1.0a2

1.90

|.013

l.9o

1.0a 4

|.90

t.0t5

r.90

r.90

r000.50 l91l.t6 2100.18


500.50 956.16 1050.72
333.83 637.85 700.93
250.50 178.71 526.05
200.50 383.22 a21.12
67.17 319.55 351.16
13.36 271.09 301.20
25.50 239.95 263.75
I t.6l 2 t 3.4C 231.12
00.50 r 92.1 9 2r r.l9

9t.rl

171.A3

3.81 160.38
77.13 148.06
71.9 3. 137.69
67.17 r28.61
8

63.00 I 20.56
59.33 I r r.98
56.06 r 07.36
53. r,( tot.72

6.?5

t62.81

I51.30
I { r.33

24.8l

| | 8.00

50.51

96.73

I r 1.78
106.30

18.t2

92.2 |

r0t.33

45.96

88.0t

96.75

3.98
12.17
,(0.5 |

81.30

92.6t
88.8l
I5.29

80.8

77.61

24.29
27.51
26.83
26.15

1.0s9
1.060

t.89

I8.38

1.89

I 8.06

t.89

17.76
17.17
17.18

1.89
1.89
1.89
1.89
1.89

16.91

L89

l6.t

t.065

1.89

1.066

r.89

.067

.063
1.064
r

1.068
1.069

|.o70

14.O2

29.32

30.92

26.36
26.03
25.72
25.40

3.02

25.10

8.98
28.69
2A.27
27.92
27.59

24.81

27.27

24.52
24.21

26.9 5

26.34
26.05

24.0O

1.086

t.88

12.15

.O87

1.88
1.88
1.88
1.88

| 2.O2

.76

23.14
23.18
22.93
22.68

1.63

22.44

1.089
1.090

I1.89
11
1

34.17

28.13
27.76
27.39
27.04
26.69

| 2.43
12.29

L088

31.64

23.69

30.5r
30.1I
29.34

25.77
25.48
25.20
24.93
24.66

1l

.88

t.88

tl
|
|
ll

1.88
1.88

I 1.05

1.88

20.91
20.71
20.51

L88

10.91
r 0.83
10.73
10.62
10.52

1.88

r.88

r.88
1.88

I.l6

2l.r

20.3t

24.16

1.136
1.137
l.t 38
1.1 39
1.140

1.86
r .86
1.86

7.88

23.91

1.86
1.86

| 4.76
| 4.66

16.22

43

1.86

7.53

1.144

r.86

1.145

r.86

7.48
7.43

14.57
14.48
14.39

1.t 46

1.86

7.38

4.29

47

t.86

7.34

4.20

15.71
15.61

.l 48

1.86

7.29

| 4.12

15.5l

r.86

21.30

49
1.150

7.25
7.20

14.03
13.95

I5.34

l.l 5l

1.86

1.152

1.86
1.86

7.11

7.07

13.86
13.77
r 3.69

1.86
1.86

7.O3

13.61

r.86

6.95

1.86

6.91

L86
L86

6.87

1.86

6.79

l.l4l
l.l

22.39
22.14

19.7 6

21
21

ll

r.88

10.05

19.58
19.38

---{
06
07

1.88

9.96
9.87
9.78
9.70
9.62

19.33
19.07

21.11
20.96

s.90

20.77

14.74
r 8.55

20.59
20.38

1.153
1.154
l.t 55

.87
.87
| .47

9.54
9.46

20.25
20.08

1.156
1.157
l.l 58

1.87

9.30

14.12
14.27
18.13
17.97

.a7

9.22

17.81

19.55

1.87
1.87

9.1 5

t7.68

t.85

t.87

17.54
17.40

1.162

1.85
1.85

.87
1 .87

8.91
8.86

t7.13

19.43
19.27
19.12
i 8.98
18.80

Ll61

9.07
9.00

64
1.165

r.85
r.85

.a7
.87

8.79

| 7.OO

I 8.68

16.87

1.87

8.66
8.59
8.53

1.166
1.167
1.168
1.t 69
1.170

1.85

18.54

t.ll2
t.n3
1.114
|

I
]

'lLl
l r.n6Z
lr.

ll. 8
ll.u9
tl.l20
r.t 2l

.87
1 .47
1 .87
1 .87
1

1
1

'|

.122
r.123

1.124

Ll25

.87

.57

1.126
1.127

t.128
.129
30

l l3l

t.132
t.133
t.134
t.135

9.3 8

'|

7.27

6.74

I .1

'l

.72
.52

1.1

9.91

19.7 5

8.40

16.62
16.19

18.26

6.37

17.99
17.46

l8.l

r.159
r.160

1.1.63

l.t

.171
1.172

8.17
8.40
8.31

8.2 8

16.02

.87

8.22

15.91

1.87
| .87

8.16

8.1I

I 5.68

17.35
17.21

J.a/

l7.t

't.177
1.174

5.46

r
t

6.99
6.90

1.179
1.180

.a7
.87

l0.l

1.87
1.87
1

r.86
t.uo
1.86

7.99
7.94

16.25

l6.l

5.79

I5.36

17.60
17.48

1.173
1 .174
1.175
1.176

(Courtesy of Energy Products Group)

78

I6.65
16.54
16.43
16.35

1.142

23.20
22.97

1.86

22.12

16.77

7.62
7.57

23.11

2l .92

ll

15.26
r 5.15
15.05

L86

23.67

19.94

ll

7.78
7.73
7.6a

20.15

r.t

l.t

l.2E

21.11

.99
21.76
21.54
21 .32
21

10.33
10.23

t.108

I 1.52
11.40
1
1

't0.43

r.r 03
r.r04
r.t 05

r.r
t.r

1.88

1.88
1.88
1.88

28.5r

r.88

3.69

36.34

ll

-x

I l0l
r.102

14.s0

12.87

r9.05

33.04

34.17

i?33

28.91

1.88
1.88
1.88
1.88

11.6A

33.62

8.84
38.r 9
37.56
36.95
3

I5.02

1.081

50.15

35.3 4
34.7 4

r.89
r.89

15,61

39.64

32.69
32.22
31.79
31 .34

1.88

n7.81
16.71

35.96

29.7 4

r.080

21.90
21.32
23.77

36.60

40.96
40.23

15.45
1 5.22

l3.t

53.82

4t.73

r.096
| .o97
r.0e8

1.89
1.89

I.88

48.97

42.51

r.rrr

13.35

50.2 |

38.68
37.96
37.27

|.oe5

33.17

13.68

25.51

43.34

30.17

1.88
1.88

51.50

39.43

r.093
r.oe4

5.67

t.88

t.082
r.083
t.084
t.085

11.21

33.65

1.076
LO77

51.29

10-21

5.90

I4.Ol

59.66

45.09

r.oer
|.0e2

09
1.rr0

I6.40

13.85

1.o78
1 .079

at.o2

46.99
46.03

35.78

r.88

69.06
66.91
61.95
63.08

42.75
41.87

2.55
32.04
31.55
31.08
30.61

16.64

1.88

6r.32

,t

1.055

t.89
t.89

t.o74

58.08
56.59
55.17

22.71

t.054

20.12
19.71
19.38
r 9.03
r 8.69

1.O75

5.80

L05 2
1.053

1.89
1.89
1.89

71.33

61.9 |

57.11

t.051

3 3_8,1

29.92
29,08

?0.5 |

I4.22

6.30
73.75

59. r I

r.89

1.89

67.1|

62.85
60.9?

r.050

14.61
14.41

r.99

31.7 6
30.8 |

I.90

1.89

36 22
3

l.or9

.79
21.35
20.92
21

t.89

79.O8

7 t

12.O5

1.072
1.073

82.09

.97
69.13

1.071

A.70

38.97

3/.51

1.90

1.06t
1 .062

132.19
|

1.0a8

1.056
1.057
1.058

| 92.13
17

t.o17

r.90
t.90

1.016

TAULU 4 - I.',\CTOlts INVOLVING K (Continucd)

"

Si( iN

79

1.86

4.95

4.86

6.99

6.67
6.64

6.60
6.56
6.53

1.85

6.49

1.85
1.85

6.46
6.42

1.85
1.85
1.85
1.85
1.85

6.39
6.35
6.32
6.29
6.25

1.85
1.85
1.85
1.85
1.85

6.22
6.19
6.16
6.13

6.10

6.01
15.91

15.83

15.42

15.23
l5.t 4
15.05
14.96
14.47

13.45

14.78
14.70

I3.30

14.61

I3.t5

14.53
14.45

6.83

6.71

t6.lI

13.07
13.00
12.92
12.85
12.78

4.36
14.24
14.20
14.12
14.04
1

12.71

13.97

12.64
12.58

I3.89

12.51

| 3.a2
13.7 4

12.43

12.38

13.60
r 3.53
13.46

12.31

t2.25
I2.18

3.66

t2.t0

I3.30

12.06
12.00
I 1.93
11.87
11.79

I3.25
13.18
l3.l l

'13.05
| 2.96

'l

)l,l.il(;N ( )tr t,t{( X:liSS

)MtiN

Ii(ltJ

AllLlj

4 - IJAC'IOtts INVOLVING K (Continued)

Lt82

1.85

1.184
1.186
1.188

| 1.70

1.85

6.04
5.98

12.86
12.73

1.85

5.92

r.t90
1.192

t.85
1.84

5.8r

11.26

1.84
1.84
1.84

J./ J

s.70
J.O5

t.a4

5.60

I l.l5
11.05
10.95
10.85
10.7 5

11.92
I l.8l
11 .71

1.84

1.202

1.84
1.84

5.50

I 0.65

5.45

1.206
1.208

1.84

5.40

r.210

1.84

.204

1.84

.212

1.83

.21 4

1.2t 8
1.220

r.83
r.83
r.83
r.83

1.222

r.83

1.216

.224

5.27
5.1 4

5.t0
J.UJ
5.01

r.83

.22a
1 .230

4.98

1.83

4.94
4.90

L83

1.278

r.8l

12.2 5
I 2.03

8.85

|.434

r.80

4.O8

.287
1.290

r.80

7.9 |

4.05

8.77
8.69

L438
t.412

1.80

7.81

8.61

t.446

4.01

8.s3

r.450

1.293
1.296
1 .299

1.80
1.80
1.80

3.98

8.46

t.454
t.458

1.302

r.80

3.8I

1.80

3.84

1.79

3.8r

1.79

1.314
1.317
1.320

t.79

3.78

11.22

t.323

0.04
9.96
9.89
9.80
9.72
9.65
9.57
9.50

I r.03

.326

.79
1 .79

1.329

3.67
3.61

1.7a

3.61
J.J6

3.56

7.09
7.03
6.98
6.92
6.87

t.332

t.7a

I.JJ5

l.7a

3.40

7.2

.77

3.3 4

6.57
6.50
6.44
6.38

9.08

9.98

.82

9.O2

9.91

8.95

1.82

4.59

8.89

t.3a2

1.76

.82

4.56

8.83

9.81
9.77
9.70

1.386
1.390

1.76
1.76
1.76
1.75
1.75

1.370

t.77

1 .371
1.378

|,/6

1.252

1.82

4.52

1.254

8.77

.82

4.49

8.71

9.64
9.57

1.394
1.398

1.82

4.46
4.43

8.65

9.51

8.59
8.53

9.41
9.38

1.406
1.410

8.45

9.28
9.r 9

1.414

8.37

L418

1.7

8.29

9.i I

1.422

1.75

8.21
8.t 3

9.O2

.426

|,/4

8.93

1.430

1.256
1.258
1.260

l.8l
L8l

.263

l.8l

1.266

r.81

t.269
1

.272

r.275

r.8l

t.8l
r.8l

4.40
4.36
4.32
4.28

4.24
4.20

80

.402

3.2I

6.32

6.27

3.00
2.94
2.96

.71

2.9 4

2.91

5.68
s.61
5.60

3.12
3.09

.71

3.07

3.3 8

3.03
3.Ol
2.98

3.3 3

2.9 6
2.9 4

3,26

2.92
2.88
2.85

3.?1

2.31

4.36

r.60

4.10

r.65

r.65

.66
| .67

1.64
1.64

2.16
2.14

4.01

t.68

1.63

2.10

3.96
3.92

]ot

t.oJ

2.08

3.47

1.63

2.06
2.04
2.02

3.83
3.79

2.OO

3.72
3.68

6.2 5

1.72

6.20
6.15

t.73
1.74

.62
1 .62

t.6l
l.6l

1.99

2.O4

2.06

1.48

L63
t.62

L48

1.60

2.81

,17

r.59

2.7I

3.09
3.05

.57

2.7 4

3.01

2.71

2.97

2.67

2.9 4

2.6 4

2.90
2.87
2.84

2.10
2.12
2.14
2.16

2.18

t.5t
1.50
1.50
1.49

2.O8

-65

4.05

3.7 5

4.45
4.40

2.18
2.20
2.22
2.24
2.26

4.30
4.26

1.46
1

,46

,44
1.44

.67

t.66
I .65

1.56

.52

1.43

l.5l

2.61

.42

t.50

2.58
2.56
2.53

t.4t

.49

2.28
2.30
2.32

t.4l

1.17
4.12
4.08

2.3 4

1.39

1.46
1.45

4.O4

2.36

t.3B

1.44

4.21

8l

3.40

2.01

4.67
4.56
1.50

3.48
3.45
3.43

2.00
2.02

4.20

3.s 4

I .68

1.73

4.15

,71

t.69
t.68

4.25

2.21

.52

3.62

r.5l
r.5l

4.31

t.65

1.70

1.70

4.99
4.92

t.6/

6.34
6.29

5.0s

t.59

t.53

i.52

I.99

4,86
4.79

r.95

5.09

4.48
4.12

.64

1.94

5.21

2.37
2.31

6.49
6.44
6.39

r.53
r.53

5.33

5.29

1.68
1.68

o.55

-/5

3.1 4

t.93

1.74
1.73
1.72

.57

6.60

3.O2

.54

r.58

6.0r
5.96
5.92

3.10

5.47
5.82

1.92

7.O l
6.9 5

3.05

3.51

7.O8

6.66

3.O7

3.19
3.17

4.60
4.54

6.06

1.75
1.75

t.77
|.75

5.1 3

1.65

3.6 5

1,54

4.66
4.63

.62

3.72
3.69

.57
1 ,57
1

t.9l

4.70

r.63

1.84

t.90

2.40

3.7 5

3.3 8
3.3 5

t.78

2.43

6.1 |

6.16

3.41

1.89

5.49

r.69

3.20
3.17
3.15

.86

1.85

3.5 9
3.5 6

96
| .97
I .98

2.26
2.23

3.82
3.78

1.79

1.69

.67

3.44

1.55
1.55

1.56

t.6l

3.47

1.88

t.55

6.89
6.82
6.77
6.72

6.21

r.89
r.88

3.27
3.24
3.22

7.t 1

L58
1.58
1.58

t.80

4.7 4

1.77
1.77

3.89

l.9l

r.56

4.77

1.354
1.358

1.92

| .87

2.49
2.47
2.46

2.44

3.96
3.93

3.3 3

2.51

t_545

t.94

t.83

2.s3

7.28

.60
I .59
1.59
r

l.8l

1.70

6.63

4.00

3.61

r.56

5.37

3.43

3.61

r.95

r.56

4.88
4.84
4.80

|.78

1.97

r.85
r.86

5.41

r.350

r.60
r.60

1.84

4.92

7.33

5.71

5.57
5.04
5.00

1.82
1.83

4.96

6.64

.362

2.72

5.80
5.76

2.5a
2.56

3.48
3.46

5.21

t.8l

2.60

1.78

1.366

t.80

.71
.71
1 .71
1 .71

.71

1.317

.525

2.7 6

2.7 4

1.75
1.76
1.77
1.7e
1 .79

5.36

5.66

1.70
1.70
1.70
1 .69
I .69

4.69
4.65
1.62

1.250

r.515
r.520

2.80
2.75

5.61

t.530
t.535
r.540

1.505
1.510

5.48
5.44
5.40

5.12

7.50
7.41
7.39

9.1 5

1.241

t.500

2.85
2.83

6.10
6.0s
6.0r
5.97
5.93

5.1 6

6.77
6.72

9.22

t.246
|.24a

7.61

7.s5

,u7:

5.52

2.68
2,66
2.64
2.62

6.A2

4.72

1.82
1.82

7.79
7.73

r.485
r.490

2.A7

2.70

1.72
1.72
1.72
1.72

3.53

4.7 6

1.242

7.98
7.92
7.85

|.475
L 480

3.5 |

.e2

0.05

8.1 I

8.05

.78

t.a2
1

t.470

.238

8.18

1.78
1.78

4.79

1.240

t.462
t.466

8.31

1.73
1.73
1.73
1.73
1.72

r.338

10.28
10.20
10.13

0.36

8.24

2.89

2.81

r.341
1.311

9.43
9.36
9.29

7.38
7.32
7.26
7.20
7.1 1

1.83
1 .82

4.86
4.83

7.57
7.50
7.41

3.69

1 .232
1.234
1.236

r.83

8.39

1.79

t0.94

10.60
10.52
10.44

J./ J

.79

10.87
I o.77
I 0.68

3.9r

7.70

3.9 4

1.308

I0.21
I

1.74
1.7 4
1 .71
1.74

8.05

7.98

l.3l

4.t 6

r.305

ll.l2

t(

4.12

0.30
2

t.8l

t2.t 4

'fAIJLIj 4 - ITACTOII.S INVOLVING K (Continucd)

I.28t
|.244

I l.6l
I l.5l
I l.4l
11.32

l0.r
5.18

2.19
| 2.37
t

0.56
10.47
t 0.38
r

1.226
|

12.61

I1.36

l.t

96
l.l 98
1.200

I 1.58

J.60

1.194

l l AN(;li l)lrSl( iN

I.

1.48

1.40

t.40

2.50
2.48
2.45
2.43
2.40

3.30

3.2I

3.17
3.t 3

2.8l
2.74
2.75
2.7 2

2.69
2.67
2.6 4

'fAllLE

K
2.38
2.40
2.42
2.44
2.46

r.38

.37

1.36

4 - F'ACTOIIS

T
1

)list(;N otr pt{(x;tiss IiQtJ ,M[.N't.

43
.42

l.4l

INVOLVING K (Continued)

1.06

3.7 4

t.05
r.05
r.04

r.t5
l.r5

.03

t.l5
t.t4

Lt4

2.27

2.62

r.30

2.6 5
2.6A
2.71

2.74

L27

t.3l
L3l

2.80

1.26
1.26

1.30
1 .29

2.O0

2.20

2.8 3

t.25

1.28

1.98

2.17

2.86
2.89

1.24

.28
1 .27

I .96

2.15

.27

1.92

1.26

2.2 5

.07

1,07

.17

|,17

t.l6
t.t6

.16

U
.62

1.78

L59
t.57

1.73

l.6l

t./ J
1

.71

t.)5

1.53

1.68

2.44

2.17

2.3I

3.78
3.82
3.86

1.34

r.30

2.1 4

2.3 5

1.03

r.33

3.90

2.12

1.32

2.O9

2.32
2.30
2.27
2.25

3.9 4
3.9 8

r,29

4.00
4.05

t.009

t.t3
l.t3

1.002

1.1 3

t.43

4.t 0
4.15

1.13

1.42

4.20

.996
.989
.982

r.56
r.54

1.12

4.25
4.30

.968

t.t

.962

Ll l

1.32

r.3l

.28

r.23
1

.22

2.O7

2.04

2.41

2.02

1.94

l.

.94

r.

4.5 0

.911

2.01

4.55

.9U

4.60
4.65
4.70

.n8

.21

r.25

.20

1.86
1.83

.23

1.81

r.99

1.79

.97

3.t 0

l.t

l.t7
l.t6
l.t6
t.l5
l t4
l.l3
l,t2

l.t I
1.lr

1.23
1

.22

l.2l
t.21

.20
1 ,20

.77

1.75
1.73
.71

l.t9

r.69
1 .67

1.66

l.l

l.l8

1.61

t.l2

.955

'l

l.t9

t.l2

4.40
4.45

3.06

1.r4

2.1 1
2.O9
2.O7
2.O4

r.90
r.88

1.22

.O2

t.0l

1.94
1.92
1.90

r.88
r.86

t.84
r.82
r.80

1.52
1.50
| .49

FIG,9b, FOUR

FlG. 9c - SIx PASS


ARRANGEMENT

PASS

ARRANGEMENT

FIG. 9 . MOST COMMON PASS ARRANGEMENTS


FOR MULTIPASS CHANNEL

.67

r.64

t.40
1.39

t.38

.62

1.6 |

t.60

l hc flange stresses as calculated above shall not exceed the following

i.59

values:

.57

l,5i
1.50
1.48

r.34
1.33

I.46

r.31

1,44

t.30

L43

t.t0
l.t0

t.2a

1.41

.911
.908

1.09

r.09

.27

I.39
t.3d

4.8 0

.9m

,26

1.09

1.25

4.8 5

.893
.887
.880

5.00

.873

1.09
1.09
1.08
1.08

L24

4.90
4.95

.nl

9a - TWO PASS

ARRANGEMENT

Allowable Flange Dsign Stresses


.48
1 .46
1.45
1

t.t0
l,t0

l l(;.

.70

2.22
2.19

1.25
1.24

3.42
3.46

3.58
3.62
3.66

t.0B

3.70

t.39
L38

3.3 4
3.3 8

l.t8

2.50
2.47

2.3 3

L35
L34
t.33

3.30

t.o9

2.59
2.56
2.54
2.52

2.4a
2.50
2,53
2.56
2.59

3.t 8
3.22
3.26

t.r0

3.5 4

2.61

2.36
2.29

3.t 4

3.5 0

2.3 8

t.40

3.0 2

1.35

2.92
2.95
2.98

r.40

.37

III,ANGI DLSI(iN

.29

1.23
1.22
1.21

.42

l.

Longitudinal hub stress Sr should not be greater than 1'5 S/" in the
operating condition and 1.5 S/" in the gasket seating condition.
l. Radial flange stress SR shall not exceed S/, in the oprating condition
and S/. in the gasket seating condition.
I. Tangential flange stress Sr shall not be greater than S/" in the
operating condition and S/, in the gasket seating condition.
4. The greater of 0.5(srf + Sr) or 0.5(Sr, * Sr ) shall not exceed Sr" in the
operating condition and S/" in the gasket seating condition.

If any of the stresses other than S, exceeds the allowable' the flange
hickness r can be revised till the stresibs are within allowable. However,
if S,, xceeds the allowable, the increase in flange thickness will not help
and it may be necessary to lengthen the hub, increase the 9r thickness or
I

alter both of them.


Considering Pass Rib Area in Flenge

In certain application of

Deign

flanges, especially

in

shell-and-tube heat

cxchangers where multipass channels are specified, the area for pass ribs
also contributes to required bolt load in the operating as well as in the
gasket seating conditions. Its effect may be negligible in some cases but it
is advisable to consider it in flange design wherever applicable. The most
commonly used pass arrangements for two, four and six pass channels
are indicated in Fig. 9. In order to simplify the calculations, the rib areas
for each case and for exchanger sizes 6" through 100" inclusive are given
in Table 5. Use ofrib area in llange design is illustrated in the calculation
sheet.

83
82

()|l Pl((xiliss riQUIpMl.iN't'

)lis t(;N

Table 5

Pass Rib Area

Nomlnal

Four

Two Pass
8

10
12

Table 5

Pass Rib Area,

Vessel Size
6

!.LANCE DBSICN

2.84
3.59
4.36
5.10

Rr,

Pass

5.27
o.oz
8.07
9.38

N omlna

in.2

Six Pass
8.36
10.36
12.44

t4.43

in.

53

20.06
20.44

54

20.81

10.21

15.60

11.56

t't.59

12.95

19.58

14.30

21.63

t).o)

zt.oz

16.99

25.61

18.23

60

27.41

28.43
29.46

6l

10.31

r8.92
19.62

11.06

20.27

30.42

11.44

20.93

3t.4s

zt .oz

32.41

JI

12.19
12.56

22.32

33

12.94

23.71

34

13.31

35

13.69

24.36
25.06

36

14.06

2J.

33.44
34.46
35.43
36.46
37.48
38.45

t4.44

26.4s
27.15
27.80
28.49

11.8

38

14.81

39

15.19

40

15.56
15.94

41

42
43

16.31

44
45

17.06
17.44

46
47

17.81
18.19

48
49
50

18.56

23.0r

t)

29.r9

t6.69

84

42.49
43.51

45.50

3t.24

46.53

31.89
32.59

47.50

33.94
34.6't
35.33

19.31

4t.52

29.89
30.54

33.28

18.94

39.4'l
40.50

44.48

48.52
49.55
50.51

51.54
52.56

Four

Pass

52

5.53

10.69

Two

19.69

6.28
7.03
7.78
8.53
9.28
9.94

22
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Pass Rib Area.

51

16

20

Psss Rib Area (Continued)

Vessel Size

l1

l8

Rr,

Pass

36.02
36.68

in.2

Six Pass
53.59
54.55

5t-3t

55.58

38.07
38.77
39.42

56.60

55

21.t9

56
57
58

21.56
21.94

40.11

59.62

22.31

40.81

60.59

4t.46

61.61

42.16
42.86
43.55
44.21
44.90
45.60
46.2s

62.58
63.60

59

22.69
23.06
23.44

62

23.81

63

24.19
24.56
24.94

64
65
66
67
68
69
70

7l

25.31

25.69
26.06
26.44

46.95

47.64
48.30
48.99

26.81

57.63

58.60

64.63

65.65
66.68
6'1.64

68.67
69.08
'70.66

71.69
72.65
73.68

72

27.19
27.56
27.94

50.38
51.04

'74.'10

74

28.31

51.73

76.69

75
76

28.69
29.06
29.44

52.43

77.72

53.13

'78.'74

53.78

'19.7'l

29.81

54.48

81

30.19
30.56
30.94

80.73
81.76

55.82
56.s2

83.75

82

31.31

57.22

84.'72

83

31.69

57.9r

85.74

84

85

32.06
32.44

86

32.81

59.96

77
'18
'79

80

49.69

55.17

d5

5.6'l

82.73

8.57

86.77

59.26

87.79
88.76

l)list(;N Olr
Tsble 5

Nomlnal

Pt{(

x:Ess EQUTPMENT

F'LANC!: DESIGN

Arer (Conrinued)

SOLUTION

Pass Rlb

Pass Rib Area.

Vessel Size

Two Pass
33,l9

in.
Et
88
89

33.56
33.94

90

34.31

9l
93

34.69
35.06
35.44

94

35.81

92

95

36.t9

96
97
98
99

36.56
36.94

Four

62.W
62.'70
63.35
64.05
64.74
65.44
66.09
66.79

67.49
68.18
68.84

37.69
38.06

100

Pass

0u.65
61.35

37.31

Rr, in.2

69.53

Six Pass
E9.7E

90.81

91.83
92.80
93.83
94.85
95.82
96.84
97.87
98.83
99.86
100.82
101.85
102.87

ln this case we will have two flanges bolted together but designed for
diffcrent conditions. The required bolt load in the operating condition
lbr the shell side will govern the design of both flanges because of lhe
higher design pressure. Since the gaskets on both sides are of the same
nraterial, the required bolt load for gasket seating will be greater for the
low pressure flange. Since such a high design pressure is involved, gasket
scating probably will not control the design. Tberefore, the shell side
llange will be the independent flange while the channel side will be the
dcpendent flange.
Independent flange has to be designed first so that we can carry over
the bolt load for the design ofthe dependent flange. Both the flanges will
bc designed here in detail, but the attached calculation sheets can be used

to

save time. Both these flanges

will be

designed using corroded

dimensions because the corroded condition results in greater thicknels.


Design of Independent Flange

Refer to Figure and design steps on Weld Neck Independent Flange


Design Calculation Sheet. Now we have,

p:460

EXAMPLE NO.

S":25,000 Psi

Sr'
Design a pair of welding neck flanges

to be used to contain a
tubesheet ofa TEMA BKU type of exchanger. The 4l in. I.D. two pass
channel designed for 150 psi at 500.F is built ofI in. thick A_515_70 piate
inclusive offin. corrosion allowance. Theshell sideflangeis to be welded
to a 41 in. I.D. x 75 in. LD. cone designed for 460 psi at 650.F. The cone
consists

of

l;

in. thick 4_515_20 plate inclusive of$ in. corrosion

allowance. Assume ironjacketed asbestos filted gasket


on'Uotf,.iO", unO

use A-105 flanges

with A-193-87

psi

Sa:25,000 Psi

Sr":

17'500 Psi
17,500 Psi

Also in uncorroded condition


B

:41 in'

go:t^:l'25ln'
Assume

Bolts_

t:

1.25(s

o\:

1.25(1.251:1.5625 in.

Thus in corroded condition

B'41.25 in.
9o:1.125 in.
and
g

86

r:1.4375 in.

87

FLANOB DESION

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Now
,t

n =f,tu.t

= 1.s(gJ- 1.5(1.125)= 1.6875 in. (minimum)

' =!9r:sd:
h

stope

$431s--!r25)
1.6875

W:

-0.1852 < 0.333

sF +oo =

123,492.1 +

3,

for

lf

.4.:Greareror'##

in. dia.

bolts. we have

3, the root area


gives
which
in.2
is 0.728

From Table

1.5 in.

E = 1.125

in.

Now

B + 2(s ) + 2(R) :

41.25 + 2(r.437 5) + 2(r.5)

47

.125

io.

Since

74,

C + 2(E)

47.12s +

2(t.t25l :

49.37

s in.

1,

in. dia. bolt having 8 threads per inch

48 (0'7 28l,

34'9 44 in'2

W:0.5(33.79 + 349,14)25,000

859,1 75

lb

and

r^,,:ffi,=0.4088in.

Gaslet and Bolting C,alculatiom


From Table

l|

t*,ltl't=rr.tri".'

> .4., therefore (48)lI in. dia. bolts are adequate. Now

and
A

ofa

23,4s2.t tb

t2t 255.7 : 844,747.8 lb

Therefore, the flange can be designed as an integral type as shown in

Fig. la- Now assune (48) 1| in. dia. bolts. From Table

for an iron jacketed asbestos lilled gasket

Since N > N,ir", therefore chosen gasket width is adequate.

m:5- I)
and

Flange Moments Calculatiom

v=76W
Assume
N

:0.5 r!.

Fig. la. of Table 2.applies to our situation. So,

D:;@l.2512

=614,745.9 lb

Hc:HP-121,255.7 lb
H

u.:!=!=o.zsn;

Therefore

r:723A92.1

D:

1.5

614,745.9

1O8,746.21b

+ 0.5(1.437 5) = 2.21 88 in.

:0.5(47.r25 -44.75): 1.1375 in.


fir:0.5(1.5 + 1.4375 + 1.1875) =2.0625 in'
he

D:0.25 in.
Now

Now

G:C - a-2(0.375)-2(Q:a7.p5 :44.75 in.

1.rzs -2(0.375) -2(o.2s)

45.9(2.21 88)

H,

2(n) 0.2s (44.7 5X3.7 5) 460

on page 58

88

lb

r2r,25 s.7 tb

1,363998 in- lb

(!.1875)= 143991 in-lb

M r = 1O8,7 46.2 (2.06251


W^z* :0.25(n)44.7 5(7600) = 267,1t4

See note

o= 6t4,7

M e =121,255.7

Therefore

'

460

224 289

in-lb

Therefore,

Mo= 1,363,998+ 1 43991 +224,289 :1,732,278 in-lb

t)list(;N ()lr pt{(xjriss ltQUlpMIiNT

ITLANCI DDSICN

Now, for lhe gaskct seating condition


He

|tnd

W:859,175 lb

Therefore

ll9'75

Now
Mo

859,175(1.187s)

r(l)

Actual borr spacing

-n48

Assume

spacin

r{4J-125t

251

in-lb

gr

:3.0843 in.

in.

, {J.-6975L-:6.Ij2J
/) +U.)l

:1

9o
ho:

t:2.75

Maximum bolt spacing:2(t.l

Normal bolt

1,020,270

in.

correction factor Cr: 1.0.


Thus, the calculation factors are

t.2l'Ie

Jqtzs(trzr:o.stzz

ft

1.687s

ho

6.8122

^..-.

From Fig. 4, for

E:2(l.t25l +2.j5:5 in.

Since, Actual bolt spacing<maximum bolt spacing, the chosen bolt


spacing is O.K. and also actual bolt spacing <normal bolt spacing, the

4375

|.125

sJ
9o

t.zllg and !:0.2477


no

we have

F:0.894
Similarly from Fig.

V:O.441

M:u21J(1):a1,se5
and from Fig. 8

and

I:1.0
M:l'020'270(l)-14714

Now

41.25

0 894

':-:u',,"

NOTE

*The value of r|/., should


be taken from the low pressure dependent flange ifit results In
greater value there because ofrib area or dilTerent gasket miterial.
ln tf,i. c"se
operadng condilion is controlling the gasket seating is of insignificant value_ "in""ir,"
However,
wnen rwo matrng tianges are designed to hold a tubesht between them with
the sam
pressurf oneachside ol the tubsheet lhe llangeresullingin a grealer
value of l,y-) due ro
nD area or gasket materjal should be considered as the independenl flange
and lhe other
as the dependent flange.

and
d

:' rto75 to'trzzltt' t2512 : 234

ffi

a:2.75(0.1312) +

41.2s

From Table 4, for

K:

t.197

:$)z:

s to.ttrz) + I

1.3608

r.48 I

,:{ff:ozrro

l.l9?

T: 1.84
z:5.625
y:10.9

90

|5|

Cslculating Other Stress Frctors

Deaermining Shape Constants

.. 49.375
K:
_* :

a:ffi:o.osta
t :0.7396 +0.0888 =0.8284

91

)list(;N ()tr pRO(jtjss tjQtJtpMIjNT

lll-AN()lt l)tisl(iN

Calculating Stresses

rldcpcndent flange, the values of Sr, S',


Now, in the uncorroded condition

Operating Condition

^
t":

(41.995)

":

.s^

1.481 I {41.995)'

-----:

o.8284t2.75r

s,:4tp-e:!192 12.7 5)2


Since S^ >

75lz:24.532

O.S.Zao1,.43

Sr, therefore,

psi <26.250 psi O.K.

s'

1.31

9,928): I 7,230 psi < I 7,500 psi

^
s":
Jr

t.481|

124,7 341

O.tZt+tZrSl

24.1 34t 10.9 |

,.-*,,
t)r
v.

14'449 psi < 26'250 psi

:0'687s in'

1.375(0.5)

t:0

5625

in'

in. > 1.5(so)>0 5625


(0.s625

0.37s)

l.)

in O'K'

:0.125 < 0.333

Therefore, the flange can be designed as an integral flange as shown

in Fig. la.

:5.848 psi<

17.500 psi

to be bolted together, the number and


B,
C, G and .4 will be the same as for the
sizc of bolts, and diameters
independent flange. Also, the values of m and y will remain unchanged
since the gasket material is the same.
The value of radial clearance R will be greater than the minimum
rcquired for this flange, because its bolt circle dia. C has to match the bolt
circle dia. of the independent flange and its g1 is smaller than ,r of the
independent flange. So in this case
Since, both the flanges are

O.K.

-5.625(5.848):2,755 psi<17.500psi O.K.

Since
S^ >

Sr,

therefore,

-- 1:: :::' ','


p- c-tB+2(q,)l

0.5(14,449 + 5,848): 10,149 psi < 17,500 psi O.K.

All stresses in both the operating as well as the gasket seatlng


condition are within allowables. Thus, the independent flange design is
o.K.

Next we will discuss the design oftbe channel side or the dependenl
flange.

z2

47.125- 141.25'r 2(0.5625)l

".". -

We must also include the effect of rib area R,r, since the channel has

lwo

passes.

From Table 5,Ior

two

pass

4l in. nominal

size shell,

R,

15.94 in'2

(;asket and Bolting Calculations

Design of Dependent Flange


Refer to Figure and design steps on weld neck dependenl flange design
calculation sheet. Here we have

p:
Since, the flange and

in'

Assume

Slope:
rz=

5(g'\

Gasket Seating Condition

ffi.+:ts

lrrrd

fi:1.5

| (24,7 34)

t,:0

go:O 375 in'

o.K.

^ :9
s'

9o:

lhus, in the corroded condition

:4.683 psi < r 7,500 psi o.K.

0.5124,532 +

and 57, remain unchanged'

Assume

= 9.928 psi < I 7.500 psi O.K.

s.62s (e.e28)

S7,,

fhe width and the effective width of th gasket will be same as for the
independent flang. Now
w^, 10.25(n144.15 + 0.s(1 5.94)1 7600 32't,686 tb

H,:

:48'506 lb
l2(nl1.2s(44.75) + 1 5.9413.75(150)

150 psi

bolt materials are the same as for

92

the

:X(4.7 s)'

50

93

23

5,s21.3 tb

FLANOB DESIGN

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Determining ShaPe Conslants

W^tr =844'747'8lb

ofK is the same as in the independent flange the values of


remain unchanged.
U
will
T, Z, Y and

which will result in the same ,,{n as earlier, thus llzwill be the same also.

Since the value

Flenge Moments Calculatiots

Now

gt
HD=

;(r.2sl2

so:

'go-05625
0.375:l)

200,460.6 rb

: \t 4t .25 (0.3'15) : .933


''^.
1.5
_ft _ _i_:0.3814

Hc:w - H =844,74'1.8 -235,921.3:608,826.5 lb


H

ho

r:235,921.3 -200 460.6:35,460.7 lb


lro:2.375 + 0.5(0.5625) =2.6563 in.

fto

ha:0.5(47.125 -44.75)= 1.1875 in.


0.5 625 + 1.1875\:2.0625 in.

From Fig. 4 for grlgo =

1.5

Irr:0.5(2.375 +

:
Mc : 608,826.5(1.1 87 5) :
o= 2A0160.6(2.6563)

Similarly from Fig.

532,484 in- lb

V:0.343

722,982 rn- lb

r:35A60.7 (2.0625):23,133 ;n-

and ft/io =0.3814, we have

F:0.867

Now
M

3.933

and from Fig. 8

tO

f=t.0

Therefore.

Now
M o:532A84 + 722'982 +73'138 = r,328,604 in-

0.867 - ---.
e:i5i=0.2204

lb

Now, for the gasket seating condition

ano

Hc=W=859,1'15lb
a

Therefore,
Mo

ffi

o.rlltto.37sF

le.3oe4

859,175(1.1875): 1,02O270 in-lb

Assurne
t

:43125 in.

Calculating Other Stress Fsctors

Normal bolt spacing will be greater than the actual bolt spacing,
thus Cr =

1.

4.3125 0.22041 + l

1.9505

1.0.

Thus, the calculation factors are

u:t'3?Y0):tz.zov
and

u:t'v!oi?#(t) :z+,tz+

Q)+.t

zs to.zzo4t + |

2.2673

,={ff=-r.ooo'

a:ffi=r.rsrs
i:1.0601 +4.1535 = 5.2136

rThe valuc of lvnl is taken from high pressu.e independent flange.

94

95

l)l1Sl(;N ( )lr l,t{( X;tiSS ti(ltJtpMltN

trt.AN(;li Drisl(;N

t.

Calculating Slrcsscs
Operating Condition

\..

"

_-

I r12.209

5.2 | 36(0.5625,1

\^: 2.267 -3t32.2091


" 5.2 t36(4.3 t25),

-753 psi <17.500psi O.K.

s'= J2.209 t10.91 -5625{753):


t.l:l:st'

14.642 psi < l7.500 psi

K.
(:IJANN

Since

i;IDE

St>S^,

(:Y

INDER

therfore,

TUBESHEET

0.5119,525

+ 14,642): I 7,084 psi < 17,500 psi O.K.


Fis. l0 - EXAMPLE FLANGES

EXAMPLE NO.2
Gasket Seating Condition
1\24,134)

5n:5.2tlo,'Jo2s

rz=

|4,994 psi <26.250 psi O K

^
s"-S.:r:oajl25,r:578
psi< 17.500
2.26'7 3 (24,'134)

{-

)4114t1n51
" " -' s K)sr{'78} :
: --'-t4.3t 25t,

I 1,245 psi

psi O.K

Design a ring flange to be used on a 60 in. O.D., A-240-TP304L


ylinder designed for 140 psi at 425"F. The cylinder is I in. thick and no
,rrlrosion allowance is allowed. Assume TP-304jacketed asbestos filled
|ilsket and use an A-105 flange with A-193-87 bolts. Allow *3 in. for
, otrnterbore and in. for TP-304L overlay.
I
r

< | 7.500 psi O.K.

Since

St > S^,

SOLUTION
llclcr to Figure and design steps on ring flange design calculation sheet.
Now ys 13y9,

therefore,

p:
0.5(14,994+ 11,245): 13,120 psi < 17,500 psi O.K.

All the

stresses in both the operating as well as the gasket seating


condition are within allowables, thus the dependent flange design is O.K.
Additionaldesired thickness for raised face, counterbore, tongue or

groove should be added to the calculated thickness r to obtain the final


total thickness ofthe flange. ln the above example we added rt in. to the
thickness ofeach flange for counterbore. The toral final thicknesses and
the arrangement ofuse ofabove designed flanges is shown in the Fig. 10.

96

140 psi

Sr:25,000
S":25,000

Psi
Psi

sr,:

17,500 psi

Sr'

l7'500 Psi

Allowing I in. clearance between the O.D. of the shell and the I.D. of
1l)c ring flange we get

B:60

+ 0.125:60.125 in.

97

t.
DESICN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
Assume (56)

FLANOE DBSION

]in.dia. bolts,we havc

in. dia. bolts. FromTable 3, for

Since ,4, > .4., therefore (56) $ in. dia. bolts are adequate. Now

R:1.25 in.

tv:0.5(18.8077+23.464)25,000:528,396.3

E = 0.9375 in.

Allowing for

in. weld all around for securing the flange to tho

0nd

cylinder, we get

C=B

1.1-6=a=(-2ry :o.168oin.
'N-": 2(z)9000(61.75)
''"

2(weld size)+ 2(R):60.125 + 2(0.51+ 2(t.25):63.625 tn.

Since N > N,nin, therefore the chosen gasket width is adequate.

and

A:
From Table

C
1,

+2(E) =

63.625 +2(0937

5):65.5 in.

FlNnge Moments Crlculatiors

for stainless steel jacketed asbestos filled gasket, we


H

have

n:3'75
N:0.5

Assume

(60.125l'l4o:3g'7,4g1.'t lb

^:n

HG: H P=50'923'3 lb
Hr:4t9,268.t -397
=21'776.4 tb

y = 9000

'491.7

in.

.
ll'=

Fig. (1a)ofTable 2 applies to this situation, so,

r":f:f

:o.zsiu

63.625

-60.125 .t'ts
-- tn'

fto:9.5163.Urt

ir:0.5(

therefore,

1.75

1.75):0.9375 in.

+ 0.9375) = 1.3438 in.

-:

Now

b:0.25 in.

5):695'610.5 in' lb
5Q923.3(0.93751 = 47,7 40.6 in' lb

M o:397,491.7 (r.7

Now
G

lb

=C

- a-

2(O.25)
W^z
H

2(b)= 63.625 -9.875

0.25(n\6r.'t 5(9000)

0.5

2(0.25):61.75 in.

=!(j.l

:4

436,485 lb

r = 2(n)0.25(61.7 5)3.75(140):50,923.3 lb
sl, t +o

Mo :

9,268.

lb

r:21,77 6.4(1.3438): Z9'263.t tn-tO

Therefore,
M o:695,610.5

Therefore,

/,=Creater
From Table

ol" 436,485
or
2S,OOO

3, the

470,t91.4:lr.rurr
,6 -^-- 1n.:, u
25p66

root area of a { in. dia. bolt is 0.419 in.2, which

47,74O.6

+ 29,263.1 :772,614 2 in- lb

Now, for the gasket seating condition

wa:419,268.t + 50,923.3 :470,191.4 lb


thus

Mo:

"=

W= 529,396.3

16

528,396.3(0.9375) = 495'371'5

Now,

:77]^6r?12

t2,850. r 322

gives
A

56

(0'419)

98

23'464 in''z

r=ffi:r.oar
99

in-lb

FLANCE DESICN

I)tsSI(;N oII PR(XJESS EQUIPMENT


From Table 4, for K

For

1.089

'litblc

Y:22.68

:4.0809, say 4i in.

17,500

Bolt sPacing:

AlB, nnd out the values of constants T, Z'

"\"' *-1:3
lrtA1 6? 5l

5694

in'

: 5.875 in.
Cp :1.Q. The moment factor

stays the same and the thickness calculated above is adequate.


Adding ]j in. for counterbore and ; in. for stainless steel overlay' we
have the total minimum thickness of the flange as

t:4

!25 + 0.18'15

+0

U ftom

culate ha, g r lgoand ft/hq and from Fig. 4, determine the value of
constant F corresponding to the calculated values of 9t/ go and hlhs'
Similarly, lind the values of tzand/from Fig. 5 and 8 respectively'

Now calculate e and d. Also using the thickness of the flange t


cxclusive of any counterbore, overlay, raised face, tongue or groove'
calculate stress factors a, p, 1, 6 and ,i.
If bolt spacing exceeds (24 + t), calculate correction factor

tt:t/

2a + t :2(0.8'7 5\ + 4. 125

Bolt spacing<(24+r). Therefore,

Y and

thus
12,850.r322(22.68)

K:

4.

125

:4

43'15

tn'

/Bolt sPacing
1zc+rr

Otherwise, assume Cr: l. Also, if the flange is not designed for any
nrultipass cylinder, the rib area, Rr, can be assumed equal to zero'
Now, calculate the lever arms ho, ho and fir for integral type flange
lnd determine the MAWP as follows:
AaSu

therefore, use 41f in. total thick flange.

;G2

Calculating Maximum Allowable


Pressures for Flanges

+l2nbc'n +

(1)
R

^(m))

2S s"
:n16+tF-2B1t;z

(2)

Maximum allowable working pressures are required either for


determining unit test pressure or for code stamping purposes. When the
body flanges are designed by computer, MAWP, (maximum allowable
working pressure hot and corroded) as well as MAB (maximum
allowable pressure new and cold) are generally given in addition to
flange and hub dimensions. These pressures if required, can be easily
determined when the {lange is designed manually, or an existing flange is
to be evaluated. Since, MAP is very rarely desired only the technique for
determining MAWP will be discussed. However, the same technique can
be repeated to determine MAP by using uncorroded flange dimensions
and allowable stresses at atmospheric temperature.

(3)

M:
,,
I 5.S"
lvlnax=
:::_:+!
II

(4)

therefore Mo:

(5)

9D,f

^8r-

and

lr^

(6)

M^"*=

ls-allqlr4le

"!I!!Pls!l!I4
CF

(7)
(8)

!p'
4

Calculating MAWP for Weld Neck Flange

to Figure and calculation steps on the calculation sheet. For a


newly designed flange all the shape constants and other stress
Refer

calculation factors can be taken directly from the design calculations.


However, while evaluating an existing flange which does not have any
design calculations available, the applicabl shape constants and other
stress calculations factors may have to be determined

100

- a' 11t ,.

thus MArWP: Smaller of (1) or (8)

Calculating MAWP for Ring Flange


Refer to Figure and calculation stps on the calculation sheet' For
yfrom Table 4'
.4/8. find out the value of shape constant

l0l

r)Est(;N oF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

IILANCE DESICN

If bolt spacing exceeds (24 + l), calculate correction factor

F:0.894
V:0.441

Otherwise, assume Cr:1. AIso, if the flange is not to be used in a


multipass cylinder, the rib area, Rr, can be assumed equzl to zero.
Now, calculate the lever arms io, in and fir for ring type flange and
determine MAWP as follows:
AoS u

f,G'z+l2rcbGm+

'

thus

(nt')r,*r2nbGm+ Rn(m)lho*frrc,

=0.8284

also

Cr:l
R,n:0

(3)

Sr:25,000

Sr,

Mo

smaller of

d:0.0888
,;"

(2t

(4)

1.3608

f = 1.481 I
l:0.7396

Rn@ll

,":ry

MAWP:

r:

(l)

,^^":+
therefore,

e:O.l3l2
d:234.r15r

Psi

17,500 Psi

B:41.25 in.
I t:1.4375 irt.

ntfn,

G =44.75 in.
m:3.'75 in.

(l) or (4)

b:0.25 in.
At:34.94in'2
ho:22188 in'

EXAMPLE NO.3
Calculate MAWP for the weld neck indepndent flange designed in

ftc:1.1875 in.
hr:2.O625 in

example l.
and

SOLUTION
t:2.75 in.
In this

case, since the flange design calculations are available, the

shape constants and stress calculation factors are already known. We


have

T:

t.84

Z:5.625
Y= 10.9

U:1r.975

r02

Now
34.94(25,000)

f,{ul

sF + 7z1"yo.2s (44.7 s)3.i

:475.6568 psi -475 psi

+ 0)
(1)

103

DESI(;N OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

I
ol.zg4rl.a3zit,

F'LANOE DESI(iN

2(17,500)

(i:61.75

10.9 5.625(1.481l)
*
tzlsy,- g.8zuo 1\',

m= 3.75

(2)

:42,652.0419 in-lb

t.481 I

+-t

rr

rttl

n.8ru1!1-.-7sf =

,t-481u.8284(2.75)z
,=,r
- = ,.

23.464(2s,000)

ul4'e35 in-lb

t1:t=9

:4.125 in.

(3)

0.8284(I.4375t' 0.8284(2.75)'
-1.s(17.500)

fiu:9.9375
'n.
/rr:1.3438 in.

Ar:23.464 in.'1
hr= 1.75 in.

h:0.25

:50,312.4596 in-lb
2(17,500)

in.

74.021

(4)

i^-tb

174.6607 psi

174 psi

tt6l.75), + l2(z)0.25(61.75)3.?5 + 0l

4-

(5)

(4.t25\'z

r'7

,s00 :13129.3403 in-lb

(l)
(2\

22.68

also

17j5,9-,,

;: _
r0.9

,=,,, = 156.984 in-lb

5.62s(r.481r)

(2.7s)2

(6)

therefore,

.8284(2.712

13129.3403(60.125)

Mo

:789,401.5855

therefor,
789,40 r.5855
74

o -42'652

0419(41'25)

t,759.396.7i

a)

!f,O.tZSl'

t.t

+ lzn(0.25)61.7s(3.75) + 010.9375 +

| ,7 59 ,396.'7 3

f,{u.zs)'

z.xat + l2(n)0.2s(44.7

+ olt.t v s +Eg4.j s,

-60.r2s'?).l1.3438

thus MAWP

-41.25, 12.062s :467.20t2

thus

s)3.7 s

MAWP:467

psi

467 psi

t42.4ss psi

142 psi

(8)

psi

EXAMPLE NO.4
Calculate MAWP for the ring flange designed in example 2.

SOLUTION
ln this

case we have

Y=22.68
Cr=l

Re:0
56:25,000 psi

tQ4

S.r,: 17,500 Psi


B:60.125 in.

105

I42 psi

f,@.ts'
(4)

l)tist(;N ol, PR()cEss EQUIPMEN'I'

IILANCB DDSICN

FLANGE DESIGN WITH FULL FACE GASKETS

wilh thc cxception that th sum of the inside and outside gasket moments
cclual zero, and accordingly the total applied moment becomes:

The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code does not coverthe rules
for designing flanges having the gasket beyond the bott holes. This section
discusses a method of designing such flanges as recommended by Taylor
Forge and Pipe Works3. This method follows the framework and the
terminology of the code rules and provides for simplicity of calculations.
It is assumed that full fixation at the bolt circle is produced during
bolting up prior to the application of the internal pressure. The inner edge
ofthe flange in this condition is assumed unrestrained so that the reaction
of the outer gasket is determined from static equilibrium about the bolt
circle.
Design of flanges with full face gaskets is canied out using the
ASME Section VIII Division 1 Rules for Bolted connections using narrow
face gaskets with the following modifications:
The gasket contact area shall be divided into two parts by the bolt
circle. The inner gasket reaction shall be determined as the larger of llo or
Ilo in accordance n'ith the Code and the outer gasket reaction shall be
taken as the larger of flo, or llpr which are given by

M"= M 1t). M7

Ha:Ha 1 la 1
\ h"' )

Ho,=H, 1 la 1
\h", )

and

Where ft6 and ftc1 represent the moment arms of the resultant
gasket reactions with respect to the bolt circle.

Assuming uniform gasket pressure distributed over annular surfaces, these distances may be expressed as:

hG= (C-B) (28+c)

6(B+C)

and

hc1= 6-C) (2A+ c)


6(C+A)

The minirnum required bolt load then is obtained as the greater of


the folloY/ing two values:

W^t=H

Hp+He1=H+

and

W^z=

H, ( 1, 9\
nct I
\

Ho* Hat- Ha
-( t

|+

!-q

t,

ho,)

The botting requirement can be checked using the applicable bolt


load calculated above. The flange can now be designed like other flanges

106

In addition, for flange design with narrow face gasket, the moment
rcmains ofthe same sign throughout, while in the case ofa full face gasket
ir moment reversal occurs. The moment due to gasket reaction is given by

Mc= Hehc:

w-H

r1.1-l
Lh" ho'J

Since the gasket moment M6 may be greater than the resultant


rupplied moment M,, the following additional check of the radial bending
stress at the bolt centerline will be required:

.s^.:6Mc
"r'C
The ring effect and the reduction in section caused by the bolt holes
have been neglected inthe above formula. However, the given value of the
$tress is quite conservative, since the moment at this location may be

cxpected to be lower than calculated.

EXAMPLE NO.5
Evaluate the design of standard 24 inches Taylor Forge Class 125LW
(Light Weight) flange as shovr'n on page 101 of Thylor Forge catalog 571for
use with full face 75A Durometer Elastomer gasket. Design conditions
can be assumed to be 75 psi design pressure at 300'F Use sA-181 class 60
flange material with SA-307-B bolting. There is no corrosion allowance
and assume g, equal to gr in evaluation.

SOLUTION
The dimensions of the flange as obtained from Taylor Forge catalog
571 are shown in the sketch on the calculation form for flange design with

full face gaskets. Refer to this form for calculations of flange evaluation.
(see page 132 )

The calculations show that 1 inch thickness of the standard flange is


not adequate for the desired design conditions of 75 psig at 300'F as the
calculated tangential stress in the flange, Sn is greater than the allowable.
Thus, the thickness ofthe flange must be increased to 1.125 inches in order
to bdns all the stresses within allowables.

107

l,l.Sl(,N ()l l,lt(n li\\ l.(llltl,MljNI

l'l

AN(;11 l)lrSI(;N

hctwccn total hydrostatic cnd lbrce and the


: H Hr, lb
Ratio of outside to inside diameter of flange: ,{/B

It, l)illclcncc

hydrostatic cnd lorcc on area insidc of flange

K
,n Gasket factor
M Calculation factor for operating condition: M oC t l B
M Cafculation factor for gasket seatrng= l14ogo1U
MD Component of moment due to HD, in- lb
Md Component of moment due to Ho, in- lb
Mo Total moment acting upon the flange for the operating

Nomenclature

c
,4
.4,
.4.
b
bo
B
C
CF
e

Diameter of bolts, in.


Outside diameter of flange, in.

Actual total cross-sectional area of bolts, in.2


Total required cross-sectional area of bolts, in.2
Effective gasket seating width. in.

f
F

Faclor f/fto for integral type flanges and

Radial distance from bolt circle to outside of flange, in.

Hub stress correction factor


Factor for integral type flanges

9o

Thickness of hub at small end, in.

gr

Thickness of hub at back of flange. in.

fi,
hc

for loose type

"lho

Factor for loose type flanges

G\l2,tn.

circle. in.

Hpt

Factor JBgo, in.


Radial distance from bolt circle to circle on which
Total hydrostatic end force, lb

F1?.

acts, in.

Hydrostatic end force on area inside of flange, lb


Gasket load: W^t - H
Outer gasket load, lb

,lb

Total joint-contact surface compression load, lb


'lolal outer joint contact sudace cornpression load, lb
108

Component of moment due to Hr, in- lb


Number of bolts
Gasket width, in.
Design pressure, psi

Radial distance from bolt circle to point of intersection of hub

R,r Rib area, in.2


S. Allowable bolt stress at atmospheric temperature, psl
S, Allowable bolt strss at design temprature, psr.
57, Allowable stress for flange material at almospheric

/167 Radial distance from outer gasket load reaction to the bolt

fio
hr
H
HD
Ha
ilc,
Hp

Mr.
n
N
P
R

and back of flange, in.

Diameter at location of gasket load reaction, in.


Hub length, in.
Radial distance from bolt circle to circle on which llo acts, in.
Radial distance from gasket load reaction to the bolt circle : (C

Total moment acting upon the flange for the gasket seating, in-

lb

Bolt circle diameter, in.


Moment correction factor

FL

Mo

Inside diameter offlange, in.

flanges
E

condition, in-lb

Basic gasket seating width, in.

temperalule, psl.

Sy,

Allowable stress for flange material at operating temperature'


psr

Calculated longitudinal stress in hub, psi.


s
Calculated radial slress in flange. psi.
S^t Radial bending stress at the bolt centerline, psi
sr Calculated tangential stress in flange, psi

t
tr
U
V

Flange thickness, in.


Vessel or nozzle wall thickness, in.

Factor involving K
Factor involving K
Factor for integral type flanges

Factor for loose type flanges


W Flange design bolt load for the operating condition or gasket
seating, as may apply, lb
W, Required bolt load for operating condition, lb

VL

109

DESI(;N OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

W,
y
Y
Z

Minimum required bolt load for gasket seating, lb


Gasket or joint-contact-sudace unit seating load, psi.

Factor involving K
Factor involving K

REFERENCES
t. ASME Boiler

and hessure Vessel Code, Section

VIII,

"Pressure Ves-

sels," Division 1, ASME, New York, N.Y., 1983.


"Moclem Flange Design, " G&W Taylor Bonney Division, Bulletin No.
502, Seventh Edition.
3- Design of Flanges for Full Face Gaskets, Bulletin No. 45, Thylor Forye
and Pipe \!brks, Chicago,

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'1

3
ROTATION OF HUB FLANGES

It was known, and reported, in 1957 that lhe ASMEr Ilange design
nrcthod was liable to be unsatislactory for large diameter llanges and
eould lead to designs that could not be made leaktight.
Following are some of the deficiencies2 of the ASME method of
flange design:

l.

Satisfactory

up to 60 inches diameter, progressively more

unsatisfactory abov this and inadequate above 120 inches diameter.

2. Hoop stress due to internal pressure is neglected.


l. Does not consider separately the deformation characteristics of the

4.

gasket under effects of pressure and temperature.


Designs with self-energizing seals not covered other than elastomer O
rings.

5. Thermal elfects neglected.


6. Designs with radial slotted holes not covered.
7. Stress concentration at fillets and holes neglected.
8. Does not give rotation offlange.
Therefore, it is recommended that the large diameter low pressure
flanges should be evaluated by methods other than ASME.
This chapter describes a technique to check the amdunt of flange
rotation as discussed by Dudly.3 Rotation due to the following factors ts
included:

(a) Initial bolt tightening


(b) Internal pressure
(c) Unequal radial expansion ofthe flange and shell

133

)ris

t(;N ()t, l,t{(xjljss

or

Timoshenkoa

li()(I

'MltN.t

RoTATION OF HUI} FI-ANGES

and llcrgh5 have also

Wesstorm

Distance of C.G. (centcr of gravity) of flange section from X-axis

discussctl

methods to calculate flange rotation due to initial bott tightening. In his


comments in Wesstorm and Bergh's paper Mr. E. C. Rodabaugh has also
recommended a technique to determine the amount of flange rotation
due to hoop expansion.

l long

Y-axis is

Y:lA,kl12)+ Ar(sol2)+

Sdl3)llAF

Also, distance of C.G. of flange section from small end of hub along X-

z:tA lh+ t12)+ AzQl2l+ A|Qhl3)flAr

The resulting forces and momnls on the flange cross section are shown
1.

il)us ls

Analyzing Tecbnique
in Fis.

A3@o+@ |

Now

d:(A -

r,: Bl2+ y

By2
ir

therefore,

nd

r.:

At:t(d)
A z: h(g o)

Moment of inertia of flange section along l'axis is given by

dftt3 s^thlJ ls,-s^lh)! .1, r -\'


:: +Atlh+^-zI
'',::jjjt2 +Yil
'\2/
12 +"' 36

and

Ar:

h(g

Bl2+ sol2

r_ g)/2

therefore, total area offlange section rs

/ h\, / 2hY
+A2lz-)l +A\z- 3)

Ao: Ar+ Ar+ A,

\L/

r'

Now, the amount ofrotation for ihe flangi can b6 worked out as follows:

Rotation Due to Initial Bolt Tightetring

-.........T-

(lnless the bolt stress is controlled to some value by using special tools,
rhe maximum bolt stress attained due to bolt tightening will beo

"B

Sb:4s,MlJ4
Now

,4.=(Number ol boltsxRoot area ofeach bolt;


thus

SoAu

zTro

rrnd therefore,

Mr:F"ho

CENTER LINE

FIG. 1. DEFINITION OF SYMBOLS

134

__l

I.-lange rotation due to

initial bolt tightening can

be

the following relationship:

'*#ftcry.#)",
r35

determined by using

)l15l(;N ()lr Pl{( x.l:SS Ii(IUII,MLNT

ROTATION OF HUD F'LAN(;ES

Where

: t.285
_ro0o

for steel

'j{

t/

vo
,
^ l2(l p2)
-

-3

Yo- for steel


- 10.92
and

(Z r"r.ZI\(
| ! r^r"l
r^r"ZI \ / | r^r^Zl\2
w'
ll"-: +
\p I, /\2prz' zAt ' "' r,-l-l-) \2p' r, )

,.
X:l-+-"

CENTER LINE

Rotation Due to Internal Pressure

Internal pressure is usually assumed to act out to the centerline of the


gasket. If the nange with hub in Fig. I is taken as a free body, with unit

I I(;. 2. ELASTICITY OF BOLTS AND GASKET REPLACED BY EQUIVALENT SPRINGS

circumferential dimension at radius ro, the three forces due to internal

" _-4r-Lu
2nroT

,,c

pressure P are:

Where T is the thickness ol gasket lbr llanges having a tubesheet in

.on_
-B'P
gro

PBx

2ro

between and is one halfthe thickness ol gasket lbr joint with two llanges
only. Also, Eo lbr compressed asbestos can be assumed as 480,000 psi
and average value of 78,700 psi lbr spiral wound gasket can be used.

the spring rate lbr the bolt is

and
P{G2 r- T_

F,will

act at a radius of

G2

+ GB+ 82

3(c+B)

These lorces will cause furthr rotation of the flange. Because the
bolts and the gaskets are elastic, these movements will change the
stresses in them. Thus they can be considered as a pair ofunequal springs
attached to the free body as shown in Fig. 2.

Equivalent spring rate for the gasket is

136

AaEo

k8

82)

gao

The resultant

--\

2nroL

I.-or simple joint with two flanges


the eflective length of bolt assigned to
cach flange will be the flange thickness plus one half bolt diameter plus

one half thickness of the gasket. For a tube-sheet joint with different
pressures on shell and tube sides, and flanges of approximately equal
stillness, the total eltbctive bolt length should be apportioned between
l he llanges in proportion to their respective pressures.
Pointz can be located such that

,o:j!l

and ,u

137

koho
kB+ ke

t)tjSl(;N ( )lr t,t(O(jliSS

j(.ltJ lpM LjN,l.

.by theI his point ha$ thc propcrty that, il thc lioc bocly is rcstraincd orrry
springs l, and Ao, application of an axiel force at z will cause thc

free body to move axially without any rotation. Also, application of


a
couple will cause the free body to rotate around:. The equivalent

l{oTA'110N

irnd thc total dilTcrcnti.rl movcmcnt to be counteracted by elastic action


ol thc shell and flange is

do: iil * dr: qro(AT) + wo - rrr

torsional-spring constant of ltu and ko is

The momenl exerted by internal pressure


M

The amount of rotation lor a flange not attached to another flange


as developed by

k Bkc(hdz
kB+ kc

p- Frtr"-r.tl+

()| tlul} |l,ANcIls

Dudly is

'o_,."7tio(
Xtt \2lJ'}-a4\
ltl

is

FDlt"-t,14

,{t

-\\L.t

The same rotation could


M./.to the flange, where

be caused by

ll

Now. the torsional-spring constant of the hubbed flange is given by

,. Mr
' gB

E6ol

II':g'g

EX
r,,r,.Z

pt,

(r.r,l

i*

| \

\a-+pD)

and thus the flange rotation due to internal pressure is

applying an external moment

H+

\
)

op't

Since the flange is in contact with the gaskets and bolts, the actual

rotation of the flange due to unequal expansion will be

MP

CF+C"
Rotation Due to Unequal Radial
Expamion of the Flange and Shell

'Ibtal Rotation of the Flange

Flanges are left uncovered in an insulated exchanger for several reasons.


If the flange is colder than the shell by an amount AT and if the
expansion coeflicient is z, the shell will tend to move radially from the
flange by an amount
d

r:

The total rotation of the flange due to initial bolt tightening, internal
pressure and unequal radial expansion of the flange and shell will be

0":0

The dishing

ar,(ATl

Lgo
The corresponding expansion of the flange is

S:

as

shown in Fig.

3, is

So the outward shift of the shell relative to the {lanse is

d.-(./)

If, the angle of rotation d or dishing S seems to be excessive' the

for steel

,-=\\"
' ArE

138

olthe flange

given by

The outward expansion of the shell due to internal pressure is


o--::::
RS pr?

Pr?
ra'o : .;:(2
zEgo - t) =

&oi e,

"*
at the inner periphery

design should be modified.

Recommendations

l.

The rotation of the hubbed flange may be reduced by


(a) Increasing the ring thickness
(b) Increasing th ring outer diameter
(c) Increasing the hub length

139

r)rist(;N otr t,l{(xiliss tit.lr.I 'MItN

I{OTATIoN OF HLJI] tII-ANCES

lncreasing the hub lcngth has bccn ftrunrl to be thc most cll.icicn(
solution liom a standpoint ol increased weight. Howcver, a cost checx
has indicated the increased ring thickness to be the most elTicient.
2. The relative motion at the gasket tace and the rotation of the channcl
flange may be reduced very efficiently by the addition of a verticat
dummy pass plate.

3. Additional bolting capacity is indicated when utilizing multiple

pass

plate.

l)ctcrnrinc thc n]xxilllum atnount of angle of rotation of the flange


irssuming thcrc is no lcmperaturc differential between the shell and the
llange.

SOLUTION
will be no rotation due to unequal radial expansion ol
the flange and shell, the maximum rotation of the flange will occur
Since there

during hydrostatic test rather than at the operating condition. Referring


to Fig. 1, we have

C: 173.875 in.,
G: l7l.'7928 in., t: 1.125 in., lt: 1.125 in., ao = I it.
A:1'75.'75 in.,

8:

169 in.,

and

dr:1

1875 in

Now,
d:1175.75

FIG. 3. SECTION OF A ROTATED FLANGE

A|

169 in. inside diameter steel flange is to be used as a joint with


another flange having in. thick steel jacketed compressed asbestos

It

is designed at atmospheric temperature for l5 psi. internal


pressure in accordance with ASME code and has the followrng
l'7

Gasket I.D.

I7|

.7929

in.

/.r

l.?9691
y_
'

Diameter of bolts:0.875 in.


Number of bolts:180
Flange thickness

in.

Hub length:1.125 in.


Thickness ofhub at back offlange:1.1875 in.

140

5J

l.l25ll):

r.r25( t.l 875

1.b875)

5.0273

3.79

69 in.2

|.125 in.'z

)/2 =0.1054

in.'

_,.0,,n.

5.02'73

3.7q69(1.6875)

I.125(0.5625) F0.1054(0.75)
5.0273

'

l7-r.E75

| 11 .79

28 .....
l-tr4ll
-

t41

ln.

169
- , +, - 85 in.
I

ro

and

.
/r

in.l

L I 25{0.5}+ 0.1054{'.0025,

,, t69
; - l.4l 85.91 in..

1.125 in.

end: I

.t25 \3.37

ts:3.'1969 + 1.125 + 0.1054

_
"

in.

Thickness ofhub at small

and

170.5 in.

Width of the gasket

= 1.375 in.

thus

5.75 in.

Bolt circle diameter - | 71.875 in.


Gasket O.D. : 172.5 in.
Diameter at gasket load reaction

Az=

dimensions:
Outside diameter:

169)12

therefore,

EXAMPLE

gasket.

-+1r)I ln.

l)lisl(;N Orr P R( X)tiSS EQUIPMENT

IToTATION OF HUI} FLANGES

1.1875 - 1.0x t.125)r


, 3.375(1.125)-].l(1.125)3
rr:
*
*--lf
i2
36

Rotstion Due to Test Prssur

3."1969 (0.27

4), + L 125(0.8536)' + 0.1054(0.6661r: 1.6727 in.4

The flange will be subjected to test pressure of25 psi. (1.5 times the design
pressure)and the resulting forces on the flange due to this pressure will
be as follows:

tt69t225 lbrin. r-:_G;^ 25(169\2.25


Fr:]sf
-1050

Rotation Dm to Initial Bolt Tightening

s,:ff
- J0.875 :48,t07 psi. Ao: t80(e.4t9t:7 5.42 in.,
- 48,107 t't
lr:-

.421

:n(851

1e1:
e-:2!tnl!_!4
8(85)

:6,794 lb/in.

Now

therefore,
Mr

6,794(1.041 |

For steel
E:29{10)6

l:

7,073

1,

285

L:

t.I2s + 0.0625 +0.5(0.875) :1.625 in.

llrl
'-'' :0.0916
/: to.92

T:0.5(0.

125)

:0.0625 in.

t1"]111'19!,0--

tc

there[ore

10.r

3(17l.'7928 + 169l

Ec:48(10)apsi. Er:29(10)'Psi.

:O.t:S+

thus

_. f t.4t6t

j5 rbrin.

l- -r li2.s'-lio.s'?) :538.7844 in.'z

J85(l

and

in.

+ 169' _85.2
n.

1111.7928)' + 1'71.79281169)

'

in-lb/in.

p:

psi.

,__

-56 lb

2n(85)0.0625

t.?4?.783 lb7in. per lrnear rn.

85(85.e 1) r.4l6 t (0.0916)-l

394
I

1.6721 I

,85(8s.91)0.0e16 .8s(85.91)1.4161(0.0916)l
l2(0.1394111.4161 l.416l

(s.0271)

t.6j2't
_t r _85(85.er)r.4l6t(0.0916)l' :,",.r,
|.6127 I '""-'',
| 2t0.t3e4l'

o"=:to^1"?',t::
d

ano

2'T(85X 1.625)

2,520,r 8s(1.041 1)

Now
r.

(2,s20,1 85 +'7,7 47,'t 83t

85.8964 + 0.2555

therefore,

85(8jelrt.4l6t
"'-_fLzsa ofi 6.rJ.z7)o.r 3ea(l i72u rlI
,,

[85(85.91t0.09r6
I
|
t/anr? |
I l.4l6r(5.0273) 4{0.1394)r(l.4l6t) l' " "'
I

86.l5l9

in.

:0.2555 in.

xa:1.0411-0.2555:0.7856in.

_2.520.185(7,747,783X1.04tt, = r.OU,.,
(2,520.1 85 + 7.747.7831

MP:3s(86

=2.520.185 rb7in. per rrnear rn.

15

r9

8s

a+

1050(86l sl

n.o-r?'-

r.rr,:

^ 1,07
cr:ffi:667'264
3

r,
rr59 in-rb1in.

therefore

:0.0106
radians :0.6073"
(2,061,rs3 + 66't ,264)

142

:0.00046 radians =0.0264"

143

F
l)ESt(;N (-)F PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Totd Rotraion of the Flange


trs

=0.0106 + 0.000+6 :0.01106

Therefore

radians =0.63370

S:0.01t06(3.325) :0.0173in.

Conclusion

Amount ol maximum allowable rotation is to be decided by the designer


British Standard No. 1515, part l, 1965 ,."orn-"nd, m"xiiu_
allowable rotation ol lhe order of 0.75.. However, the example
flange
considered above represents an actual case in which leakage
was
observed around the periphery of the flange during the hydrostjic
tesr.
The most probable cause for the leakage was considered
to be rotation of
the llange. The llange design was modified and the leakage
was stopped.
It would appear therefore, that a maximum flange rotarion angl. more
conservative than 0.75" should be considered.

Nomenclature

,4
At
A2
A3

Area of section 2, in.2


Area of section 3, in.2

,46

Total thread root area ofbolts, in.2

Outside diameter of flange. in.


Area ofsection l. in.2

llI
9o
g,
C
I
lr.

t
kB

k(-

L
M.
Mo

M,,
M,r

Modulus of elasticity of boh material, psi

Ec Modulus of elasticity ofgasket material, osi


FB Bolt force, lb7in.
F, Force due to internal pressure,lbTin.
fo Gasket force,lb/in.
F R Force due to internal pressure,lbTin.
144

Force due to internal pressure,lb/in.


Thickness of hub at small end, in.
Thickness of hub at large end, in.

Diameter at location ofgasket load reaction, in.


Hub length, in.
Radial distance from gasket load reaction to the boh circle, in.

sill2(t - p"):e;/10.92

for steel

Moment of inertia of area u4, about lTaxis, in.a


Spring conslant ol bolts, lb/in. per linear in.
Spring constant of gasket, lb/in. per linear in.
Effective length of bolt per flange, in.
Moments acting on flange, in-lb7 in.
Moments acting on flange, in-lb7in.
Moments acting on flange,in-lb7in.
Moments acting on flange, in-lb7in.

Maximum internal pressure, psi.


Qo

,4" Total area offlange and hub section, in.2


Ac Face area ofgasket, in.2
I Inside diameter offlange, in.
C Bolt circle diameter, in.
C. Torsional-spring constant of bolts and gasket
Cr
Torsional-spring constant offlange and hub
d Thickness offlange in radial direction, in.
d, Diameter of bolt, in.
D Plars constant '
E Modulus ofelasticity offlange material, psi
Eb

ROTATION OF HUB FLANGES

rT

s
si
I

Radial shearing force at small end of hub,lb


Radialdistance, in.
Radial distance, in.
Radial distance, in.
Radial distance, in.
Dishing al the inner periphery of flange, in.
Maximum bolt stress afiained due to bolt tightening, psi.
Flange thickness, in.

T Thickness of gasket assigned to flange, in.


Outward radial displacement at small end of hub, in.
Constant

Axial distance from C.G. to small end of hub, in.

Coefficient of thermal expansion of shell material in./in.' F

lJ

Shell constant

Angle of rotation offlange, radians.

Poisson's ratio of flange material

t45

)tist(;N

oI

I,l{()(itiss ljQtjIl,MLiNl'

RUt'URf,NCES

L ASME Boiler and

Pressure Vessel code, Section

VIII.

"Pressurc

Vessels," Division

l, ASME, New York, N.Y., 1983.


"A
2.
Review of Present Methods for Design of Bolted Flanges for
Pressure Vessels." British Standard Institution Document No.

8D6438, Ocrober. 1969.

3. Dudly, W. M., "Deflection of Heat Exchanger Flanged Joints as


Affected by Barreling and Warping," ASME Trans., 1960, Paper 60wA70.
4. Timoshenko, S., "Strength of Materials," D. Van Nostrand Company
Inc., New York, N.Y., 1941,Part II, Art.34.
5. Wesstrom, D. B., and S. E. Bergh, "Effect of lnternal Pressure on
Stresses and Strains in Boltd Flanged Connections," TRANS.
ASME. Vol. 73. 1951.
6. Petrie, E. C., "The Ring Joint, lts Relative Merit and Application,"
Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, Vol. 9, April, 1937.

STRESS ANALYSE OF FLOATING HEADS

The floating head is an essential part of certain types of shell-andtube heat exchangers, It consists of a segment of a spherical shell attached to a ring shaped flange. A cross-section of a typical floating
head is shown in Fig. l,

w-H-

FIC. I.

r46

CROSS SECTION OF

TYPICAL FLOATING HEAD

147

l)ESl(;N 0r, PllocEss EQUTPMENT


Floating beads can be built of forgings or castings. They can also
be fabricated from formed heads welded into rolled and welded plate
flanges or machined forged flanges. Regardless of the material or the
method of fabrication, the floating head must be designed to withstand the combined effects of pressure and boltload.

STI{ESS ANALYSIS OF FLOATINO HEADS


Stress Analysis Due ao Intemal Prssure

Lst Pr be the tube side pressure or the pressure insid the floating head,
then, the force H is
H

technique for designing floating heads is discussed in UA-6,


Section VIII, Division I of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
code.' However, the formulas given are approximate and do not take
into account continuity between the flange ring and the dished head.

In this stress analysisl the flange is assumed to be cut loose from


the head. A ring moment, M, and a ring load, V, are applied to both
the head and the flange at their junction. These represent the total moment and the total force acting over the junction surface between the
head and flange. M and V are computed assuming that the radial and
angular displacements of the flange are equal to those of the head at
their line of junction. Forces and moments acting on the head and
flange are shown in Fig. 2. The total bolt load has been treated as a
continuous ring load.

:PtrB2
4

The dislance e can be determined by

,:r_i(r_""*)
Now,

)t:1.29
cot o

xt:l - sl

o
Kt:r- cot
rzsi,
0.2'75mt

ln(K)

-e

Kr

rr:
^

l.llmt ln(K\ 'r\


,,

BKr

r--

^'

.,:f('-'?)
,-l 0.35 \
/- _ut /4q' - B cot <o
'.-"\
4nd sin,pf

H<Therefore,

c2c6-c3cs
c2c4 ctc5
and
FIC. 2. FORCES AND MOMENTS ACTINC ON HEAD AND FLANCE

148

+- z \^'*x,/-+ni- x,

Gl

.-/T

c.:Hl
"LIJJe cot ,o+'q"--q'-il-wh
B 1.65e
zsin al,, . t\.
(^

crc6-c3c4
c2c4-ctcs
r49

I)rjst(;N oF Pr{(x)ljss EQUIPMENT

STRESS ANALYSIS OF FLOATING HEADS

_.---.-|rp 0.15\
- ,,(4(t-Bcot
(":nl
44.1
Stn q,,/
\

Head Stresses
Stress on outside of the head is given by

_P,R ,

V cos

tp

6M

Now,

" z, - oBt 'rst,


'0.Stress on inside of the head is

\_ ::

P,R

2t

-t.

rp 6M
nBt nBt2

c2c6- c3c 5
c2c4-c rcs
anq,

Vcos

Flange Stresses

rc6- c 3c 4
c2c4-c rc 5
c

Head Stresses

Bending stress in the flange is given by

- P"R Vcosa 6M
^\.:-+-]-2t
tBt rBt2
' + Vcos o- 6M
s..: -P-R
2t
nBt TtBt'

":w?-ry)

Direct stress in the flange is

*' \
L__l n P
ull*l
-"'-l
-' : nBrl"
-"o,,\'l\K'zr/
\8
s"

Flange Stresses

Resultant Flange Strsses

. r
r,:

Sa

_ Sr

Resultanl stress on inside of the flange is


S.r;1

arK,

: 51- 56

Stresses with Full Gssket Restnint

In lhis

, : '.:t'

case also, C

r,

2, C 4 and

C, will remain unchanged.

Also,

cr=;
and
c u=

\I,/

and

Now

150

Sliz:Sa*So

Stress Analysis Due to External Pressure

\
'"--'-il-wh
^ .-/ecot a+2str-at
Cr:H{

Resultant Flange Stresses


Slo

C t, C 2, C 4 and C, will be the same as worked out earlier for inlernal


pressure. C. can be worked out from the relationship

-. 4Mi\

\n-;i

1,,(+q

:Sa+56

Let P" be the shell side pressure or the pressure outside floating head, the
force II will be

--. \ ,,]/K'z+l\
-Llr\8-col )- )\K4 )

Resultant stress on outside of the flange is


57,

"':

O.525n

151

+ntt

l)l:Sl(;N ( )lr Pl{()(ILSS liQtJll,MINT


c

,,

(' 3c

2(:6-

STITESS ANALYSIS

EXAMPLE

c2c4-ctcs

and

tco- c rc4
c2c4*ctcs
stresses in head and flange due to unit force

can be determined as follows:


Head Stresses

^
\.:t-

e
nBt

V cos

Analyze the stresses in the floating head of a kettle type reboiler


for 310 psi shell side and 100 psi tube side pressure both at
650"F. The flange material is A-105 and had is made of A-515-70. The
head is 0.9375 in. total minimum thick and has inside dish radius of
3l.09375 inches. The inside and outside diameters of flange are 34.75 in.
and 3'7.':'5 in. respectively and it is 5.5 in. thick in longitudinal direction
cxclusive ofcounterbore. The inside depth offlange is 3.8554 inches. The
diameter at the gasket load reaction is 35.125 in. and bolt circle diametr
is 36.5 in. The shell and tube side corrosion allowance can be assumed to
be 0.0625 inches. The total bolt Ioad is 255,443 pounds.

clesigned

With no pressure applied,

()F I LOATINC HEADS

6M
rBt2

and

^ Vcos(p
ftBt

SOLUTION

6M
tBt2

Referring to Fig. l, we have


Flange Stresses

/ ..
^
" BrKr\ B/

4M)\

0.525n

I\
^" /l - /\/K2+
ll

\'rBIl\K'- l /
-

Resultant Flange Stresses


Sy,

51_ Sr

Syr::Sa*56
The force F is given by the negatiye quotient ofthe values of Sr,, or
Sy;2 due to intrnal or external pressure (whichever is higher) and the
value of Sr,, due to the unit force as determined above.

F:-fl',\
' \sr,. / ".
-' -fL.\
\Sr'../
Multiplying the strsses due to unit force by F and combining these
with the stresses previously computed for intrnal or external pressure
(whichever is higher) will give us the resultant outside and inside head
and flange stresses in the floating head. If, the resultant stresses are not
within allowable limits, modifications in design are required.

152

3'7.'7 5

B =34.'15

2{0.0625)

37.625 in.

+20.0625):34.875 in.

C:36.5 in.
c:35.125 in.

and
J,:l-

31.093?5 +0.0625 + (0.937 s -0.125]112 :31.s625 tn.

t :Q.93'75

, (A_ B)
u2
T:

5.5

2(0.0625):0.8125 in.
(37 .625

-0.0625

34.8't

s)

5.4375 in.

and

q:3

8554 in'

Now,
rr

tl
:(c
2t tl

c):

:(36.5

:;(35.125

35.1

2Z T s 4175
n: t' =-^u.6ll)
;z;;:6.6923
i = : (G

B)

25):0.6875 in.

34.875)

:0.

153

25 in.

l)r,st(;N orr pt{(xt[ss UQUtPMENT


nr

K=

(rr)r

77

(6.6923)r

STI{ESS ANAI,YSIS ()1.

l 9!9i! f102!t -12{22tsj?9!l


5.8668(8.5695) - 3.6535(s.2698)

299.7272

6)5

r:ao*rr::t'ozss
/14

R7s

*:.,n'(urrr)

r.6535(

:sin'

100 Psi

-":

100(2X14.875)

r{o.s52s):33.s4"

:9)')lo

3.85s4

lb

|/
nRlt{\
::= | :
- z:I\ s.437s - v.6JJJ

t.62 {l ln.

s,s26lt.624l

(0.8125)0.07585

(1.5085)

r :5.8668
-

o.

125]-

255,443(0.6875)

1,299 -(- 755): - 544 Psi


:
1,299
+( - 755): * 2'054 Psi
s711
-

Sr): -

34.875 * I j!!f i41)


\+
o.962s / 4(6.6923)1.t75 0.8t2s(0.9625)

.. ( - 310)n(34.875)'z :
H:
4

:8.5695

r.65 f * 4{8.0401)1.624t I
34J7s l:s2698/in'
Lr

t^s =0.8r2s10.9025)

^- -^_[4(3.8ss4)-34.875(1.5085) 0.]5

":v:':zol

a16Je21r.-i--osszsl: t54

157.026 lb

c3:

-296.129lb

-296J291 1.6241(1.5085)

,(:.sss+)l.s!4_o.rrrl

+: 34.8.7s

s\: - 967'689 in-lb


4(3.8554) - 34.87s(1.5085)
C6: -296,129l
4(6.6923)t .37 5
-

255,443 (0.687

Now

155

psr.

'

l\0.r638J

P":310 psi.

2(3.8554) 1.5821
34.8'ts

psl

r^r,-ll216"\

Resultant Flange Stresses

8i1910!525r(s34es+-t

r.,

Check Up for External Pressure

:79,892 in-lb

: - 1,299 psi.

34.875 (0.9625)

r.828 psr.

:4vuz

n(34.875tt0.8125),

/''--

21121.??2)0!' 2ll,tg78!l
_ 1.6241 :3.6535 in.
2

6( -40,562)

|
|
/41\85541
s' -n{34.815r5r37sle5'526(;8i5-,"'.no.\-, -

tr***:0'8499

t299.'7 27

(-43,267)0.8115

1.5085

|.t (8.040t

-40,562 in-lb

_ 755
\ _ 0.525(6.6e23) -- ( oa ro, _or- 40.s62)8.0401)_
"'-:+.srs(o.8rzsto.so2s
34.875

0.962s

v2

43,26',7

Flange Sarsses

| 50R5
r-ffi:o.e62s

7e.892(8.5695)

3.651s(5.2698)

100(J
s,'--2tgjt25) + n(:qj?5lgjtx -

/rr s,<rs
r.29 |-:::::::8.0401
v u.drz)

Kz: t -

_r00(1.5b25r+, 1l.i.u],9.tLr:* or _alf9?l_ . : _


2(0.8125) r(34.8?5)0.8125 r(34.8?5X0.8125)'
1.5625)

;-

r5?.026)

lb

Head Stresses

.s.

5.8668(8.5695)

Chck Up for Internal Pressure

Pr:

I'I,oATINC HEADS

-u1*]=o'u'"'

'o

S'I'I(USS ANAI,YSIS OF ITLOATIN(; HEADS

l)ttst(;N ()tr PR(x:liss tx)(JIPM EN'I'

,,

:{Ilgrs47.sl ?f

atrtl

5.8668(486.777 ) I 967,68e(5.2698)
31.0223

256,M0 tb

1875(&5621

_0.63e4 in-lb

31.0223

and

M: 3.6535

(486,7 77) + 96 7,689 ( 8.5 69 5 )

31.0223

:324,639 in-lb

2(0.812s)

256,440(0.833s)
t(34

8?510^8

t25

6(324,639)

n(34J75X0-8

-0.6394)

psi'

_0.0504 psi.

r (34.875)(0.81 25)'

25f

0.s2s{6.6e23) [_o.rrr_0,-0.^u?1?-t.oootl:o.oreop,i.
\,
.^:34875(0.8t
"-"34.8'15 J
25)0.9625 L

:23,310 psi.

6{

(-310)31.5625 .

t,.:--l-

r,.:0*#ffi*.;offiffi33rr : -0'055?

irnd
- 0.282)0.8335
(
-o-!
" ' n(34.875 )0.8125
''ri

Head Stresses

S,,

'hererore'

310) 31.5625

2s6,440(0.8335)

2(0.8125)

z(34.875)0.8125 z(34.875)(0.812s)'?

6(324,639)

\/2.1638\
'
s-l- / | -t' -0.2821
ll - - l:0.0284
U(34.87s)5.4375l\0. 1638/

: - 30,550 psi.

"J

Psi

Flange Stresses

125

I-

Now

040r I
_, - 4r324.63er8
14.8?5
10.9625 Lt'o'*t)
-l:

: _jj?!1623)
'u:34i75(0J
s.

,.^

Sr,:0.0284 -0.0396: -0.0112 Psi'

-5'530psi'

t
/r 6rR\-l
Iror _ t.066J)_256.4401..'.:: I l:1.315 psi,
-'s :_nt34.8'75)5.43'7s |L_106
---'---'
\0 1638/l

S7r3:0'0284

Sr":1315

Stresses with

In this

1315

-(+(

thus with internal Pressure

-p:

5530):6,845 psi.
5530): - 4,215 psi.

/ tn54\
.
_I _-:::
l:30.206

0.068

-o: -1-a2ls):ot.sts
\ 0.068 /

case

c,=seI:21187s

by the
Multiplying the stresses determined above due to the unit force
to
due
stresses
the
with
these
.orr".pinOlng force F and combining

:0.94'15lb

internal pressure

4(6.6923) 1 .37 s

Sr,: -

Now

2.7r87 s(s.2625\

31.0223

156

tu

Stresses Due to lnternal Pressure


and with Full Gssket Restrsint

n-tb

and
34.875

Ib

and with external Pressure

Full Gasket Restraint

5.8668(0.9475)

0'0396 =0'068 Psi'

two values ofSJi'


The force F is given by the negative quotient of the

Resultant Flange Stresses

Sri,

-0.282 lb

srr

as

computed earlier, we get

0.0557(30,206)

1828: -3,510Psi'

0.0504(30,206) + 4902

6'424 psi.

Sr,,: - 0.01l2(30,2061- 544:


Sr1:0.068(30'206) - 2054 =0

882 Psi'

r57

t)tlsl(;N ( )tr pl{(xjtjss lQtJll,MIN1.


Strcssrs Duc lo llxternal Prossurc
and with Full Gasket Resaraint
Repeating the above procedure and subtracting the external pressurc
[(]

obtain the combined stresses, we get


sa

srr

-0.0557(61,985) + 23,310 _ 310


0.0504(6 1,985)

30,550 _

3 I0

19,547 psi.

_ 27,7 36 psi.

: - 0.01 12(61,985) + 6,845 - 310:5,841 psi.


S/r :0.068(61,985) 4,215
- 3lO: - 310 psi.

S'TI{ESS ANALYSIS

I
T
/
w
E

oT TLOATIN(; HEADS

Corroded head thickness, in.


Corroded longitudinal thickness offlange, in.
Ring-load between flange and head,lb

Total bolt load, lb


One half of central angle of head

: sin

'

(B/2R )

s_/,,

AII the stresss determined above due to internal or external


pressure and with or without full gasket constraint
are within thc
allowable of 30,400 psi (0.8 yield) stress, rherefore, our design is safe.

REFERENCES
l. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, "Pressure
Vessels," Division l, ASME, New York, N.Y., 1983.
Soherns, J. E., "The Design of Floating Heads for Heat Exchangers,"
ASME Paper 57-A-247.

Nomenclature

Corroded outside diameter offlange, rn.


Corroded inside diameter offlange, rn.
Bolt circle diameter, in.

Corroded radiai thickness offlange, in.

Mean gaskel diameter, in.

Radial distance from gasket load reaction to the bolt circle

:(c - G)12

Radial distance from corroded inside diameter to the gasket


load reaction :(G - B)/2
A/B

n3

M
n

Ring-moment between flange and head,

in-lb

T/t

P.

Inside pressure on the floating head, psi.


Outside pressure on the floating head, psi.

Inside depth offlange, in.


Mean corroded head radius, in.
Stress on the outside offlange, psi.

R
e
C

S,,
Jl,i

Stress on the inside offlange, psi.


Stress on the outside of head, psi.
Stress on the inside offlange, psi.

158

159

5
FIXED TUBESHEET DESIGN

In the chemical industry, heat exchangers are frequently required to


be fabricated of expensive corrosion-resistant materials, and to avoid
waste of such materials it is desirable that tubesheet thicknesses should
be no greater than are required to withstand the design conditions
involved.
This chapter discusses the design offixed tubesheets in accordance
with the method proposed by Dr. K. A. G. Miller.r It takes into account
the support given to the tubesheets by th tubes and also the weakening
effects of different tube hole spacings. The tubesheet designed by thrs
method results in thickness much less than as given by the method
proposed by TEMA'? (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association).
The Miller method is generally preferred over the TEMA method for
economical purposest especially for large diameter alloy tubesheets
designed for low internal pressure. There, will not only be a saving rn
material but, more important, a saving in the machining time for drilling
the holes in the tubesheet.
Discussion is limited to the box type ofexchanger as shown in Fig. I,
since thiscovers almost all types of fixed tubesheet exchangers used these
days. The tubesheet has been assumed to be simply supported because rn
almost all cases, gaskets are neither full faced nor extended inside bolt
holes. In any case, if the type ofexchanger or the boundary condition is
different than discussed, one should refer to Miller's paper for analysis.
A detailed example follows the short discussion ofdesign procedure
in order to present the application of this method for design problems.

t6l

t)ltst(;N ( )tr

l{( x

jtjss

LQTJTPMENT

Design Procedure

FIXED TUBESHEET DESION

I)ifferential exPansion

is
y

= d10t- d"0"

liflective pressure diflerence due to the combined pressure difference P


and the differential exPansion i' is

P":P+y*+
Determine the value ofdimensionless factor

E,na
^|
rn:tot[tP;,1e-o

FIG. 1. . BOX TYPE HEAT EXCHANGER

Typical cross-section of a tube is shown in Fig. 2. Cross_sectional

area o[ one tube is

nd,2
t: nd2
q- q

Cross-sectional area of inside ofshell is

"

A:lpz
4

Cross-sectional area of tube holes in tubesheet is given


by

c:|a,,
Cross-sectional area ofshell plate is found using the formula

B:

n(D +

t)t

Deflexion or ligament efficiency can be calculated from the


relationshtp

KR

0
0.5
1.0

Gr

0.800
0.810

0.844

1.000
1 .002

t.o29
t.14

t.)

0.871

2.0

t.012

t.412

2.5

t.34

3.0

1.88

J.)

2.36

4.0

2.75

2.40
4.24
6.36
8.53

4.5

3.10

10.7 5

-0.727

5.0
5.5

3.43

13.1

3.83

6.0

2s.3

8.0

4.12
4.82
5.54

-0.619
-0.541
-0.515

33.1

-0.5 64

5.97

-0.602
-o.642
-0.727
-0.816
-0.907
-o.999
-1.091

6.68
7 .39
8.81
10.23
11.65

15.8
18.7

6.26

41.8

a:E-!:
E"B

6.98
8.43

)l.t)

9.88

101.1

11.33

132.0

162

+1.000
+0.998
+0.966
+0.836
+0.546

o.993

9.0

P: P,' - P,. -' 'z""


A-C

G.

0.800
0.809
0.820

10.0
12.o
14.0
16.0

Calculate equivalent pressure difference by

D
^

c2

7.O

Working Conditions

The values of Gr, G2, G3 and Ga corresponding to the factor l(R can
be read from Table 1.

4:P:(A-C)
A
Determine

-]"

18.0
20.o

i2.80

t67 .2

14.25

206.4

+0.121

t;79

-0.306
-0.608
-0.7 4r

2.25

4.529

74.3

TABLE r. VALUES FOR Gl, G2' G3 and G4

163

I .40

2.69
3.10
3.47

4.18
4.54
s.26

13.06
14.48

)tist(;N ()tr t,l{(xItss IQtJtpMLNT.

IlxDl)'ruBBsHtit1,r D[slcN

Maximum radial stress in tube plate is given by

t^^A^-l
- t'

,-,

c,u

,,.:26.08(10)" psi.
z,:7.16(10) 6 in./in. "F

,i :

oy'

I1
^u*, -lt"4lQG,+Gzf \ltl
t

Also, maximum stress in tube material is sreater of

P,r^u*1

:(

_oct

(-,;*,

t)]

l, ",

5o Psi.

70:510"F

l),:580

ri:1.5

in.

r/'

1.5

ti,

ZZ.52,tOru Ott.

a,:

2(0.083)

1.334 in.

?.96(10)- 6 in./in. "F

,ir:27.52(10)6 psi.
Assuming the total thickness of tubesheet as 3 in. therefor,

rl-u''A-stl

ft:3 -Total required corrosion


: 3 - 0.062s :293't5 n.

".@,T31]

Similarly, the stresses in tube plate and tubes should be determined


for different combinations of shell and tube design pressures, if any are
required. If, either of the stresses in any of the cases is found moreihan
the allowable, the tube plate thickness should be modified unless the
stresses within allowable limits are obtained.

5)2

plate is 0.625 inches thick inclusive of0.0625 inches corrosion allowance.


There arc 2436,22leet long, 1.5 inches outside diameter and 0.083 inches
thick SB-163 Ni 200 tubes. Tube side design conditions are 50 psi at
580"F. Shell and tube metal temperatures can be assumed to be 580"F.
Total corrosion allowance for tubesheet should be 0.0625 inches.

SOLUTION
Pr

-334)2

:0.3695 in.,
..
a:4-4-r(l _n(l
na : 2436(0.3695) :900. I in''?

n(I10.625)':n6l
^-.,1.6 in.'z
o:""'\"'"'
|

EXAMPLE
Design 58-162 Ni 200 tubesheets in accordance with K. A. G.
Miller method for a fixed tubesheet exchanger having an expansron
joint. The A-516-70 shell has an uncorroded inside diameter of I10.5
inches and is designed for 150 psi internal pressure at 580"F. The shell

allowance

-i
:'"":'

<\2

ecttt:4304.8

in.2

I l.?51, n(110.625t'
:
B=r(l O, _ a

- C:s6ll.6 -

t96.5 in.,

4304.8:5306.8 in.'

5306.8

^ --^.
4:It=-:u.))21
(900.1)

a: 27.52(10)6
26.08(10)6(196.5

:4.8336

":,50_50-H#:er.5psi

150 psi.

0"=580-70=510.F

Sinc the exchanger has an expansion joint the differential thermal

D:

expansion will be

r 10.5

t :0.625

+ 2(0.0625): 110.625 in.

?:0

-0.0625 :0.5625 in.

164

to)

pti(xjljss tjQUtpMINT

t)1.:st(;N ( )r,

F'IXED TUBESHEET DESION

therefore,

p.: p:91.5

Nomenclature
psi.

Let us assume_that the tube projection is 0.125 inches


outside each

ruoesneet, whtch gtves

L :22(12)

Cross-sectional area of metal in one tube, in.2

Cross-sectional area of bore of shell, in.2


Cross-sectional area of shell plate, in.2

2(3) _ 2(0.125)

:257.7s in.

Cross-sectional area of tub holes in the tubesheet, in.2


a

d'
D

From Table l, for kR:8.5282 we get by interpolation


Cr
G

5 9203

z:31

6953

6r: - 0 5841

and

L Ellective length

Gt:6.3450

P,(max): [91.5 -

50(

4 14.8336

:p,(max)

l85l

:#1r.5

l.8l l2)4.8jj6]

(s.9203) + 37.69

I10.625

psi.

O.K.

5s4r/1####{l.l
1

ElTective pressure difference due

to

combined pressure

difference P and the differentialexpansion i,. psi.


P,(max)
P,(max)

-16.34591

Number of tubs
Equivalent pressure difference, psi.
Pressure inside tubes, psi.

:433 psi
e,r,nu4: !963 [el.s
vw.r

of the tubes, in.

Pressure outside tubes, psi.

zws

psi (compression) < I1,700

-( -0

Outside diameter of tubes, in.


Inside diameter of tubes, in.
Bore ofshell, in.
Modulus ofelasticity for tubesheet material, psi.
Modulus ofelasticity for shell rnaterial, psi.
Modulus ofelasticity for tube material, psi.
Thickness of the tubesheet, in.

Q
t
r"
z,
7
4
p
0"
0,

- 50( l'8 | l2t+ g:lo]1


(4.8336+6.3450) |

91 5

:1698 psi (Tension)< 15,520 psi, O.K.


Since all the stresses are within allowable limits, a 3 inch
thick
tubeshet is sufficient for this exchanger. Thickness
.outa U" iu.it",
reduced but seems to be quite reasonable for such a large
"*"nung"..

Maximum radial stress in tubesheet, psi.


Maximum longitudinal stress in tubes, psi.

E,nalE,B
Corroded thickness ofshell, in.
Coeflicient of thermal expansion of shell, in./in. F
Coeflicient of thermal expansion of tubes, in./in. 'F
Differential expansion per unit length, in./in.
Deflexion efliciency
Ligament efficiency
Temperature ofthe shell,

'F

Temperature of the tubes,'F

REFERENCES

l.

FIG. 2. CROSS SECTION OF A TUBE

Miller, K. A. G., "The Design of Tube Plates in Heat Exchangers,"


Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. lB,
t952 53, pp.2l5-23t.
2. Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Sixth
Edition. New York. N.Y.. 1978.

166

t67

6
FLANGED AND FLUED EXPANSION JOINTS

One must consider Yarious aspects of differential expansion

btween tubes and shell offixed tubesheet exchangers, when making an


expansion joint selection. Temperature differences between shell and
tuie side fluids cause differential expansion oftubes and shell Asaresult
the tubes are subjected to stress unless suitable provision is made to
accommodate the differential expansion. Expansion joints are installed,
when required, to accommodate differential expansion'
Tubisheet thickness design formulas of the TEMA STANDARDS'
are relatively simple for all construction other than fixed tubesheet
desien. In this desisn a factor "J" has a value of 1.0 for shells without
expa'nsion joints, and mostly zero for shells with expansionjoints, except
foi designs which require special consideration. Among these are those
expansion joints which require considerable axial load to produce
movement and are known as "ring expansion joints." There are several
types of ring expansion joints. They have been successfully used where
small movements are to be accommodated and whre the frequency of
movement is minimum. They offer significant advantages over the more
flexible thin wall bellows type joints in fixed tubesheet heat exchanger

applications.

The procedure as recommended by Kopp and Sayre2 for designing


these typis ofjoints is discussed briefly. This computation method takes
into account joint flexibility of the shell plates and of the circular ring'
The following three types of ring expansion joints can be analyzed with

this technique:
L FIat plates with ring Thisconsists of two concentric flat plates with a
circumferential bar at the outer edges. Tbe flat plates can flex to make
some allowance for differential expansion. This design is genrally

169

t)Est(iN oF PROCESS EQUTPMENT


used

for vacuum

FLANOED AND FLUED EXPANSION JOINTS

service (steam surface condensers).

are subject to severe stress during differential


2. Flenged only herds Inthistv

All wetd!
"

;_;;i;"."'

d;il;G";;;,ffi'ji"Hl!lii":tl.,1T,1x,.fl fi ]hlill

3.

The curved shape tends to reduce the


Flanged and flued herds Thi
expansion

,"*,

""

,f,"

*"fi#;iiiir.

joint.rnliiJtr;'i:11?il'H#,'iffj.liff i,.j:j
"IJi,i*fy

wrrn concentric reverse flue

expe-nsive because of the

Tq.: f,.ra,

^l1l"l
fluingoperation.

the amount of stress significantly.

iri"

"u-rii

"*
Jr,;d;;&"r,

discussed applies directly to type


I above. However,
provrsron
^-^..Ll._,::l-l'?":
ls made to convert the actual cross_section
oftyp" iu"J
an equivalent of type I (i.e., square
cornered ring, with the same total
leng.th of plare along the centerline)for

Let E be the modulus of elasticity at design temperature and m be


the Poisson's ratio of expansion joint material. Now,

^Ro

.:ffi(I)
b:t +thf

#il,
,"
paragraph 7.tel of riMA" St;$ffi;;'"r.,
:::::d** .with
having_ these type of expansion
unuryrir.

:I:n-,C:^.
example is included

to demonstrate

:"i*. l. p."r".[i
rhi
.f ;"t;iq; ;;;;;;;. ^"
"r"

loRpa , , ,< |
L lt-^'11'o ' '-- ,

l1-

ll",o

rnlalirionl
predicting the value of ,,J" factor
for designing fi;;;;.;;;;;

-L

zla +

oJ

D:nffi)
F,J

At:(2b-

LIC

Br:(2a+ L)C

Design Procedure

a,:ltt-rtc
n,:lta+Dc
v,:L]+oa,-Le,
TYPE

v,: -l-o.a,+L-;,

TYPE

FIG.

I.

TYPE

RING TYPE EXPANSION JOINTS

joint of Type 2 or 3 is desired,


the dimensions of
.."*p1ori:l
tnese-Il
types
should be converted to an equivalent oi
Type f
ioff-o*r,
",
For Tyrr- 2, L:G _O.2t5r
For Type 3, t: c O.215(r tr,)
For Type 2 or 3, lr : H _0.43r

170

^:ffl
Moments Drc to Internal Pressure
Let P be tho internal pressure and x be the distance above point
is shown in Fig. 1, then

':(+)"
t7l

as

t)Est(;N oF Pt{(xtEss EQUTPMENT

FLANCED AND FLUED EXPANSION JOINTS

F=KW

S, should also be determined in the same fashion and at the same

Ft=LW-F

Mt:
M

j:

distances from

AzW- ArF

S=Sr*Sz

1!2 rz

Moments Due to Differential Thermal Movement


Using the proper sign for dillerential movement A
opens and

-if

the

joint closes) determlne

(i.e.

+ if thejoint

',4
t=,

- /D\ ly
rr:l;;

Thus, the resultant stress at each location from I to B can be


determined by adding S, and S, at the same location Care should be
taken to use the proper sign while adding these stresses. The resultant
stress will be compressive if positive and tensile ifnegative.
The pressure, deflection or combined stresses should be less than
the corresponding allowable stresses, otherwise, the design should be
modified.
Allowable Stresses

The movement with respect to each other of the shell plates at the joint

\Lrr'/
Mn'=-A'F'
Mu'=B'F'
Mr=M^r*Frx

be determined by the elastic changes in the shell and tubes. This may
cause high stresses locally in thejoint and therefore some plastic yielding,

will

but any yield in the joint will not cause further movement of the shell
plates, and so will be self-limiting in nature. The portion undergoing
plastic deformation is small in comparison with the portion undergoing
elastic deformation. Therefore the residual strain will be imperceptible.
Thus the prevention of significant plastic deformation does not require
all calculated elaslic stresses to b below the yield point, since
appreciable plastic deformation can occur only if the material yields
across the entire area. Thus, ifthe exchanger service is to be a steady one,
the local stresses with this type of loading should always be lower than
twice the yield stress in order to avoid failure by brittle fracture as stated
by Brownell and Young.3
Similarly, internal pressure acting on the flat plates in thejoint may

Determining Section Modulus


of Exprnsion Joint Section

z:+(!-f,+t\
6\ r ' -/
Strss6 Due to Internal pressure

'z=M

s,

should be determined at x 0 i.e. at /4, ro


.S,
=
one inch by changing the values of M and
Z.

Msximum Strss rt Test hsslre

s,:

as Sr.

Resulta[t St]esses in Expsnsion Joints

B1F _ B2lU

It4:7,4,- p,r

Maximum s,

(p)

x:

B at an interval of

cause them to bulge, but as they bulge. catenary or cupping stresses as


well as bending stresses are introduced, and unless the plates are very
heavily loaded, the bulging will also be self-limiting in nature.
Therefore, the stresses of the following order can be allowed

while designing such expansion joints:

r.s
Pressure Strcsses

Stresses Due to

Dilfcrcntid Moveme

-M,

'z

172

Maximum allowable Sr = 1.5(Sd"")


Maximum allowable S, : 2.25(S"'n)

173

r'

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

FLANOED AND FLUED EXPANSION JOINTS

Detlectlon Strsss

Maximum allowable S. = smaller of 2(Srr)


or 4(S0.,)
Toasl Stress

EXAMPLE
with a flanged and
inches in order. to
125
0
flued expansion joint to be designed to open
internal design
The
tlie dilferential thermal expansion'
A 15.25 inches I.D. exchanger is to

be equipped

u""o-rnoa"t"

Maximum allowable S=smaller of 2(Sro)


or 4(S;,)
Calculating Value of J Factor
ratio ofthe force to move the expansionjoint
one inch to the force
to move the shell and the expansion joint rogitt
"/ is the

i. ,i""0
JJlo"a, to
Thus, the value .r J J""iJ o"
on"

earlier, these types of erpansion jointsiequi."-"onria".uur"


".

produce the required movemenr.


determined as follows:
By definirion

,:

in"i.

,
(f.r+r")__-

Poisson's

*&

ratio:0.3

SOLUTION

F" the force to move the shell by one inch


can readily
determined from ..Hooks
where

Law"

psi
Code allowable stress at design temperalure: 17'500
Yield stress at design temprature:38'000 psi
(10)6
Modulus ofelasticity at design temperature = 27'6
pci

fixed tubesheet
Also, calculate the value of factor '/ for designing
feet'
16
to
equal
be
to
shell
of
assumingthe overall length

Fr

inches total minimum thick


fressure is 100 psi and the shell is 0.375
joint
inclusive of 0.0625 inches corosion allowance' The expansion
material has the following properties:

as:

be

is assumed to be the
The minimum expansion joint plate thickness
equal to J llmes
made
are
radii
same as the shell thickness' Both corner
be..1.inch
(shouldinches
A straisht flange of 0'875

;l;;;;l;-k"".t.

r'":/!(rd=z(Do=49u

joint as fabricated wrll be


normally) is assumed and the expansion

Therefore,

as

shown in Fig. 2.
\

,*opF#L

4.37

s',

Mettods of Calculating F,
Bsides the Kopp and Sayre technique
Gardnera and Samoiloff have
also stated methods of calculating
_Fr. fr.**"r, .rrf y"t"n""_"iirra
and Sayre is disiussed here, accoioirg,.
:*::T:T^1
ll.Ko?pas:
i.,
can oe determlned

t
-i

*iir,

rr:0.375L

Fr=2(F,)(R,)n
But,

in accordance with TEMA .I can be


assumed to be equal to zero
shells with expansion joints, where
Fr

<(Do-t)tEs/loLl

t74

for

=r;Jlrs.2vlD
FIG. 2. EXPANSION JOINT IN EXAMPLE CALCULATION

t75

[)ESI(;N OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

FLANOED AND FI.UPD EXPANSION JOINTS

The expansion joint calculation sheet can also be used for design.
joint should be analyzed in the corroded condition only. Referring
to type 3 joint in Fig. I and determining the data for analysis in corrodcd

The

condition:
G

= 6.625 +0.0625 = 6.6875 in.

H = 4.0 +2(0.0625) = 4.125 in.

D: 27.6(10)6(0.3125)l
= 77132.3 lb-in.
l2(l
-0.3,

A | = t2(7.2502)- 6.l23ll(0.3895) :3.262e tn.


81 : [2(0.6090) + 6.1231](0.3895) :2.8593 in.

e,

:4!p1t.zs02)-

a,

6.I231I(0.38e

12.4236 in.'z

t =0.375

-0.0625 =0.3125 in.


:0.375
tr
-0.0625:0.3125 in.

r:

I.125 + 0.0625 +

rt:1.125 +

o-'-:-lt?s

oltrs
'';-

t.3438 in.

r,:

n?rr<

R,=:-19.962, +' T":7.8438


t2
Ro:

rll

- R"
1(:d:

,, :(u

:1.2813 in.

lsrs

in.

+ 0.i75 + 6.6251q.g62510
14.8438

7J43s

8924

{1

25

1r1o.ooe0) + 6. 1 23 l I (0.3se 5) = 6.3202 in.z

ttit)'

*o.u oso(3.262\-9!21(2.85e3) :5.730?

-(6'l2tlt)'-o.6o9ooz.a:r,6'ya!E\

6.3202)

=-

in.'?

16.9125 in.r

':l+ff] :2,5tzin
= 14.8438 in.

Now, P:

100 psi.

therefore,

in'

h: H -0.43r = 4.125 - 0.43(1.3438):3.5472 in.


L: Q -0.215(r + r) :6.687s -0.215(1.3438_ 1.2813):

w:ry1!@l :
F

6.r231 in.

Also given,

2.95 12(144.62)

rr+4.62

tb lin.

426.8025 lb

6.1231(144.62)- 426.8025 =458.7202lb.

Since the expansionjoint is to be designed to open, therefore, A


be taken as positive, i.e.

E:(27.6)106 psi

will

A:0.125 in.

and

Now,

m:0.3

y=0.125
-

Calculating

_:F::I
a:--,/7.8438(0.3
t2)J3tt

25) /0.31253

03'z

-:0.0625

- _ __ l=0.6090in.
\0.3125r/

and

:7.2502 in.

6.1231
^
L:)a;ono*rr*

in.

7't 132.3
F,:
. -=:(o.o62s):
' 6.1231(5.7307)

137.38a3 lb.

Cdculating Strsscs
The magnitude of stresses due to internal pressure and differential move.
ment and also the resultant stresses at different locations are determined
and tabulated as follows assuming tle positive stresses to be compressive

:o'389s

and the negative being tensile:

176

177

DES|(;N oF

l{ocEss EQUTPMENT

FLANCED AND FLUED EXPANSION JOINTS

Maximum Saress at Test Prssure

2t^

Sa;

NF

S,:24785(

3
I S
E
S
$a
|:l.-o\NF-v)\oF
(.)
6
ql
\O
6
\.r
dc.l
'

-i

'i

1.5:37178

Psi.

Allowable Stresses

cr"r

I)

Maximum allowable sr

1.5(17500):26250 psi.

Maximum allowable Sr:2.25(17500): 39375 psi.

!?ooocov('l
C.l .Oco;

sFcn(/)o\v..

Maximum allowable 52 or S:smaller of 2(3800) or 4(17500)

oo \o

C.l a-

h90g?..roo
'll

E
ot

O\
\O.is
(?IF-O\<
N
.") .o ll

d, v)

q
3 G:
F
gh
I =
E R
3 R
R - E
..TTTI

70000 psi.

Since all the actual stresses at differcnt locations are less than the
corresponding maximum allowable stresses, the design is considered safe.

Determining the Value of J


Ft =2(F r)(R)n
:2(t37 38a3)Q.8437sln
:6770.81 14 lb.

Es:27.6(10)6 psi.
L, -- 192 in.

(Do- tltEs (r6 -

0.375)0.375(27.6)106
10(1e2)

l0L1
F

>a
:
N

z?

jE

t^

oo
o,,
$.ll H
ertt

:84,228.5156 lb.

z
vN
qr

F
sr
...r
Fr
.? a'

.
.d
-i

g P+
ii H ll
:

g
: q$ cN R
q E
q q
qc
c H:

Since

t,-

-(Do -r)tEs
=-ioL

Therefore, ./ can be assumed to be equal to zero.

Nomenclature

(/)E

()

oQqi *

c.r

rf

r78

,n

o Fi Y

c Factor, in.
Ar Factor, in.
A2 Factor, in.2
,4" Cross-sectional
6 Factor, in.
Br Factor, in.
B2 Factor, in.2

area ofshell metal, in.2

t79

l)L.sl(;N

('
D
Do
E

ol, PRoctiss

III.AN(;LD AND III,UIiI) IiXPANSIoN JOIN'TS

UQUTPMENI'

S
Sr
52
S.,.

Constant
Flexural rigidity of expansion joint, lb-in.
Outside diameter of shell, in.
Modulus of elasticity of expansion joint material at design

temperature, psi.

temperature, psl.

Es

Sr." Allowable

Modulus of elasticity of shell material at design temprature,


psi.

F
Fr
FA
Fr
Fs
C

Sl
S",

Vertical force at B due to intrnal pressure, lb.


Vertical force at B due tojoint moyement, lb.
Vertical force at I due to internal pressure, lb.
Force required to move the expansion joint one inch, lb.
Force required to move the shell one inch, lb.

tr

Total distance between outside of shell to inside ofcylindrical

Y,

Effective inside width of expansion joint, in.

Total inside width of expansion joint, in.


Ratio of the force to move the expansion joint one inch to the
force to move the shell and the expansion joint together one
inch
Factor, in.

L Effective distance between outside

of shell to

M
Mr
MA

M^
MB

M",
p

nei

Maximum

stress in

ri

Mean radius at inside corner. in.

Width of annular plate at the outside considering a unit sector

expansionjoint due to test pressure, psi.

Thickness of exchanger plate, in.


Thickness oI expansion joint plate, in.

Lateral load on span L, lb./in.


Vertical distance from corner 1{, in.
Factor, in.2
Factor, in.3
Section modulus of expansion joint plate at distance x from ,4,
in."

Maximum movemnt of expansion joint, in.

"Standards ofTubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association j' Sixth

3.

Brownell, L. E., and E. H. Young, "Process Equipment Design," John


Wiley and Sons Inc., 1959.
Gardner, K. A., Report to TEMA on Fixed Tubesheet Exchanger
Design Background for TEMA Par. 3.3 and Par.7.15. December 14,
1963, pp. 7 and 8.

Samoiloff, A., "Evaluation of Expansion Joint Behavior," Power,


Design and Equipment Application section, January, 1961.

at the shell plates, in.

Ri
Ro

Mean radius of exchanger shell, in.


Mean radius of expansion joint, in.

180

design

Kopp, S., and M. F. Sayre, "Expansion Joints for Heat Exchangers,"


ASME Misc. Paper VoL 6, No. 211 (1950, ASME annual meeting)

5.

Mean radius at outside corner, in.

joint material at

Edition. New York. N.Y.. 1978.

Moments at .4 due to joint movement, in-lb.


Momnts at I due to inlrnal pressure, in-lb.
Moments at B due to joint movement, inlb.

lnternal design pressure, psi.

expansion

REFERENCES
1.

Overall length of shell, in.


Poisson's ratio ofexpansion joint material
Moments at distance x from ,4 due to internal pressure, inlb.
Moments at distance x from 1 due to joint movement, in-lb.
Moments at ,4 due to internal pressur, inJb.

in

Yield stress of expansion joint material at design temperature,

inside of

cylindrical ring, in.

Ll

strss

rFmharar',rc

DSi.

ring, in.

fi
H
./

Combined stress in thc expansion joint, psi.


Stress in the expansion joint due to internal pressure, psi.
Stress in the expansion joint due to differential movement, psi.
Allowable stress in expansion joint material at atmospheric

181

rG 3

:O\

titol

ts+ts

u!

7_

fr:

.s ''sd

('.,

7
:=
n

aal^t

NOISNSJ

INIof

1L:
t.q

:d
Jl'r

r@

d(t + a):,u

pt\tF :zs
tg

Jl1 - qzl= 'V

( ,Atzut

I SdAI

adI

d 'ssilil .siK

'dI IAJ .SAC

'A\O.nV'UUOJ

'Mglvt4[

- tttt(
:\r/T-=,'

: Jlj +otl:

: )n-qt)tl7:zv

ltdnsslrud'IvNuarNr

:7/

: J-tu17=r!

: ,44'g - Jtg:8 t!
:!1v-Aiiv:'11

= z\(Zf /,tt)+xvJ -v I,\ = W

'*.J-)l:z

trt! xo 6'lnr 59t xos o d rlrt lqqtflqnd Hld

Iso

f --. . , otl(zttr - l)

3d,l.,t

:1"'-1,5;- _rlt_
'l,i t=s
a

saso-Ic INIOf

tl' OIJvlI S.NOSSIOd

lsd

'ur
? 'ISVIA CO'qon

sNado INIOf

Isd

'ssiruIs'a\o-nv

'u!

'u!

SdAI

petnduro3

yn

sssssuJs

'-s Notssguavroc

xt1+tv1,y=t1,,,9

sNado

=rJ,r_:rtrV

+=v

.7.
'g--1

= ,rZ ary, - \- :r,t

o:?

uo

+ r)S tZ.0-

AdAJ

potc.rtCl

z lld/\J,

=.t9tz0-t:-I I

- .rtt0-H:{

kt + Dlz

-=v sgso'Ic'u!

ttJ

|
rl

t.ut-tl?l
= ' . '- =n

,..r-,,^

NOI-IV'INJ,IVJ

INIOf NOISNVdXa canlil oNv oilcNv.rd


lr.lqns

lsd

sNotuqNoS NCrSgo

7
PIPE SEGMENT EXPANSION JOINTS

The flued-head design has given good service in a number of


the
applications, but occupies considerable space and is expensive for
joints
made
which it provides. Thus, in some cases expansion
movement

of pipe segments are desirable. This is another kind of ring-expanston

joint in which pipe may be halved and quartered to produce

ring lt

is

where the
also restricted to applications involving small movements and

frequency

of moYement is minimum However, it can be

designed'

fabricated and installed much cheaper than bellows or flanged and flued
joinrs are rugged and
expansion joints. In addition, ring-type expansion
They
heavy walled. thus, they do not require any additional protection'
joints
on exchangers
are also a good substitute for bellows expansion
where corrosion maY occur.l
for
This chapter along with a solved example discusses a technique
2
"J"
analyzing these type of expansion joints A method of calculating
7'191
factor for designing fixed tubesheets in accordance with paragraph

of TEMA STANDARDS3 for

exchangers having these types of

expansion joints is also included.

Analyzing Technique

joint'
Choose size and schedule of pipe to be used as an expansion
Determine the corroded pipe wall thickness exclustve of mill tolerance'
which is

r:(Nominal wall

thickness)(0.875)

185

I)ESI(;N oF' PR(X]ESS EQUIPMENT

In

general,

should not be

less

than the corroded shell plate

thickness.

PIPE SECMENT EXPANSION JOINTS

movement due to differential thermal expansion or contraction can be


calculated by using the following relationship:

tr:

(0,a, _ 0,a")

A positive value of A indicates expansion whereas a negative


value indicates contraction.
Internal pressure also causes some movement, the nature of
which, depends upon the type of corrugations. Inner corrugations
cause expansion and outer corrugations cause contraction and are in-

;$E
FIG. I. DEI,INITION OF SYMBOLS
--_tgxchanger__

In order to usethis analy$is tneratio r/b should be less than


0.1. prpe

size or schedule should be altered

until the above conaition i"."ii.ti"O.

dicated by positive and negative signs respectively. Thus, if, there are
an equal number of inner and outer corrugations, the resulting movement due to internal pressure will be zero. This will also be the case
when we use expansion joints made of pipe segments,

Total end force required to obtain the desired movement can be


determined as follows:
For 4 <g <40, the relationship for maximum movement is

Now the mean radius of expansion joint as shown in Fig.


l, is

a:0.s(d)+(b-c\
Determine

0.s7'7

PbnJt - m'

-Er'
Rearranging the above equation to get the relationship for axial
force B we get

u:;J12(1-z.2l
Saresses

^
^:

LEt2

Due to Internal Pressure

Stresses due to internal pressure can be calculated as follows:

Maximum meridian bending stress is given by

si :o.e55p(t

-' t-''' (o!)u'

Now, th value ofA can be plugged in the above equation to obtain


For p <4, maximum movement is given by
CPb3n

^
A:--;-;

4uD

Maximum circumferential membrane stress is

si :0.955p(l - n') t'" ( !!\'''


Maximum Stress at Test hessure

4A,aD

Chsn

where
Et3

s,:(Greater of si or

D: _
tzv-m-)

s;r(fu)r.s

and C is a constant which varies with the value of p and should be


Stresss Due to

If

Axial Movement

interpolated from Table

1.

not already given, the maximum required expansion joint

186

187

PIPE SECMIJNT EXPANSION JOINTS

t)ESt(;N oF PR(XIESS EQUTPMENT


Prssure Stresses

Maximum allowable Si or S;: 1.5(Sd.")


Maximum allowable Sr : 2.25(S.,-)
Dellection Stresses
Maximum allowable S'i or Si:smaller of 2(Sno)
TABLE r, - vARtATIoN

Now, the

or

wtn

or 4(Sr"")
Combined Stresses

in the expansion joint resulting from the desird


axial movement can be determined using the following relationships:
Maximum meridian bending stress can be calculated from
stresses

l.$Pf

ab ltrr

-..
Ji
|
-:=--l
znat lt2
---Jl _m2 J

Maximum circurnferential membrane stress is

-,,
"r:

0.925pf ab(t _ m2yltt3

2"", L___V_

Maximum allowable S, or S,
or 4(Sr"")

smaller of 2(Srr)

Calculating Value of J Factor


expansion
As already discussed J is the ratio ofthe force to move the

joint one inctr to the force to move the shell and th expansion joint

iogether one inch ./ is one when no expansion joint is used and ismostly
joints are used But' the type
eq"ual to zero when bellows type expansion
under consideration requires considerable axial loads to produce
follows:
required movement and J in such cases should be calculated as
Bv definition

Combined Stresses

t.,
I
r
rr., ,*.iF
'J,'F

"-rr

due to internal pressure and axial movement can be


-Stresses
combined algebraically to obtain the resultant stresses as follows:
Resultant meridian bending stress is
st

Where F", the force to move the shell by one inch, can readily be
determined from "Hooks Law" as:

:si +si

F":41?.
t

Resultant circumferential membrane stress is

_r(Do _tltE"

s'?:si+'li
If the pressure, deflection or combined stresses as determined above
are within the corresponding maximum allowable, the design is safe,
otherwise, modifications in design are required.

Allorrble

and

f,

the force to move the exPansion joint by one inch is

For

4<

p<40,

Et2

Ft=

0.577bn

Saresss

This type of loading will not result in plastic


lelding of expansion
joint material since the portion undergoing plastic deformation
is small
in comparison to the portion undergoing elastic deformation. This has
already been discussed in detail in the chapter on ttanged and flued
expansion joints. Thus, strcsses of the following order can be
allowed
while designing such expansion joints:

188

For P<4' Ot::*


But in accordance with TEMA, J can be assumed to be equal to
zero for shells with expansion joints, where
Fr

<(Do-t)tEslloL

189

tll.:st(;N ( )tr pt{(xjtiss IQtJtpMtiNl.

PIPE SECMBN'T EXPANSION JOINTS

EXAMPLE

and

(s 37sf
-,, - 60.625(0.56575) ."fixr

Design carbon steel expansionjoint


. accommodate
to
the movement

orjoints made of pipe segmcnlr


due to diiferential t t .rrui .* p?n.ion

between shell and tubes in a heat exchanger.


naateriU
r",
shell is carbon steel and tubes are made oinickel.
The shefLi" a"J"""i f".
150 psi. inrernal pressure at 580.F.
Meral
liiir-.n.ff
and tubes are 530'F. Length offace to face "rnp.r"ur*r'i*

oil"".i-Xr"

oftubesheets i, iiz.zs
and uncorroded inside shell diameter is 110.5
tnches. Shefipf"i"
in. thick inclusive of 0.0625 in. corrosion allowance.
"
nir.
value of lactor J for designing fixed tubesheet
for this

si

0.e55(r50x1

tn.

si

0.e55( I soX

| - 0.3'

Try a l0 inch schedule

100 (0.718

in. wall) pipe and referring to Fig.

thus

0.0625 =0.56575 in.

/)r I

= t+,zr t p'i

14,960(l)1.5 :22,440 psi

[(s l0)7.96(10)-

6]
510(7.16) 10- 25',1.'t s

o.r0s2 tn

Since g < 4, the applicable formula for P is

4LaD

'D__
- Cb3n

0.56575

,:JJ?5:0.1052>0.1
But..since rhis ratio is very close to 0.1, it is
assumed ro satisfy the
requtrement ol using the technique discussed.
uslng two expansion joints i.e. one near to each
tubesheet,
we have

n:4

where

D: 26.08(10)6(0.56575)3
12(l
-0.3'.)

and C can be interpolated from Table

1,

= 432A'73 lb-in.
for p:1.7835 we get

c :0.7216

AIso

d:110.5 +2(0.0625):

I 10.625

in.

a"= 7.16(10)-6 in./in.

4:580

I nerelore

3l ^,
^
P:':ffi#:24'6tstb

L:2) l. l5 rn
m:0.3
0:580-70=510oF

4(0. 1052)60.625(432,47

Now

'F

|.63(24,615)/

70:510"F
6

a,:7.96(10)- in./in.
E:26.08(10)6 psi

i4f!1t-l'''

[60(u.)b)

Stresses Due to Axial Movement

O: ).J /J tn
t:0.718(0.875)

1"0

r4roo n.i

Maximum Stress at Test Pressure

s,:
we have

-o.r,l-',.[ffiffi]""

6.OZS

SOLUTION
l,

:2:tsts

Stresses Due to Internal Pressure

ir"n.,

i"il"rl"
e;;;;:;.-*

-at\

2r(60.625)0.56575

'F

[ 60.625(s.3!)
Lto.soszs)t.r/t - to:F

'l',.

l,eot pri

1.030

and

=26.08(10)6 psi

a:0.s(110.62s) +(s.375
-0.0625) =60.625 in.

190

si

o.s25t24,6tsl [(60.625X5.375X1-0.3')-]"'
2zr(60.625)0.5657s

(0.56575f I

t91

o.i

l)Est(;N oF PR(X:ESS EQUIPMENT

E"

Combined Stresses
s1

PIPE SEOMENT EXPANSION JOINTS

14,960

S, = 14271

+ 1903 : 16,863 psi


+ 1030:15301 psi

Allowable Stresses

Maximum allowable Si or Si : 1.5(15000) = 225q0 t.1


Maximum allowable S,:2.25(15000):33750 psi
Maxirnum allowable S'i or 51:smaller of 2(30000)
or 4(15000) : 60000 psi
Maximum allowable S, or S,

:60,ffi

p5i

Since, all the calculated stresses are within the corresponding maximum
allowable, thus the design is safe.

Fr
F"
J

Length of face to face of tubesheets, in.


Poisson's ratio of expansion joint material

Number of semicircular corrugations

si
s'i

si

o,:ffi##:233,e80rb.
(D,-r")r"4

(11r.75

0.625)0.625(26.08) 106

10L

10(2s7.75)

t")r"E"/I0I, therefore J can be assumed to be equal to

Nomenclature

a
,4"

b
c
C
d
D
D,
E

Internal design pressure, psi.


Axial force required for expansion joint movement, lb.
Maximum meridian bending stress due to internal pressure, psi.
Maximum circumferential membrane strss due to internal

Mean radius of expansion joint, in.


Cross-sectional area ofshell metal, in.2
Outside radius ofexpansion joint pipe, in.
Shell corrosion allowance- in.

Maximum meridian bending stress due to axial force, psi.


Maximurn circumferential membrane stress due to axial force,
psi.

Sr
52

Resultant meridian bending stress in expansion joint, psi.


Resultant circumferential membrane stress in expansion joint,
psi.

S",.

:702,749.7575 tb.'
zeto.

Ratio of the force to move the expansion joint one inch to the
force to move the shell and the expansion joint together one

inch
L

si

Since 4 <4. Therefore

Force required to move the expansionjoint one inch, lb.


Force required to move the shell one inch, lb.

pressure, psi.

Calcuhting J Factor

Since F, < Do

Modulus of elasticity of shell material at design temperature,


psi.

Allowable stress in expansion joint material at atmospheric


temperature, psl.

Sd"" Allowable stress

in

expansion

joint material at

design

temperature, psl.
sr

Maximum stress in expansion joint due to test pressure,psi.


Yield stress of expansion joint material at design temperature,
DSi.

Corroded expansion joint pipe thickness exclusive of mill


tolerance" in.

r"
a"

Uncorroded thickness ofshell plate, in.


Coefficient of thermal expansion of shell material at metal

r,

in./in.'F
Coeflicient of thermal expansion ol tube material at
tmperature, in./in.'F

Outside diameter of shell, in.

Shell metal temperature in "F

Modulus of elasticity of expansion joint material at desrgn

tl

Tube metal temperature

Constant
Maximum required movement of the expansion joint, in.

Constant
Corroded inside diameter ofshell, in.
Flexural rigidity of expansion joint,lb-in.

temperature, psi.

temperature,

A
192

- 70'F
in 'F - 70'F

r93

metal

l)ltst(;N ( )tr Pt{(x:uss

IiQT.JtPMENT

REFERENCES
t. Rubin, F. L., "Choose Heat Exchanger Expansion Joints Carelully,"
The Oil and Gas Journal, November 3, 1975.
Roark, R. J., and W. C. Young, "Formulas for Stress and Strain," Fifth
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1975.
3. Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Sixth
Edition, New York. N.Y.. l9?8.

8
YERTICAL VESSELS SUPPORTED BY LUGS

The choice of the type of supports for vertical vessels depends on the
available floor space, the convenience of location of the vessel according
to operating variables such as the size, the operating temperature and
pressure and the materials of construction.
Various kinds of supports for vertical vessels have been discussed by
Brownell and Young' in detail. Lugs offer many advantages over other
types of supports. They are inexpensive, can absorb diametral expansions,
are easily attached to the cylinder by minimum amounts of welding, and
are easily leveled and shimmed in the field. However, a footnote after
paragraph UG-29(e) in Division I of ASME Code for Pressure Vesselsz
cautions against supporting of vessels through the medium of lugs unless
they are properly reinforced. In other words, each case should be analyzed
thoroughly to insure that the shell is not overstressed.
Vertical shlls supported on lugs require consideration of two important
factors:
1. The additional stress of the support forces when combined with the
working stress of the shell must not increase the stress in the shell
above the allowable limit.
2. The support should not restrain the stressed shell so it becomes too

rigid to flex under normal changes in working pressure or loads,


The following types of stresses are developed in the shell supported on
lugs:
1. The internal or external pressure on the shell, along with its weight,
causes tangential and longitudinal stresses in the shell.
2. Eccentricity of this type of support results in a radial force on the
shell which causes bending stresses in the ring ofthe shell (from the
bending moment) as well as axial tensile sresses (from the tensile

force), both of which act tangentially.

t94

195

DESI(;N OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

3.

VERTICAL VESSELS SUPPORTED BY LUGS

The radial force causes radial shear stresses in the shell, and
$a
longitudinal force causes longitudinal shear stresses, bothadJscont
to the lug. However, these strcsses are so small that thcy rrt

often disregarded.
After the proper analysis of the forces involved, the various stresrGl
must be combined to detemine the maximum normal and shear
stressot,

If

the resulting stresses are excessive a simple study of the indiyidual


stressor
indicate what portion
the lug is underdesigned and should

will

of

be strengthened.
For example, the bending stresses may be excessive inficating thst
some type of stiffener ring.should be attached to the
shell between supporte
to substantially increase the moment of inertia of the shell section thereby
decreasing the bending stress.
The method of analysis presented in this chapter is based on the

tchnique discussed by Blodgett., It allows us to calculate stresses in thc


shell at the location of lugs and also gives the procedure for sizing stiffeners,

if

required.

Analyzing Technique

Now, only a portion of the shell beyond the lug is assumed to withstand the flexural stresses due to moment M. This assumption results in
conse ative stresses since it disregards the reinforcing effect of the remainder
of the shell as well as of the heads of the vessel. A rigorous determination
of the effective width of shell that resists these stresses, requircs a laborious
mathematical analysis. For simplicity, the shell with stiffeners can be compared to a curved beam with an extremely wide flange. Von Karman4
suggests that an effective width of the flange on each side of the stiffening
web is approximately

\lin
'--T
The value of '?" should be limited to a maximum of 12 ts.
The moment M applies radial forces to the shell having a distribution
similar to that of bending forces, i. e. maximum at the outer fibers and zero
along the neutral axis. It is assumed that the radial force applied to effective
shell width g would decrease linearly to almost zero at its outer limits. Total
horizontal force /2 on the shell will be as shown in Fig. 1(a). The resulting
distribution of radial forcefi on a unit wide shell ring is indicated in Fig. 1(b).
Now, momnt Mcan be expressed in terms of moment of areas of force
distdbution diagram about t}Ie neutral axis, which gives:

M=

f,

(+)r(+ t\,

r,

I rI.+)

+frc(3h:2s )
=fth2
bo

={{nz
(a)

h)

+zsn+zsz)

=!Ur*rxo*u)l

I,](;, I , RADIAL I:ORC!] DISTRItsUTION ON SH!]LL DUE TO LUC LOAD


Let F be tlle nraxirnunl lotd on each lug then thc resulting lo|gitudinal
moDlnl on thc shell duc to eccentricity will be

Therefore, radial force


can be expressed as

fi,

lV=FL
AIso

lt'

196

applied

to the unit shell ring due to moment M

6M

TF+|T67ETr97

l)DSl(;N

)lj

PR( )(i

VERTICAL VESSELS SUPPOIT'IUI) I}Y LUCS

uss LQUIPMENT

as follows:
And the bending stress in the unit ring can be detrmined

Bending moment on unit shell ring is

M,=K2f1r"
Section modutus of the unit shell dng is given by

s=

Therefore,

tl

o"6

FIG. 2 - RADTAL FORCES ON UNIT SHELL RING HAVING FOUR LUGS

Using a one inch wide shell ring, the radial forces for
four lugs will be as shown in Fig. 2.
Stres6e6

a vessel having

Slresses

The bending stress in the shell halfway between lugs will be compressive and much less than the bending stress at the lugs which will be
tensile in nature. On the other hand, circumferential tensile stress will be
in magnitude halfway between lugs rather than at the lugs.
However, circumferential tensile stress is small and when combined with
compressive bending stress halfway between lugs, will further reduce the
resulting stress at that location. Therefore, for simplicity, only stresses in
the shell at the location of the lugs will be considered.

greater

Table I lists the multiplying coefficients rK1 and,l(2 for various lug
configuratiom for determining circumferential tensile force and bending
moment respectively in the shell at the lugs. These coefficients have been
tabulated by Blodgett and can also be derived by using formulas for circular rings in Roark and Young.s A complete table of coefficients for
calculating bending moments in circular rings has also been developed by

Samoiloff."
Now, the tangential tensile force in the unit shell ring set up by the
total radial force can be calculated by

M'lS

in Shell Due to Pressure

Pressure in a shell produces two types of stresses:

In Shell Due to Lug Support

T=Krfr

b ftJ2
-----

Longitudinal

Stress.

This is the stress in the direction of the meridian

and is given bY

-mp

l.

CircumferentialStress.

to the circumference.
stress and is equal to

o"p

P r"
2

This is the stress in the direction of the tangent


This is also referred to as hoop or tangential

P r"

=--

will be tensile if the pressure is internal nd comstresses in the shell at the


or"*iu" ii th. pr.rrur. is external' Since the
lu", u.e onlv tinsile and these will be further reduced when combined
*ir, unv .otnpt.tsive stress, only the stresses due to internal pressure
These stresses

should be considered.

Combined Stresses
at any
Representing the resulting stresses in a cubic unit of shell taken
in
as
shown
other
to
each
perPendicular
planes
point ofintersection of thlee

Fig.3.

omp

Area of the unit shell rine is

A=bts
Therefore,

o4= TfA

198

FIG, 3. - SHELL STRESSES DUB TO LUG SUPPORT


AND INTERNAL PRESSURE
199

VBI\'llCAt, VUSSIil'S SUPtORTEI) llY

|)|Sl(;N Olr Pl{O( j tjSS tjeutpMLNT


Let or be one of the principal strcsses. Combining these stresses in the
outer fiber of shell adjacent to the lug, where o. = o, we have
Longitudinal tensile stress = o_
".
Circumlerential tensi]e stress j 6"
= o"n + o", + o"o
Maximum shear stress is equal to half the difference between two

Now,

M1= t,(w,) r1 +/"(r") x2

and

Ar

principal (normal) stresses and is given by

calculate

t,

lU, + ls

ts

n=Mr/Ar

o"-o,
thus,

If

,tiff.n.r,
Stresses

Designing Stiffeners
F

r t, lW,l3 + t tw ttn - x. )2 + /s (ls )r F /s (ts, (x, 'n=_i


t2

any of the stresses calculated above exceed the


allowables, the shell

at the lugs should be stiffened. The following method


of O"rignin;
should be used in order to bring the excesstve stresses
within limits.

is given

in nuil-t-op S"ctio" Due to Lug Support


now,

Total radial force acting on shell section resulting from maximum load

+^ M =
,"=
h

= T1fA,

and
o,jo=

s is

M,1=K2 f 2 r.

Stresses

Therefore, the additional required section modulus can be approximated


as

o",

FL

Now, the resulting bending moment on shell section at the suppo

SP

Tr=Ktfz

thus,

by

M='r

r)2

M'1@)lI'

in Built-up Section Due to Pressue

Longitudinal tensjle stress = om P


reduced by
Circumferential tensile stress (it"o) can be assumed to be
section:
the
built-up
of
cross-section
entiri
the
considedng it to be acting over

""0=m

.odulus equal to or greater than


54 should be added to the shell at top and bottom of the lugs and the

So the stiffeners huuing the s"Jttion

resulting stresses should be checked as follows:


Only the effect of the bottom ring should be considered since it applies
radial tensile forces to the built-up ring and shell section. When rrngs
made of flat bar are used the composite shell and bottom ring section will
be as shown in Fig. 4.

o"^ (Area of the effeciive shell section)

o"p(l'

t")
=GilrTtt

Combined Stresses
Referdng
+

to Fig. 3, and combining

these stresses in the. outer

tfr" ,tiii"n r, ifr"re 4 - O "na


in th" shell only and not in the outer portion of the stiffener)'
.ir.r, *iff
we have

""i

ocp + oct + ocb


Circumferential tensile stress = oc =
Maximum shear stress is

ts
FIG. 4 . EFFECTIVE SHELL AND RING SECTION

200

liber of

also o.o = 0 (because. longitudinal.tensile

-'mrx-o"--o,
2
20r

VERTICAL VESSELS SUPPORTED IJY LU(;S

t)Est(;N oF Pt(ocESS EQUIPMENT

anq

If the resulting strsss

are excessive, the stiffener size should be


revisd until the stresses are within allowable limits.

= 211I lb /inch ring of shell

in Shell Due to Lug Support

Stresses
Number of

Values for

Lugs

'l\l

0.000
o.289
0.500
0.866

4
6
8

Values for
K2
0.318
0.189
0.137
0.089
0.066

1.207

TABLE I - MULTIPLYINC COEFFICIENTS FOR CIRCUMFERENTIAL TBNSILB


FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT IN SHELL AT THE LUCS

l, for shell having two lugs, we have


Kr = 0'0 and Kz = 0'318

From Table
Therefore

r=(0)(2111)=0
A = | ('62s) = '625 ir'2
n
-ct=O-

Now

M=.318 (2111)

and

o"b

12.4375 = 8350 in-lb

(.625)2 16 =.0651 in. 3

t}Ierefore,

EXAMPLE
Stresses

Analyze the stresses at the lugs on an A-515-?0 shell of a 24 in. I.D.


Vertical exchanger designed for 640 psi. internal pressure at 660o F and
having .75 in. thick shell inclusive of .125 in. corrosion allowance. The
exchanger is to be supported by two I ft. high lugs, and the total weight
of the exchanger is 16910 pounds. The bolt hole in each base plate is
located at a distance of 8.25 in. from the outside of the shell. If the shell
is found to be overstressed, provide th stiffeners to adequately reinforce
it so that the stresses are within allowable limits.

83s0/.0651 = 128260psi

in Shell Due to

Pressure

640 fl 2.4375\
omp= :-::-:-:::-::J= 6368 Psi
2 (62s)
and

640 (12.437 s)
= ___
=
3E-

^
""p-

Longitudinal tensile stress = omp = 6368 psi


Circumferential tensile stress = oc

Maximum Shear

Stress

'

r.. = 12.125

r .3125=

as

12.4375 in.

shown in Fig.

\/6EIT1Atin
I = -----t=l4in'(12ts'hence oK'
202

= rmu*
140996

2
psi (excessive)
70498
=

M = 5455 (8.25) = 69754 in-lb

Determining the followings

(O'K' )

= 140996 psi (excessive)

.125 = .625 n\.

L = 8.25 in.
Now-

psl

=12736+O+128260

1691012= 8455lb

ts = .75

j/JO

Combined Stresses

SOLUTION

F=

bdng the
Since the stresses are excessive, stiffeners should be added to
limits.
allowable
shell stresses witlin

Designing Stiffeners
84ss (8.T)
,,f- ,= ___1;

= serr ru

M,1 =.318 (5813) 12'43'15 = 22992 in-lb

203

VERTICAL VESSELS SUPPORTED BY LUGS

DBSICN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Using 4-515-70 stiffeners, the allowable tensile stress for stiffener


material at 6600 F is l?320 psi. Therefore, the approximate section modulus
of the stiffener is

S*

ltoo?
*n32o

Combined Streeses
Referring to Fig. 3, and combining these stresses in the outer fiber of
the stiffener we have

1.32?5 in.3

o.

Let us provide 3 5/8 in. wide and 5/8 in. thick stiffeners at the top and
of lugs around the circumferenc of exchanger and check the
magnitude of resulting stresses in built-up section as follows:

oc = 6187 + 8697= 14884psi. O.K.

bottom

14884 - o
i max2

Referring to Fig. 4, we have

ts= .625

in.,\=

.625 in.,

ll

Since
= 3.625 in.,

ts=.625+2(1.4)=3.425in.," r =
x z = 3'9375ln'

3.937

5 = 12.5352ir..3

+ 3.42s (.62s) = 4.4063 in?

Thus

12.5352
+,+uoJ

n = ___;_-;;;__ = 2.gul4g in.

Therefore

(3.625t

o.K.

within allowable limits, our design

acceptable.

and

,"=ff.625

stresses are

='7442 'osi.

NOMENCLATURE
Area of unit shell ring, in.z

Mr = .625 (3.625) 1.8125 + 3.425 (.625)

t = .62s (3.625)

all the

1.8125 in' and

Now

o_p =0

=0

3 .,^-,
+ (.62s) 3.62s (t .0323)2 +

3 4251.625)3

=::::-:::-

Ar

Total area of effective shell and ring section, in.2

Unit width of shell ring, in.

Corrosion allowance, in.

Ir

Radial force on unit shell ring, lb/in.

lz

Total radial force on shell, lb


Maximum load on each lug, lb

Effective shelt width on each side of lug, in'

Height of lug, in.

Moment

of inertia of effective shell and ring

section about neutral

axis, in.a
+ 3 .42s (.62s) (r .0927)2 = 't .s2o9 na
'

Stresses

in Built-up Section Due to Lug Support


11

=0(5813)=0

and

Stresses

thus, oct=0

22992 (2
o"t
^ = --jiis- 8^^a\ = 8697 psi

in Built-up Section

Due

to hessure

omp = 6368 psi


12'136 (3.42s) .62s
_
""P = -----766--

204

bl6/

Psi

KL Mdtiplying coefficient for circumferential tension in shell at lugs


Kz Multiplying coefficeint for ben&ng moment in shell at lugs
/, Effective shell length, in.
,
Distance of centerline of bolt hole from outside of shell' in'
M Maximum moment on shell due to eccentric loading, in -lb
M, Sum of the moments of areas of effective composite section about the
' outside of stiffener, in.3
Mt Bending moment on unit shell ring, in -lb
Mr, Maximum bending moment on sltell, in -lb
l1 Distarce of centroid of composite section from the outside of stiffener,
P

ln.
Maximum internal Pressure. Psi

205

)ESt(;N OIr Pt{(XitSS EQUTPMENT

/c
S

Mean shell radius in corroded condition, in.

Approximate section modulus of the stiffener, in.3

Uncorroded lhickness of shell plate, in.

tr

Thickness of stiffener, in.

/"

Corroded thickness of shell plate, in.

T
t1

Tangential tensile force on shell, lb

Width of Stiffener, in.

xr
x2

Dstance of centroid of sliffener from outside

Section modulus

ofunit shell ring, in.3

Tangential tensile force on

Distance

of

t(. ttr- + +,

centroid

of

udt

shell dng, lb

9
{L,

VERTICAL VESSEL LEG DESIGN

), n.

corroded shell from outside

of

stiffener

tn.

o.
o"b

Resultant circumferential tensile stress, psi


Tensile bending stress due to lug support, psi

ocp

Circumferential tensile stress in shell due to internal pressure, psi

o"t

Tangential tensile stress due to lug support, psi

omp Longitudinal

o,
ot

tensile stress in shell due to internal pressure, psi

Principal stress at principal plane, psi


Allowable tensile stress for stiffener material at shell design temperature,
psi

r-",

Maximum shear stress, psi

REFERENCES
1.

Brownell, L- E., and E. H. Young, "Process Equipment Design," First


Corrected Printing, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., April, 1968.
..r,SME

Div.

l,

Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, "Pressure Vessels,"


ASME, New York, N. Y., 1983.

Blodgett, O. W., "Design of Welded Structures," Third Printing, The


James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, August 1967.

4.

Karman, Von, "Analysis of Some Thin-Walled Structures," ASME Paper


AER-55-19C, Aer. Eng., Vol. 5, No.4, 1933.

5.

Roark, R. J., and W. C. Young, "Formulas for Stress and Strain." Fifth
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1975.

Samoiloff, Alexander, "Investigation of Stress in Circular Rings,"


Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 26, No. 7, July 1947, pp 99-103.

206

lf

Legs are most commonly used to support small tanks and vessels.
vessels are located out of doors, the wind or earthquake load as well as
the dead weight load should be considered in the calculation. However,

as leg supported vessels are usually of much smaller height than skirt
supported vessels, the wind loads may sometimes be a minor

consideration. The wind or earthquake load tends to overturn the vessel,


particularly when the vessel is empty. The wcight ofthe vessel when Iilled
with liquid tends to stabilize it.
This chapter discusses the complete design analysis oflhese types of
suppods. It gives the method of calculation for forces and moments due
to ;ind and earthquake based on the criteria presented in the Uniform
Building Code.r These forces and moments can also be calculated in
accordance with the ANSI Standard A - 58.1'?, ifdesired. After the size o[
the required legs to withstand the greater ofthe wind or earthquake force
is established, the stiength ofthe selected leg support should be checked,
in accordance with the technique presented herein and as also has been
s
explained by Brownell and Young

Cllculating Wind Forces

If the vessel is to be exposed to wind, first of all, the base

shear and

moment should be determined. After the wind pressure zone for the
location of vessel is established from Fig. 1, the wind pressures' p, for
various heights can be determined from Table l. The effect of shell and
legs should be considered separately.

207

l)l1Sl(;N ( )lr l,l{()(itjSS l:etJIpMljNT

VtsI\TICAL VESSEL LEG I)ESIGN


WIND I'RI.SSURF P WHLN THL HORIZONTAL
CROSS SEC]ION SOUARE OR RECTANCULAR
MAP AREAS
HEICHT
45
50
40
25
30
20
Zone ft.
40
35
30
2S
20
25
less than 30
45
40
25
30
30 to 49
55
60
45
50
40
30
sO to 99
25
't0
60
40
l0O to 499 30

TABLE I.
WIND PRESSURE FOR VARIOUS HEIGHT ZONES ABOVE GROUND
Shell

Wind force should be determined by applying the factor for cylindrical


structure excluding appendages to the vessel and then adding the forces
due to the attached elements, if any.
S., the wind shap factor for cylindrical structure excluding
appendages is 0.6. Now

A":
F":

therefote

Dh

.4"(s,)p

Legs

Calculate ,4, in the direction of the wind. Also


Sr
thus

:
F

2.0(constant

t:

t(S r\P

Total Wind Shear and Overturning Moment


I'

- F !F

and

Mw:F'.(hl2+D+FL(12)
Wind force and moment due to platforms (if any)should beadded tothe
ones calculated above to get the resulting shear and moment due to
wind.
Selecting Approximate [,eg Size

The approximate size of lhe required legs to withstand the total


FIG. 1. . WIND PRESSURE MAP OF THE UNITED STATES
from rhe Uniform Buitding Code. t976. wirh ihe permission ofThe
lR"prod.u""q
rnrernafionat ( onrerence ot Building Officiats)

208

horizontal force { can be chosen from Figure 2. This size can be further
checked for its adequacy for earthquake force' if the geographical
location of the vessel requires such.

209

)llst(;N

)t

l,t{( ,(.Lss LQL.JIt'MLNT

VEIITICAL VESSEL LEC I)ESICN


Calculating Earthquake Forces
The legs can be assumed to be fixed at the vessel shell and pinned at their
bases. Since the shell is stiffer than the legs, the deflection of the legs
can be assumed to be the deflection of mass resulting from a lateral load
applied at the mass equal to its own weight. For a vessel supported on
three or more legs symmetrically spaced about the center, the deflection
can be determined from the formula:

2W(t)'

3NE(/,_+

r...

Now, the first mode natural period of vibration of the vessel can be
determined by using the following formula for one mass structure:

I: Zn

Iv
I

vs

Base Shear
F

5.0

o 067

C:=,,
(r,

5.5

1:

1.0

(C should not exceed 0.12)

for vessels

If
It

T>2.s,

T:2.5, S: l.s

S:r.2+ 0.24(n

0.048(T)'z

(S should not be less

than

1.0)

The applicable earthquake zone can be established from Fig. 3,4 or


5 for the location of the vessel.

Now

Z -0.1875 for zone l, 0.75forzonel,


K=2.0foru.rr.l,
0.375 for zone 2, 1.0 forzone4,
thus

v:

z r K(cs)w
(CS should not be more than 0.14)

If, / is greater than F., the leg size should

LENGTH OF LECS

horizontal force
Base

I/

be rechosen for

using Figure 2.

Overturni[g Moment

For vessels having T> 0.7 a portion of t he total eart hquake lbrce, 4 shall
bc applied at the top of the vessel, the magnitude of which is given by
210

ltl

l)Est(;N oF PR(XIESS EQUIPMENT

VERTICAL VESSEL LEC DESION

PACtFtC OCtN

FIG.4. - SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF ALASKA


i

XAUA I

ie
H t':
b Er!;

(
:i
..'l ---t'.

a::_q i=_
=
@ :: i:
I E::t

!:i

/-)

#,,oP

;=5
!

!5 i

;;
!_:

" -:

;P

r(*
4)

M0L0m

; I 5- i
9 9!E!:

Eri9li
;= E'.;; s
!1!= :; i

i:r'!!i;
iiiiill ;;.

.\-\-

=;;
B ee

EEi
E9E

E
E

FIG. 3.. SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF THE UNITED STATES


(Reprodrced f.om the uniform BuildinB Code, 1926, with the permisston of The
tnternational Conference of Building Officials)

212

FIG,5. - SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF HAWAII


(Reproduced from the Uniform Building Code, 1976, with the permission of The
International Conferenc of Buildins Ofiicisls)
213

l)Esl(;N

4 = 0.07 TY(4 should

o|

VERTICAL VESSEL LEG DESIGN

PRoc[ss IQUIPMEN'I'

be limited to

Therefore, the change in length of brace can be determined by

0.25 I/ maximum and strould be assumed


equal to zero for

a_

T!0.7)

Considering the weight, l{ uniforrnly distributed along the shell


length, the remainder of the earthquake torce {V-F) resolves to a
ttapezoid, the extended non-parallel sides of which intersect at the base
as is shown in Figure 6. For this iype of load distribution the base
overturning moment can be determined by the formula:

(lcs)b

(AE

Thus,

Y=4sin 0
The period of vibration can be deternined by using the relationship

ME:Flrlr+l(v-F)(H3 -ti)l@, - Pl

The rest of the calculations to determine the earthquake force and


moment will be the same as discussed for unbraced legs.

-F

Checking Strength of the Legs

To check the adequacy of leg size, the

vessel support can be considered

column and allowable fiber stress under concentric axial load is


given by
as

t8ffn
_
'"-r+(f13666"2,
F

fr ratio should not exceed 120 and also the


fiber
stress should be limited to 15000 psi.
maximum allowable
The maximum

FIG. 6. - DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKE FORCE


ALONG THE VESSEL LENGTH

Wind Forces for Vescels with Braced Legs


The technique discussed earlier can be used to determine the wind force
and moment except that the projecied area of the bracing exposed to the
wind should also be taken into consideration with legs.
Earthquake Forces for Vessels with Braced Legs

The static deflection, { is found by determining the change in length of


the bracing resulting from a total lateral load equal to the weight of the
vessel.

Now, the maximum force in the brace will be

Designing Legs for Axial Loading

The required cross-sectional area of each leg for axial compression can
be found from

A,: pt/F"
Ifthe value of .4,,

as

calculated above, is greater than the actual area

of selected leg, ,4, choose the one with higher area and recheck the
strength of the leg.
Designing Legs for Eccentric Loading

When the legs are attached to the vessel with distance 'a' between the
centerline of the leg and the centerline ofthe yessel plate, this produces an
eccentric loading and an additional stress in the leg supports. This stress
is siven as

":(#):
214

2t5

I)tisI(;N

Ot? PI{(XJESS EQUIPMENT

VERTICAL VESSEL LEG DESIGN


Lg Design Analysis

f"":P::
sr

Designing

is presented for four angle supports with F acting


directions. The moment due to eccentric load is assumed to be
negligible. A typical cross-section of the angle along its various axis is
shown in Fisure 7.

A technique for analysis

The effect ofeccentricity ofleg supports which are welded directly to


the vessel is almost negligible. However, this should not be neglected if
the legs are attached dilferently.

in two

l*gs for Wind or Earthquake Loading

The legs for this type of loading have to resist the greater of wind or
earthquake force as well as the moment about base. This moment
eventually is converted to direct load on the legs, the magnitude of
which depends on leg location corresponding to the direction of force.
This load should be added to lhe dead load while calculating direct
stress. Analysis of most generally used cases are discussed in figures 8 and
9.

The force F (greater of F* and /) at the base produces bending


moment which is comparable to considering the leg as a beam fixed at
one end but guided at the other end with a concentrated load at the
guided end. This type of loading produces the same bending moment at
both ends and the magnitude of maximum bending stress in leg is given
by

FIG. 7. . VARIOUS AXES OF AN ANGLE

Let

M:Grealet of Mn or ME
Now select the configuration of supPorts corresponding to the

direction of force

fb-G

lN)t/2

and analyze using the proper figure as described

below.

Direction of "F"

sr

as shown in Fig. 8.

WM
Pt:i' P': ot

However, to obtain more conservative results in actual analysis in


figures 8 and 9, the leg is considered as a cantilever with the load F
concentrated at the free end.
Designing

l*gs for Combined Inading

bending stresses divided by the allowable flexural stress shall not exceed

unlty, or
Sum of bendine stresses

<l

where Fr, the maximum allowable bending stress in the column should

not exceed 20.000

*Ll' ":at..j Lj
,t!, . L:F:
Leg,,a..y.:-_
t.

r",

s"."
,4'' -1^:l^'

t-ec't* 1.:Pt

Using approximate values we can simplify and say:


LeC"a"

0.l0F l
w M
l;:4-+ D,i. h: S*

Dsi.

Irg"
216

I=, F

":zrt^*

When leg supports are subjected both to direct loads and bending
produced by wind, earthquake or eccentric loads, the sum of the axial
compressive stresses divided by the allowable column stress, plus the

Sum of direct stresses

/*,.'F

o-L:#,

,=ti::'

217

VERTICAL VESSEL I,E(; I)ESICN

l)ust(;N oF pl{()(jLSs TIQUtPMENT


Bracing of Legs

DP

ti

nr
?t
L

'2

t
P1

"rl

"ln]"
,

tltl

IJ

.171"s"u'

S-.n
(P*'

[1L

tu-'h-4

'F-rEn,r'-rn

\y'*r

lr' rl.

FIG.8

allowable stress. However, the ratio of the length to the radius of4
g;ratlon of Uracing members, ifother than rods,should not exceed 300

tJ

JI

<> 19t
Direction of "F"

P,

tl

\-(

"-fl

,rt|J
".17

".i-,1
p

LJ".,*-o'

lP.
IP'

Legs 7 feet or greater should be braced. The recommended bractng


sysiemconsists ofcross-bracingconnecting adjacent pairs of legs Braces
should be stitched together at their point of intersection' Knowing the
maximum shear per leg, the maximum tensile load in each brace can be
calculated by multiplying the maximum shear by the ratio of the length
ofthe brace io the h;rizontal distance between two legs Using allowable
stress of 22,000 psi for the tension member the required area of the brace
the
can be easily determined by dividing the maximum tensile load by

fr
I uF4
rYl

F-

flrh

tsil--4

FIG.9
FIG. TO. . TYPICAL BASE PLATE DETAIL

as shown in Fig. 9.

-WM-F
pr:V,

,r:rU t

Fr=O

F,.t
" P,+P. Jb:i:
l"=
A-.

Base Plate Dsign

Refer to Fig. l0 and lel 0 be the larger of the dimension '/ or O, the base
Dlate thickness can be calculated by using the relationship;"

.w
^
J.:4A+2DiA.h:+s*
In any

case,

if

F.t

f.,fo
F,- h

exceeds unity, the design should be modilied till the above equation
becomes equal to or less than 1. Figure 9 also applies to other types of

columns.

218

Restrictions on Using l.gs

1. The legs should be used on small vessels in general


2. Legs lhould not be used on vessels where severe pulsations will make
the vessel vibrate.

219

l)us t(;N otr pRo(iltrss tQUtpMuNT

VERTICAL VESSEL LEG DESIGN

Check Leg Strngth for Axial Loading

EXAMPLE
A 54 in. inside dia., 10 ft.

in. tangent to tangenl carbon steel vertical


vessel having ellipsoidal heads, is 0.375 in. thick. The biggest overhead
6

Area of the selcted leg, ,,4 = 3.82in.'l The load to be supported by each

les,

Pt:

nozzel size is 8 in., and the vessel has 4.5 in. thick insulation. The

maxlmum operating weight is 16,000 lbs. and the vessel is to be


supported on four 7 ft. high legs. Neglecting the elfect of earthquake,
design the leg suppods

if the vessel is to be located in a 40 psf wind

zone.

tu*g:oo*
q

,o

therelore

A,:

4000112865 :0.3109 in.'? < 3.82 in.2 O K'

or maximum direct stress is given by

SOLUTION

4rrx)

fF#=

Shear for the vessel and legs can be calculated separately and then
combined in order to come up with the maximum shear at the base.
However,for simplicity and to be on the conservative side, the maximum
base shear can be calculated by assuming the vessel as a cylinder of
diameter d throughout its length including legs.
The wind diameter in feet is given by
D: [vessel I.D.+2 (vessel thickness)+2 (insulation thickness)
+overhead line size+2 (insulation thickness) 1 (extra for external

additions)l/12.
Thus D in this
D

Check Leg for Wind


The bending sfess in each leg due to base shear can be calculated from
r.

8t4)8412

'" -(2595 5.45

Check Leg for Combined Loading


It
r-t t!L<
ft
f
"

5)

+ 2(4.s) + I + 2(4.5) + r2ll

12

7.'t 3

tr.

sfnl
.'lna1+ ---'=0.3314<l.O.K.

Total length ofthe vessel:tangent to tangent lngth +inside depth


of head +top head thickness + height of the tegs:(126 + 5414 + 0.3j5
+ 84)/12: 18.6563 ft.

12865

20000

Bracing of Legs

Therefore

f :(Wind diameter)0.6(Wind force)total length of vessel


: 7.73(0.6)30(18.6563) :2595.8 lbs =2.5958 kips
From Figure 2, for a vessel with a wind force of2.595g kips, choose
the leg size as

=5001 psi <20000 psi, o.K.

case is

ls4 + 2(0.37

t047 psi < 12865 psi, o.K.

I,Y4

Try 2" x2"

x!"

angles as bracing and arrange as shown in Fig. I

Length of each brace:J272

t- -:

l:84

in. Therefore

18000
-" I + [842118000(0.991)r] = 12865 psi. < 15000 psi. O.K.

t/r:84/0.991:84.8 < 120, O.K.

:A:,rr.roo,o.*.

mlnlmum radius of gyration 0.391

Area of each brace:0.938 in.2


Shear in each

leg:

maximum tensile force in each

220

+692:74 ir'.

minimum radius ofgyration oleach brace:0.391 in.


Length

13.

Now for this leg, r:0.991 in. and

t
"T :

uon

vace:o+sffi): nlal

221

tu

Then

t)tilit(;N ( )l. pt{(xttjss tjQtJtpMtrN'I.

"

Required area of each

brace:

1778

VEI{TICAL VISSEL

LE,G

I)ISIGN

7 :0.089
in.'1<0.938 in.'?

22000

Nomenclature

Thus selected brace size is O.K.

Distance between the centerline olthe leg and the centerline of


the vessel plate, in.

.4

Actual area ofeach leg, in.2

,4s

Cross-sectional area ofeach brace, in.2

.4,

Projected area of legs including braces (ifany) in the direction of

wind, ft.2

Notch to clar

SECTION X.X

FIC. 1I. , ARRANGEMENT OF LEGS AND BRACES

- x"

of Fig. I I is shown above.

Comparing section "x

therefor Q

p:
^ 4000
... _ t.
ol o,

=I

in.

psi

The thickness of the base plate is given by

20000

=0.1291

in., therefore j

Required area ofeach leg, in.2

in. thk.plate is O.K.

F"
F,

Projected area of shell, ft.'?

Length ofthe brace, in.


Width of base plate, in.
Distance as shown in Fig.7, in.
The

lr

fleiibility factor

Effective wind diameter, ft.


Modulus ofelasticity of leg or brace material, psi
Maximum direct stress in the leg, psi

Maximum bendingstress in the leg due to wind or earthquake


load, psi
Maximum bending stress in the lg due to eccntric loading, psi'
Greater of the wind or earthquake force on vessel, lb
Allowable compressive stress in the leg, psi. (should be limited
to a maximum of 15,000 Psi')
Maximum force in the brace, lb
Allowable bending stress in the leg, psi. (should not exceed
20,000 psi.)

" with Fig. 10, we have

J:O:I in.,

f",
F
F"
FB
Fh

Base Plate Design

Section "x

.4,
A"
b
B
c
C
D
E
f
/,

Wind base shear due to

legs,

lb

Allowable bending stress in base plate, psi. (should not exceed


20,000 psi.)

F"
F,
F.
g
lr
H

base shear due to shell, lb


Earthquake force at top ofthe vessel,lb
Total base shear due to wind, lb

Wind

Acceleration due to gravity, inches/sec'/sec. (386 inches/sec'/sec')


Shell length from bottom tangent line to top head, ft'

Total hight ofthe

vessel, ft.

I'

l1

l'

222

223

l1
I

r)Est(;N orj PRocEss EQUTPMENT

VERTICAL VESSEL LEG DESIGN

/ Occupancy importance factor (1.0 for vessels)


1",. Moment of inertia of angle about W-W axis, tn.a
1,,
1,,
1""

J
K
I
I
M

Z
A
0

11,,+1lI-1"")
Moment of inertia of angle about X-X axis, in.a
Moment ofinertia ofangle about Y-Y axis, in.a
Moment of inertia of angle about Z-Z axis, in.4 (r2,4)
Distance as shown in Figure 10, in.
Structure coefficient (2.0 for vessels)

Length of legs from base to shll attachment, in.


Length of base plate, in.
Greater of wind or earthquake moment at base ofthe vessel, intb

ME Earthquake moment at base, in lb


MWind moment at base, in Jb
N Number of legs
O Distance as shown in Figure 10, in.
p Wind pressure at the height under consideration, psf
P Bearing pressure on foundation, psi. (maximum load on each

Pt
Q
/
S
g
S"
S,
S,.
S*,
Sr"

S,,
r
T
/
l/
x
Y

Earthquake zone factor


Change in length ofbrace, in.
Angle between the leg and the brace, degrees

REFERENCES
t. "Uniform Building Code," International Conference of Building
Officials. Whittier, California,l982.
"Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures," ANSI
A-58.1, 1982
Brownell, L. E.,and E. H. Young, "Process Equipment Design," First
Corrected Printing, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., April 1968.
"Manual otsteel Construction," Eighth Edition, American Institute
of Stel Construction, New York, N.Y.,1980.

leg /area of base plate )

Maximum compression load per leg, lb (4N)


Larger of base plate dimension ./ or O, in.
Least radius ofgyration ofeach leg, in.
Numerical coefficient ior site-structure resonance
Section modulus ofeach leg, in.3
Wind shape factor for legs
Wind shape factor for shell

! (I*.

Section modulus of angle about 17- tlzaxis, in


Section modulus of angle about X - X axis, in.3
Section modulus of angle about Y- Yaxis, in.3
Section modulus of angle
Base plate thickness, in.

lcl

abolt Z - Z axis,in.3

Period ofvibration of vessel, cps


Base shear due to earthquake,

lb

Operating weighl of vessel, lb

Horizontal distance between two legs, in.


Leg deflection due to lateral force, in.

22s

10
2
ASME CODE SECTION VlrI, DrvIsIoN
1
I,ICU TTS COMPARISON TO DIYISION

History of Division 2
and
ri-r" nSft4g code committee has continually modified' revised'
fi$t
it
was
since
ever
code
vessel
pressure
exoanded the Section VIII of the
workilis. the oti6na criterion was a factor of 5 between
;;;;;;
American
ioJrtr"r, *O ultimate tensile strength Back in the 1930's-the wrtn a

vessel co-de
Peiroleum lnstitute and ASME developed a pressure
during World War
materials
to
conserve
,"i",V f"*- of 4' In an attempt
factor'
ASME adopted the code with the lowest safety
*-nii"t
U,
*' the
committee and the
API-ASME
ah
ift" *1tt' in the eally 1950's,
VIII on pressure vessels
main committee ageeil that the revised Section
the ASME Boiler and
1955
earlv
In
lhe"continuing code'
;;;;;;;
committee to review and
Pressure Vessel Committee orgaruzed a special
VIII
of the pressure vessel
Section
existing
.uulout" th" following in the
l):
qode (now designated as Division
1. Basis of the allowable stresses'
of
i. Experimental ancl analyticat investigations -of the influence
performance ot pressure
design and other factors on the
Research Committee
vessels as conducted by the Pressure Vessel
Council'
of the Welding Research

mierials,

stress values'
3. Practices used by other countries in setting allowable
which
recommendations
make
to
was
ift" rnul" purpose of all this
to
techniques
design
analytical
latest
*oUJotiti". modem technology's
or rcduction of safety'
afiive at higher allowable stresses without sacrific
an urgent need of the
realized
committee
fr, iSf8, }t"o*"""r, the special
issued a
code for nuclear pressure vessels' Therefore' they

".*,-"tio"
it"ii"r sJ*

uI tto*.tp*did to t*o Dvisions) in 1958 and published


and after
tlle first edition in i963' Retumhg to their original assignment

227.

)tist(;N Otr ptr()oljss IQUtPMENT

tlro cxpericnce ol producing Section

lll,

the special committee issued the

initial draft of Division 2 of Section VIII in January of 1967 and rrublished


the first edition in December of 1968. Both Division 2 of Section VIII.
and Section

III

had safety factors of 3.

Introduction
Division 2 of Section VIII for pressure vessels entitled .,Alternarrye
Rules" covers minimum requirements for the design, fabrication, inspection and certification of pressure vessels that are prohibited by the Dvision
l. Consequences ofthese rules may be summarized as follows:
1. Pressure vessels above 3000 psi can be designed and manufactured
to comply with these rules and can thus be code stamped. This
extension of pressure limits encompasses a large number of vessels
that were previously constructed as specials, or in many srares
constructed without reference or comparison to an established
and recognized code.
2. The need for special state regulations for such vessels has been

significantly reduced.

3. More economical

vessels can

result of advances

be designed and manufactured as a


respect to working stress

in technology with

levels, design, inspection and quality control procedures.

4, Restrictions and imposed on the use and initallation of vessels


made under Division 2, since the basis for the vessel design de_
pends on a specific service for a fixed location and thus are par_
ticularly applicable to the vessels used by the chemical and other
process industries.

Design Criteria of Division 2


Division 2 permits higher working stress levels at the expense of a
significantly more detailed stress analysis, which is based on maximum
shear theory, on more stdngent material testing and more careful quality
control. Equivalent margins of safety are maintained despite the higher
working stress leyels. It permits application within the ASME code, of
technology that was previously applied only to pressure vessels designed
outside the scope of Section VIIL
This division depends on a detailed indentification of those stress

conditions that actually exist, rather than on simplified rules and arbitrary
stress limits. Tresca's ma.:rimum shear theory is used as the analytical
principle, so that limits are based on actual stress intensity rather than on
arbitrary stress.

In addition to detaited
tant for

yessels

to

be

stress analysis fatigue analysis is very impor_


manufactured in accordance with Division 2. Requtre_

228

ASMII ('Ol)li,

sli(l

l()N

vlll' l)lvlsloN

rucllts o1'tlle detailed strcss aDd I'atiguc analysis can be evaluated and perlbnned if required, as discussed below.
Stress Analysis
Code contains a series of design rules in which the analysis has been
carried out for a series of specific configurations. If the desi$er stays
within the limits of these configurations, a detailed stress analysis is not
required. Thus, the cdteria for determining whether a stress analysis is to
be made on a particular vessel are left to the judgement of the vessel designer.

After it has been determined that a stress analysis is required, all


loadings on the vessel must be analyzed in accordance with Appendix 4 to
determine their effects on the vessel, It is a step-by-step process of stress
analysis in accordance with the maximum shear theory. Items such as
wind, earthquake, piping, support loads, intemal or extemal pressure and
thermal loads etc. must be considered. Stresses developed by various
loads must be calculated separately and then combined with shell or head
stresses caused by internal pressure at their point of application. These
requirements must be met whether or not a fatigue analysis is required.
Fatigue Analysis
Paragraph

ADl60 of

the code covers the evaluation of service con-

ditions to establish the need of a vessel fatigue analysis. In general this


paragraph deals with the cyclic conditions of the vessel and is divided into
two parts, Condition A and Condition B, covedng the integral parts of
vessels including integrally reinforced type nozzles or attachments. It is
further subdivided into Corditions AP and BP, which cover non-integral
(i.e. pad type) nozzles or attachments.
Condition A is an evaluation based stdctly on pressure and tempera-

ture cycles. There is no limit to the pressure cycles where the pressure
variation stays withirl 20% of the design pressure. Cycles rangtng over 207o
of the design pressure are to be included with the cycles of differential
temperature between adjacent points, as described by the code, with a limit
of t,000 cycles for the life span of the vesseL.
Condition B is evaluated if requirements of Condition A are not
satisfied. Condition B compares cycles, determined in Condition A, with
fatigue allowables as discussed in Appendix 5. In regard to pressure, temperature or joined materials of different coefficient of thermal expansion,
if either Condition A or B are met, a fatigue analysis is not required.
Conditions AP and BP evaluate non-integral (i.e. pad type) nozzles or
attachments only. Condition AP is related to Condition A except that the
pressure cycles are unlimited if the pressure variation does not exceed 15%

229

ASMt, ( ()l)t1' SIa('l loN

)USI(;N Otr ptl(XjUSS t:,euIpMENT

of tlle design pressure. Condition Bp is related to Condition


B except lbr
some required value adjustment as discussed
in code. If either Ap or tsp
satisfies the requirements, a fatigue analysis for
these type of nozzies or
attachments is not mandatory.

If

a fatigue analysis is required, the code provides design


methods in

Article 5-l (Appendix 5) for vessels and Article 4_6 (Apfendix 4) for
fatigue evaluation of pressure stresses in openings.
Comparison

of Division 2 to Division

vlll, l)lVlSloN

strcss analysis plus drawillgs showing compliance with the code requlremcnts. Both the design report and the stress report must be prepared and
ccrtified by a Registered Professional Engineer experienced in the field of
pressure vessels.

For high alloy materials two sets of stress values are not given for the
sam material at the same temperature, as in Division 1. Therefore, under
Division 2 rules, the vessel engineers cannot make a choice of stress Yalues.

For Division 2 vessels, the standard hydrostatic and pneumatic tests


are similar to that required by Division 1, except that the design pressure is

Drurjion 1 utilizes safety factor of 4 on the tensile strength


whereas
..
^.
Division 2 uses a safety factor of 3 on the tensile ,tr"ngtL

multiplied by 1.25 for hydrostatic test and 1.15 for pneumatic test instead

in Division I do not meet the


Structural quality plate such as SA_2g3 has been
omitted, and 5A-36 is not permitted for pressure part
use per Olvision Z.
In regard to testing the materials, Division 2 more specifically
_
defines
lo.cations from which test coupons may be taken
Ultrasonic e*"_inurron
or plates and torgings over 4 inches in thickress is mandatory.
Many of the carbon steels in Diyision 2 have stricter
l# temperature

Applications of Division 2

materials below the creep range.


. SoT: matedal specifications used

intent of Division

f;'"I_ort df

2.

limits of application. Some materials used in vessels


operati"g i"'_ib"
to qualify by impact testing, as opposed to the ruies given
yl

.h"*
Division I for the same

by

conditionThere are several design differences between the


two codes. Division
_
I- rules.are^
formulated on the principle stress theory, which has
simplicity
as its chief attribute. The Division 2 rules
by contrast, are for_utui"O on
Tresca's maximum shear theory, which giu.,
fu, U"tt",
,"

"fnr""i_",i""
but require more" complex computations.
th,.,.::p"r]T.tl
.resutts,
aqorrlon, the Division
2 rules take into account all of

In

bending effects,
secondary stress effects, fatigue, and so forth,
whereas Oiuirion i ignore,
such considerations,

Regarding non-destructiye examination and fabrication,


there are

two basic differences between the two codes. Division


2

i",

the so called fully radiographic vessels. ln those


"ifo*, "rly
cases *t
is not used, there are requirements for other
"re,aOiograpty
method of examinatioln s'ucn
,r,
*:
of ultrasonics, dye penetranr or magnetrc particle.
The yarious
ll:
aoqlrronat requirements or restrictions that appear
in Division 2 relative ro
fabrication are all directed toward the prevention
of brittle fracture and on
the existence of structural or metallurgical notches
or discontinuities.
2 requires a complete design report t" p."p"rJ
iy irr" ur"r.
?rloto"report musl
lnrs desrgn
include operating informarion including cvclic
duty and materials of construcrion. on rhe orher
rland. irr" iJri?"'",
required to submit a stuess report which contains
complete cal"ulutionrlnO

_.,

"

230

of

1.5.

Division 2 can be used economically for vessels with internal pressures exceeding 3000 psi, vessels with lesser pressures where exceptional
savings in material costs can be realized, or vessels with fluctuation temperature cycles. ln other words. it is used for vessels which are of sufficiently rigorous duty or are sufficiently complex so as to require more
comprehensive calculations and more sophisticated procedures with which
to construct safe as well as economical vessels.
Design in accordance to Division 2 results in thinnervessel walls, thus
besides saving material cost it permits the use of larger vessels whose use

has been precluded earlier by transportation or installation limitations.


Thinner wall usually results in the reduced temperature gradiant,
and thus in lower thermal stresses, and an economical design in application
that might otherwise defy the designer's ingenuity and surpass the capabilities of materials currently available for pressure vessels.
Uniform strength can be easily attained throughout the metal thickness after proper heat-treatment for thin wall vessels. This also results in
improved mechanical properties such as ductility and toughness Thus,
design in accordance to Division 2 leads to much safer vessels even though
the ratio of ultimate tensile strength to working stress may have been reduced.

Limitations of Division 2
Division 2 does not provide rules for

vessels operating at elevated


temperatures. At present the break off point is where creep begins to con-

trol.
Vessels whose pressures are low enough to require a thickness
governed by fabrication minimums do not justify Division 2 requirements,
unless the nature of thefu operation requires attention to pulsating pressure
causing fatigue or some othr peculiar problem relative to the safety of

)DSl(;N ()tr Pt{(x)tss TQUIPMENT

tllese vessels.

The

rules of Division 2 cover vessels, only to be installed at


a fixed
location for a specific service. Thus neither the location nor
the servrce
can be altered during the useful life of the vessel.

REFERENCES
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, ,,pressure Vessels,,,
Division l,
ASME, New York, N. y., 1983.
2. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, ..pressure Vessels",
Division Z,
Alternative Rules, ASME, New york, N. y.. 19g3.
3. LeCoff, J., "Safer Pressure Vessels Using the New ASME Code,,.
Svmposium on Loss Prevention, part VI, pressure Vesels,
AICHE iixty_
. Seventh National Meeting, AICHE, New york, N. y., 1970.
4. Macleod, L. M., "Comments on Division 2 Vessel Design,,,
Hydrocarbon Processing, December 1969, pp. 125-126.
5. Witkin, D. E., *A New Code Worth its Weight in Metal,,,
Chemical En_
gineering, August 26, 1968, pp. 124-130.

l1
MECTIANICAL DESIGN OF SELF'SUPPORTED STEEI.'
STACKS

Introduction
The demand for stacks of greater heights to conform to
increasingly rigid air pollution control standards has emphasized the
need forJmore thorough understanding oftheirdesign criteria Guyed
stacks are cheapcr but the main disadvantages of guyed stacks are the
amount of land required and the interference of the guy wires Thus, in
rcfineries and pelrlchcmical plants, self-supporting stacks are desired
from thc slandpoinl of plant appearance and safety'
Design Crlteria
Assuming the slack has been sized on stack draft requirements,
rvind and earthquake moments should be calculated at various levelsThe greater of the wind or earthquake moments should- be used for
desig;. The stack then should be checked for wind induced vibratior It
shoJd be pointed out thal stackvibrations induced by earthquake are
infrequent in occurcnce but the wind induced vibrations can occur
every day or more and many times during the day depending upon the
location.
Wtnd Loads
Winds apply force to the lallvertical shcks causingthe stackto be
loaded as a canlile'vcr beam which is fixed at the base' In this case, the
bcnding stress induccd by the cantileverbeam action is zero at the top of
thc stack and a maximum at the base. The bending stress produces a

comDressivc axial slress on the downwind side of the stack and a


corrcsponding lensile stress on lhe upwind side

Static forcc, rcpresenting the wind load due to drag may be


obtaincd using thc standard wind pressures on the vertical projected
arcas of the stack for various height zones as recommended by the
applicablc building codesr'2 Wind pressures must be multiplied by a
drag cocflicient (shape factor) associated with the exposed crosssectional shape 6f the stack

232

ZJJ

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

DESIGN OF S1EEL STACKS

Rccorrmcndcd drag cocfficients3 are 0.6 for a smooth


cylinder,

fol a rrrugh cylinder (smooth cylinder with ladder


und
plat[ulms. crc.), and 1.2 fora cylinderwith spoilers (verric"L"il"ll"f
"ae'".
1.0

pl;rlcs atlachcd tolhe outside of rheshell). This


recommendalion nray

rcsult in conservative results, thus the applicable codes should


be
re[crrcd to, if accuratc results are desired. l o.^urrfo.*lrrJ tolai""
thc lurcc L-,f tht wind on the prqiected surface of rhe .1".k (.f;;;;;?

dramctL'r Iimes height) may be considered to act at the


average height of
a distancc. This force times lever arm gives the bendine

riome"nt

I'lallbrms also conlributc lo additional overturning momcnt which can


clctcrmincd as follows:

Horjzontal arca of platform (Wind pressure based on location of


plltlorrn) (Actual hcighl of platform above base) (.5)
Alle l ltrc momcnls duc to all the platforms are calculated' these
shoulclbc adclcd toM*,dclcrmined above, to get the total moment atthe
bzrsc. Similar-lv, lhc momenl at any point above base can also be

calculated on thc samc principlc.


Diameter used in calculation of wind load:

Da =

MOMENT@BASE: M,
(For values of P. see map and table on pages 12 and 13')

Xx-

M*:-

-x
PFt
PF"

'.-Pr

PFz

-X

xxx-

xx-

Xx-

x_

x_

X-

X-

x-

x-

X-

x
x

xx-

.5
.5
.5

FL LB. TOTAL =
FIC

Fieurc

TYPICALWIND LOADING DIACMM FOR STACK

shows the typical wind loading for a stack The effective


diarrctcr of stack can be obtained as follows:

D6 :
=

Effective diameter of stack, ft.


Outside diameter of stack + insulation + allowance for
ladders, platforms, and piping, etc. (allow 1 to 2 ft)

Fol st:rcks wilh strakes or spoilers, the effective diamerer should


bc cqual 1o slack diameter plus twice the spoiler projectio[
Now, referring to Fig.

Mry

l,

we get

= Overturning moment at the base, ftJb.


= (D,) (P,) (H) (h) +
(Dd Qz) (H) (h,) +
(D) (P) (H,) (hz)
234

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Natural Frequency of Vlbration
Thc oeriod of vibration I is thL. time necessary to complete one
cycle o[ oscillation and is the reciprocal of the natural frequency of
vibration/. Thc nalural frequcncy is equal lo the circular frequency o
dividcd bv 2n. The circular frequency of a single degree of freedom
slr'r.rclure is proponional to the square root of the stiffness divided by
lhc mass. Thc equation is:

, = ,lv^,

where

stiffness, and

235

'?

me$s

I)ESIGN OF PIIoCESS EQUIPMENT

Erplcssing rruss

ars l,V/g

and stiffness

as

gcl

DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

A(force over deflection). we

- I lFr
' 2r tlWL

rlrc vibr rrlot.,r tlrolioll ilt otrc swing a{tcr frec vibralion stafls Thc firsl
sm:rll pclccnlngcs ol dilmping greatly reduce peak responses because

pcirk |espo|tscs arc gcncrally associated with shon response time


clunrlions ;rnd, thcreforc, involve liule energy. Damping represenls
cncrgy losscs Irom manv sourccs and' therefore, can be of a number of

Mode Shapes

tvpcs as rclzrled to vibration.

The dcflccted shape ofa s1n:cture for any single mode

ofvibralion

alwavs thc samc for that slructure, regardless of the magnitude ofthe
vibration. In othe| words, though the amplitude of the displacement
changcs with timq the relation between displacements throughout the
heighl rcmains consrant The distribution of accelerations for a single
is

modc of vibralion lherefore remains constant Knowine the mode

shapc and thc maximum vibralion al the top, the maximum vibration at
anv levcl above the base can be directly obtained for fiat mode The

modal displacements for a typical smoothed response spectrum will


decrcasc as rhe modal period decreases from the lower to the hieher

modcs. Thc modc with the longesr period is called the first, or
fundamcntal, mode and the mode with shorter periods (higher
frequcncics) are called the higher modes The typical shapes of first
thrcc modcs ofvibration for canrilevered cfinder are shown in Fig 3.

Seismic Loads
Anolher environmcntal factor that must be considered in the
clcsign of tall stacks are seismic stresses produced by earlhquakes To
pr"ri"nt tull .,u.k. from toppling underanticipated possible earrhquake
it,rcc., a tall stack must bc designed to wilhstand these forces The
cfftct o[ seismic forccs is somewhat similar to wind loads in that the
slack again is loaded as a verlical cantilever beam fixed at the base'
Therc is a difference in the load distribution in the case of wind loads as
compared 10 seismic loads but in both cases the vertical column is
cxposed to bending which produces axial tensile stresses on one side
and thc axial compressive slresses on the other side
There are both horizontal and vcfiical shifts of the eadh crust
Juling th,' carlhquakc. Vt'rrical shihs arc oI small imponanct i n large
sllcks bccausc oi thcir stability to forces in the vertical direction The
horironlal shifting of the earth's crust is the cause of major concern
wilh lall slacks. This shifting might be compared to a sudden
displaccment of thc foundation underneath the standing stack
Bccausc of thc ineflia of thc staclq this produces bending similarto that
produced by a [orce pushing against thc side ofthe stack and results in
sending thc stack into a hannonic vibration.
T"hc sway of thc stack will produce a maximum velocity as the
stack passcs t-hrough vertical cenler. Also, the maximum velocity of
As the
s',vay will be at the top of thc stack with zero velocity al the base
sta& rcaches the limit of its deflection, the kinetic energy of molion is

slrain cnergy of thc shell causing reversal of direction and


lhc slzrck rvill srvav back and forth unlil the energy is dissipated An
cxprcssion for pcriod ofvibration I can be derived by equating the total
strain cncrgy slorcd lo the kinclic encrgr of motion as the slack movcs
Thc Jck thus will have a charactcrislic period of vibration and
thc [r-equcncv ol vibration will be a function ofthe mass of the stack and
rhc sla;k dimcnsions and thc modulus of elasticity of the material of
cor.rslrLrclioll. It tlic period of vibralion o[ the stack is large, the stack
cln bc corrsiclclcd to bc flcxiblc and although it may sway appreciably,
\\'ill bc irblc lo rcsisl lhe scismic forccs much bctterlhan a stmcture with
r srritlt pcriod o[ vibralion. Rigid structure havc short periods of
vibr:rtior.r and are morc susceptible to seismic deslruction than flexible
slruclures.
I

:,tr|
I'I(

i 1 \IODIi

Vodu

lrd

Modc

SIIAPES FOR A CANIILEVERED CYLINDER

Damping

A pcrfcctll' claslic systcm, set into vibralory motion, would


1() vibratc forcver if the vibrations were not stopped by an

conlinuc
eulside'

forcs However,

no system is perfectly elastic, and the vibratorv

molion will die out due to loss ofenergy resulting from internal strains.
This Ioss of cnergv is called damping Damping is generally expressed
as a perccntage of "critical damping', the damping which would srop

236

wrnsfcrrcd

1o

237

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

In thc casc of tall flexible stac( the force producing acceleratron


oI the stack during rhe sway varies wirh the velociry
at rh."n;";;;i;*r".
Since this velocity increases from zero at the base to the
maximum ar
the 1op, tht: flexible stack should be considered to be load.a

wilh the mean located

a1

twothirds the heighl of the

u,

r.i.ngt"

"
sack

The

resuhing stresses induced bythe sway from seisilic shifis


u.", oi co,r."",
in lhc revcrse order and are zero at the top of the stack because

the top ls
re'strained and increase 10 a maximum at the base ofthe
stack where
thc accumulated forces are a maximum. Seismic
Ioads forthe stackcan
be calculated as follows:
n()1

'Ihickncss l,can bc irssumecl lo bc lhickness at lhc top ofstack for


Fig..1(b) irnclin crirgc of thc t <tp a ncl bot tom thicknesses of stack for Fie.
-l (

c).

Tlrc lundzrmcnlal Ircqucncv of a stack having varying cross


scclion or ntulliple diamclors can;rlso be found by the Rayleigh-Ritz
nrclhod of suntm;rlion. In lhis ci.rse', the slack height is divided inro a
nunrl)cr of sccliorrs. II wl - - , is thc rveight of each section and rr - - is the lcsulting clcad loacl dcllcctit.rn at lht: center of each seclion
produced whcn stack ncls irs horironlal cantilcver bearr! then6:

Fundamental Frequency of Stack Vibratlon


sectioq

Foracantilevered cylindrical structure of uniform crossFig 4(a), the fundamental period ofvibration

Thc first mode period [or-all tvpcs of stacks can also be calculated
by using the ;rpproximalc rclalionshipT:

as shown in

is given bya

T:

Where

wIl

T=

! = rrr31t
_ nur'tr

3.)Z

Dr

Substituting for

F, /,

and

we ger:

?=765(,0)-6(#l

wlxt+w2x2+--l|rxr' + w2x2' + ---

--..------------

l+

Thc reciprocal of period Igives the natural frequcncv ofvibration


staek in cps.
Thc abovc equation can also be used to calculate the period for
lapered slacksas shown in Fig. 4(b) and ( c) by using slraighr cylinder of

c-r[

cquivalcnt sriffness. The diameter D. and the hcight


cquivalcnt cylinder are given by the following equationss:

For Fig 4(b):

D.

H.

l?". u"(;?d)'
o" = o,tou

For Fig 4(c):

H.=Hm
238

i. of

the

(a)
FIC.,r - COMMON

Factors Affecting Stack Frequency


Frce standing stacks have always been observed lovibratedurine

voncx cxcitation a1 a frequency and wilh a mode shape associatedwiti


the fundamcntal mode In addition, the shape of the dynamic force
amplitude of nearly constant frequency over the height of the stack
implies that the dynamic response will be almost enlirely due to the
239

DESIGN OF PR@ESS EQUIPMENT

DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

conlribution ofthe first mode only. Thcrefore, itis recommended


that all higher modes be neglected in thedynamic analysis and that

the frequency and associated critical wind velocity of

Base Shear

the

fundamental mode only be considered

Thc cffccl of rhe following should be included in the de


lcnninirtion ol thc fundamental frequency of the stack
Gunite Lining
Thc conrribution of gunite lining if used should be included rn
thc crrlcul;rlion of both thc mass and stiffness 10 obtain an accurare
cslimalion of thc fundamcntal frequency ofthe slack In calculations
lbr lined stacks, the section properties ofan equivalent steel seclion mav
bc calculated using a suilable value for lhe modular ratio e s.
c

E:

(r) S.isnric L!.ding

FIC.5,

."

Howevcr, if the gunile lining is not integrally compacled with the


stack shcll, lhc nalural frequency for the unlined stack can be used in

calculations. Linings dccrcasc lhe natural frequency and damp the


;rmplitudcs of vibration. But, the lined stack will be resonant at lower
wind r,clocitics.

Thc natural frequency of a stack lined with bricks or blocks is nor


vcry diffcrenr than thc unlined shell, because the degree of composite
aclion bclwcen rhe shcll and linine is small
Base Flexibillty

,For slacks supporled on structural members, many framrng


con[iguralions, though designed to safely resist the static wind loadino

can bc shown 1o reduce the fixed base fundamentaL f;";;;.;


substantially.s Translational and rolational spring constants can be
calculated using standard structural analysis procedures and incorporalcd into frequency calculation. For stacks supported on
normal sprcad footings and pile foundations, an investigattn into the
cffcct ofthebase flcxibility suggests that these types ofsupports are very
nearly fixed. Approximate translational and rotational soil sprino
constanrs can be calculared based upon methods currentt"";i;;i:
using csrimates of the dynamic modulus of elasricity (obtained from a
scismic sun,ey of the sitr:) and the poisson,s ratio of the soile Sincethe
foundalion flexibility will gencrally affect the fixed base frequency by
Iess lhan I 1<l 2 pcrcent, these tlpes of foundations can be treatei
as
Ilxccl, sincc this effect is relatively insignificant in comparison with
olher cstimated parameters.
240

V_F,

Diig,am

(b) Scjsmic Shcrr Dirgnm

SEISMIC LOADING AND SHE"{R DIAGR,AMS FOR STACK

The base shearis the totalhorizontal seismic shearat thebase

ofa

stack The triangular loading pattem and the shape of the stack shear
diagram duc to that loading are shown in Fig 5(a) and (b). A portion f,
of lolal horizontal seismic force Vis assumed to be applied at the top of
rhc stack per UBC (Uniform Buildihg Code). The remainder of the base
shcar is distributcd throughout the len$h ofthe stack including the top
Thc UBC base shear formula is given by
V:ZI KCSW
Wlrcre
7,:.187 5 for zonel, .37 5 for zone2, .7 5 for zone 3, and 1.0 for zone
,l (rcfer to Fig. 3,4 or 5 of Chapter 9 for determining the proper
s{jismic zone)

- =
"

1
.067
=
J-f fi
if l'( 2.5 and

tS

.S:1.5

tC should not be morc than O.l2)

|.2 + .24(n -.048(7)'z. if T>

2.5

(.S should not be less than 1.0)


Thc product of C.9 should nol exceed 014.
Now; tht: total horizontal force 4 al top of the stack is given b3r
F, = O.07TV (F, should not exceed 0.25n

:0,for?<0.7

(lverturnlng Moment at Base


Thc ovcnuming moment is the algebraic sum of lhe moments of
all t hc forccs above the base. The ovenuming moment at the base of
stack duc to cadhquake in ftlb. can be expressed as:
241

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

DESIGN OF S]EEL STACKS

ME = IFF + (v _ F) (2Ht3\) 1000


Allowable Shell Buckling $tress
Thc axial loads and overturning moments are assumed to be
rcsisted entircly by the steel shell Gunite lining if used is nor
considered to bc structurally reliablq or to have any significant value in

Anchor Bolt Chalr


Following calculations are based on the anchor bolt chair shown

in Fig

7.

prcventing shell buckling Initially, some thicknesses at each section


arc assumed The maximum allowable compressive stress in theshellrs
rlrcomn,cnded to be rhe smallest of the following:

(a)
(b)

S.:

IESS USE (1)

Y." LARGER THAN 8011SEE CHART fOR SIZE

TYP.

'

TOP

Ai{0

for t"/d ratios less than 0.00425

BOT.

0.56 t"E

d(r + .oa4E/Y

[,tusr
PILOT IN TOP

For higher r"/d ratios, the allowable compression stress


used is that calculated for t"ltl : .00425.

SOTTOM

BASE & TO

As SHO' N

n.

(if required) is added to the

zrssumed above and uncorroded weight (including

thc botlom of each section is determined

8AS

thicknesses

LI

SOLT GUIDE.SEE
CHART CONT. FILLE]
WLD TO TOP A}IO
80TT0M RI.IGS

lining ifrequired) ar

ANCHOR BOLT CHART

Stack Plate Thickness


Stack plate thickncss requircd to resist the greater of wind or

Anchor

carlhquakc moments at each level is determined for the following


rclationship:

314

Anchor

Corrosion allowance (if required) is added to the thickness


dctcrrrincd above and resulting thickness is rounded off to the hieher
l/16 inch. This is actual srack rhickness al rhe level u;der

considcration.
After required plate thicknesses are determined at each level they
arc comparcd with corresponding assumed lhicknesses in uncorroded
condilions. If therc is any deviatioq correct weighls are calculated
bltsed on ncw thicknesses and procedure is repeated until the two
thickncsscs coincide.

|
|

bolt

bolt

Plate

dia.

guide

washrs

&718

1l2x3112Sq.

2 r12

ll2x

Sq.

) | l)
1 t l)

2 r12

1l2x4112Sq.

111

) tl)

Sq.

3 r12

10

Sq.

1tl)

ll
ll

1 tolli4

242

RTNGS

40 P|PE AIOToR

Stack Weight

Corrosion allowance

L"

Y/2

Thc allowablc compressive stress considerins local


shcll buckling as dercrmined from rhe followins
empirical relationshiplo

s.=

{"

CUSSET OETWEEI{
SOLTS

One-half of the material yield stress at the desisn


I'-'mpcralurc, or

WHEN THIS OISTANCI:


EECoMES 1t/!" 0R

N.. WASHEB WiSOLT HOLE

318

ro 1 314

ll2

Min.

3l4x4ll2Sq.

2 r12

J 112

314

2 314

5 112

718

to 2

114

5
314 x 6
314x6
x

Sq.

ITI(;. 7 , ryPICAL ANCHOR BOLT CHAIR FOR STACKS

243

8
8

DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Calculating Number and Size of Anchor Bolts


The number o[ bohs is assumed initially, based on a multiple of
lbur with about 18 inches o[ bolt spacing Total tension in each bolt is
dctcrmined from the relationship:

tya

'

*l

Q---

: 48(M)_ wt
N(DEd -N

'."
a

.:

If SB is the maximum allowable stress of anchor bolt material in


psi, lhc rcquired boh arczr .r1 lhe root of the thread is given b5r

o^

=Y!
sd
FIG. 8

Calculating Base and Top Plate Thicknesses


Dimcnsions tt b. and c, in inches corresponding to actual bolt
diamclcr arc dctermincd from Fig 7. Now, bearing pressure pb in psi
on concrcte foundalion is calculated from the follov.ing formula:

_
"

48(m

' VON

KARMAN VORTEX STREET

W,

r(D61)'c r(D6l1c

The value of P, is limited to 750 psi maximum for 3000 lb concrete


and 500 psi maximum for 2000 lb. concrete.
Pb exceeds the above limit, the value of c is
modified so that P6 falls within the allowable limit.

Sucrion Effccr Tolva.d

'*'*'*''*7

+l

AI
-n

If the calculated

@i'

f, is calculated from the following relationship:


/ J'b
ap \12
6
I
t" = " |\,ffi)
whcre , :cr *b

Base plate thickness

For top plate thickness ?a, the following formula is used:

-,': |

t(w")o \rtz

\4(2oJoo)r/

Dynamic Wlnd Design


When a cantilevercd cylindcr is subjecled to steadywind there is a
ccnain velocity al which the cylindcr begins to oscillale in the direction
lransverse to that of the wind This phenomenon reportedly exists when
eddies, created as wind contacls thc stack or flows close to it, are shed
from the chimney sulface. Thc vortices commonly referred to as the
Von Karman effecl, are similarlo thr: watereddies formed when we row
a boar The flow is depicted diagrammatically in Fig 8. The effect of
vonex shedding on a stack is shown in Fig 9.
244

FIG' 9 - EFFECT OF VORTEX SHEDDINC ON A STACK

the
In theory vortices are shed inlermittently from each side of

pr"ssure drop across the cylinder as they are.released


the bending momenl caused due to this
change in
r.-,n".I* p."t""." distribution is shown in Fig 10' The
a lateral force, which must be resisted bv the
;;;;;"'p;;t""s
frequency of wind
cantilevered columrl At resonance that ig when the
the
1o the natural frequency of the cvlinder

atu"L,

""l,"ing;
ani
i"n" p."t""i""Jr.',ttbution

lorr".pond"
;;.il;
io*"t .tl .attt. -aximum

which the resonance takes


ot.." i" d""ienur"d as the critical wind velocity Equating the VonL"r-un uorrit ,hedding frequency at the top lo the nalural frequency
and solving for the critical wind velocity we get:
The velocity

fD-

245

a1

DESIGN OF PROCESS TQUIPMENT

DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

MUST be performcd

Vibraliun analvsis
=h
,to < W - < 25 Vibration analvsis SHoULD

20

be performed

HD,'

25

Analysig

<

Vibration analvsis NEED NOT be performea'

V-Oz

if required, should be carried out as described below

If, lao = Wind velocity at 30 feet height' mph


y-' at the 1op of lhe slack
itr"n irt. maxim,lm r'ind velocity
given by

V* =
and the maximum gust velocity
Bending Mom.nl DiagEm
FIC.

IO

PRESSURE DISTRIBUIION AND BENDINC MOMENI DIACRAM


FOR A STACK DUE TO MDIAL WIND

The value of Strouhal number N,, depends on the Reynolds


number, however, il is recommended that a Strouhal number of 0.20

p.
v'" _- f (ffi) 60 = 3.47 tD.213\7760

Various orher relationships available to calculate the critical wind


vclocity Yl in mph, are as followsT:

,,," = fD,(60)
--fr-

= 1'3V.

""p."s."d

than 1/15.

K,

=P,p,L. _ O.\Ulp,s E
.vv'-"

For lined slacks l4l can be used in place of W" in order to reduce
vibralion. Design modifications are required if K1. in the above
cquation exceeds 1,/15.
Static Deflection
pressure
The computed d)'namic loading is applied as a slagnant
1op is
at
the
amplitude
1o the stack Assuming it to be a cantileverbeam,
approximated by,

P"D,LL;(LD3
D" _
also

and

finally

'..,t

JE

Dynamic Deflection

(*)

CAI\MLEVER VIBRATION
Analyzing Procedure
Now, the following criteria as recommended by Zorrilla 1r can be
uscd to establish need for vibration analysis of sracks wi th H^ /H ratio
not cxcecdins 0.50;

246

where Iz

: rr3t

'

",^(*)'
V" =

to'

gusl
Ifcritical wind velocity, % falls within range ofthe maximum
stack
corroded
case'
u"to"lty,-th" rtu"t -ust bec'he&ed further' In that
*"ighi -"* be equal to or greater than 15 times the wind force at
u" a fot-ul4 the ratio' Kt should be less
.riii.ut u"to"itv ot

for all Relnolds numbers be used for stack design plugging for
Strouhal number in the above equation and modifying the equation 10
get an expression for critical wind velocity in miles per houl we get

Vzo(Lt3D)o

is

Al a critical wind velociry the structure vibrates at

f."q,r.'n.v,

resonant

greatly' The
rU"s the amplitud'e ofvibration is magnified

^tti
which is a ratio of dynamic amplitude to static
auri.-i.1o"ffi"i"nt,
the magnification factor' This is a function of the
iaa", lt
-and
"Af"d
^'-of
several other factors' The amount of
iitil" tirir.*". of the soil

must be multiplied by the magnific^ation factor to


magmncanon
determine dlnamic deflection Approximate value-ot
by
a.i".t i". iirf.*nt types of stacks as suggesred DeGheno and
Longr2 are listed in Table l.

ri"tlJa.n"oio"

247

DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Ovalllng Vlbratlon
In addition

TABLE I - MAGNIFICATION FACTORS

fiPE

OF STACK

SPREAD FOOTINGS
ON SOFT SOIL
(BEARING BELOW
!.500 psl)

SPREAD FOOTINC ON
MEDIUM SOFT SOIL
(BEARINC BETWEEN
Li00 rnd 3,000 psl)

li,-,Ui..i"a

PILED FOUNDATIONS

^frr

AND SPREAD FOOTINCS


ON STIFF SOIL
AND ROCK

""ra"*

tt

transvcrsc (cantilever) vibration' unlincd stacks are


of
ncxural vibration in the planc of the ring as a result

t<.r

frequcncy of rhe lowesl-mode, of flexural


steel shell
that oiovalling orbreathing for an unlined circular

,n"aai.g Thc

"ib.^ti,rn

"'

tt -

30

l0

90

Maximum dcflection at the top of the stack should not exceed six
inches per 100 feet of stack height

Darnplng Excesslve Vlbratlon


The following methods of modiS'ing design are recommended
an cxcessive amplitude of vibration is expected:

if

1.

External atlachmenls (such as piping ladders and


platforms) may be properly distributed around the
stn.rcture which helps to reduce or nullifu the effect of
pcriodic eddy shedding

2.

Refractory lining may be added

to an

unlined

stmcture or the thickness or density of refractory of a


lined structure increased which adds to the mass and
consequently increases the structural damping

4.

If possible, modifying the dimensions of the structure


can also help in damping by increasing the critical
wind velocity above the maximum gust velocity.
The paltern of vortex shedding can be modified by
winding helical strakes around the perimeter of the
shell at a pitch of about five times the diameter of the
chimney. The height of rhe strake should be abour
onetenlh of the diameterand manvtimes, strakes are
only required around the top one third of the slackr3
A patented device of this t5,pet't has been successfully
used on stmclures to avoid the formation of vortices
and thus cxcessive vibration.
248

J-"

6OD2

given by
Now lhc voncx shedding frequency is
0'2vr
rv- D
is 66 fps as .
where Vr, the wind velocity for vortex shedding
most economical and
for
woodruff
and
bi"t"v
tv
;;;;;;&
;;;i;"k design as far is vibration is concerned at each level using
notn rn"."i."quencies should be calculated
voftices form
the .<-,rrcsponding thickncsses and diameters Becausc
thar the
suggested
been
it
has
;i;;,.d"t eitf,er side of thc stack
frequency'
shedding
vortex
of
the
or,^llin* fi.ou"n.y will bc rwice thar
ii ;;; il J;ii.; /. < 2/" ovalling rings are required al that level
thc stack is frce from ovalling vibration'
uih"t-it"
"'-be
S".tiun modulus of thc rings' whenever required' can
as follows:
*''-'
dctcnnined
c.iii"ot*i"a velocityV.in fpm,at the section under consideration
,, _ 60f,p

,-

Maximum Allowable Deflectlon

3.

, .5gr,

'" -

2N,

of
whcrc N",' the Strouhal number, is 0 2 over a wide range
Reynolds numbers.

No*, rtt" section modulus of stiffeners at section

.r..li.']."ii."' "..

under

be found from the formula used by MoodyT


7
. - (1)(tof v"\z Dz (H,\
J-=_s.

grealer than S''


Stiffeners having section modulus equal 10 or
of the section
length
lhe
shoull bc provided at spacingl{' throughout

stiffeners are required for more than one


sizes and spacing should be used for economy' if

.rna", .ontia"*tlon.

.".ti.". Jiff"*",

if

possiblc.

having
Ahcrnalively, it is recommended3 that for unlined stacks'
less
or
mph
of60
vibration
ovalling
criticai wind vjocity for
the
shell
stiffen
provided
to
be
should
.ir.,r-f"."ntiul sriffening rings
;;;-;h"t raisc the ovalling vibration frequency Stiffening rings
VIII'
Jesiencd for a uniform external pressure of 1 5 psi using Section
249

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUTPMENT

Division I <-rf thc ASME Codcts rules, arc rccomnlcnclcd to avoid thc
occurence of ovalling vibration due to voncx shcdding

DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

(4 basc ol l2-lt. dia


(q)

basc o[

scction:

12,046,570 ft-lb

l0 [t dia seclion:5,818,910 ft-lb


ft, 8 in. dia- section : 1,088,410 ft-lb

@ basc of 6

Assuming corroded thicknesses as follows:


0.625 in. for 12 ft dia section
0.5 in. for lO-ft dia section
0.25 in. for 6 ft, 8 in. dia section

Example Problem
Design a200-foot high, free standing multilplc-diameter, unlined
SA-285 Grade C stack as shown in Fig I l. Corrosion allowance:
1/8 inch. Operating temperature of stack: 400"F.

->l

F.--3,.0"

BA.

Allowable Compresslon Stress


12 ft. diameter section

t"ltl

0.6251L44

>

0.00434

0.00425, therefore

0.56 (0.00425) (27.6) Ltr


(1 + 0.004(27.6)1f/30,000)
Similarl5,, for the 10-ft dia seclion

t.ld =
6

0.51120

14,035

psi

0.004167

S. = 13,761 Psi
ft., 8-inch. dia. section
t"td = o.25t8o = 0.003125
S. = 1032a psi

Total Uncorroded stack weights


Weighls at each level are calculated by adding the corrosion
allowancc 1<.r lht-'thickncsses assumed above After adding about l5
pcrcent of the calculated weight to account for piping plalformg
ladders, etc., we gel:
W @ basc of l2-ft dia section
178,000 lb
W @ base of lO-ft dia section 86,000 lb
l,1l @ base of 6 ft, 8-in. dia- section
23,000 Ib

:
:

Requlred Plate Thlckness


12-ft. dia" scction

_
.,

178,000 (144)
----------------

Moments
Geographical location of the stack did not require moment
calculations due to earthquake Total calculaled wind momenls are.
250

0.6605 inches

>

48 (12,046,570)
14,035

0.625 inches as assumed.

Thcrcforc, totalthickness:0.6605 40.125:0.7855 inchesoruse


th ick plate for bottom 8 feet of l2-foot diameter section
Wind momcrrts al 8 fect above bottom of l2-fL section
: I 1,136,950 ft- lb
I

FIG. I I . EXAMPLE PROBLEM FOR SELF.SUPPORIED MULTILPLE DIAMETER STACK

r(r44)2

3/16 inch

t,

0.6116 inches

Total thickncss: 0.61l6 + 0.125 :0.7366 inches.


Thcrcfon:, 3/4 inch plate is sufficient for rest of l2-foot diameter
sccllon.
251

DESTGN OF STEEL STACKS

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUTPMENT

l0-ft. dia. section, r, = 0.4652 in.


lbtal thickness = 0.4652 + .L25 = .59O2 in.
Thereforq 5/8 inch thick plate as assumed is sufficient for the l0-foor
diameter section.

6 ft, 8-in. dia section tt 0.2606 in. > 0.25 in. as assumedThereforc, use 7/16 inch plate for bottom 8 feet and 3,/g inch plate for
rcst of 6-fr-rot, 8-inch diameter secrion.

Cantllever Vlbratlon

D, =

1.385

fr., W = 146,550 lb, H = 200 ft. and lla =

H6lH = 0.075 <0.5

Anchor Bolt Chair Design

f:

ts

w_
'=

178.000

40(1s3.62s\

40

__ Rq 64o rh

r5,000

5.9766 in.2

<

Now

Trv

13 in.

P6

698

psi <

lb' L" =

L.648(192.5F

185

+ 't '5 -- 192'5 lt'

- = 1.5?4 seconds

7.385 v27.6(lo)
117'574

0'6353 cPs

V" = 3(0'6353) 7'385

14'08 mph

129 mph

98 mPh

/rnn\0.143

v- = e8l'+*l

-. = --nm]Fif-l,soK'

0.00?7(7.38s)'21!09)

Thcrcfore, (40) 3-inch diamercr bolts are suflicicnt From the


chan on Fig. 7, corresponding to a 3-inch diamererboll a:4 in., b: 3.5
in. and c: I I in. minimum, lhcrclore e: a * b: 7.5 in.

824 psi

t3.44<20

:
Maximum gusr velocity : 129(1 3) 168 mph
chcck tor K'
Since y" fails within maximum gusl velocilv'

6.324 in.2

48(72,046,570) 178,000
*
Al456r5irrj .rr+s^exl rr =

\JUl

Sp
15,000 psi
Thus, the bolt area required a1 the rool of the thread
89,649

123,550

Iry,

Vgo

48,\1,?'0a7.,s7!l

200(7.38sr

ft''

Thcrefore, vibration analysis must be per{ormed'

on rcquir('d thicknesscs arc'almosl Ihc samc as assumed

Assuming (40) 3-inch diameter bolts, the total tension in each bolt

146,550 _

HD:
:
T'

Also, 3/8-inch rhick plate is used for ropmosl3-fool diameter sectiorl


Sincc ther e is no apprcciable change in thicknesses, the weishts based

w _

15

>

750 psi

Thcrcfo rc,

750 psi

--' 0.0053 < t/t5

Therefore, the stack is frec from canlilever vibration'

Static Deflectlon
P" = t(0.00238) (1.467y (14.0s)'zi2

r = 0.355 in, r :

D":

44'3lin'

Therefore

0'5017

I: :

o.su| e.3ss) (|w.r't (nf =


aQ1.qrffgl,ozs)

psl ,
355
3l)' O^ ---

n('l4
97

'025

in''

0.4153 in.

Dvnamic Deflection

""*i:il;;;niii"ttion
factor of 30' we ge1 dvn;rmic deflection 0.4153(30) : 12 5 in. ).12 in'
allowing

and

":

fu(8ri49)6
=
Vq-rqoooli=

Outsidc dia. of basc

t45.625 +

Insidc dia of basc: 160.625


B<.rlt circlc din. : l -53.625 in.

64 in

2(7

.5\

203)

252

'

Use l'75 in'

160.625 in.
134.625 in.

li:nits when
BuL il is assumed lo oe wtthin allowable
ul
stacr
hcight
aboul 7-inch d.'flection per 100 fect o[

Ovalllng Vibration
NJtural frequency of free ring is given by

1.su,\E t.su,Jn@ 6$.11


Di=--ffi-=----1y,F-:
253

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

DESICN OF STEEL STACKS

D.
Dt
l

al 3-li. dia.,

18.4361 cps

and

"
"-

0.2(66\
-3

4.4 cps,2f"

8.8 cps <

f,

Similarlv, thcse frequencies were calculated foreach thickness ar


and/, at cvery level was compared 10 2te al the same
lcvcl. It was found thar 21, excceds rhe t al 6-fool g_inch diamerer
section only, thcrcfore rings were required to stiffen thal section.
each diamctcr;

Using threc sliffeners in the 6-foot, g_inch diameter sectiorr as


1, wc get fl, : I 7.5 ft Criricalwind velocity at
the section

shown in Fig I

under considcration is

v"- _

@(3.7J14)9.6666

2(0.2\

3733.3627

fpn

Use

0)$0f '(3733.{4):6.666)'z1'7.s

5/8 in. x 2-in. flat bars

lR rSn
as

0.4158 in.3

circumferential stiffeners in this sectioIL

NOMENCI.ATTJRE
Distance between the oulside of the stack at the base to the bolt

circle
AB
b

Z
cr
d
D

in

Bolt area required at the root of the thread in.2


Distance between bolt circle to outside of base ring in
Width of base ring in
Numerical coefficient (should not be more than 0.12)
Lift coelficienr (usually nken as 1.0)
Internal stack diameter at level under consideration, in
Inlemal stack diameter at level under consideration ft

Dr Stack mean diametel ft


Dac Bolt circle diameler, in.
Dt'
Outside diameter at bottom of stack fL
Dot Oulside diameter at bottom of stack iIL
D. Equivalent diameter for rapered or multilple diameter snck ft
Dl Average internal diameter of top half of stack ft

254

E2

Distancc bctwccn thc outside of the stack

a1

thc basc to outside of

lhc ring in.


Modulus of clasticiry for stack material, psi (30 x 106 psi for
carbon steel)
Modulus of clasticity for stack material psf (43.2 10" psf for
carbon slccl)
Modulus of elasticity for lining material, psf.
Natural frequ.'ncy o[ slack vibralion.cps

Nalural frcquency of ovalling vibration at level under con-

f,
F

sideraliqn, cps
Vortex shedding frequency al levcl under consideration, cps
Force on slructurc', lb
Total horizontal seismic force al lop of the slack lb
Acccleration due to gravity, ft/ scc.'z (32.2 h/sec.'\

Width of Von Karman Slrcel fL


Lenglhs from centroid areas to point under consideration, fL
H
Total height of stac( fi
Ht,z,z Hcight zoneg ft
Hb Height of conical section(s) of stack ft
H. Equivalcnt height for tapered or multiple diameter stack ft
H
Stiffening ring spacing ft.
H" Height of slraight section(s) of stack ft
1
Occupancy imprtance coefficient (use l 0 for stacks)
I1
Moment of inertia of stack fta
t2
Moment of inertia of lop half of stac( in"
Horizontal force factor (use 2.0 for stacks)
K
K1
Ratio of wind force al crilical wind velocity to weight of stack
Effective lengh of stack ft (can be assumed equal 10 straight
lengrh plus onehalf of conical length)
nt
Mass of struclure, Ib-secr/ftM
Grealer of wind or eanhquake moment a1 level under conIt

ht,.,z

Thc required section modulus of the rine is

s_
-'

EL

Slalic stack dcllcclit.rrt, it.t.


Oulsidc diamctct' a1 lop ol slzrck li.

sideration, ft-lb.
Eafthquake moment at level under consideration, ft-lh
Wind moment at level under consideration" fr-lb.
Number of bolts
Strouhal number (0.2 over a wide range of Reynolds number)
Pr,z,e Wind pressures for height zoneq psf
Pb Bearing pressure on concrete foundation, psi
P. Unit wind pressure al critical wind velocity, psf

Ms
MN
N,,

PF1,2

Wind moment due to individual platform at level under


consideratiorl ft-lb.
255

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Average internal radius ot top half of

stac( in

ft

r\

Stack mean radius,

Numerical coefficient for site structure resonance


Maximum allowable stress of anchor boh material psi
Allowable compression stress in plate material at level under

,ts

s"

t
tr
to,

consroerauon, psr
Required section modulus of stiffeners, in.3
Allowable tensile stress of stack plate material psi
Average corroded plate thickness of top half of stacl in.
Stack plate uncorroded thickness, fL
Assumed corroded plate thickness al level under consideratiort

t6
I,

in.
Uncorroded plate thickness at bottom of stack, in.
Required corroded plate thickness at level under consideratiorL

S.Srr

DESIGN OF STEEL STACKS

REFERENCES
l. "Minimum design loads in buildings and other

"Uniform building code," International Conference of Building


Officials, Whittier, California 1982.
3.

73e

%
Y"1
V"

Fundamental period of vibratio4 seconds


Base plate thickness, in.
Top plate thickresq in
Total seismic shear at base of stack lb.
Wind velocity for vortex shedding fps
Wind velocity at 30 fee! mph
Critical wind velocity for cantilever vibratiorl mph
Critical wind velocity for cantilever vibration, fps
Critical wind velocity for ovalling at level under consideratiorl

fpm
V. Maximum wind velocity at the top of stach mph
w Stack weight per ft of height lb./ft.
w1 2 Weight of individual section of stack lb.
W Total corroded stack weight including lining lb.
Wr Total operating weight of stach kips

Wp
W"
Wt

.rr.2

I
Z
P
to
).
A

Total tension in each boll lb.


Corroded weight of shck excluding weight ofpans which do not
contribute to stiffness, lb
Total uncorroded stack weight, lb.
Dead load deflection of individual section of stack ft
Yield stress of plate material at design temperature, psi
llBC seismic faclor
Mass density o[ air (0.00238 lb-sec']/fra)
Circular frequency of stack vibratiorl cps
Stiffness of structure. lb.,/fr

Deflection of structure,

ft

256

Stalev, C.M. and Graven, G G, "The static and dynamic wind design
of steel sracks,"ASME Paper No. 72-Pet-30.

Frecse, C.E., "Vibration o[ vertical prcssure vesselq" Journal of


Engineering for Industry Series B, Trans ASME Vol 81' No l'
Fcbnrary 1959, pp. 77-86.
Gaylord, 8.H., Gaylord, C.N, "structural Engineering Handboo("

in.

T
TB
T7
y
Vr

str-uctures," ANSI

A58.1, 1982.

McGraw-Hill Book ComPanY, 1 968.

and Woodruff G.8., "The Vibration of Steel Stacks,"


Procccdings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, VoL 80,
Scparale No 540, Nov 1954
Moody, G.B., "Mechanical design of rall stacks," Hydrocarbon
Processing 48, No 9, September 1969, pp, 173-178'
Marrone, A. "Vibrations of slacks suported on steel structures,"
Proceedings of the ASCE Vol 95, No. ST12, December 1969, pp'
Dickey,

'1.

WL

283t-2844.
9.
10.

Parmaleg RA, " Buildingfoundation interaction effects," Pro


ceedings of the ASCE VoL 93, NO. EM2, April 1967, pp 131-152' Donncl-L LH., "Results of experiments with very thin cylindrical
shells under axial pressure," Transactions of the ASME Vol 56,
1934.

E.P., " Determination of aerodynamic behavior of cantilevered stacks and towers of circular cross sec1ion," Transactions
of ASME, Paper No. 71-Pel35
t2. Dechetto, K, and Long W' " Dlnamic stability design of stacks and
towers," Journal of Engineering for Industry Series B, Trans ASME,
Vol 88, 1966, p 462.
4076:
13. "British Standard Specifications for Steel Chimnels," B S'
2
Park
House,
Standards
1966, British Standard Institution, British
Streel London, Wl.
vorter
14. Scruton, C. "Note on a device for the suppression of the
or
near-circulal
of
circular
structures
excited oscillations o[ flexible

lt. Zorrill4

section with special reference ro its application to tall stacks "


National Physical Laboratory Teddington, Middlesex, England'
Aero Note 1012, APril 1963.

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Seclion VIII, .,pressure


vesselg" Division l, ASME New York N.y. 1983.
16 Tang S.S., "Shortcut method for calculating tower deflectio4,'
15. ASME

Hydrocarbon Processing 47, No.

ll,

November 196g. rl. 230.

12
VIBRATION ANALYSIS OF TALL TOWERS

Wintl inducBd vortices ale formed on the surface of tall structures

towe$. The change in pressure associated


these vortices can generate forces required to proiluce
instability an-<l can'even result in structural failures' Thus, after the selfbe
suppoiting structure has been designed as a static structwe, it must also

such as heater stacks and plocess

with shedding

of

i"vestlgated regaraling its possible behavior under vibration conditions'


ihis chapter extends Zorrila'sl method by establishing simplified
graphical data in
relationships from his data. It also presents some of his
tabular form for quick vibration invstigations of self-supporting vertical
cylindrical, cantilevered structures such as towers and stacks' Criteria' as
If
recommenied by Zorrila, is used to estiblish a need for such analysis'

the structure is foun<t to be susceptible to vibmtion, the amPlitude of


vibration (maximum dynamic deflection at top of the structure) can also
be easily determined. Methods of ilamping excessive vibmtion are recommentled-. .l sample calculation is included to demonstrate the use and
accuracy of the technique presenteal.
Analvzing procedure.

plant or refinery for vibmtion


would be time consuming process. The following criteria is used to investigate vibmtion possibility in a structure:

lnat-yiing

aU ttre towers and

258

20<

#<

25<

ffi

,outorurion

stacls in

analysis MUST be performed

25 Vibration analysis SHOULD be performerl

Vibration analysis NEED NOT be performed

| )t

jsl(;N ()t, t,tr()Chss TjQUtPMENT

VIIJRATION ANALVSIS oF TALI, 'TOWERS

if required, should be carried out as described below.


Natual frequency of vibration. The natural frequency of
vibration,
of a bare structure in its fundamental mode for unit uit e ot
lOlLzj
Analysis,

/r,

(10)a can be read from Table 1 corresponding to ,6, the


uncorroded thick_
ness at the base of the structure_ This table is an extension
of a graphical
presentation by Zontla based on the calculation
of natural vibration lie_
quencies of several structures bry a computerized
technique using the
method proposed by Major.2

. Thus, the natural


(Wlll"
_-

= 1)

based,

frequency of vibration for a bare structure


on actual value of (DlL2) (tO)a is given bf

f = (ft)

(D lL2)

(1o)4

lvhen refractory linings, insulation, ladders, piping, platforms,


in_
te-rnal trays, operating liquids, etc. are considered to
iontribuie to stiffness
of.skucture (l|lws > 1), the frequency of yibration will be
reduced con_
$oerably. tn that case, determine the correction factor CF,
_

corresponding

to the ntioll/Wsfrom Table 2. Intermediate values shouldbe interiolated.


The natural frequency of vibration is given by

f = (ft)

(10)a (c F)
Logarithmic decrement, 6 is the log of the mtio of
successive ampli_
tudes of a damped, freely vibrating structure and i,
mearur" of the
(D lL2)

structural ability of the stack or tower to dissipate energy"


during vibration.
For a particular structure 6 depends on ih" typ. oi
the lining used. The value of6 can be selected fromiable "onrtr"u"tion "na
3 as recommenO_
ed, by-Zorrila based on the reported average
values of several ,t*atur"r.
Stability investigation. The wind tunnel test3 shows the O.p"ni.n."
of- oscillations on structural damping. Further staUitity lnvestigitions
for
structures can be made as follows:
Calculate the damping factor

Dp from the relationship

Or=#
A check for stability

can be made according to the following criteria


proposed by Zorrila on the basis ofactual
behavior of several case-histories

considred:

Dp,3 0.75 unstable


0.75 <DF < 0.95 probably unstable

0.95

<DF

If, the structure


velocity from

Stable

is not found to be stable, calculate the critical


wind

tt" =

TABLE l-Frequency of bare structures for unit


value of (D/L2) (r0)4

fi,

tr,Thickness, in.
0.25

0.37 5

0.3125

o.4Q26

0.3 7s

9.4284
0.444

o.43'7s
0.5

0.4642
o.474

o.5625
o.62s

o.482r

o.68'7 s

0.494

0.75
0.8125

0.5

0.875
0.93',7 5

0.523
0.533

1.0

0.5 5

0.512

TABLE 2-Correction factor for frequency


Correction faclor Cp

Ratio of weights I//It4


1.0

l_0

1.12s

0.9

t.25

0.85

|.3',7 5

0.8
o.79

t_)
1,

.7

0.'135

2.O

0.69

2.5

0.6

3.0

0.5 5

3.5

0.5

4.O

0.465

4.5
5.0
5.5

Q.435

6.0

o.37

o.4
0.3 85

f D,

260

Frequency, cps

261

l)l1st(;N ( )ti I'l(( x:tlSS

Ij(ltJ

,MtrN.t

vll!l{Afl()N

ANAI.YSIS

()l: lAt.l. lowlilts

ol'vortcxslrcddirlS canbe modit'iod by winding lrelicrl


a pitch of about five times the
strake should be about oneof
the
height
The
the
chimney.
of
diarnoter
are only required around
strakes
times,
and
many
the
diameter
of
teoth
of this types has-been
patented
device
A
stack.4
of
the
top
one-third
the
,u""arifully used on structures to avoid the formation of vortices and thus

4.'llrc prttcrn

strakes around thc perimeter of the shell at

cxcessive vibration.

Limitations of the technique. The application of the technique


to cylindrical steel cantilevered structures
lraving fairly uniform distribution of non-stiffness masses and wrtn L"lL
ratios less than 0.50 ,(DlL2) (lO)4less than eight, Illl/s ratios not exceedpresented should be restdcted

lng srx.

trom
"

Maxim[m wind velocity at the top of the sfuucture


can be determmed

V* =

V3o (Ll3o)o.r43

Using a gust factor of l_3, themaximum gust velocity = l.3ll,


cantilever yibration, the instability is
usuitty inifiaiei at a winO
. .In
velocity at or near the cdtical wind u"to"ity
of tne-itru","* ,", O,r,.
cdtical wind
Zc, is greater than the maximum g"r,
^yelocity,
r,rru..,lt" it free
from vibration; otherwise, the amphtlude "af""ny,,na
of villtron
should be calculated as described below.

Vbration amplitude. The vibration amplitude or


the maxinum

dynamic deflection Z at the top of tne


,tru"tur"
the following relationship;
""n

):t'"'
w

If

6 D-00)-6

t""..i."f

",fr"fr".

(o oo243)

the structure is found to l

the desisn musr be m";r,J;"-

;;#.;:",',1l.jil1J:;: :-fi lll""iT,r",,lil,;.

Damping excessive vibration..ff," foffo,oing

rn"ih;;r';f;ffi;,r,
if an excessive ,.plit"d;; ;;;;;", ir'"_#"a,
attachmenrs

design are recommended

t.

External

,be__properly distributed

(such as

piping,ladd"J;;;;j;,;;;:;;"y

around the structure which t.,"fp, to ,"0,i".


_
nulJify the effect of periodic eddy shedding.
z.
.,. . Ketractory lining may be added to an unlined structure or the
thickness or density of refractory
of a lin"d,trr"t; i;;;;;, ;;;*,

to lhe-mass and consequently increases


the structural damping.
-,iu.?ur"
possible, modifying the dimensions
or ir..
.r.
]t
hlp in damping by increasing the cdtical
wind verocity auou" tr,e
mum gust velocity.

,.

._

zoz

urro

ml*i

EXAMPLE
Analyze the stuucture shown in Fig. 2 (Chapter 13) for cantilever
vibration. Calculate the maximum dynamic amplitude at the top of the
structure, if instability is expected.

Calculations.
The example under consideration has been described in Chapter 13'
Complete analysis for cantilever vibration was also performed- It is repeatedhere to compare the results and check the accuracy of the technique
presented.

vibration possibility. D, = 7.385 ft' w = 146,550 Ib, L = 2oQ fr'


and.L" = l5 ft., L"lL = I 5/200 = 0.075 < 0.s.
w _ 146,550 rJ
ta -rr
LL \z. 4u
nn
LD.' = zoo0.385Y -Therefore, vibration analysis MUST be performed.
frequency of vibration. 16 = 0.8125 in , from Table l,11 =

Natural
0.512 cps

Also,D = 9.36?5 ft., therefore (Dp2) (10)a =


(9.367 sl20o2) (r})a = 2.34t9 18
tlls = 123,s50 lb ,Wlll"= (146,5501123,5s0) =
|.1862 < 6
From Table

2,C"

= 9.9155

= (f1)

(D lL2)

Therefore

(r])a

(.Cp) =

0.512 (2.3419) 0.87ss = 1.0498 cPs

Logarithmic decrment. From Table 3, for


ture 6 = 0.03-

263

an unlined welded struc-

)tis t(;N ()tr pt(()cLSS DQUtPMENT

Stability investigation. The damping factor DF

n =_ w6 _
u"
TL, =

VII}I{ATION ANALYSIS oI;'I'ALI,'I'OWljI{S

V. Critical wind velocity, mPh


,/1, Maximum wind velocity at th top of structure, mph
l,/ Total corroded weight of structure, lb
Ws Corroded $,eight of structure excluding weight ofparts

is

146,550t0 n?)
=ffiffi
= 0.4031 < 0.75

Therefore, the structure is unstable.


The critical wind velocity is
Vc =

fL

= 3(1

contribute to stiffness, lb

.0498) 7 .38s =

23

Z
6

.2583 mph

Maximum amplitude of vibration at the top ofstructure, in.


Logarithmicdecrement

Z3s = 98 mph
vu, =

ho

whlch do no1

REFERENCES

(Ll3o)o.143 = 98(200/30)0.143 = 129 mph

Maximum gust velocity = 1.3(129) = 168 Inpil


Since I/" ( maximum gust velocity, the dynamic amplitude
must be

determined.

l. Zorrita. E. P.. "Determination of Aerodynamic Behavior of Cantilevered


Stacks and Towers of Circular Cross Section," Transactions of ASME
Paper No. 71-Pet-35.
Major, A., "Vibration Analysis and Design of Foundations for Machines
and Turbines," Collet's Holdings Ltd., London, and Akaddmiai Kiadd,
Budapest, 1962.
3. Scruton, C., "Wind Effects on Structures," Proceedings of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers, 1970-?1, Vol. 185 23/71, February 1971.
4. "British Standard Specifications for Steel Chimneys." B. S. 4076: 1966,
British Standard Institution, British Standards House, 2 Park Street,

2.

Amplitude of vibration. The maximum dynamic deflection

L=
_

f 5l/

is

Wt(l0fo

(0.00243)

(200 ) " (23.2583 ) '( l0 )-6 (0.00243

146-;5so-(oo-tiis-t- = Izeb rn'

which is within allowable limits


height is allowed.

if 7in.

deflection/IO0

ft. of

structure

Comparison of results. There is an appreciable difference in natural


frequency of vibration and thus the critical wind velocity as compared
to
the earlier method. However, the dynamic deflection of 12.96 in. seems
to be reasonably accurale as compared to I2.5 in. calculaled
earlier,
tt may be concluded that this technique is quite accurate and much
less time consuming when compared to other conventional methods.

London, W.1.
5.Scruton. C.. "Note on a Device for the Suppression of the Vortx-Excited
Oscillations of Flexible Structures of Circular or Near{ircular Section
with Special Reference to its Application to Tall Stacks." National
Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex, England, Aero Note 1012,

Aoril 1963.

NOMENCLATURE
D

DD,

Correction factor for frequency


Average internal diameter of structure, ft.
Damping factor
Ayerage internal diameter of top half of structure, ft.
Natural frequency of vibration of strucrure, cps
Natural frequency of bare structure based on unit vafue of (DlL2)

(10)4,

Z
Lc
t6
I/rs

cps

Total length of structure, ft.


Total length of conical section(s) of structure. ft.
Uncorroded plate thickness at the bottom of structure. in.
Wind velocity al jO feet, mph

author's srudv: Analyze To*er vibration Quicker"


dfii 'il-ii" "tigtttty modified version ofvolume
56. Nb. 5 {May. 1977) Copyrighted Culf
Processin1
ilft"lia-i ny&*itrton
with permission.

itblishing Co. Used

264

26s

13
DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR TANKS

sizes

The chemical plocess industries use vessels of various


to store, accumulate or process gases, liquicls and solids'

shaps and

While a cylindrical shape may be structurally best for tank construction, rectangular tanks frequenuy are preferred-even though these require
laiger quantity of matedal for eonstruction than do cylintlrical tanks of
"the same capacity. On occasion, special piocesses or operations may make
cylinclrical tanks imPractical. When several separate cells are needed, rec'
tangular tanks can be easily fabricated and arranged in less space than
the
cylinrirical ones of the sarne capacity. This is especially helpful when
tanks or vats are needed insirle a building'
We will discuss the complete design technique* fol flat+urfaced
rcctangular tanks that contain nonpressurizeilliquids. These exert a varying
horizontal pressure against the side-walls, as shown in Fig' 1' The walls of

the tank act as plates having suitable

edge conditions (i.e', the edges are

free and supported). Such plates are analyzed under certain assumptions
by using the theory of bending for thin plates.2
The data as originally presented by Wojtaszak" in glaPtucd rorm'
for
and later represented by Roark and Younga in tabular form are used
made:
are
assumptions
analysis. In oriler to apply these data,the following
(l) iectangular plate has a uniform thickness, (2) allowable deflection of
the plate is held to within about one half the ptat thickness, and (3)

for the material is 0.3'


To obtain the required rigidity for a lighterage plate, stiffenen are
recommended. This can lower fabrication cost considerably' A sample
oroblem will show how to use the technique.

Poisson's ratio

*The currcnt Aflsrican Petroleum Institute Standaral fot tank designrdos


not include a tchnlqu for snalyzing the rectangular confiSrtation'

267

)tjst(;N ()lr pllo(:uss IQUtpMtNT

DESI(iN OI] RIiCTANCUt,AR TANKS

l)esign procedure wil.hout stifreners

_ We begin by calculating the maximum plessure against the side_wall


due to the weight of the contents from:
p=

0.433Hs

(t)

Tanks without stiffeners have their top edge free, and the
remaining
three edges supported. Flat-plate formulas can be directly applied
for this
edge condition to determine stresses and deflections.
We calculate the ratio afb (that is, the height, a, of the tank
to the
larger of the length or width dimension, b), and read the
correspondmg
values of constants B and a from Table 1. Intermediate
values should be
interyolated.
The maximum bending stress in the plate is given by:

s^"" =

ppb2/Q)z

approximatety
one third of the ultimate tensile strength of the steel. (This
is a factor of
safety of 3, which is also common for static structural
lo;ds on steel) For
:iTqli:ity, a more appropriate value of allowable bending stress, s_*, of
18,000 psi for plates and stiffeners is recommended by young.6
The. required corroded-plate thickness, tr, can be founJ
by rearrarg_

nPe

a/b 0.5

0.667 1.0

.5

2,5

3.0

3.5

Constsnt,

p o.'l1 0.16 o.2o o.2A 0.32 0.35 0.36 0.37

constanr,

a 0.026

0.033 0.040 o.o5o 0.058 0.0&l 0.067 0.069

4.o
O37

0.070

Sourcs: Modlfi.d from Raf.4


CONSTANTS FOR RECTANGULAR PLATES' SIMPLY SUPPORTED
ALONG I'HREE EDGES
(FREE ALONG TOP EDGE AND SUBJECT TO HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE)

TABLE

1.

e.)

Stresses as recommended by the ASME Code for pressure


vessels5
may .be increased_rrhen used for designing tanks under hydrostatic
pressure.
I he r_nax-imlm allowable working stress is considered
to be

. *
ing Eq. (2):

Ratio,

(3)

The thickness determined from Eq. (3) should be rounded off to the
allo\Mance (if required)
must be added to this value in order to get the minimum required total
plate thickness. However, in no case shall the corroded thickness of tank
plate be less than 3/16 inMaximum deflection of corroded plate is given by:

next higher sixteenth of an inch, and a cofiosion

Y^". --

aPba/E(t")3

Maximum plate deflection should be limited

(4)

to one half of

the

corroded-plate thickness. Ifthe final plate thickness seems uneconomical,


or maximum plate deflection exceeds one half of the corroded-plate thickness, a topdge stiffener shouldbe added, and an analysis for this condition
made.

Design procedure with top-edge stiffeners


All edges of the tank may be considered supported

if a topdge
stiffener ofsufficient size is added. For this type of beam(supported attop
and bottom, and carying a varying load that increases uniformly to one
end), the bending moment at top and bottom edges is zero. However, this
type of loading results in reactions R 1 at the top edge and R 2 at the bottom
edge, as shown in Fig. 2. The magnitudes of these reactions are:
R, =
R, =

FIG. I . PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IN RECTANGULAR TANK

268

pan/6
patn/3

(5)
(6)

Reaction R1 is assumed to be a uniformly distributed Ioad per unit


length of top edge, and the beam alo4g that direction is considered to be
fixed at both ends. The maximum deflection of the beam? with this
type of loading is given by:

269

Dtisl(;N olr Rlic rAN(iul'AR

l)Lst(;N oF PR(XlllSS EQUIPMENT


Y^o,

Rrbn
.
= 3B4EI^i.

(7)

Neglecting the moment of inertia of the plate itseli


we find the
minimum required moment of inertia of the top_dge stiffener
by equating
the deflection
from Eq. (7) to the maximum
pt"t"
-calculated
defleclion, taf2, o(
"ttowaUte

to

2
We get

Inin by

Rlba

(d'

3g+El,'.i,

rearranging Eq. (8):

,
tni"
= lsrE;.
R.bn

',TANKS

horizontal stiffeners
Adding
"*'i?iff"t."
the
ln",.ur. ttt. rigidity of the entire plate by in-creasittg
momentofirlertiaofthecombinedsectionThus'theplatethlcknesscan be

A large stiffener can


,.Ou..O .onriO"rably by adding more stiffeners'
f""*O " O \statce of.a/
added horizontally all around tne taJ, "J
the minimum
.-OSilii', frorr the top of th tank in order to produce
stiffener'
the
below
in the plate, both above and
i"rOint
xcept
Tiere is no simple iormula for analyzing such a configuration'

l.

"

rt'

."rn*,

width' m' of the plate The


by using bbam formulas that consider a unit
the stiffener'
maximim bending moment is negative and occurs at

(e)

A stiffener having a moment of inertia greater than or equal to


1,nrn
should be provided around the top edge of the tank.
The size of stiffener
should be recalculated if therc is any change in tank_plate
thickness. How_
ever, angles less than 2 112 il. X 2 112 in. X ll4 in. should
not be used.
Fo-r
plates, supported on all four edges. we determlne
ttre
v,lues of F-rectangular
and a (correspondin g to the ratio sf b) frorn T"bl" Z .
We interpolate for intermediate yalues,

lntermedrare

stiffener

ah
0-25 0.286 0.333 0.4
0.5 0.667
0.024 0.031 0.041 0.056 O.O8O 0.1t6
B
Constant, a
0.00027 0.00046 O.OOO83 0.0016 O.OO35 O.OO83
Rario,

constanr,

N4aximum Pressure, P

lMaximum Pressure, P

Aetio,ah
1.0 1.5 2.O 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
consrant,, 0.16 0.26 0.34 0.38 0.43 o.47 O,4g
Constanr, a
O,O22 0-043 0.060 O.OZO 0.078 0.086 0,091

FIG'

ON
SIDE OF TANKHAVING A
TOP.EDGE STTFFENER

FIG,2.

REACTION FORCES

3'

REACTION FORCES ON SIDE


HAVING TOP-EDGE AND

OF TANK

INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS

Sourcs: Modifiod from Bf.4

TABLE

2. CONSTANTS FOR RECTANGULAR PLATES, SIMPLY SUPPORTED


ALONG ALL EDGES (SUBJECT TO HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE)

We

calculate the corroded_plate


-by using Eq.
(3) and (4),

thickness and maximum deflection


respectively. If the maximum deflection is greater
than one half the corroded-plate thickness, or if final ptutu
tti"t,"-"r, ,ttt

looks uneconomical (taking into consideration the cost of material


ancl
fabrication), more stiffeners should be added horizontally
o, uo,i"uliy, .,

in- a combination of both. Then, an analysis


stiffeners should be made.

270

for horizontal

anO

Its magnitude8 is given by the following equatlon:

M^a' =

O'O]l47Pa2m

We determine the required thickness


bending equation:

of plate by using the

(10)
simple

s^M = 6M''",/ (q),


(l l)

verticaf

2'.1|

'fANKS
DESICN OII RIJCTANCUI.AR

t)tisl(;N ot' PRocEss EQUIPMENT


Addition of this horizontal stiffener
tions Rl andRz.
location, as shown

changes the magnitude of reac-

It

also results in an additional reaction, R3, at this


in Fig. 3. The magnitudes of these reactions are:

R, = O.O3}pan
Rz : 0 l5lqam
R" = 0.320pan

(12)
(13)
(

14)

The intermediate stiffener can be sized from Eq. (9) by usingR3 rl


place of Rr. The top+dges stiffner can also be resized,if desired, by using
the newvalue ofRl-as given by Eq. (12) in Eq. (9).

the toP
tNrk. 'l'ltc resultant stilfening eflecl should not bc uscd to resize
analysis'
of
this
r,rlgc stillbner, due to the extreme complexity

lh.rriurr
"' 'Tft"analysis for the tank is to consider a section of the plate
utl'i"f method of analysis
of the stiffeners ln
llrving a width equal to the distance between centers
analysis The comin
the
be
included
if,ir rlo"*t, only one stiffener is to
of inertia for this
moment
4'
The
it,,'.J t..,t"" *iil b" u, shown in Fig'
rcction can be found from:

_ Ar\ta\2 -+ ArAz(hiz
At+42
12

,_,

For this configuration, maximum shear on the plate section occurs


at reaction

R3. Its magnitude

is:

V*, = 0.l59pab

Dimensions

(1s)

The method of considering unit-width of ptate produces a slightly


greater stress value than actually exists. For a more efficient design, vertical
stiffene$ are recommended wherever possible.

tq

Adding vertical stiffeners


Adding vertical stiffeners along the length and width of the tank
b. We recalculate the /ztio afb (using the larger value
if the stiffener spacing on length and width is different). From Table

2, we find the constantsp and (r that correspond to the ratio a/r. We then
calculate tr a'nd Ymax by using Eq. (3) and (4), respectively. If the maximum deflection is not within allowable limits, we repeat the procedure by
changing the value of b, or by increasing panel thickness for the determined
value of r, until the deflection is within limits.
Size of the vertical stiffener can be approximated by neglecting the
effect of the plate itself for the selected stiffener spacing. The plate sectron
may be treated as a simply supported beam at both ends, with varying load
increasing uniformly to one end.
Maximum bending moment occurs at a distance of al(3)rl2 (or
0.5114a) from the top of the tank. Its magnitude is:

M*, = 0.0642qta2

( 16)

By using the bending equation, we calculate the required section


modulus, Z, of the stiffener fromi

M^",

0.0642p1a2

s,,",

s,'",

It

AjQ,,/2) + A-lh\+

C":

A1+

\!./2tl

(1e)

A2
(20)

C,

({etermined from:
Y

(2r)

-- = o.oo652pla4 / EI

built-up section
We now calculate the bending stresses in the
plate
is:
the
of
fiber
outer
the
Sr,
in
mum bending stress,

;ti

il

Maxitr

(22)

S, = M,,""Ct/ I
fiber of the stiffener is:
And maximum bending stress, 52, in the outer
(23)
S, = M^""C2/ I
The design should be modified

if

Ii

either 51 or 52 exceeds the allow-

able value.

Maximum vertical shear for this configuration is:

(24)
V,a, = pla/3
stiffener is stressed in horizontal
The
-Theweld joining the plate and
forces' The
si"" of ttrir-*etd c"n be determined from the shear
,h""r.
join
a stiffener to the plate
l*rtnuous fillet weld required to
i"g

ri*

"i*t"
may be found bY using:

[ir

(2s)

should run from the top edge to the bottom edge of the

272

(17)

A stiffener having a section modulus equal to or greater thanZ should

be selected.

and C2 in Fig' 4 are calculated as follows:

of I I - (8/ l5)
Maximum deflection in the plate occurs at a distance
ili)"(t,-, g.5193a) from the 1op of the tank' Its magnitude can be

reduces dimension

of

Cl

(18)

If

continuousintermittent fillet weld$ are required' we calculate the

fillet weld size (expressed

as a

decimal)' and divide

2-13

it by the actual

fi

leg srze

il
il

t)tjst(;N otr p t{o(jtr.ss lQUIPMENT

DESICN OT RBCTANCULAR TANKS

of the intermittent-fillet wetd.

When expressed as a percentage, this will


give the amount of intermittent weld per unit length.

Center of gravily {C,G.} o{ plate

store a liquid whose specific gravity is l'26. Material of construction for


the tank is ASTM A-285 Grade C steel Corrosion allowance equals zero.
Let us assume that the entire surface of the bottom plate is supported.
We begin by calculating the maximum liquid pressure on the tank

walls by substituting into Eq. (1):


y' = 0.a33(6)(1.26)

3.273 Psi

We then analyze the design for a tank without stiffeners. To do so,


we note thata = 72 in., b = 84 in., and alb = 72184 = 0.851. FromTable 1,
we determine the constants p and d by interyolation and find them to be:

\'. \'
C.G. or
u.u.
of sflrrner
stiffner

4.

and a =

TERMINOLOGY FOR COMBINED SECTION OF PLATE


AND STIFFENER TOR A TANK WALL

When the entire surface of the bottom plate is supported, a minimum


of 1/4 in. is sufficient in almost all cases. However, corrosron
allowance (if required) should be added to the minimum thickness. If the
bottom of the tank is to be supported by angles or beams, a special design
analysis should be made to ensure sufficient rigidity.

thickness

= 0.485 in.
l8,000
Rounding 1,. to the next highest l/16 in., we get

chapter. The distance betn/een yertical stiffeners has been used as the reduced plate-width to detemine the panel thickness (this may not be
exactly correct).
Therefore, to be more conservative and for additional security, a
horizontal stiffener is recommended, along with vertical stiffeners for tanks
7 ft. high or more. Theoretically, adding horizontal stiffeners would allow
a reduction in size of the vertical stiffeners. For simplicity, a hodzontal
stiffener of the same size as the vertica.l stiffeners may be used withour
further calculations. The horizontal stiffener should be placed at a distance
equal to 0.5774 of the total height from the top of the tank.

Fxample illustrates design method


kt us design a rectangular tank 7 ft.long X 7 ft. wide X 6 ft. high to

1a

= 0.5 in. From

Eq. (4), we obtain the maximum deflection:

0.037(3.273x84_)4

1.608in.
x 106(0.5)3 =
Since Y,'i* should be <1l2ta ,I]ne deflection of 1.608 in. is excessive. Consequently, a toPedge stiffener must be added.
To size the top-edge stiffener, we must find,a,,i,? for it by determining R 1 from Eq. (5) and then 1-;, from Eq. (9).
R

Summary of design concepts


Actual analysis of a tank panel having stiffenen is very complex.
Several such tanl<s of various sizes have been successfully built, using
stiffeners designed in accordance with the tecnhique described in this

stress

'0. r 83(3.273)(84),

Designing the bottom plate

274

0.037. For the maximum allowable bending

rl

C.G. of combined sectionj

FIG.

= O.tg:

(S,''o! = 18,000 psi), we calculate the corroded-plate thickness from Eq'


(3) as:

t=

3.27 3(7

2)(t) / 6

39.28 tb /

in.

39 28(B{)'
/ . = 0.679
'"-192(30x106x0.5)

in.4

We will select a structural member known as an equal-leg angle from


Ref. 7, and having a moment of inertia equal to or greater than the calcuIated value of 0.679 in.a The angle fitting these requirements has dimensions of 2 ll2 in. x 2 112 in. x 114 in., and is fitted around the top

perimeter of the tank.


Now, we check our design for a tank having a top-edge stiffener, by
detrmining the constants p and a from Table 2 for the fttio ofb = 0 857.
The values arep= 0.141 anda=0.016. Substituting these values into Eq.
(3) and (4), we get:

18,000

v-

0.425 in. to

0.016(3.273X84r
30 x 106(0.4375)3

27s

0.4375

1.038 in.

in. (i.e., /tu in.)

)lisl(;N oli PltO(llrSS EQUIPMENT

Dt]SICN OF RtsCTAN(iUI,AR 'I'ANKS

The deflection of 1.038 in.is still excessive. Therefore, additional


stiffeners are needed. Let us try adding vertical stiffene$ at a 42-in. spac_
ing along the length and width of the tank. For rhis spacing, a/, becomes
72142 = 1.714. From Table 2,we now find thatfi=O.294and a= 0.050.
Therefore:

18,000

0.3125 in. (i.e., ,f,oin.)

30

0.050(3.273 r(42 )r

x loloilr5F

0.307 in.

0 556 in'

Again, the deflection is excessive. Let us reduce the stiffener spacing

{11 dimensions are inches

to 28 in., and solve for a rcw afb = 72125 = 2.571. From Table2, we
obtain new values forf = 0.387 anda = 0.071. Solving Eq. (3) and (4) for

FIG.

this condition yields:

0.387(3.273)(28)'
to

..
r,,,, :

0.235 in.

0.25 in. (i.e., 1/4 in.)


0.07

30

3.17J )(t8 rr

0.305 in.
xr o,,-io25l =

The deflection is still excessive. Let us


0.3125 in.). Deflection now becomes:

try 5/16-in. plate (i.e., ro =

,,
)\'28)l
r,,,"
= 30 x ro,\ojl2r.r = u.rrb
o.ol t( 3.213

rn.

The deflection is now almost equal to tal2, or 0.3125/2, and is


suitable. Since corrosion allowance is zero, let us use 5/16-in. plate for the
tank, with veftical stiffeners having a 28-in. spacing.
We now resize the top-dge stiffener. Neglecting the effect ofvertical stiffenem, we calculate the required moment of inertia for the new
plate thickness from Eq. (9) as:

,
r-..=__

39.28(84)1
__,.*
t92(30 x 106 )\..,, _,/ =

1.087in.{

From Ref. 7, we obtain the size of the equalJeg angle meeting or


exaeedng Imin. Dimensions of the resized angle are: 2 1
12 in. x 2 I li in.
X l12 in.
To size the vertical stiffeners, we calculate maximum bendrng
momenr by using Fq. (lO). Hence:

M^* = 0.0642(3.273)(28)(742 =
276

as:

COMBINED SECTION OF PLATE AND STIFFENER

5.

FOR TANKWALL OF PROBLEM

From Eq. (17), we obtain the section modulus, Z, for this stiffener

z=

3o,5oo / l9,ooo

1.694in.'

For vrtical stiffeners, we will select an appropriate channel from


Ref. 7 to meet or xceed the calculated section modulus' The required
channel has dimensions of 4 in. X I 5/8 in., and weighs 5'4 lb/ft' Its crosssection contains 1.56 in.2
We must now perform a design analysis for the combined section, as
shown in Fig. 5, to dtermine whether the maximum deflection is exceeded. To find the area of the combined section, we add the area of the plate
(28 X 0.3125) and the area of the channel (1 56) to get a total area of 10 31

substituting into Eq. (18), we can calculate the combined moment


of inertia as:
8.75(1.s6X2.1563)z
8.?5(0.3125)z
3.8 +

in.2 By

/=

t2

10.31

10.207 in.a

where 3.8 is the moment of inertia for the selected channel about its major
axis, as found from the appropriate table in Ref. 7'
We calculate Cl and C2 from Eq. (19) and (20), respectively:
8.75(0.1s63)

1.56(2.1563

10.31

=
=

0.4826 in.

- 0.4826 = 3.8299 in.


l=b=29in.

C"

4.3125

30,500 in-tb

277

0.1563)

I)US

(2r):

I(;N ()I'I PI{(X]ESS EQUIPMENT

We then calculate the maximum deflection by substituting into Eq.

0.00652(3.273)(28X72)r

30

,2u2in, X 21t2in. X

1/2 in.

106(

10.027)

0.0534 in.

Top angle

Channel4 in. X 1sr6;n., 5.416711

tXlSl(;N

oI

RLICTANCUt.AR lANKS

Therefore, wc will use a 3/ l(r-nr. minimum llllet weld for attaching


the stiffeners to the tank wall.
Since the entire surface of the bottom plate is supported and since
the corrosion allowance is zero, a bottom plale ll4 iI'. thick will be sufficient for this tank. The final arrangement of stiffeners is shown in Fig. 6.
It is important to note that the weight of the tank and its contents must be
transferred to an adequate support structure (if elevated), and ultimately

to a foundation.

NOMENCLATURE

d
,4
Ar
b
C
Cr
C2
Elevation
FIG.

6.

Side

E
ht

LOCATION AND SIZE OF STIFFENERS

h2
Since the maximum deflection is considerably less than one half of
the plate thickness (0.312512),the design is satisfactory.
Finally, we check the maximum bending stress, S1, in the outer fiber
of the plate from Eq. (22), and S, in the outer fiber of the stiffener from
Eq. (23). These stresses are:
.5'r

J',

=
=

30,500(0.482 6) / 10.0'27

30,500(3.8299)/ 10.02'r

:
=

1,468 psi

ll,650psi

Since the allowable value is 18,000 psi, both bending stresses are well
within the limit.
We calculate the maximum vertical shear for our configuration from
Eq. (24), and find it to be:

v^", = 3.273(28)(12)/3 =

2,200 tb

If we use a continuous fillet weld to attach the stiffeners to the plare,


we can dtermine the weld size by substituting into Eq. (25) and assumrng
that the fillet-weld shear, S*, is 10,000 psi,

W=

2,200(8. i5)(0.3263)
r

0,000(10.027X2)

278

0.0313 in.

h3
I/
1
1,
./2
lnrz

Height of tank, in.


Area of uncorroded-plate section of width /, in.2
Area of corroded-plat section of width /, in.2
Larger dimension for length or width of tank, in.
Distance from outer fiber ofplate to outer fiber of stiffener, in.
Distance from neutral axis of combined sectionto outer fiberofplate, in.
Distanc from neutral axis of combined section to outer fiber of

stiffener, in.
Modulus of elasticity (for carbon steel, E = 30 X 106), psi
Distance between center of gravity of plate section and the neutral
axis of combined section, in.
Dstance between the neutral axis of combined section and the center
of gravity of stiffener, in.
Distance btween center of gravity ofplate and that of stiffener, in.
Height of tank, ft.
Moment of inertia of combined section, in.a
Moment of inertia of plate section, in.a
Moment of inertia of stiffener, in.a
Minimum rcquired moment of inertia of top-edge or intermediate

stiffener, in.a

/
m

Distance between sliffeners, in.


Unit width of plate, in.
M,n ajr Maximum bending moment in the plate, in lb
r Number of continuous welds joining the stiffener to the plate.
p Maximum pressure against side-walls of tank due to weight of contents, psi
Rl Reaction at top edge of tank, lb/in.
R2 Reaction at bottom edge of tank, lb/in.
R3 Reaction at intermediate horizontal stiffener, lb/in.
s Specific gravity of tank contents
Sr Maximum bending stress in outer fiber of plate, psi
,S2 Maximum bending stress in outer fiber of stiffener, psi

279

l)l;Sl(;N ( )lr Pl{(X;tiSS t)(.lUtPMLjNl


Smdx Maximum allowable bcnding stress in plate or slil.l.eDers, psi

S,,
td
//

I/-o,

ll

I-or,

Z
c
B

Allowable shear stress of stiffener-to-plate weld, psi


Actual corroded-plate thickness, in.
Required corroded-plare lhickness, in.
Total shear on plate section, lb.
Lng size of continuous-fillet weld, in.
Maximum deflecrion of plate. in.
Section modulus ofvertical stiffener, in.3
Constant (se Table I and 2)
Constant (see Table I and 2)

t4
AIR COOLED HEAT EXCIIANGERS
PART A

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS

REFERENCES
1. "Welded Steel Thnks for Oil Storage, " 7th ed., API Standard 650,
American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., November i980.
2. Timoshenko, S. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S., "Theory of Plates and
Shells," 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, N. Y., 1959.
3. Wojtaszak, I. A., "Stress and Deflection of Rectangular Plates," J. Appl.
Mech., Vol. 3, No. 2 (1936).
4. Roark, R. J. and Young, W. C., "Formulas for Stress and Strain," 5th
ed., Mccraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 1975.
5. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII. "Pressure Vcssels" Div. 1, American Soc. of Mechanical Engineers, New York, N.Y.,
1983.

6. Young, D., 'lBending Moments in the Walls of Rectangular Tanks,,'proc.


Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., Vol.67, 1683 (1941).
7. "Manual of Steel Consfucdon," 8th ed., American Institute of Steel
Construction, New York, N.Y., 1980.
8. Blodgett, O. W., "Design of Welded Structures," The James F. Lincoln
Are Welding Foundation, Cleveland, August 1967.

Chapter l3 is a sligitly_nodified version ofauthor's study:'A method for Designing Rectangufar Storagr 'Ihnls' published in Chenical Eneineerine (March 28, 1977). -Cop-yrighted-by

Mccraw-Hill. Inc.

Air cooled heal exchangers become altractive especially in


Iocalions where water is scarce or expensive 1o treat Although the

initial installed cosl ofan aircooleris usually greaterthan that ofa waler
cooler, the savings in operation and maintenance costs frequentlymake
the air cooler the more economical selection'
Air cooled heat exchanger consists of a bundle of bare or finned
tubes which are rolled or welded into headers Ambient air is moved
across the tube bundle by an induced or forced draft fan The warm
fluid circulating through the tubes, gives up paft of its heal to the air
which is then eipelled lo the almosphere above or around the unil's
circumference. Different tlpes of tubes, headers, and fans combine to
form a wide varicty of overall designs The aim of each is to carry away
unwanted heat as cfficiently as possible, with minimum maintenance'
vibration. and noisc. Two main groups of these exchangers along with
t
the advantages and disadvantages of each are discussed below

Induced Draft

l}pe

These are the types in which the lube bundles are located on the
suction side of the fan as shown in Figure 1.

Advantages
l. Easier 10 shop assemble, ship, and install
2. The hoods offer prolection from weather'
i. Easier to clean underside when covered with lin4 bugs, debris'
4. More efficient air distribution over the bundle
5. Less likely to be affected by hot air distribution
Dlsadvantages
1. More difficult to remove bundles for maintenance'
2. High temperature service limited due to effect of hot air on the

fans

280

281

AIR COOIfD HEAT EXCHANGERS

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT


3.

More difficult to work on thn assembly,


heat from bundlc and their location.

i.

c., ad

just bladcs due ro

.IG 2

FORCED DMFT AIR COOLED HEAT EXCI-IANCER

Tubes

configuration But
do not have
surfaces
round
bare
its applicalion is limited because
and heat
bundle
tube
larger
A
much
sufficient heat rransfcr area
expose
can
Fins
duty
same
the
handle
to
exchanger would be needed
in
result
thus
and
sur{ace
more
tube
from eighl 10 lwenty times
of
lube'
given
diameter
a
from
dissipati,on of more hcat
Selection of mosl economical exchanger requires careful
A bare tube is thc simplest and least expensive

R COOLED HEAT EXCHANCER

Forced Draft \pe


In these tlpes, the tube bundlcs are located on the discharge ofthe
fan as showr in Figurc 2.
Advantages
1. Easy to remove and replace bundles.
2. Easier to mount motors or other drivers with shon shafts.
3. Lubrication, maintenance', etc. more accessible.
4. With reinforced straight sidc panels to form a rectangular box
tlpe plenum, shipping and mounting is greatly simplified, permitting complete preassembled shoptested
units.

5. Best adapted for cold climale operation with warm air


recirculation.
Disadvantages

l.

Difficult to shop asscmble, ship, and install.

2. More exposure to weather conditions.


3. Difficult to clcan from underside.
4. Less efficient air distribution over the bundle.
5. Greatly increased possibility of hot air recirculation.

282

consideration of many component variables. It is extremely imporlant


to use standard designs ifat allpossible. Tube and fin sizeand materials
D'
are limited to what can bc manufactured economically' One inch O
from
varies
height
Fin
most
common
'/2
and thirty feet long tubes arc
inch to 7, i.r.h and fin pitch varics from 8 to I I fins per inch' Othertube
sizes can also be used if found economical for any applicarion
Bare rubes should be used where the process temperature ls very
high and whcre thc heat lransfcr rate on the process side is very low'
Where these conditions cxist, il is good practice to provide both bare
and fin tubes in onc sewice'. When the process inlet temperature is loo
high for the fin tubc, thc fir-sl pass may be bare tubes Likew]se, for rhe
last pass, where thc coolcd stream has a lransfer rate in the viscous
region.

Finned Tubes

Finned tubcs zrrc available in a wide range of shapes and


materials. Some of thc most popular designs are discussed below'
Each of these tlpes is dcsigned for a given temperature range

283

AIR COOI.ED HEAT EXCHANGERS

DESIGN OF PR@ESS EQUIPMENT

depending on materials used and operating conditions. Each will give


maximum service for a given application when correctly used
Tension Wrapped Embedded Flns
This type of fin, as shown in Figure 3, is tighrly wound into th
groove to produce an inlerference fit on both sides andbottom toinsure
tight contact between fin and 1ube. This is good for design temperature
of up to 750'F. It has the disadvantage of an exposed bimetal contact
and provides no protection for the steel liner.

FIG,

5'SINGLE

FOOTED TENSION WMPPED FINS

Double Footed Tension Wrapped Flns


--- itrit typ", shown in Figure 6, is obtained in the same way

as

ln
is also good for the same temperature range
fin'
preceding
ofrhe
toe
the
one fin [iri directlv upon
more posil ive shield berween the base tube and the

fl"t^,und

"in"rc}oot"a'
;;i"";;il;;";i"f

iltr'"d;;i;;;if.tr

"
atmosphere than the single footed t)?e

FIG. 3 . TENSION WMPPED EMBEDDED FINS

Extruded Flns
- This is the most expensive tlpe. It is produced by slipping an
aluminum tubeoverthe coretube, thealuminum fin is th".,
""i-d.dby
rolling the muff Extrusion operation builds up an inlerference
fit
between the two tubes producing complete mechanical bond" This
design actually consists of a tube within a tube and the fins Drotect the
surface of the core tube as is shown in Figurc 4. Il is go;d through

550"F design temperature.

FIG' 6 - DOUBLE FOOTED TENSION WRAPPED FINS

Tension WraPPed Flns


Edee
--"- ftWound
i"..i^pf. tension wound type of fin and is shown in Figure 7(a)
and(b). It is good for 300"F of maximum design temperature'

(b) On Knurlcd rubc

FIC.7 - EDGE WOUND TENSION WRAPPED FINS

FIG. 4

Hot Dtpped Solder Bonded Fins


by soldering and then
These tlpes offins are attached to thc tubes
maximum design
250"F
to
is
limited
use
Its
aiop"a-ttoi ln tot"tiorr.
constmction
their
of
because
temperature

EXTRUDED FINS

Single Footed Tension Wrapped Fins


This type, as shown in Figure 5, is good for design temperature

of

up to 350"F. Contact between fin and tube is obtained by applying


tension during finning The heel of one fin fits snugly againsi rheioe of
the preceding fin thus completely covering the base iube and shieldrns
against atmospheric corrosion.

284

Headers
----

H"^d".

t"b., t-";;";
tuU".

i.i

is important because they tie the exchanger


"on"truction
itilo a bundle. They also-provide accets to the,inside of
in the
removal and' occasionaliy' for replacing a tube

"*f"

285

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

bundle. ln an air coolcd heat cxchanger, tubc ends are bare of fins in
order that the rubes can be roller expanded and/orwelded into headers.
Various t,?es of headers along with their applications are discussed
below.

Plug

gpe Header

This is the most common type ofheader. It has plugs opposite the
tubes to allow for tube rolling and cleaning Box t5pe headers can be
fabricated from side plates and two end plates using corner welds as
shown in Figure8 (a). In applicarions(such as lethal service, etc) where
extensive nondeslruclive testing is required, plates can be bent to,,C"
shapes and butt-welded togetheras shown in Figure 8 (b). Box headers
have been built with design pressures up to 3,000 psi

AtR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

Manlfold \pe Header


This typc utilizcs cylindrical hcadcrs with U-tubcs as shown in
Figure 10. iLese arc suirablc [orhigh prcssure applications' Chemical
cleaning and flushing conncctions may be added to handle dirty
streams in the cylindrical hcadcr This tJ,rpe cannot be used where
periodic tube cleaning is ncccssary.

:OLD ryPE HEADER

(a) Fab.icaied Bo\ T.We

(b) 'C" Shapc Type

FIC. 8 . PLUC TYPE HEADERS

Billet lype Header


This tlpe is shown in Figurc 1l and is also suitable for high
pressure applications. In this, a solid metal billet is drilled with flow
passages. The bored fluid passages are manifolded inlo pipe or
machined collecting chamberu depcnding upon the pressure

Cover Plate 1}pe Header


This type has bohed cover plate as shown in Figure 9 and thus
does away with the need for screw plugs. This should be spc.cified for
streams with fouling factor of.003 or more and where entrained solids
may settle ou1 in the bundles. Because of gasketed joint at the
coverplate, use of this type is limiled to design pressure oi350 osi and
temperatu rc o[ 400'F.

COVER PLATE TYPE HEADER

286

FIC. I I -,BILLET TYPE HEADER

287

AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Steam Coll
Sleam coils are used 1o heat the fin tubes to prevenl fluids from
solidification or freezing inside the tubes on stan-up, shutdowrr, or
operating conditions.
Fans
Moving air should be distributed as evenly as possible across the
tube bundle. Poor distribution can create areas of very little air
movemcnt resuhing in reduced cooling effectiveness ofthe finned tube
bundle and an increase in power consumption. Axial flow, propeller
tlpe fans are used to movc and distribute air across the air cooled heat
exchangers. In forccd draft the fan forces the air across the bundle
while in induced draft" it draws air across the bundle. Two fans arc
usuallv provided forcach bay, This assurcs continuous operation wtrn
onc fan out ofservicc. Also, at reduced loads and during coolerweatner,
it mav feasible to opcrale with one fan out of sewice as an aid to control
and for economy.

ground
velocity. In oil rcfinerics and chcmical complexes' to conscrvc
cxisling
above
mounted
usually
space, air cooled heat exchangers are
oine.u"k, with other equipment occupying the space underncath the
pip"auaL The piperack and air cooled heat exchanger structures are
integrated

REFERENCES

1. API Standard

661

"Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers

Refinery Sewices", Second Editioq January, 1978'

Fans may have fixed oradjustable pitch blades. However, most of


the fans in the air cooled heat exchanger application have adjustable
pitch blades. Adjustable pitch fans are either manually adjustable or
automatically adjustable Most automatic adjuslable pitch fans cause
fan pitch change by means of a pneumatically actuated diaphragm.

Mechanical Equipment

The fan drivers are electric motors, steam lurbines, gas or


gasoline engines, orhydraulic motors. The most commonlyused driver
for air cooled heat exchangers is the electric molor. Steam turbines are
sometimes installed as a back-up for electric motors in the event of
powerfailure and to permit variable fan speed control. V-behs and right
angle bevel gears are used as the speed reducer of these drivers.

Plenum
The air plenum is completely enclosed space which provides for
the smooth flow ofairbetween fans and bundles. plenums are desisned

as a transition type or box type. The lransition type givcs rhelesr


distribution of air over the bundles but is usuallv used onlv on induced
draft because o[ slrucrural difficuhies with forced drah

Structure
The structure consists ofthe columnq braces, and cross beams ro
support the exchanger of a sufficient elevation above ground to allow
the necessary volume of air to enter below al a reasonable approach

288

289

for

General

I)ESICN OI: PROCESS EQUIPMENT

AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

should bc used
However, fbr tube and plug platcs, thc ligament clliciencies

stress calculations For simplicity and


pitch diameter of
conservative design, ligament efficiency based on the
plug type-header
for
in plugtnJ"t cai be used for both these plates
diameter in tubesheet
Uoxes. foicoierptate type of headers, the tube hole
should be used for determining ligament efficiency'
or
Figure covers the design of the header box without Partition
in
located
stiffener
stiffenei. Figure 2 shows the boi with single partition or
unequal
two
to
ihe analysis of Figure 2 are also applicable
itr"

in both membrane and bending

iiJ.

AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS


PART B _ IIEADER BOX DESIGN

""*".

are based.on the


compartments when ihe anatysis of both the compartments
partitions or
spaced
larger size. Figure 3 represents the box with two equally
can
be analy-zed
stiifeners. Cases of three or more unequal compartments
size of the
the
on
is
based
*ith th" pro."du.". of Figure 3 provided the design

Introduction
technique for mechanical design analysis
-boltedThe
cover and subject

of header box without

to intemal pressure for alr cooled heat ex.t uneaaa


,,
discussed. The analysis is in accordance with Appendix
f.}, ofSection'VIfl

Division 1 of the ASME Boiler and pressure Vessel

Code.

The discussion is limited to very common configurations


of a header
box in which the opposite sides have the same wall
thiikness. f*o opoo.it"
sides may have a wall lhickness different than thar
of the othe, i*"
sides. The walls are considered fairly thick and
there is no rounjiii'"i,rr"
comers. The tubesheets and plugsheets are considered pertoratea
Tor ttre
tubes and removable cleaning plugs.

largest comPartment.

Analyzing Procedure for Header Box of


without Partition or Stiffener

Air

Cooled Heat Exchangers

*t

"ii"ri"

Nl

iP

I
I
I

_L_

Design Criteria

I
I

The formulas given require solution by assuming a


thickness or thick_
nesses f9f t9q and bottom plates and tube und plug
plals and sotvlng fo. tfre
shss which is then compared with an allowaLle;;ess
value. The a"ssumeo
thicknesses are used in the formulas to calculate both
membran" una U""Olng
stresses. Ail_membrane stresses generated by mechanical
loads are limited
ro rne alowatrte tensile stress values listed in the
appropriate stress tables of
the ASME Code. Any combination ofmechanicallyinduced."rnf.un"

otu,

bending stress. should not be greater than one and a fratf


times tfre Joae
atiowable tensrle stressare designed in accordance with Uc_34(c), Fdragraph
.^.ofTl"
(3)
the"llflg":
ASME Secrion VIII, Division I Code.
Comerjoint construction is mostly used for header boxes of
air cooled
exclrT-C:js:The comerjoint weld efficiency can always
U"urrurn"Ju,
IrT
1.0 per ASME Code. For locations other than
comers, ,rja ;oini
cies as given in UW-12 of ASME Code should be
"ffi'"i"n
used in Jr"r, _uiyri..

Let

Et =
Ez=

weld joint efficiency (from Thble UW-12 of ASME Code)


Ligament efficiency = (P - d) i P

''I.

)r
= -:--.)-:(t,

r)
H_c=lK:(Irll,)o
h

290

291

L,' --

(t2)3
12

DESIGN OI: PROCESS EQUTPMENT

AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

Stress Calculations

Allowsble Stresses
Membrane Strtss
Top and Bottom Plates
(S^)

t, =

Ph

/ (2trEr)

Thbe and Plug Plates

(S)t2:

stresses
Assumed thicknesses should be revised until all the calculated
be
added
should
fall within the allowables. Corrosion allowance, if required'
to these thicknesses to determine the final plate thicknesses'

P}l/(2t2E2)

Bending Stress
Top and Bottom Plates

(s/N=

Pc

12

/.S,)O: +

l1E1

12

fr.s

ut-t,t

(l +

(l + a2K)

rr(l)

(l + K)

q2 K)

"T__l__]
I

(t + q2K, I
l-,.
12 l2E2 L
J
l+K
(l + ctz K)
Ph2 c
12 I2(r) (l +K)

"f-l
__r-

= (S-) tr + (SJN, (sJQ = (S-) t, +

(Sb)e

FJI]URE 2

Tirbe and Plug Plates

(s,)M

(S-) t2

+ (SJM,

(S,)O

(S-)

End Platos

z = ft+ - 2.4 5.(maximum z = 2.5)


\

ll'l

Tbtal Stresses
Top and Bottom Plates

(s,)N

t, +

HEADER BOX WITH SINGLE PARTITION OR STIFFENER

Weld

Ligament efficiency

Weld joint efficiency for Partition or stiffener


(from Table UW-12 of ASME Code)

Let Ej
(Sb)e

,,]=-

joint efficiency (from Table UW-12 of ASME Code)

= (p -

d) / P

h/

',

= 0.33

/cPz
''r:' "VsE,

(L)l

(t')3

-t2

t2
H

292

Cooled Ileat Exchangers

.:Lf

Tbbe and Plug Plates


ph2

(s.tM=-r

Air

Analyzing Procedure for Header Box of


with Single Partition or Stiffener

l+K

Ph2

=
=

allowable membrane stress


allowable tensile stress for plate material at
design temperature
Allowable total stress = 1.5(S)

293

(12

I)q

AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Stress Calcutations

End Plates

Membrane Stress
lbp and Bottom plates

(s)tr

Ph

4ttEt tIa - {z--t-!A-::?t1


I t+2K IJ

LI
- 2.4!), maximum Z = 25\

=(3.4

=0.33,

lirbe and Plug Plats

Allowable Stresses

(S)t, =

P11

en

:
2

tou"

(S)e

:+

V t""

=
=

fz_frO_S11
L
l+2K I

Assumed thicknesses should be revised until all the calculated stresses


fall within the allorrables. Corrosion allowance, ifrequired, should be added
to thes thicknesses to detennine the final plate thicknesses'

Bending Strtss
Ibp and Bottom platss

(s)N =a

allowable membrane sfess


allorrable tensile saess for plate material
at design temperature
1.5(S)
Allowable total shess

112rP",

Partidon or Stiffener

(s^)tt

b =H

Pc lzu, zntl l+2a,K \l


Z4ltEt L
t
lJ
c I t +2a2K I
12 Irfl) L l+2K
I

Analyzing

with T\vo

l+2K

Ph2

Thbe and Plug Plates

(SbM

=+ Ph2c fl+K(3-q2)l
r2\E2L 1+rK I

(5,)e

=*

Ibtal

Ph'zc
12r2(l)

fL I + 2crK 1
ll21<-l

Stresses

Tbp and Bottom platas

(,s,)N:(S-)tr+(sJN,

(sJO=(s-)t,+(sJe

lirbe and Plug Plates


(5,)M = (S^)q + (sb)M,

(sJC=(s_)t,+(sJe

Partition or Stiffener
S,

(S..X+

294

. FIGTJRE 3 -

=
E. =
fi =

Let E1

HEADER BOX 1VTIH TWO OR MORE PARITTIONS


AND/OR STIFFENERS

Weld joint efficiency (from Table IJW-12 of ASME Code)


(P d) / P
Lieament efficiency
joint
efficiency for partition or stiffener
Weta

(from Table UW-12 of ASME Code)

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

: ()3
r,-t2

t2
H

K =(Ir/tr)u

h
Stress Calculations

Membrane Stress
Top and Bottom Plates

PhFr
(s-/r,=-13-,{
2ttEt L

6+
(

K(ll 3+5K
3+5K

a2) )

AIR COOLEI) HEAT EXCHANGERS

'lbbe and Plug Platcs


Irortitions and/or Stiffenrs

,!, = (s-)ta
Ilnd Plates

z :(t.q \

2.4H\,
h/

C :0.33,

ts

(S^)tr = PH / (2t2E )

f"[

12

f.,, -

ItEl

zn' ( J -i )c. l(

3+5K )l

/ 3+5q2K \

r,(l) \

3+5K

Ihbe and Plug Plates

(S)M:t

Ph'?c 3+ K(6
12

(SlQ = t:

I2Ea

c
12 Ir(l)
Ph2

fL

q")

-5K

JO'

J+JK

1.5(S)

all the calculated stresses


Assumed thicknesses should be revised until
should be added
if
required'
allowance
*i;i;;;"u"*ables. Corrosion
'
thicknesses'
plate
final
the
thicknesses to determine

ofa single pass plug type headerbox-for an air cooled


Check the design
-100
for
psi intemal piessure at 400"F Allow 7re inch
h"at exchange. for
various
The
plates
the
for
all
material
SA-285-C

.orr*in ufio*-"".
t

Us;

follows:
Uo* Parameters in uncorroded condition are as
"uO"a
.375 inches
ToD and Bottom Plate Thickness
1.25 inches
Tirbe and Plug Plate Thickness
.5 inches
End Plale Thickness
4 inches
Inside Header Width

=
=

12. 125 inches

Inside Header Height

114.75 inches

Inside Header Length

Tbtal Stresses
Top and Bottom Ptates

(sl)N: (s-)tr + (sJN,

EXAMPLE

Pc

Ph'?c

io ihese

Bending Stress
Tbp and Bottorn Plates

(S)e =t

2'5)

= allowable membrane stless


= allorvable tensile stress for plate matedal

Allowable total stress

6+K(ll-Ctr)l
3+5K
3+5K

24

z=

at design temperature

Partitions and/or Stiffeners

/c
l^r -r !
tu b,r
-

(maximum

Allowable Stresses
.S

TUbe and Plug Plates

(S,)O=(S-)t2+(Sb)Q

19,)M=(S,")t2+(Sb)M'

2.375 inches

Pitch of Tirbe Holes

(sJQ=(s_)tr+(sJQ

Pitch Diameter of Threads

1.1875 inches

in Plugsheet

296

297

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

SOLUTION

AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

1z

q. :

*{ "

K :

f-l
tl

EXAMPLE PROBLEM FOR HEADER BOX WITHOLN PARITTION

Design conditions

Vessel parameter = (I2 /

(S^)tt =p11 1 (zhU) =

Ir)ct

!:

o.rrt

12.25

.3367

18.7879

(12.25) /2(.3125)1.0

100 (4.125)

:1,960

psi

(1

(sr)Q

:!

Ph2

(1 +

ct2

& bending

(2.37s

(.1582)

: -f 12,365 Psi

stresses for tube

Thbe and Plug Plates

1.1875)

t 2.375

.5

Moment of inertia of unit wide top or bottom plate

K)

12rl1) l + K
r00(r2.2s)2 (.r562s)

Ligament efficiency for membrane

+ 18.?879) I

-r 931 psi

12(.0025)r

= (p -d) / p =

/ 2(1.1875\.5 :347 psi

12(.0025)r.0 L

1'0

(tr)3

Pc
,c ,a/ _ +
I l.5Ht tr (l + a'zK)l
(rN:=
ta"E, l_'..' t-K l
tl + .33672 (18.7879))lf
_ _+ 100(.rs625) | t.s,q.nsr,
"-' '-', _ 12.252

100 psig at 400"F

and plug plates

Rectangular box parameter

Bending Stress
Tbp and Bottom Plats

Materials of construction: SA-285-C

1, :

.1395 in.a/in.

lhbe and Plug Plates

tt = .375 - .0625 = .3125 inches


tz = 1.25 - .0625 = t.1875 inches
b = .S - .0625 = .4375 inches
h : 12.125 + .0625 + .0625 = 12.25 inches
4 : 114.75 + .0625 + .0625 : 114.875 inches
H = 4 + .0625 + .M25 : 4.125 inches

(s^)t-Ph / (2trEr) :100

Refening to Fig. 4, we have

E2

(t )3
t2

Membrane Stress
Top and Bottom Plates

FIC. 4

Moment of inertia of unit wide tube or plug plate

Stress Calculations

*T-

Er

ts.tM : =-

__+

.0025 in.a/in.

c I
rt + q,K)l
1.5 - -------------- l
I
l+K
12 l2E2 L
Ph2

100(12.25\2

.59375 (1.5 _.1582)=+

12 (.1395) .5

12

298

299

14,284 psi

AIR COOIJD HEAT EXCHANGERS

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUTPMENT

(l +c2K)
l2 120\ I + K
c

Ph2

(S)Q

t0[/(12.25)2 .59375
12 (.139s)

NOMENCLATURE

(.1582) =

'r

a#."t

= (S-)tr + (S6)N: 1,960 -r


(sJQ: (s"Jq + (sjQ = 1,e6i a
(S,)N

931

12,365

2,891 psi

Lisament efficiencY
E3

14,325 psi

h
h,
i
;,
t'.
Ii
p
P
S

Ibbe and Plug Plaies

= (S-)t, + (Sb)M :
(S/9 = 6-)t2 + (Sb)Q =

+ 14,2U = 14,631
347 + 842 = 1,189psi

(S,)M

347

psi

End Plales
=Plpne parameter

(3.4

"

2.4

-)'
h'

(Z should not b geater than 2.5)

12.25

Plate coefficient

Sb
SS,
il
11
t",
t',
i
a

2.5918, (use 2.5)

0.33

/cYz ..4 .-_


HVd=
= ,.
t25V/.33(rN)2.5
l38oo

= .3189 in. <

.4375

n.,

t'Ji

hence O.K.

Allorable membrane stress

Stresses are

l;il;iil;v

ASME Code)

Conoded inside header height, in'


Cormded inside header length, in'
Conoded inside header width' in'
plate' in a/in'
i|;rrrerrt of inertia of unit wide top or bofiom
plaie' in "/m'
Moment of inertia of unit wide tube or plug
vessel Parameter
Pitch of tube holes, in.
Intemal design Pressure' Psr
at design temperature'
CoO" alowaile tensile stress for box material

Maximum bending sness' Pst


Maximum membrane stress' Psl
Maximum total stress, Psl
in
Conooea thickness of top and bottom plates'
in'
Conoded thickness of tube and Plug plates'
Conoded thickness of end plates, in'
Conoded thickness of partition or stiffener, in'
nnA pl?d! parameter (UG-34' ASME Code)
Rectangular box Parameter. in'

REFERENCES

Nlouable Stresses

Allowable total stress

i;ld

(P - d) / P
ror partition or stiffener (From rbble uw-12 of

psi

4.r25
3.4 _ e.4't :

:
C

it

842 Psi

lbtal Stresses
Ibp and Bottom Plats

(one-half of applicable
Distance from neuFal axis to outside surface
thickness), in.
6on.*i O","..ining end plate thickness ( 33 for header box end
plate thickness)
tft .ads in plugsheet for Plug tyPe header and tube
Fi"f,
"f
in .
hole diameter in tubesheet for coverplate type header'
Code)
ASME
of
IIW-12
(From
Table
joint
efficiency
Weld

allorvable tensile stress per 1bble USC-23

13,80 psi

1.5 (alloxable tensile stress)

1.5 (13,800)

10_,700

Boilers and Pressure Vessel Code' section VIIr' "Pressure


1.
' ASME
V"*"ft", Division l, ASME, New York' N Y'' 1983'

psi

within allorable limits, thus the assumed thicknesses

are

adequate.

300

301

AIR COOLED HEAT EXCI{ANGERS

per bolt pitch


Minimum required bolt load for initial gasket seating

W^2

B"b

pitch
Minimum required bolt load for operating condition per bolt

AIR COOLED IIEAf, EXCHAi\IGERS


PART C
COVERPLATE AND TLANGE
DESIGN FOR IIEADER BOX

w^, = 9g" P + 2bB"nP

2
Therefore, required area of each bolt

A- =
This section discusses the complete design
ofcoverplate and flange for
box
of
air
cooled
heat
exchangen.
Th.
dir"urrion i, U"*A.1-n"
leader

design criteria of ASME Section


engineering practice.

vIiI, oi"i.io, r-C"J"i

*i*tiJ!*a

greater

of

4w-"or

w-,

l;

be equal to or greater than


The root area, Ar, of the chosen bolt size should

obtain
The bolt spacing, 8", can be assumed equal to 24 +- b3 to

bolt spacing should not


unUonn ioaO OistriUutiin on the gasket' However, the
not
U"i"o tft*,ft" rnl"imum required for wench clearance Also' it should

be greater than

2o

6b'

+ (n
+ .5)

Maximum available load Per bolt

W': Af"
FIG, I. DEFTNI ON OF SYMBOLS

Bolting Requirements
Figure

Minimum required gasket width


N

--* r*o'
;; 'Jfl"ll1l"i:J,i,l*'l,tj,i,l*

defines some of the svmbols fo he rced in rhi.


tonsue and groove construction,

o -* *

T.

, wl-!-

b=

will be
b", when b" <

Ybo

. when D" >

302

AuS"

/ 28"

The value of chosen N should not be less than N,,t,'

The effective gasket seating width

^t"

Ve
Z+

inch
inch

tatW^be

the greater of loads W^r all.d W*z'

*JLiHt" =ryt
303

AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER9

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMEM

Cover Plate Deslgn

Ileader Flange Deslgn

End, Top and Bottom Plate

Cover Plate

FIC, 3. FLANGE AND END PLAIE ASSEMBLY

FIG. 2, COVER PLAIE AND FLANGE ASSEMBLY

Cover plate and flange assembly is shown in Figure 2.


Plate parametel

Refer to flange and end plate assembly in Figure 3, we have maximum


bending moment at flange end due to bolt load' IV,

M=WX

Z, is

Z=3.4 -{

GI

Moment of inertia of effective flange section about vertical centerline

rt$eater

than 2.5)

/ b, *; b" \2
,=r; tb,3+zbtb\;
)

Thickness of the cover plate can be deterrnined by


centerline
Section modulus of effective flange section about vertical

t":

Where C, the plate coefficient, is equal to 0.3.

( = Iu
br/z
-=-

b3

Cross-sectional arsa of effective flange section

The greater of the groove depth or the desired corrosion allowanco


must be added to the calcula0ed cover thickness to obtain the final thickness.
Howeve4 the net coverplate thickness under the groove shall not be less than

ffiho
SP

304

"G'

A = 2bttr

Maximum bending sress in the flange section

Ft=MlS,"E

Maximum dhect stress in the flange section

Fd=WIAE

305

DESIGN OF PRoCESS EQUIPMEM

AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

Maximum resultant stless in the flange

.5 in.
50 psi
25,000 psi
25,000 psi
17,500 psi
1.5 in.

F,= Fu*Fo
Flange thickness is adequate if the resultant stress falls within the allowable
stress for flange material.

Example

type
at{spaced 2%

of construction is used. The bolts are % inch diameter an d


inches apart. Coverplate and flange material is 5.4_516_70 and Si-193-B7
bolts are used. The coverplate has %6 inch deep and %o inch wide groove
and
end; top and bottom plates have t% inch deep and /z inch wide tongue. /r
inch

of corrosion allowance is allowed wherever applicable. Addi--tional data


required for evaluation is as follorvs:
Longitudinal thickness of flange to
plate weld
Total longitudinal thickness of flange
Height of gasket load reaction
lffgth of gasket load reaction
Radial distance from gasket load
reaction to the bolt center
Total thickness of coverplate

Radial thickness of flange ring


Radial distance from outside of plate

to the bolt

center

= .4375 inches
1.25 inches
=
= 16.5625 inches
= 153.9375 inches
=
=
=

1.15625 inches
1.5 inches
2.0 inches

.g4375 inches

2.0 in.

T:
x=

Check the design of bolted coverplate and flange for header box of air
crytgO exghg_Se1 Aesigned for 50 psi at 329'F. % inch thick Vz inch wide
,
,
soft iron doublejacketed asbestos filled gasket with tongue and groove
De.rign Calculations

.125 in.

.5 in.
.84375 in.

7ffi

for Cwerptate and trlong for Header Box of Air

Cooled Exchangers

Bolting Requirements
Basic gasket seating width

b^ =

: 5+

.5 +.t25
''---:---:='
(

4:

bz
bz

Use

Effective gasket seating width

b"

'25

'25

in'

B" = 2'75 n'

E=.8

G = 16.5625 in.
Gr = 153 '9375 n'
hc = 1.15625 in.
m = s.tJ tn.

306

io'

Minirnum required bolt load for ioitial gasket seating condition per bolt pitch
W^z = B"b y

2.75 (.2s) 7@0

5,225 lb

Minirnum required bolt load for operating condition per bolt pitch
G

.4375 in.

= l '25 n'
= 1.25 - 2(.4375) =

maximum)

.3125 in. (.25 in. maximum)

Solution
Ia this case, we have

a = .75n.

W^r=18"P+2bB"mP
.375 in.

=,'#

Q'75)50 + 2

(.25') 2.7s (3.75)

50 =

Required cross-sectional area of each bolt

A^ =

crealar of w,e I S" or W^, I


5.225

25

'W :

307

.2A9 in.2

Su

1,397 tb

AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

DESIGN OF PN@ESS EQUIPMENT

Actual cross-sctional area of each bolt

Ab

Header Flange Declgn


Maximum bending moment at flange end due to bolt load, W

'302 in'2

M=W

Since
> A-, therefore, the chosen boft size is adequaie. Maximum
available load per bolt

= 6,388 (.84375)
= 5,390 inlb

W, = AuSo

= .302 (25,q00)
= 7,550 lb

Moment of inertia of effective flange section about vertical centerline

,=r++zr,q(f,+f,)'

Minimum rcquired gasket width

N^,,=Wrl2B"y

1ffi

7,550 | 2 (2.7s)
.1806 in.
therefore, the selected gasket width is sufficient.

N > N.,r,

Since

W- = Cre et of W*, md W^.

5,225 tb

Flange design load per bolt

(A +AI

Section modulus of effective flange section about vertical centerline

S"- M^+w)t2
=

(s,225

.3629 lll.'4

'"

+ 7,550)/2 =

=7,#?,'"

6,388 lb

Coverplatr Design

Cross-sectional area of effective flange section

Coverplat parameter

Z = 3.4

2.4G

- (rt
^

(Z

trc/.

2.4 (r6.s62s\

$earer than 2.5)

r53.9375

3.1418

Use

2.5

=ii,:i,:t,

Maxirnum bending sfess in the flange section

Fr = M lS^E
= 5,3W | .5806 (.8)
: ll,6Mpsi

Coverplate thickness

t"=G

sp,c2

r6.56?s

Mding

:3(2.5)50

Maximum direct stress in the flange section


Fa: w t AE = 6,388 / 1.75

6(6,388) r.15625
17,500(2.7 5) (16.5625\2

3Aa

1.2283 in.

inch for groove (includes % inch corrosion allomnce),


t" = 1.2?,83 + .1875 = 1.4158 inch <
hence O.K.

1.5,

Net coverplal thickness under the gmove


.9596 inch, hence O.K.

308

1.5

.1875

= l.3l25inch>

(.8I =

4,563 psi

Maximum resultant sfiss in the flange

F"

Fr + Fa = ll,604 +

4,563

16'167 Psi

shess
Since, the resultant flange stress falls within the maximum allowable
assumed
the
temperature,
of 17;500 psi for flangi material at the design

flange thickness is adequate'

DESION OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

NOMENCLATURE
a

A
Ab

b
b"
br
b2
b3

4
c

E
Fb

Fd

F,
G
Gr

hc

ff

N^t,
P

s"

s,
,t"

s_

W-,
X
)
Z

Dianeter of bolts. in.


Cross-sectioual area of effective flange section, in.2
Actual cross-sectional area of each bolt, in.2
Required cross-sectional area of each bolt, in.2
Effective gasket seating width, in.

l.

Constant (.3 for coverpla0e thickness)


Flange !o plate joint efficiency
Maxirum bending stress in the flange section, psi
Maximum direct shess in the flange section, psi
Maximum rcsultant sffess in the flange section, psi
Height of gasket load reaction, in.
Ingth of gasket load reaction, in.
Radial distance ftom gasket load reaction to the bolt center, in.
Moment of inertia of effective flange section about vertical cen_

inlb

Internal design pressure, psi


Allorrable stress for bolt material at atrnospheric temperatue, psi
Allowable shess for bolt material at design temperature, psi
Allwable stess for cover material at design temperature, psi
Section modulus ofeffective flange section ;bout vertical ce;terline,

ln,,
tc

.f
T
w

w
wr

w
W^r

Tbtal thickness of coverplate, in.


Radial thickness of flange ring, in.
Thickness of the gasket, in.
Width of the tongue, in.
Flange design bolt load per bolt, lb
Maximum available load per bolt, lb
Greater of the loads Wtdr and W_r, lb
Minimum required bolt load for the operating conditions per bolt

pitch, lb

310

Gasket seating shess, Psi


Coverylalg parameter (UG-34' ASME Code)

RETERENCES

Basic gasket seating width, in.


Longitudinal thickness of flange to plate weld, in.
Inngitudinal thickness of unwelded flange, in.
Total longitudinal thickness of flange, in.
Bolt spacing, in.

terline. in.a
Gaskt facior
Maximum bending moment at flange end due io bolt load,
Width of gasket, in.
Mnimum required gasket width, in.

Minimum required bolt load for gasket seating per bolt piich' lb
Radial distance from outside of Plate to the bolt center, in'

ASME Boilers and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VItr, "Pressure Vessels", Division 1, ASME, New York, N.Y'' 1983'

APPENDIX 1
Head
Derivation of ASME Coder Formulas for Shell and
Pressure
Internal
for
Thicknesses of CYlindrical Vessel

THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELL


FIG. I. CIRCUMFERENIIAL FORCES ON A
DUE TO INTERNAL PRESSURE

pressure' P' as
unit shell leng$ of a thin wall vessel under intemal
(D (2n) ( l)
to
equal
force
a
exerts
pressure
Ji.*" i" rle-"." r. m" Intemal
of Z(t) 1(S) at the two cross
and the wali thickness exerts a resisting force
get:
we
sections. Equating these forces,

Consider

?'PR
thus,

2tS

,:PR
s

to modify the allowable


If a longitudinal weld joint efficiency, E' is included
stress, the formula becomes:

=PR
SE

or'

SEI
R

313

SHELL AND HEAD THICKNESS

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

This thin wall formula was used in the ASME Code until the 1942 Edition
when it was modified to more accurately calculate results for thicker
walls
due to high pressures and/or temperatures. The modified formula is:
PR

t=

sE

.6P

o!

PN

t =25E

ol

This longitudinal stress formula was also modified in the 1942 Edition of the
ASME Code for the same reasons as the circumferential stress fonnula, it
became:

2SE

SEt

R + .6t

0.4P

or,

0.4,

Spherical Shells and Hemispherical Heads


The same thin wall formula is obtained as for the longitudinal stress in the

circular shell,
PR
25E

FIG. 2. TONCITUDINAL FORCES ON A THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELL

Modified formulas are:

DUE TO TNTERNAL PRNSSURE

The pressure force is nD'P while the resisting force is rDrS. Equating
4
these two forces, we get:

nPD :
-Dp
445 tDtS oB t =Substituting

D=

2R, the above equation becomes,

. _PR

PL
2SE

314

t=

.2P

PR

2SE

.2P

NOMENCLATURE
D

E
T

lnside diameter of shell or head' in.


Joint efficiency
Inside radius of dish, in.

Internal design pressure, Psi


Inside shell or head radius, in.

Atlowable tensile stress for shell or head material at the design

tmperature, Psi
Shell or head wall thickness, in.

25
Introducing E as the circumferential weldjoint efficiency, fte expression for
welded shell is:

For spherical shells,

For henrisPherical heads'

The stress formulas for the longitudinal or axial direction are developed in
the same way. Referring to Figure 2, in order to maintain equilibrium in the
axial direction, the iniemal force exerted against the vessel end closures
must be resisted by the strength ofthe metal in the cross-section of the vessel
for seamless shells <ir by the circumferential weld joints for welded shells.

REFERENCES

l.

ASME tsoiler ancl hessure Vessel Code, Section VIII, "Pressure Vessels," Division 1, ASME, New York, N'Y., 1983.

3ls

APPENDIX 2
Derivation of Formulas for Checkingv"tlo"t ie"ett of Vertical Vessels

Thid;;il;;

considerof vertical vessels are determined


The thicknesses at various levels

irie the follorring conditions:


i. Wind or earthquake moment
2. Vessel weight

3.

Pressure

as
vertical vessel acts in the same manner
Assuming that the self-supporting
are
moment
u""4, *sultant stresses due to wind or earthquake

"-"*iir""*
shown in Figure 1.

FOR VESSEL
FIG. 1. STRESS DISTRIBUTION

IUS TO WIND
Mcrition of weighr

OR EARTHQUME MOMENT

-i {:::y.1:l'dil:,i;n:'J#ffit:;,:lH: l:
will

Fieue 2. Sress due to wetgnr wru

iiil"t

i*Jti"; ;tn

act

Lnsion a"a stress due to external pressure

act in compressron.

317

DESI(;N Otj

I'tr(uss

TI tICKNIISS oF VERTICAL VESSI:I.S

IQUtPMENt.

r.5 (10)6

s. =

TENSION DUE TO
WIND OR EA(THQUAKE
TENSION OR COMPRESSION
COMPRESSION DUE TO
WIND OR EAKTHQUAKE

(^) = *t

and sresses
In any case, if S" (max) S., the value of r should be increased
to S.'
equal
or
rr,ouia U" recalculated until S. (max) becomes less than
is given by the
The maximum tensile stress at the point under consideration
values
greater of the following two
Pp
(3)

S,(max)

COMPRESSTON DUE

= --

4t

TO VESSEL WEIOHT

or,

48M PD
rD2t 4t

Sr(max)
FIG. 2. STRESS DISTRIBUTION FOR VESSEL
DUE TO PRESSURE, WEIGHT, AND WIND OR EARTHQUAKE
MOMENTS

;;;;;;;';;;r"r.

The.maximum compressive stress at the point


under consideration is qrven
by the greater of the following two values:

S.(max)
oI'

w 48M_--L
PD
= nDt
-+- nD2t 4t

(l)

0.125

'SME
and
It appears that extemal pressure will control the compressive stress (2)
equations
by
shown
is
int.'JJ pt"ttu." *ill control the tensile stress as
the above equations' the following rela-O i:) i"tp""tin"fv. Rearranging
tionships for thickness can be established:

zrD S.

'

15.3

P.D

D,

S.

45.

15.3M PD
U S,A 4SP

/ (R"/ t)

(6)

NOMENCLATURE
Rctor for extemal pressure design from ASME Code Section VIII '

Division I

the intersection move horizontally to the right


and read the value

Section
Factor for extemal pressure design from ASME Code

Division I

The value ofS" will be equal to.B. The allowable


compressive stress, S^, can
app.::xiTlted by-using the following relatio;rlrtp
;,
lso-be
by Brownell and Youns2:

;;;#il.

D
F

VIII'

Outside diameter of vessel at point under consideration, in'


Joint efficiency
ftMornent due to wind or earthquake at point under consideration'

lb

318

w
nD S,E'

(5)

to the calculated
Corrosion allowance, if any desired, should be added
thickness'
thickness in order to get the total minimum required

ture line.

of B.

Similady for intemally pressured vessels:

chan in Appendix 5 of ASME code 1 section


vrr,
Rl",:i,ifol'::9h
ulvrslon
I at the value of A. Move vertically to the applicable
tempera_

3. From

Code for vessel material at the design

of the

temperature.

(2)

The maximum compressive shess must be less


than S., the maximum
-'--"
allowable compressive stress,which can be
computed ?"ffo*.,

A=

48M+__-s_
Pl)
nDt
4t
-+ TD2t
-

1. Calculate the value of A using th formula

S".,ion Vut, Oiuition

For extemallY Pressured vessels:

w
J. rmax):

nDt

of
In no case, should S,(max) be greater than S,(E)' the product 1ax11um
Irom
detemrneobe
S,
can
joint
efficiency
allowable tensile stress and the

The vessel must be designed for the most


extreme condition. Therefore, the
vessel

musr be checked for both the tensile and

319

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

P"
Pi
R"
S"

Extemal design pressure, psi

Intemal design prcssure, psi


Outside radius of vessel at point under consideration, in.
Maximum allowable compressive stress for vessel material at

design temperature, psi


S"(max) Maximum compressive stress in vessel at the point under consideration, psi
Maximum allowable tensile stress for vessel material at design
temperature, psi
Sr(max) Maximum tensile stress in vessel at the point under consideration,
psi
Corroded thickness of vessel at point under consideration, in.
Empty weight of vessel at point under consideration, lb
Yield stress of vessel material at design temperatue, psi

S,

t
W
Yp

APPENDIX 3
Derivation of Formulas for Anchor Bolt Chair
Design for Large Vertical Vesselsl'z
1; Base Plate Thickness
The bottom part of the tower skirt is provided with a plate sufficiently
wide for disnibuting direct loads to the supporting beams or concrcte
foundation as sho\Mn in Figurc

l.

RETERENCES

1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII. "Pressure Vessels," Division 1, ASME, New York, N.Y, 1983.

II

2. Brownell, L.E., and E.H. Young, "Ptocess Equipment Design," First


Corrected Printing, John Wiely and Sons, Inc., April 1968.

OF TOWER SKIRT
FIG. I. DISTRIBUIION OF R)RCES ON TI{E BOT'IOM

load at the base


The total compressive load acting on the base ring is the skirt
and is given bY:

ws=

rz(M)

y" :

n D2 rD

4UM)

+w"
trD2 rD

bearing area
Assuming that the load is uniformly distibuted over its entire
unit
length of
a
(if
seleting
any)'
for anchor bolt lugs
tut
*lttt no
as:
"i"ai
"n
be
expressed
can
foundation
base plate, the bearing pressue on concrcte

f=+
D

320

321

ANCHOR BOUT CHAIR DESICN

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

The value of/should be limited to 750 psi for 3000Ib concrere and 500 psr
for 2000 lb concrete. The width of vessel base ring, D, should be modified
until bearing pressure, falls within allorrvable lirnits.

Now, the base ring is trealed as a cantilever beam of span c, subjected 0o.the
uniformly distributed bearing pressure/ The maximum bending moment for
such a beam occurs at the junction of the skirt and base ring for unit
circumferential length
= I inch) and is equal to:

(l

M*
I'et tB be the

base

.c. fc

= tlc

a. Chalr

where

gusset spacing, inches

tr

be the compression plate thickness, the maximumbending stress in the


beam is given bY:

= l)

ring thickness, the maximum bending stress in

Comprecslon Plate

w.d

Lt
(for /

ltpe

The beam in this case is considered as simply supported at the ends, in which
case.

\---

an

't2

elemental snip of unit width is given by:

M^",

3fc

"^= iw

,2

(for

I = l)

Substituting for

M--

ftom above' we get


6 W.d

.S=-or'4:
t^.

Rearranging, we get:
rB-L

b. Continuous Ring Tlpe Compression Plate


The formula for determining this thickness can be derived in the

same

fashion as explained above, with the exception that the beam in this case can
be considered as fixed at the ends because ofcontinuous ring. Therefore, in

Where S,'o, should be limited to 20,000 psi maximum.

this

case

M-*=;

2. Compression Plate Thicknes


Compression plate design is optional . Either chairs or complete lug ring may

be used. Such a ring is preferred when the spacing of external chairs


becomes so small that the compression plates approach a continuous ring.
As in the case of the compression plate, the maximum load on a continuous
compression ring occurs on the upwind side of the vertical vessel where the
reaction of the bolts produces a compression load on the ring. This load
produces a bending stess in the compression ring. As in the case of external
chairs, the vertical gusset plates hansfer this compression load to the base
plate.

In determining the thicknesses of these plates, the assumption is made that


each section of the plate acts as a beam between two gusset plates with the
bolt load acting as a concentrated load in the center. The thickness formulas
for both types of compression plates are derived below.

322

Now

" -

w.d

M* =
c t,2

3u'-4
4r

t,2

6
Rearranging, we get

the maximum allorrable bending stress in either tyPe of


The value of
compression plate, should not exceed 20'000 psi.

S*,

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

ANCHOR BOLT CHAIR DESIGN

As can be seen from the design formulas, the top plate


of chair type lugs
must be approximately 1.4 times as thick as a complite
lug ring. ftiil i, Ou"
to fixed-end beam action occuring in the co-ptete
iug rlng"type-a, ."r".aO
wrm slmple beam action for the chair olate.

bolt will.bc
Assuming that the number o[ bolts is represented by N' each
reprcsented
required io carry the stress over the portion ofthe circumference
as

follols:
TB"

3. Designing Foundation Bolts


The thickness of shell plate required to resist
the bending moment onlv. is:

',_48M
trD2S,

^ -w"
^r_
Sa

i;

be adequate
The bolt of area equal to or greater than A, should
-However'
bolt is made in order
of
anchor
size
determined
in
in"rease
smalt
iormaly a

to allow for corosion.

NOMENCLATURE

"

In order to determine the bolt stress, bolt circle B. can be


substituted in place
of D in the above equation. The stress per inch of bolt
can then be written:

circle;;";;;;"

^B
b

B"
c

d
D

n(8.)2
The compressive stress per inch of circumference
due to the weight of the

tower is,

1".:1lll

anchor bolts is,

,Jl

n(B)2

324

fI

M
M,,_,

wE

n",

s8

"

",.."*"rence

-Wt
TB"

N
NB. -wE

TB.

Thus, the bolt area required at root of thread is,

ttD2

The foundation or anchor bolts for a self-supporting


tower are required to
resist the overtuming moment, M, resulting irom ti"
*inO pr"rrii" uft",
allowance has been made for the resistanci offered
by tf,. '*"igit
tower._Obviously the resistance offered by the tower,s
weigtrr is tJast "iif,"
eifec_
tive wher the-minimum weight is acting. The anchor
boltJsnoutO thereior"
De calcutated lor the condition existing when
the tower is empty and without
insulation, platforms, erc. This weight will be designateJ
i;;

tensile srress

nB.z

Der

48M

'

48M

nB, 1 a8M _ % \=
u,
rtR-_
t
\

By.multiplying-the shess. S,, in psi by the shell thickness,


r, rhe stress
Incn oI cficun erence is obtained as follows:

Thus, the load to be carried by each bolt can be expressed as:

to be resisted by

Bolt area required at root of thread, in


Width of vessel base ring' in.
Bolt circle diameter, in.

of base
Distance between the outside of vessel skirt to the outside

Dlate. in.
busset spacing, in.
Outside diameter of vessel skirt. in'
Bearing pressure on concrete foundation' psi
Circumferential length of the skirt' in'
Overtuming moment at the skirt base, ft-lb
Maximum bending moment at the base ring' inJb
Number of foundation bolts
psi maxAllowable bolt stress, psi (should be limited to 15,000
imum)

Maximum bending stress in the base ring. psi


Maximum allowable tensile stress for vessel material at design

temperature, psl
in'
Sheil plate thickness required to resist bending moment only'

tB

Base ring thickness, in.

s^-

325

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUTPMENT

t,
b"
WB
WE
W"
W"

Thickness of continuous ring type compression plate, in.


Thickness of chair type compression plate, in.
^
Maximum tensile load per Uolt,
Empty weight of vessel, lb (for vessels with removable trays
the
empty weight should be determined assuming all the trays
are

tU

rernoved)

Operating weight of vessel, lb


Compressive load at the base ring, lb/linear inch of circumference

REFERENCES

Brownell, L. 8., and E. H. young, .,process Equipment Design,.


First
Corrected Printing, John Wiely and Sons, tnc., ,Lprit 196g.-

2. Marshall, V.

"Foundation Design Handbook for Stacks and Towers ,,


Peholeum Refiner Supplement, Vot. 37, No. 5, Mav 195g.
O. ,

APPENDIX 4
Derivation of TEMA1 Equation for Non'Fixed Thbesheet
Thickness or ASME Equation for Flat Unstayed
Circular Heads in Bending
1. ASME Equation
a. Without Edge Bolting

FIG. 1. INTERNAL PRESSIJRB LOADINC ON FLAT CIRCLILAR PLATE

I-et G be the inside diameter of the shell or the diameter of gasket load
reaction whichever is applicable and P be the intemal pressure on the plate.
The tubesheet or flat cover is a flat circular plate of constant thickness with a

uniformly distributed load of P throughout.


From the 5th Edition of Roark3, Table 24, Case 10a (simply supported)' the
maximum unit bending moment at the center due to intemal pressur, 4 is

given by:

where

/G\t t3 + ul
M^^=p \r)
,6

v=

Now. let

Foisson's ratio for tubesheet or cover material

t:

thickness of tubesheet or cover

Bendine Stess S

326

6M*
Section modulus,

327

/bc\
t-,
\6 /

a
(using unit width)

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUTPMENT

Plugging for

NON.FTXED TUBESH EET THICKNESS

M-o, from above, we get

J- = -----ll-:- +
6PG2(3

vl

and thus, the resulting equation for thickness becomes'

or,

tz =

6PG2(3 + v)

t=G

645',

[;
t:_

t=G

Vs
For ASME formula, ter i9ll
64

For initial gasket seating,

"

then

t=

hL

bolting pressure for fixed tubesheets


proouced by edge moment when tubesheets are
extended for boltins.
TEMA's expression can be derived as follows:
For a uniform pressure on a circular plate of diameter,
G, the unit bending
moment at the center is:

,","=#(3+v)G2
v=

No%

il

P = 0, thus

t:G

tt.sw

sG,

2. TEMA Equation

0.28,

M^",

0,0512

For TEMA formula.

let

tubesheet thickness multiplier based on, wall thickness / I.D. Ratio' tor
integral vessel or gasketed tubesheet thickness multiplier for gasketed vessel
(generally F = l 0 for floating head and fixed tubesheet exchangers and is
equal to 1.25 for U-tube exchangers).

Thus TEMA formula becornes,

FG IP

pd

grder.to calculate the equivalent bolting pressure due to

'=TVi
edge

moment, the unit moment at the center should be


eqiaied to th. unit morn-en,

at the edge.

The same formula is used for fixed tubesheet thickness, wittr or without edge
bolting, except P in that case, is the effective design pressure as derived in

TEMA.

For a total moment, M, the unit edge moment rs

M*=

:G

a. Without Edge Bofting

an ex_nression for equivalent

for,

.3(6.2)WG

CP

b. With Edge Bolting


TEIv.IA

.3P

or,

o.o5r2

pG2:

?TU

Introducing the factor,

L
ttG

b. Wth Fdge Bolting

o!

per TEMA, we have

6.2 M

FG

G3

C=.3
M:Whc
F=1

328

erM

V;

F,

.25P

1.55

s6p-

Floating head exchangers


Plug

1.0, we get

F2 G3
For ASME bolted channel cover or blind flange with
edge bolting,

lF*

t=G

-+---:-

U-tube xchangers
Plug

f' =

1.25, we get

t=G

329

NON.FIXED TUBESHEET THICKNESS

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Edge moment needs not be considered when the tubesheet is sandwiched


betwen flanges.

TEMA recommends this equivalent bolting pressure for bolted fixed


tubesheets only where the maximum value of F does not exceed.1.0.
Horveve4 there is no mention of value ofF to calculate equivalent bolting
pressure for U-tube exchangen. IfF
= 1.0 is used then the equation for
thickness of the tubesheet for U-tube exchangers with edge bolting will
be:
2.42

t=G

W
u

Flange design bolt load for the operating condition or Sasket seating'
as may apply, lb
Poisson's ratio for tubesheet or cover material

REFERENCES
I

. Standads

of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th Edition'

1978. New York.

2. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VUI, "Pressure Vessels." Division 1, ASME, New York, N'Y', 1983'

sG3

However, for simplicity, it is recommended that the effect of edge bolting can
be made the same for the flat cover equation of ASME, thus ive
tave;

Fifth
3. Roark, R. J., and W. C' Young, "Formulas for Stress and Strain,"
1975.
Company,
Book
McGraw-Hill
Edition,

wi

Floating head exchangers

t:G

'.25P

1.9

t39P

1.9

U-tube exchangers

t:G

NOMENCLATURE
b
C

F
G
hG

M
M",",
P

Unit width of the tubesheet, in.


factor for flat heads depending upon the type of attachment,

dimensionless (see UG-34 of ASME Code)


Ttrbesheet constant
Mean diarneter of gasket at tubesheet, in.
Radial distance from gasket load reaction to the bolt circle, in.
Tolal moment mting upon the flange for the gasket seating, in-lb
Maximum unit bending moment at the tubesheet due to intemal
design pressure, inlb/in. of mean gasket circumference
Iniernal design pressure, psi
Code allowable tensile stress for tubesheet material at design tem_
peratue, psi
Effective tubesheet thickness. in.

330

331

APPENDIX 5
Derivation of TEMA1 Equation for Pressure due to
Differential lhermal Expansion for Fixed lbbesheets
Consider a fixed tubesheet exchanger without o9ansion joint and a non-

deflecting, i.e. a tully rigid, tubesheet'


The differential thermal expansion between tubes and shell can be expressed
as:

41 = (o"e,

- qe)

wherE,

c" O' =

exPansion of shell

and,

c, O. = olpansion of tubes
Let e- and e, be the srains in the shell and tubes respectively. Notr, since the
tubes are secued to the shell through tubesheets, therefore the total elongation of shell will be equal to th total elongaton of [tbes or

s" = c, Or+ e,

cr" O"+

(l)

The strains can be exPressed as

Er

P,
A" E"

and,

-PzA, E,
Norr, for equilibrium
or'

Pt

* Pr=

Pr=-Pz
JJJ

(no unbalanced forces)

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Then, Equation

(l)

can be rewritten as,

o-e-+A:
AE.
Substituting

Pr

PRESSURE ON FIXED TUBESHEETS

: -

e- +

a.

This is the exact derivation for Pr, however, TEMA has simplified the above
exprcssion by showing that the assumption

Pz

t"(D"-t) _
(D" - u)2

A, L,

Pz, we get

: o,g, +

cr,

cr"

O"

o"

o,

= :+
A,E,

o' O,

o!
Force

P,

tr (D-

e,

:+
A" E,

e"

^
'

l"=

e')

- a,e,)
(D"-3t")(r+JKFq)

can be expressed as uniform pressure, Pd, over an area of

- 2t.)z

^-

NOMENCLATURE
P,

: Pol

lD"

2t")z

A"
At
d"

Also, the shell cross-sectional area, A,, can be expressed as:


A" : qt" (D" -t)
And tube cross-sectional area is given by,
A,= rN /, (d" -

D"
E"
E,

t)

Fq

Substituting for Pr, A", and A, in Equation (2), we get


a

4J E,rs(a"e"

which is the same as the TEMA equation. When there is no expansion joint,/
= l, and when the tubesheet is rigid, Fq = | .

t-

3t")

Making the above substitution and introducing factor,/ and F4 in Equation


(4), we get

A, E,

does not make significant difference in results.

P'

or,

cr"

t"

(D"

.f\

*/^ - 2t)2
'd "\so
4nN E, t, (d. - t,)
D

,I

P, dD^ - 2r ))2
4i E" t" (Do - t")

(c-g--c.e,)=-

Pd

E-t-0- t-eta=K
N Ettr(d" - t)
=
".'

E" t- (D-

N E, tt G" - t)

t"

t")

0r
c,

e"

Substituting r( and solving F4uation (3) for


r"

Pr
P2

Simplifying the above equation, we get

P" (D^ - 2t"\2


4E" t" (D" - rr)
t-\

K
N

(D"

P"

- t)44(a, o" (D"

334

2t")2 (1

e,

we have

+ r0

c,O,)

EJ

Et

(4)

A1

Cross-sectional area-of the shell, in.2


Cross-sectional area of the tubes, in.2

Outside diameter of tubes, in.


Outside diameter of shell, in.
Elastic modulus of shell material at mean metal temperaturc, psi
Elastic modulus of tube material at mean metal temperature, psi
lbbesheet flexibility factor per TEMA
Expansion joint factor per TEMA
Factor per TEMA
Total number of tubes in shell
Longitudinal force on shell, lb
Longitudinal force on tubes, lb
Pressure due to differential thermal expansion. psi
Shell wall thickness, in.
Ttrbe wall thickness, in.
Coefficient of thermal expansion of shell, in./in."F
Coefficient of thermal expansion of tubes, in./in."F
Shell mean metal temperature less 70"F
Thbe mean metal temperature less 707
Snain in shell, in./in. of shell length
Strain in tubes, in./in. of tube length
Differential thermal expansion between tubes and shell, in./in.

335

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

REFERENCES

l.

Standards of lirbular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th Edition,

1978, New York.

APPENDIX 6
Derivation of TEMAr Equation for
Flat Channel Cover lhickness
The equation in TEMA is based on the maximum allorvable deflection of 7rz
inches. The effect of both the intemal pressure and the edge moment due to
bolt load is taken into account.

Deflection due to Internal kessure

FIG. I. INTERNAL PR.BSSIJRE I,OADINC ON FLAT CHANNEL COVER

Lt G be the diameter of gasket load raction and P be the uniform intemal


prcssure on the plate.
From the 5th Edition ofRoark2, Table 24, Case 10a (simply supported)' the
maximum deflection due to the unifonnly distributed load, P, at the center

will

be:

y" =

.Gj
Ptj)

(5+u)

& E(t)3
l2(1 - vz)

n+y)

_3PGa(l-v)(5+v\
256 E(ter3

According to Appendix S of ASME Section VIII, Division 13, the maximum


bolt stress anained due to manual bolt tighteligg will be,

sB

336

45

'm l\/dB

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

which gives,

FI.AT CHANNEL COVER THICKNESS

w=Aa(s,MDt/ia

therefore, total edge

-o.*, ",
: un *u"_

28ft

moment

load
Au (45,0W)

_
ttG

hG

t/d t"c)

h"

\f$, 1nq

(G2)

Allowing

(1

E=

t/$

ol

1"1212s1

3PG4

v" =

(l -

G) (72)
tw 6,1

v)(5 + r)

, = tp +

equation

v:0.28
E=

y" =

tM

\r^^/100

=ls.lp

by r25(10)6lt/3.

LEI

f
,=L,

l44rc where

W the total

2hcAB
./:

Vd"

('-'J

inch

as

Zh.A, t G \1t13
*
$*, ffi t,oo4
,cra

above

we eet

1.425(G)4

25 (10)6 psi
Vtz

the
In order to incorporate 1982 supplement to TEMA' multiply

,s6 Ey,

For

')

pressure as well
The total channel cover thickness to resist the intemal
is,
load
edge moment due to bolt

25 (10)6 psi

3ds (45,000) hc

v)

2 hc AB
rstl"'
u= fl-ff 1:i)'l

v)

zn1t,1t

we have,

E(t

= M.

1.98hcAB
.98 hG A ( G \_

\tr

%z inch for Ynn' we get

- l:-

v=.28

for,

(r +

3MG2(l

AaSr.

Thus, the deflection due to edge moment becomes,


3AB (45,000)

The total edge moment due to bolt load

=M

_ Mr

Gr

lt(r-;t

VE

The unit

l_l
\2 t

t-E\/h I

P , 0.5 ft,: A" (10)6-lr/3

we have,

'"

f
=

rco

(.72) (5.28)

,s6 (r5)

| | c
=Ls?P\

NOMENCLATIJRE

32 I r/r

tor

-.l

\o1"'

roo/I

AB

Total cross-sectional area of bolts, in.2

dB

Nominal bolt diameter, in'

E
G

hc
M

Deflection due to Edge Moment Resulting from the Bolt Load

MT
P

Deflection at the center of the flat circular plate due to edge moment is,

sB
T

338

psi'
Elastic modulus of the cover maierial at the design temperature,
in.
gasket
diameter,
Mean
Radial-distance between mean gasket diameter and bolt circle, in'
Unit edge moment due to bolt load, inlb/in. of mean gasket circumference'
Total edge moment due to bolt load' in-lb
Design pressure, Psi
Maxinum bolt stress attained due to manual bolt tightening' psi
Total channel cover thickness, in.

339

DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT

w
YM
Yp

Channel cover thickness due to edge moment, in.


Channel cover thickness due to intemal pressure, in.
Total bolt load, lb
Maximum channel cover deflection due to edge moment, in.
Maximum channel cover deflection due to intemal pressure, in.
Poisson ratio for cover materia-

APPENDIX 7
Derivation of Formula for Calculating Nlowable
Buckling Stress in Tall Cylindrical Towers

RDFERENCES
1. Standards of

'Ibbular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th Rlition,

1978, New York.

uniforrnly compressed in the axial direction, buckling


value of the load' The critical unit compressive
critical
will occur at a certain
bYr:
stress is given theoreticallY
If a cylindrical shell

Roark, R. J., and W. C. Young, "Formulas for Stress and Strain," Fifth
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1975.

is

3. ASME Boiler and hessure Vessel Code, Section VIII, "hessure Vessels," Division 1, ASME, New York, N.Y, 1983.

Et

,\,{r

_;t

However. theoretical formula should only be applied to very thin shells


where buckling due to axial compression occurs within the elastic range'
Experiments with very thin cylindrical shells under axial pressure showed
tttat in at cases failure occurred at a shess much lower than the theory
predicts. ln not one case was the ultimate stress more than 607o of the
theoretical. The ratio of the ultimate stress to the theoretical decreases as the
ratio r / t increases, i.e., the discrepancy between experiment and theory is
larger for thinner shells.
To explain this discrepancy, L. H. Donnel2 advanced a theory which takes
into account the initial displacernents from the ideal cylindrical surface and
investigates bending of the shell due to this initial imperfection assuming
that deflections are not small. He also assumed that the shells collapse when
yielding of the material begins. Taking initial displacement in the form of
waves of equal length in the axial and circumferential directions in combina-

tion with waves oi buckling symmetrical with respect to the

Tlr-8ryL
- 'z)

Vtz(t
found that the ultimate load fora given value ofthe ratio, E/
can be presented as a function of the radius thickness ratio' r / t'

On the basis of the existing experimental data, Donnel developed an empiri-

cal formula for calculating the ultimate strength of cylindrical shells under
axial compression. This formula takes into consideration the ratios r / randE
/ and gives ultimate buckling stress as:

3N

341

DESIGN OF PR@ESS EQUIPMENT

"

[o'u l-t'oY'
I + 0.004

(l+

;lE,
,)

TNDEX

.N4 E rY)

Neglecting the second tern in the numerator since it's very small compared
to .the first term, and using a factor of safety of 2. 14, we get the expression for
allo$'able bucklins stress as:

s=

"

E+A

(t +

.oME tY)

.56tE
d(r + .w4E tY)

Air coolers

accessories

fan. 288
plenum, 288
steam

coil, 288

structure.288

Air cooler's cover plate design, 302


flange design, 302

Air cooler's

headers, design, 290


without partition or stiffener, 29'l

NOMENCLATURE
d

Intemal lower diameter, in.

Modulus of elasticity of tower material at operating temperarure , psi .


lntmal radius of tower, in.
Allowable buckling stress for iower material, psi.
Tower plate thickness, in.
Yield point stress of lower material at operating temperatue, psi.
Theoretical value of compressive stress, psi.
Ultimaie buckling stress of tower, psi.
Poisson ratio of to\ver material

s
t
oo
cuk

REFERENCF^S
1. Timoshenko, S., "Theory of Elastic Stability," McGraw-Hill Book
Company Inc., New York, N.Y., 1936.

2. Donnel, L. H., "Results of Experirnents with Very Thin Cylindrical


Shells Under Axial Plessure," ASME Tlans., Yol. 56, 1934.
342

with single partition or stiffener,


293

with two or more partitions and/or


stiffener, 295

Air coolers

headers, ty'pes

billet type, 287

extruded finned, 284


hot dipped solder bonded finned,
285
single footed tension wrapped

finned,284
tension wrapped embedded finned,

284
Allowable shell buckling stress, 242
Allowable stress in flange design
in hub of tapered flange, 83
in loose type flange, 83
radial in ring of flange, 83
tangential in ring of flange, 83
Allowable stress in flanged and flued
expansion joints

cover plate type, 286

defection stress, 174

manifold type, 287


plug type, 286

pressure stress, 173

AL cooled

heat exchangers, types

induced draft, 281


forced draft. 282
Air coolers tubes, types

bare,283
double footed tension wrapped

finned,285
edge wound tension wrapped
finned. 285

total sfiess, 174

Allowable stress in pipe segment


expansion joints
deflection stress, 189
pressure stress, 189

total shess, 189


Anchor bolt chair for support of tall
stacks, 243

derivation of formulas. 321

ASME Code

lNl)l1X

tNt)tix
Checking strength ol'lcg support, 215

flange design, 59
types of circular flanges, 60,61,62

Class B heat exchanger, definition,

2l

ASME Section VIII, Division Two

Class C heat exchanger, definition,

applications, 231
comparison to Division One, 230
design criteria, 228

2l
Class R heat exchanger, definition,

2l

introduction, 228
limitations, 231

Concrete, allowable compressive


stress, 244

B class heat exchanger, definition,

21

Damping, definition, 236


Damping of excessive vibration, 262
Design of external bolting chairs for

Baffles, types
disc and doughnut, 25,26

orifice,26
segmental,24
Base plate design for leg supPort,

2r9
Bolt load, design, 69
Bolt spacing, maximum, 69
Bottom plate design lor rectangular
tat|,ks,214
Buckling of towers, derivation of

formula,34l
C class heat exchanger, definition, 2l
Calculation forms for flange design
with full face gasket, 132
lap joint independent ring tYPe,
124
slip on independent ring tYPe, 120
slip on or lap joint independent

hub type, 128


weld neck dependent type, 114
weld neck independent tyPe, 116
weld neck with rib area, 112
Calculation forms for flange MAWP
lap joint independent ring

tYPe,

126

slip on independent ring tYPe, 122


slip on or laP joint independent
hub type,

130

weld neck independent tYPe, 118


Calculation form for ring tYPe
expansion joint design, 182

Flanged and flued expanison joints,


stress analysis

reboiler, l0
steam generatot

l0

ll

superheater, 11
thermosiPhon reboiler,

Gaskets

l0

waste heat boiler, I I


Hub flange rotatton
due to initial bolt tightening,

seating stless, 64,65


seating width, 66,67

Hub of flange, ProPortioning, 69

Heat exchange! definition, 9


Heat exchangeq shell and tube

classification
fixed{ubesheet tYPe, 17
floating-head tYPe, 18
inside iPlit backing-ring tYPe, l9
outside-Packed lantem nng lYPe'

lntegral flange
example design, 86
Inrernal pressure formulas. derivation

ol

uxial loading, 215


combined loading, 216
eccentric loading, 215
wind or earthquake loading,

18
19

Heal exchanger. shell and tube design

l,

313

Le'g support, design for

l8

outside-Packed stuffing box tYPe,

pulhhrough bundle tYPe,


U-tube, 17

135

due to intemal Pressure, 136


due to unequal radial exPansion ot
the flange and shell, 138
methods oi reduction, 139,140

216
Leg suppoil for vcrtical vessels 20T
Lu-g rupp.,n for |ertical vessels' 195

28
51

ExamPle 2,
Heat ex&angel shell and tube

fabdcation

Map of seismic zones.

l2

Map of wind Pressures, 208

baffles, 24
duplex tubes, 25'26
flanges, 23
shells, 21

Maximum allowable working pressure


for flanges, 100
Miller's met[od for fixed tubesheet
design, 161

tube rolling, 27

Mode shapes for cantilevered

ferrules, 27

tubes, 25

tubesheet and tube hole Pattem' 24

345

344

10

forced circulation reboiler,


exchanger, 10
heater, l0
partial condenser, l0

vaporizer, I I

material,64,65
seating force, 63

Flange sfiesses, maximum


axial hub stress, 83
radial ring stress, 83
tangential ring stress, 83
Flanged and flued expansion joints,
allowable stress
deflection stress, 174
pressure stress, 173
total stress, 174

final condenser,

vibration,238

ExamPle

l0

cooler, l0

due io extemal Pressure, 150


due to intemal Pressure, 149
Rrndamental frequencY of stack

Dynamic wind design for tall stacks,

fhcings, for gaskets, 64,65


Fixed tubesheet design
miller's method, 161
Flange, ASME circular types
integral,60,62
Loose,60,62
optional, 61,62
Flange design, ASME method
deficiencies, 133
with full face gaskets, 106

condenseq

example design, 153


resultant stress, 150,151, 152
Floating head, shess analysis

contact facings, 64,65


factors, table for, 64,65

Earthquake forces for vessels with


braced legs, 214
Earthquake forces for vessels with
unbraced legs, 211
Exchanger (see heat exchanger)

chillcr,9

Flat channel cover thickness'


derivation of formula, 337
Floa(lng neao

stack support, 243


Dimensions of steel pipe, 22
244

Bracing of leg supPolt, 219


Bolt data, table, 70

llcirt cxclrunScr. lunctlons

du( lo (lill.rctltilll llx)\crlrclll. l 7duc t0 intcrnal Prossulc, 172

cylinder,236

INDEX
Natural frequency of vibration, 260
Nomenclature of heat exchanger
components, 14

Seismic forces for stacks, 237


Seismic zone map of the United

States,2l2
Selection of approximate leg size,

Pass

2r0

rib area in flange design,

Stack frequency, affecting factors

84,85,86

gunite lining, 240

Period of vibration, 235


Pipe segment expansion joints,

base flexibility, 240


Standard flange specifications, 59,60

allowable stress
deflection sffess, 189
pressure stress, 189
total stress, 189
Pipe segment expansion joints. stress
analysis
due to differential movement, 186
due to intemal pressure, 186

R class heat exchanger definition,

2l

Rectangular tank design


without stiffeners, 268
with top edge stiffener 269

with horizontal stiffeners, 271


with vertical stiffenen, 272
Restrictions on using leg support,
219
Resultant stress

in floating head, 150,151,152


Ring expansion joint, types
flanged and flued head, 170
flanged only head, 170
flat plated with ring, 169
Ring flange
example design, 97
Rotation of hub flange
due to initial bolt tightening, 135
due to intemal pressure, 136
due to unequal radial expansion of
the flange and shell, 138
methods of reduction, 139,140

Stress analysis, of floating heads


due to extemal pressure, 150
due to internal pressure, 149
Stress in vertical vessel
due to lug support, 198

Thickness of towers, derivation of

formulas, 317
Tubsheet, derivation of equation,
327

,333

Type designation of heat exchangers,


15

Vibration analysis of tall stacks or


towe$
Cantilever v ibrznon, 246,259
ovaling vibration, 249
Von Karman vortex street for a stack,
244
Vortex Shedding on a stack, 245

Wind forces for stacks, 233


Wind forces for vessels
with braced legs, 214

with unbraced legs, 207


Wind pressure map of the United
States,208

Wind pressures as functions of height


above ground, 209

346

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