CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION:
Concrete is used more than any other man-made material in the world. As of 2006, about
7.5 cubic kilometers of concrete are made each yearmore than one cubic meter for every person
on Earth. Concrete powers a US $35-billion industry which employs more than two million
workers in the United States alone. Reinforced concrete and pre-stressed concrete are the most
widely used modern kinds of concrete functional extensions.
Concrete is a construction material composed of cement (commonly Portland cement) as
well as other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a coarse
aggregate such as gravel, limestone, or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water, and
chemical admixtures. The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus" (meaning
compact or condensed), the past participle of "concresco", from "com-" (together) and "cresco" (to
grow).
Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due to a chemical
process known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components
together, eventually creating a stone-like material. Concrete is used to make pavements, pipe,
architectural structures, foundations, motorways/roads, bridges/overpasses, parking structures,
brick/block walls and footings for gates, fences and poles.

SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The aim of this project is to illustrate the various processes that elucidate the manufacture
of the final product- concrete- which is in turn made from cement.
This project aims to trace the manufacture of concrete starting with the manufacture of
cement from its raw materials. Here, in this project the important aspects are highlighted including,
but not limited to:

material balance

energy balance

design of equipment

site selection

plant layout

cost estimation.

ELUCIDATION OF TERMINOLOGY
PROCESSES INVOLVED:

AND EXPLANATION OF MATERIALS,

1. CONCRETE:
The basic components of concrete are:
1.1 CEMENT:
Introduction:
The word cement is of Latin origin, making it likely that the ancient Romans were
the first to use the substance. The most commonly used type of cement is Portland cement.
Portland cement is made by mixing calcareous (consisting mostly of calcium carbonate) material
such as limestone with silica-, alumina-, and iron oxide-containing materials. These substances are
then burned until they fuse together, and the resulting admixture, or clinker, is ground to form
Portland cement. Portland cement (produced by William Aspdin in London) is preferred to natural
cement as it has greater strength. Also in olden days it was preferred over Coman Cement mainly
because considerable part of the mixture had been sintered during burining.
Definition of Portland Cement:
As defined by the European Standard EN 197.1.
Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic material which shall consist of at least two-thirds by mass of
calcium silicates (3CaO.SiO2 and 2CaO.SiO2), the remainder consisting of aluminium- and ironcontaining clinker phases and other compounds. The ratio of CaO to SiO2 shall not be less than
2.0. The magnesium content (MgO) shall not exceed 5.0% by mass.
Use of Cement in Manufacture of Concrete:
Cement acts as the binder and modifies the characteristics and uses of concrete:
1. Portland cement is used to make reinforced concrete,
2. Blended Portland cement is used for slabs and roads,

3. Other types of cement are usually reserved for work that does not require particularly high
resistance to heat.
Types of Cement:
The various other types of cement are
1. Portland Cement

2. Pozzolona Cement:
A Pozzolan cement is one which is not cementitious by itself but becomes so upon
admixture with lime. The advantage of this cement is that it resists the corrosive action of
saline solutions and sea water better than Portland cement.

3. High Alumina Cement:

It is a calcium aluminate cement fusing limestone and bauxite. It has a very rapid
rate of development of strength and superior resistance to sea water.

4. Silicate Cements:
Silicate filled chemically setting silicate cements withstand all concentrations of
inorganic acids except hydrofluoric. Two applications are the joining of bricks in chromic
acid reaction tanks.

5. Sulphur cement:
They are resistant to nonoxidisong acids and salts but should not be used in the
presence of alkalies, oils, etc. They have been available since 1930 as a homogeneous
plasticized filled sulphur ingots possessing low coefficients of expansion.

6. Polymer Concrete:
They contain no Portland Cement. They consist of aggregates plus resins such as
epoxy, or polyester. Each of the resins imparts a specific property to the concrete like
corrosion resistance or high compressive strength.
4

7. Magnesium Oxychloride:
It is also called Sorels cement and is formed by the reaction:
3MgO + MgCl2 + 11H2O 3MgO.MgCl2.11H2O
Its main applications are in interior floorings.

Properties of Portland Cements:

Desired physical and chemical properties of cement can be obtained by changing the
percentages of the basic components (CaO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, SO3, etc).
Composition of Portland Cement is as follows:

Chemical Name

Chemical Formula

Shorthand Notation

Percent by Weight

Tricalcium Silicate

3CaO.SiO2

C3S

50

Dicalcium Silicate

2CaO.SiO2

C2S

25

Tricalcium

3Cao.Al2O3

C3A

12

4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3

C4AF

CaSO4.H2O

CSH2

3.5

Aluminate
Tertacalcium
Aluminoferrite
Gypsum

There are also certain unique feautures and singular characteristics of Portland Cement. These can
be summarised as follows:

Hydration:
When Portland cement is mixed with water, its chemical constituents undergo a series of
chemical reactions that cause it to harden (set). This chemical reaction with water is called
5

hydration. Each of these reactions occurs at a different time and rate. Together, the results of
these reactions determine how Portland cement hardens and gains in strength.
Fineness:
Fineness affects the hydration rate and thus the rate of strength gain. The smaller the
particle size, the greater the surface area to volume ratio and thus more the area available for
water- cement interaction per unit volume. Fineness can be measured by
1. Fineness of Portland Cement by Turbiditimeter
2. Fineness of Hydraulic Cement Air Permeability Apparatus

Soundness:
Soundness refers to the ability of a hardened cement paste to retain its volume after setting
without delayed destructive expansion. Delayed destructive expansion is caused by excessive
amounts of free lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO). The standard autoclave expansion test is called
Autoclave expansion test of Portland Cement.
Setting Time:
Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items including: cement fineness,
water- cement ratio, chemical content and admixtures. Setting tests are used to characterise how a
particular cement paste sets. For construction purposes, the initial set must not be too soon and the
final set must not be too late. Setting times can also give an indication of whether or not cement is
undergoing normal hydration. Normally two setting times are defined:
1. Initial set: Occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably.
2. Final set: Occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at which it can sustain some
load.
There are two test methods for testing:
1. Vicats Apparatus
2. Gillmore Apparatus

Strength:
Cement paste strength is generally defined in three ways: compressive, tensile and flexural.
These strengths are affected by a number of items including: water- cement ratio, cement- fine
aggregate ratio, type and grading of fine aggregate, curing conditions, etc.
Heat of Hydration:
The heat of hydration is the heat generated when water and Portland cement react. It is
most influenced by the proportion of C3S and C3 A, but also influenced by other factors such as
water cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature. As the above factors are increased, curing
temperature increases. The test used for this is Heat of Hydration Test for Hydraulic Cement.

1.2 AGGREGATES:
Since at least three- quarters of the volume of concrete is occupied by aggregates, it is not
surprising that its quality is of considerable importance. Not only do the aggregates limit the
strength of concrete- as weak aggregate cannot produce strong concrete- but the properties of
aggregates greatly affect the durability and structural performance of concrete. The size of
aggregates used in concrete ranges from tens of millimetres to a tenth of a millimeter in crosssection. Also it should be noted that the term aggregate refers to coarse aggregate. Sand is
generally considered to have a lower size limit of 0.07 mm or less. 0.06 mm to 0.002 mm is
classified as silt. Loam is a soft deposit consisting of sand, silt and clay in equal proportions.
Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel
and crushed stone are mainly used for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction,
demolition and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements of natural
aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnace slag
and bottom ash are also permitted.
Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes
added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular among
landscape designers.

Reinforcement:
Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression
load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack,
allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding either metal
reinforcing bars, steel fibers, glass fiber, or plastic fiber to carry tensile loads.
Chemical admixtures:
Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the
concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In normal use,
admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement, and are added to the concrete at the time
of batching/mixing. The most common types of admixtures are:

Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical materials used are
CaCl2 and NaCl. However use of Chlorides may cause corrosion in steel reinforcing and is
prohibited in some countries.

Retarders slow the hydration of concrete, and are used in large or difficult pours where
partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable. Typical polyol retarder is sugar,
sucrose.

Air entrainments add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which will reduce
damage during freeze-thaw cycles thereby increasing the concrete's durability

Plasticizers/ superplasticizers (water-reducing admixtures) increase the workability of

plastic or "fresh" concrete, allowing it be placed more easily, with less consolidating effort.
Typical plasticizers are liginsulfate, polyol type. Alternatively, plasticizers can be used to
reduce the water content of a concrete (and have been called water reducers due to this
application) while maintaining workability. This improves its strength and durability
characteristics. Superplasticizers (high-range water-reducing admixtures) are a class of
plasticizers which have fewer deleterious effects when used to significantly increase
workability, representive superplasticizers are sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde
condensate, sulfonated melamine formaldehy condensate and acetone formaldehyde
condensate, etc.

Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.

Mineral admixtures and blended cements

There are inorganic materials that also have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties. These
very fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of concrete
(mineral admixtures), or as a replacement for Portland cement (blended cements).

Fly ash: A by product of coal fired electric generating plants, it is used to partially replace
Portland cement (by up to 60% by mass). The properties of fly ash depend on the type of
coal burnt. In general, silicious fly ash is pozzolanic, while calcareous fly ash has latent
hydraulic properties.

Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS): A by product of steel

production, is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 80% by mass). It has
latent hydraulic properties.

Silica fume: A by-product of the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. Silica fume
is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller. This results in a higher
surface to volume ratio and a much faster pozzolanic reaction. Silica fume is used to
increase strength and durability of concrete.

High Reactivity Metakaolin (HRM): Metakaolin produces concrete with strength and
durability similar to concrete made with silica fume. While silica fume is usually dark gray
or black in color, high reactivity metakaolin is usually bright white in color, making it the
preferred choice for architectural concrete where appearance is important.

1.2 CONCRETE:
History of Concrete:
During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete (or Opus caementicium) was made from
quicklime, pozzolanic ash/pozzolana, and an aggregate of pumice. Its widespread use in many
Roman structures, a key event in the history of architecture termed the Concrete Revolution, freed
Roman construction from the restrictions of stone and brick material and allowed for revolutionary
new designs both in terms of structural complexity and dimension.
Modern tests show Opus caementicium to be as strong as modern Portland cement concrete
in its compressive strength (ca. 200 kg/cm2). However, due to the absence of reinforced steel, its
tensile strength was far lower and its mode of application was also different:
Recently, the use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients is gaining popularity
because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The most conspicuous of these is fly
ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants. This has a significant impact by reducing the amount
of quarrying and landfill space required, and, as it acts as a cement replacement, reduces the
amount of cement required to produce a solid concrete.
Concrete additives have been used since Roman and Egyptian times, when it was
discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set under water. Similarly, the Romans
knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood
made it more frost-resistant.
Properties of Concrete:
The other general properties of concrete can be summarized as:
Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile strength, and as
such is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often steel). The elasticity of
concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as
matrix cracking develops. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, and as it
matures concrete shrinks. All concrete structures will crack to some extent, due to shrinkage and
tension. Concrete which is subjected to long-duration forces is prone to creep.
10

Tests can be made to ensure the properties of concrete correspond to specifications for the
application.
The density of concrete varies, but is around 150 pounds per cubic foot (2400 kg/m)
Other properties of concrete and singular terms associated with its use are:
1.2.1 Workability:
The strength of a concrete of given mix proportions is very seriously affected by the degree
of its compaction; it is therefore vital that the consistence of the mix be such that concrete can be
transported, placed and finished sufficiently easily and without segregation. Concrete that satisfies
these conditions is said to be workable.
1.2.2 Consistence:
Consistence is taken to man the degree of wetness, within limits, wet concretes are more
workable than dry concretes, but concretes of the same consistency may vary in workability.
1.2.3 Elasticity:
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is a function of the modulus of elasticity of the
aggregates and the cement matrix and their relative proportions. The modulus of elasticity of
concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as
matrix cracking develops.
The American Concrete Institute allows the modulus of elasticity to be calculated using the
following equation:

(psi)
where

wc = weight of concrete (pounds per cubic foot) and where

f'c = compressive strength of concrete at 28 days (psi)

11

This equation is completely empirical and is not based on theory. Note that the value of Ec found is
in units of psi. For normalweight concrete (defined as concrete with a wc of 150 pcf and
subtracting 5pcf for steel) Ec is permitted to be taken as

1.2.4 Expansion and shrinkage

Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. However, if no provision is
made for expansion, very large forces can be created, causing cracks in parts of the structure not
capable of withstanding the force or the repeated cycles of expansion and contraction. As concrete
matures it continues to shrink, due to the ongoing reaction taking place in the material, although
the rate of shrinkage falls relatively quickly and keeps reducing over time (for all practical
purposes concrete is usually considered to not shrink due to hydration any further after 30 years).
The relative shrinkage and expansion of concrete and brickwork require careful accommodation
when the two forms of construction interface.
Due to its low thermal conductivity, a layer of concrete is frequently used for fireproofing
of steel structures.
1.2.5 Creep:
Creep is the term used to describe the permanent movement or deformation of a material in
order to relieve stresses within the material. Concrete which is subjected to long-duration forces is
prone to creep. Short-duration forces (such as wind or earthquakes) do not cause creep. Creep can
sometimes reduce the amount of cracking that occurs in a concrete structure or element, but it also
must be controlled.

12

1.3 RAW MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Calcareous:

Limestone (includes aragonite, marble, chalk)

Cement Rock (includes marl)

Oyster shell

Argillaceous

Clay

Shale

Staurolite

Bauxite

Aluminium dross

Volcanic material

Siliceous:

Sand

Sandstone and quartz

Ferrous:

Iron ore

Pyrites

Mill scale

Iron bearing material

Others:

Gypsum

Anhydrite
13

Blast furnace

Slag

Fly ash

Aggregates:

Unconsolidated rock

Solid rock

Recycled material- from demolition, recycled concrete, railway ballast

14

CHAPTER 2
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
2.1 MANUFACTURING PROCESS SELECTION:
Cement:
There are two processes for the manufacture of cement: wet process and dry process.
Wet process:
The wet process involves the grinding of raw materials with water to form slurry containing 3040% moisture. The slurry is blended, as required and subsequently fed into the klin.
Dry process:
The dry process does not introduce water during grinding and the raw materials are fed into the
klin in the form of powder.
Selection of the process:

Till recently the wet process had advantages over dry process due to ease of handling and
blending of raw materials as well as yielding higher quality of clinker.

However improvements in dry blending and material handling techniques in combination

with lower energy consumption used in the dry process has served to minimize the
advantage of the wet process over the dry process.

Most new plans or production lines have turned to dry processes in view of increasing
energy cost and favourable shifts in dry process technology. Thus the dry process is what is
dealt with here.

Cement manufacturing involves four basic processing stages: quarrying, crushing, mixing,
grinding, burning, cooling, finish grinding, packaging, shipping.

15

Manufacturing Process Selection for manufacture of Concrete

The feasibility survey for manufacture of concrete for a construction project is done as early
during the project bidding stage.
The manufacture of concrete is done in two ways ;
1) Production within a project Site
2) Ready Mix Concrete(RMC)
For a construction project, the most economical option would be choosen considering
various factors & project specific requirements. Where concrete is manufactured on a large scale
by establishing ready mix concrete plants to cater for several construction projects within a city
(or) a town, the detailed feasibility study is done as below :

Cement consumption pattern

Market potential for Concrete

Bulk material availability

Identification of suitable location

Financial feasibility

16

2.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND CHEMISTRY OF THE PROCESS:

The cement manufacturing process involves four distinct stages, and these are outlined below.
Step 1 - Quarrying
The raw material for cement manufacture is a rock mixture which is about 80% limestone
(which is rich in CaCO3) and 20% clay or shale (a source of silica, alumina and Fe 2O3). These are
quarried and stored separately. The lime and silica provide the main strength of the cement, while
the iron reduces the reaction temperature and gives the cement its characteristic grey colour.
Step 2 - Raw material preparation
The steps involved here depend on the process used.
The dry process:
The quarried clay and limestone are crushed separately until nothing bigger than a tennis
ball remains. Samples of both rocks are then sent off to the laboratory for mineral analysis. If
necessary, minerals are then added to either the clay or the limestone to ensure that the correct
amounts of aluminium, iron etc. are present. The clay and limestone are then fed together into a
mill where the rock is ground until more than 85% of the material is less than 90m in diameter.
Step 3 - Clinkering
This is the step which is characteristic of Portland cement. The finely ground material is
dried, heated (to enable the sintering reactions to take place) and then cooled down again.
While it is being heated various chemical reactions take place to form the major mineral
constituents of Portland cement. The powder from the dry process doesn't contain much moisture,
so can be dried in a preheater tower. As it falls through the tower (which takes 30 seconds) it is
heated from 70 to 800oC. The moisture evaporates, up to 20% of the decarbonation (loss of CO 2)
occurs and some intermediate phases such as CaOAl2O3 begin to appear. The mixture is then fed
into the kiln.
The slurry from the wet process contains too much moisture to be successfully dried in a
preheater tower. Instead, the slurry is fed directly into the kiln where it is formed into dry balls by
the heat and rotation of the kiln. Because of this extra role of the kiln, wet process kilns are
17

generally longer than dry process kilns. The kilns used in both processes are inclined on a shallow
angle and lined with heat-resistant bricks.
The reaction processes occuring within the kiln are not easily understood due to the wide
variations in raw-mix chemistry, raw-mix physical properties and kiln operating conditions, and
the physical difficulties of extracting hot materials from the process for investigation before they
cool.

Breaking the reaction processes into a number of simple zones means we can make some
approximations about the cement formation process.
Zone 1: 0 - 35 min, 800 - 1100oC
Decarbonation. Formation of 3CaOAl2 O3 above 900oC. Melting of fluxing compounds Al2O3 and
Fe2O3.
heat
CaCO3

CaO + CO2

Zone 2: 35 - 40 min, 1100 - 1300oC

Exothermic reactions and the formation of secondary silicate phases as follows:
heat
2CaO + SiO2

2CaOSiO2

Zone 3: 40 - 50 min, 1300 - 1450 - 1300oC

Sintering and reaction within the melt to form ternary silicates and tetracalcium aluminoferrates:
heat + time
2CaOSiO2 + CaO

3CaOSiO2
heat + time

3CaOAl2O3 + CaO + Fe2O3

4CaOAl2O3 Fe2O3
18

Zone 4: 50 - 60 min, 1300 - 1000oC

Cooling and crystallisation of the various mineral phases formed in the kiln.
Step 4 - Cement milling
To produce the final product the clinker is mixed with gypsum (CaSO42H2O), which is
added as a set retarder, and ground for approximately 30 minutes in large tube mills. The cement
flows from the inlet to the outlet of the mill (a rotating chamber), being first ground with 60 mm
then 30 mm diameter steel balls. The first grinding breaks up the material and the second grinds it
to a fine powder. The amount of grinding is governed by the volume of cement fed into the mill:
the greater the volume the coarser the grind. This has practical limits, with too much cement
clogging up the mill and not enough actually increasing the particle size. The particle size is
measured by laser diffraction analysis, and the quantity of material entering the mill adjusted
accordingly. Over time the charge (steel grinding balls) wear out, so when they reach a certain size
they fall through a seive and then are replaced.
The cement grinding process is highly energy intensive. The rotating mill generates
significant quantities of energy and water is added to both the inlet and outlet ends of the mill to
cool the product and the mill itself.
The final stage of cement manufacture is packing and dispatching. Packing machines can
pack at the rate of 350 tonnes per hour.

2.3 Concrete:
Manufacturing process (Aggregates)
In theory, producing aggregates simply involves crushing rock. In practice, it is much more
complex, as standardized sizes and homogenous aggregates must be obtained.
Step 1: Supply
Three major sources of aggregates can be identified:

unconsolidated (loose) rock: sand and alluvial materials (dry river beds). This is
19

"rolled" sand because the grains are rounded,

solid rock: limestone and hard rock or crushed volcanic rock. This is "crushed" sand

because the grains are pointed,

recycled materials: often of industrial origin, from demolition, recycled concrete, railway
ballast, etc.

Step 2: Extraction
Extraction is a key phase during production from solid rock, particularly because
strategic choices, such as the selection of a slab for color or hardness, can make
a real difference.
Step 3: Crushing, grinding, screening
Once extracted, the materials are transported to the processing site for scalping.
This process involves removing unwanted materials, such as blocks, clay, etc. The scalped
product is crushed once to transform the block into broken stone. The process is repeated as many
times as necessary to obtain the desired fragment size. The resulting material is then screened to
obtain aggregates of the desired grade. The larger pieces that are rejected are returned to the
crusher and subsequently rescreened, with the process continuing until the desired size is obtained.
Some categories of aggregates, such as sand and gravel, undergo complementary processing
including washing, cycloning and scrubbing, primarily to make them cleaner.

20

1
QUARRYING RAW
MATERIALS

PROCESSING RAW
MATERIALS

PROCESS FLOW SHEET

1

RAW MATERIAL
PREPARATION
(PROPORTIONING AND
GRINDING)
1

CLINKER STORAGE

DRY MIXING AND

BLENDING

X Raw material flow ; y Clinker material flow ; 1 PM Emiossions ; 2 Gas Emissions

WATER

FINISH GRINDING MILL

AIR SEPERATOR

PREHEATER AND
PRECALCINER

REACTOR

FUEL HANDLING
SECTION

21

AGGREGATES
AND ADDITIVES

MIXER

READY MIX
CONCRETE

CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL BALANCE

3.1 DATA CONSIDERED:

Basis: 3000 tons per day
Gypsum:

5% of final product
Black clay analysis:
SiO2

55%

Al2O3

17%

Fe

Lime

6.5%

1.1%

MgO

Loss on ignition -

7%

13.4%

Coal Analysis:
Carbon Content

85%

Oxygen

6.78%

Hydrogen

5.31%

Nitrogen

2.12%

Sulfur

0.79%

Wastage During Crushing: 3%

Conversion in kiln:

22

97% conversion occurring

Coal Requirement:
One Third of Raw Material

3.2 CALCULATION OF RAW MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS:

BASIS:
Let us assume that 3000 Tons cement is used per day for concrete production.
By Reverse Calculation:
1. Grinder stage:
It is assumed that gypsum added in the grinding stage is 5% of the cement used.
Gypsum added = 5% of Cement = 0.05*3000 = 150 Tons
Therefore cement from clinker (i.e before adding gypsum) = 3000 150 = 2850 Tons

2. Rotary kiln stage:

Assuming 97% conversion for the following reaction:
CaCO3

CaO

CO2

To get 2850 Tons of cement, clinker required = 2850/0.97 = 2938.14 Tons.

According to the following reactions we can obtain the amount of Lime and SiO 2 by
stoichiometry.
CaCO3

CaO

2CaO+ SiO2

2CaO.SiO2

Molecular Weight of CaO

56
23

CO2

Molecular Weight of SiO2

60

Molecular Weight of 2CaO.SiO2

172

By Stoichiometry,
2CaO

2CaO.SiO2

112

172

2938.14

Amount of CaO Required (x)

(112*2938.14)/172 = 1913.21 Tons

Amount of SiO2

(2938.14 1913.21) = 1024.93 Tons

Unconverted reactants

0.03*2938.14 = 88.14 Tons.

Silica is obtained from clay, assuming clay used contains about 55% Silica Content,
Amount of clay required

1024.93/0.55

1863.51 Tons.

3. Limestone Requirement:
For 1913.21 Tons of CaO, the amount of limestone required is calculated below
Molecular Weight of CaO

Molecular Weight of CaCO3 =

56
100

CaCO3

CaO

CO2

By Stoichiometry,
CaCO3

100

56

Y
Amount of CaCO3 (Y)

CaO

1913.21
=

(1913.21*100)/56
24

3416.45 Tons.

Accounting for 3% wastage during crushing the actual amount of limestone required
=

3416.45/0.97

3522.11 Tons.

4. Coal requirement:
Valid assumption is that coal requirement is roughly equal to one third of the amount of
Limestone used and the carbon content of coal used is 85%,
Amount of Coal required

(0.333*3522.11)/0.85 = 1379.84 Tons.

25

3.3 INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT MATERIAL BALANCE:

3.3.1. CRUSHER:
The raw materials are reduced by primary and secondary crushers. Stone is first reduced to 5 inch
size(125 mm), then to

inch (19 mm). Once the raw materials arrive at the plant, they are

proportioned to create cement with specific chemical composition.

Entering:
Limestone

3522.11 Tons

3% exits as wastage,
So wastage

0.03*3522.11

105.66 Tons

(3522.11 105.66)

3416.45 Tons

Exit:
Limestone

26

Limestone

Limestone

CRUSHER

3522.11 Tons

3416.45 Tons

Wastage (Limestone)
105.66 Tons
(Figure 1)

Table 3.1 Mass balance of Crusher:

IN

OUT

MATERIALS

WEIGHT(TONS)

MATERIALS

WEIGHT(TONS)

Limestone

3522.11

Limestone

3416.45

Wastage

105.66

Total

3522.11

Total

3522.11

27

3.3.2 VERTICAL ROLLER MILL:

The products from the crusher are further blended in a vertical roller mill along with 55% grade
clay which is added in this stage.
Entering:
Limestone from crusher

3416.45 Tons

Clay with 55% SiO2 content

1863.51 Tons

Exit:
SiO2 from the vertical roller mill = (55*1863.51)/100 = 1024.93 Tons
Wastage

= 1863.51 1024.93 = 838.58 Tons

Clay (SiO2) 55%

Grade 1863.51 Tons

CaCO3
Tons
3416.45 Tons

VERTICAL
ROLLER MILL

CaCO3 3416.45

SiO 2

1024.93 Tons

Total

4441.38

Tons

Wastage

28

838.58 Tons

Fig. 2

Table 3.2 Mass Balance for Vertical Roller Mill:

IN
MATERIALS

OUT
WEIGHT(TONS)

MATERIALS

WEIGHT(TONS)

CaCO3

3416.45

CaCO3

SiO2

1863.51

SiO2

105.66

Wastage

838.58

Total

5279.96

Total

5279.96

3416.45

3.3.3 PREHEATER AND PRECALCINER:

The homogeneous raw meal is preheated in preheater and only partial calcinations takes place
here. Then the material is then calcined up to 90% in a precalciner.

CO2

CaCO3

3416.45 Tons

Tons
SiO2

1024.93 Tons

1721.89 Tons
Total

1352.92 Tons

PREHEATER
AND
PRECALCINER

4441.38 Tons

CaCO 3

CaO

SiO2

Tons
Total

3088.46 Tons
29

341.64

1024.93

In Precalciner, 90 % (by assumption) of the calcinations of limestone occurs as per the following
reaction,
CaCO3

CaO

CO2

Entering:
Limestone entering

3416.45 Tons

Limestone reacted

90 % (assumed)

Limestone unreacted

341.64 Tons

Lime formed

CO2 formed

Exit:
=

3074.81 Tons

(56/100)*3074.81

1721.89 Tons

(44/100)*3074.81

1352.92 Tons

Table 3.3 Mass Balance for preheater and Precalciner

IN
MATERIALS

OUT
WEIGHT(TONS)

MATERIALS

WEIGHT(TONS)

CaCO3

3416.45

CaCO3

341.64

SiO2

1024.93

SiO2

1024.93

CaO

1721.89

CO2

1352.92

Total

4441.38

Total

4441.38

30

3.3.4 ROTARY KILN:

The raw material is heated in a cement kiln, a gigantic slowly rotating and sloped cylinder, with
temperatures increasing over the length of the cylinder upto 1480C.
Air

15230.26 Tons
O2

Coal 85 % carbon

3502.96 Tons

N2

11727.3 Tons

ROTARY
KILN

Grade 1379.84 Tons

CaCO3

341.64 Tons

CaO

1721.89 Tons

SiO2

1024.93 Tons

Clinker ( 2CaO.SiO2) 2850 Tons

CO2 from calcinations 150.32 T
CO2 from combustion 4300.49 T
N2

Unconverted reactants 88.14 T

Flyash 206.99 T; Total Flue exit 16760.42

Figure 4
Calcination reaction:
CaCO3

11727.3 Ton, O2 375.32 T

CaO

CO2

In rotary kiln, 97% of calcinations occur (assumptions)

Limestone entering

341.64 Tons

Lime formed

(56/100)*341.64 = 191.32 Tons

CO2 formed

(44/100)*341.64 = 150.32 Tons

Hence total lime

191.32 + 1721.89 = 1913.21 Tons

Combustion Reaction:
31

Entering:
Coal entering the kiln

1379.84 Tons

Carbon entering

85 % of 1379.84 = 0.85 * 1379.84

1172.86 Tons (assumption)

44*1172.86/12 = 4300.49 Tons

CO2 from combustion

By the following reaction,

C + O2

CO2

Where C is carbon from coal 85%

Oxygen requirement

= (1172.86 * 32)/12 = 3127.64 Tons

Assuming excess oxygen

= 12 %

Total Oxygen

= 1.12 * 3127.64 = 3502.96 Tons

Excess Oxygen

= 0.12 * 3127.64 = 375.32 Tons

Total air required

= (100*3502.96)/23 = 15230.26 Tons

N2 Present

= 15230.26 3502.96 = 11727.3 Tons

Clinkerisation reaction:
By considering the following reaction occurring in kiln,
2CaO+ SiO2
Lime present

= 1931.21 Tons

SiO2 present

= 1024.93 Tons

2CaO.SiO2

Clinker formed (stoichiometry) = (172 * 1913.21)/112 = 2938.14 Tons

Conversion formed

= 2938.14 *(0.97) = 2850 Tons

32

Table 3.4 Mass Balance for Rotary Kiln

IN
MATERIALS

OUT
WEIGHT(TONS)

MATERIALS

WEIGHT(TONS)

CaCO3

341.64

Clinker

2850

CaO

1721.89

Unconverted

88.14

reactants(CaO + SiO2)
SiO2

1024.93

Coal

1379.84

Air

15230.26

Total

19698.56

Flue gases

16760.42

Total

19698.56

3.3.5 GRINDER:

33

The final stage where the addition of gypsum which is essential to retard the setting rate of cement
occurs and the finally ground cement is formed

Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) 150 Tons

Clinker (2CaO.SiO2)

GRINDER

2850 Tons

Cement
3000 Tons

Fig 5
Clinker entering

= 2850 Tons

Gypsum

= 5% of final product = 0.05 * 3000 = 150 Tons

Total products

= 2850 + 150 = 3000 Tons

Table 3.5 Mass Balance for Grinder

34

IN
MATERIALS

OUT
WEIGHT(TONS)

MATERIALS

Clinker

2850

Cement

Gypsum

150

Wastage

Total

3000

WEIGHT(TONS)
3000

Total

3000

OVERALL MASS BALANCE FOR CEMENT:

Table 3.6

OVERALL MASS BALANCE FOR CEMENT

IN

OUT

MATERIALS

WEIGHT(TONS)

LIMESTONE

3522.11

MATERIALS
CRUSHER

WEIGHT(TONS)
105.66

WASTAGE
CLAY

1863.51

Unconverted kiln raw

88.14

material
GYPSUM

150

Flue gases

16760.42

COAL

1379.84

CO2

1352.92

Air

15230.26

CEMENT

3000

CLAY WASTAGE

838.58

Total

22145.72

Total

22145.72

35

3.3.6 MIXER
Amount of concrete formed = (1/6.52)* amount of cement
= (1/6.52)* 3000
= 19560
Aggregates (5.02 : 6.52)

Cement (1:6.52)

Concrete 19560 Tons

Mixer
Water (0.5:6.52)

Figure 6

3.4 ENERGY BALANCE

36

BASIS:
Production capacity of 3000 Tons per day with temperature 20C.
INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT ENERGY BALANCE:
3.4.1 CRUSHER:

Limestone

Limestone

CRUSHER

31991.98 MJ

31032.25 MJ

Wastage (Limestone)
959.73 MJ
Heat input:
Q = m * Cp * (T 20)
Where T = Temperature of limestone inlet
Cp = 0.217 kcal/kgC
Therefore
Q = (3522.11 * 1000) * (0.217) * (30 20)
37

Fig 7

= 7642978.70 Kcal
= 31991.98 MJ
Heat output:
Q = m * Cp * (T 20)
Q = (3416.45 * 1000) * (0.217) * (30 20)
= 7413696.50 Kcal
= 31032.25 MJ
Wastage or heat loss:
m

= 105.66 Tons

Therefore
Q = (105.66 * 1000) * (0.217) * (30 20)
= 229282.20 Kcal
= 959.73 MJ
Table 3.7 Energy balance of Crusher:
IN
MATERIALS
Limestone

OUT
ENERGY(MJ)
31991.98

MATERIALS
Limestone
Wastage

Total

31991.98

Total

3.4.2 VERTICAL ROLLER MILL:

38

ENERGY(MJ)
31032.25
959.73
31991.98

Clay (SiO2) 30C

17472.63 MJ

LIMESTONE FROM CRUSHER

CLAY
31032.25 MJ

LIMESTONE +

VERTICAL
ROLLER MILL
Wastage

40642.19 MJ

838.58 Tons

FROM WASTE CLAY

7862.69 MJ

Fig.8

Table 3.8 Energy Balance for Vertical Roller Mill:

IN
MATERIALS

OUT
ENERGY(MJ)

MATERIALS

Crushed limestone

31032.25

Limestone + clay

Clay

17472.63

Clay Wastage loss

Total

48504.88

Total

3.4.3 PREHEATER AND PRECALCINER:

39

ENERGY(MJ)
40642.19
7862.69
48504.88

CO2 429825.69MJ

From VRM
limestone + clay
40642.19 MJ

Evaporation loses 269937.38 MJ

PREHEATER
AND
PRECALCINER
CaCO3 + lime + clay

Recovered heat from the cooler

959445.83 MJ

1618566.71 MJ

Fig. 9
Heat Input:
Limestone + clay = 40642.19 MJ
Cooler exit air = 1618566.71 MJ
Heat Output:
Limestone +clay + silica
M*Cp (Cp at 25 C)
CaCO3 : (341.64 * 103 * 0.217 ) = 74135.88
CaO

: (1721.89 * 103 * 0.227) = 390869.03

SiO2

: (1024.93 * 103 * 0.224) = 229584.32

40

Q = mCp(T-20)
T = 350C at preheater exit
Q = 959445.83 MJ
Heat loss from the CO2 exit

= mCp(T-20)
= 1352.92 * 103 * 0.23 * (350 20)
= 102686628 kcal = 429825.69 MJ

Heat loss by evaporation of trace water : 2% approx

4441.38 * 103 * 2/100 = 88827.60 Kg of water removed
Q = mCp(T 30) + m + mCp(T 100)
= (88827.60 * 1 * (100 30 )+ (88827.60 * 539) + (88827.60 * 0.468 * (350 100)
= 64488837.60 Kcal
= 269937.38 MJ
Table 3.9 Energy Balance for preheater and Precalciner
IN
MATERIALS

OUT
ENERGY(MJ)

Heat from clay +

40642.19

limestone
Heated air from

MATERIALS
Limestone + lime

ENERGY(MJ)
959445.83

+clay
1618566.71

Evaporation loss

269937.38

CO2 exit

429825.69

Total

1659208.90

cooler

Total

1659208.90

3.4.4 ROTARY KILN:

41

Air

146626.89 MJ

Clinker 1200C

ROTARY
KILN

Coal 83748.15 MJ

2618293.24 MJ

From preheater

Flue gases exhaust

Lime + clay + limestone

19901226.46 MJ + Radiation loses

959445.83 MJ

14089473.69 MJ
Unconverted reactants 97909.08 MJ

Heat Input :
Heat from limestone + lime + clay from preheater = 959445.83 MJ at 50C
Sensible heat from coal = mCp(T 20)
= 1379.84 * 103 * 0.29 * (70 20)
= 20007680 Kcal
= 83748.15 MJ
Heat released by combustion of coal :
Q = mass * Calorifc value
= 1379.84 * 103 * 25.74
= 35517081.60 MJ
Sensible heat of air entering :
42

(Fig 10)

M = 15230.26 Tons at 30C

Cp of air = 0.23 Kcal/KgC
Q = (15230.26 * 103 ) * 0.23 * 10
= 146626.89 MJ

Total heat input = {(heat from lime + limestone + clay from preheater ) + sensible heat from
coal + heat released by combustion of coal + sensible heat of air entering } = 1338488.27 MJ
Heat output:
Clinker exit heat at 1200C = mCp(T 20)
= 2850 * 103 * 0.186 * (1200 20)
= 2618293.24 MJ
Heat exit of flue gas :
Total mass = 16760.42 * 103 Kg
Mass Fraction :
CO2 = (150.32 + 4300.49)/16760.42 = 0.2656
N2

= 11727.30/16760.42 = 0.6997

O2

= 375.32/16760.42

= 0.224

Cp average = (0.2656 * 0.23 ) + 0.6997 * 0.249 + (0.224 *0.228)

= 0.2404 Kcal/kgC
Q

= 16760.42 * 103 * 0.2404 * (1200 20)

= 4754461862 Kcal
=

19901226.46 MJ

43

Unconverted reactants heat loss :

CaCO3 = 341.64/ 3088.46 = 0.1106
CaO

= 1721.89/ 3088.46 = 0.5575

SiO2

= 1024.93/3088.46 = 0.33139

Cp Average = (0.1106 *0.217) + ( 0.5575* 0.227) + (0.3319*0.224)

Q

= 88.14 * 103 * 0.2249 * (1200 10 )

= 0.2249 Kcal/kgC
= 97909.08 MJ

Total heat output = (heat output by clinkers + total heat losses + total heat output by flue
gases)
Total heat loses = (Unconverted reactants heat loses + radiation and convection loses)
Radiation and convection loses = (Total heat loses Unconverted reactants heat loses)
= 14089473.69 MJ

Table 3.10 Energy Balance for Rotary Kiln

44

IN
MATERIALS

OUT
ENERGY(MJ)

MATERIALS

ENERGY(MJ)

CaCO3 + lime + clay

959445.83

Clinker(1200C)

2618293.24

Sensible heat from

146626.89

Unconverted reactants

19901226.46

Sensible heat of coal

83748.15

Exhaust

14089473.69

Coal combution

35517081.60

Radiation and

97909.08

air

convection loses
\Total

Total
36706902.47

3.4.5 COOLER:
45

36706902.47

Recovered heat to preheater

1618566.71 MJ

Clinker 1200C

Cooler clinker 50C

COOLER

2618293.24 MJ

66566.78 MJ

To steam economizer
933159.75 MJ

(Fig 11)

Heat input:
Clinker at 1200C = 2618293.24 MJ
It is cooled at 50C and the heat generated is utilized for preheater and the precalciner
section.
Heat output :
M = 2850 T of clinker at 50C
Q = 2850 *103 * 0.186 * 30
= 15903000 Kcal
= 66566.78 MJ
Remaining heat = input output
46

= 2551726.46 MJ
Heat to preheater = 1618566.71 MJ
Additional heat is directed to steam economizer = 933159.75 MJ

Table 3.11 Energy Balance for Cooler

IN
MATERIALS
Clinker(1200 C)

OUT
ENERGY(MJ)
2618293.24

MATERIALS
Cooled clinker

66566.78

To preheater

1618566.71

To steam economizer
Total

2618293.24

ENERGY(MJ)

Total

3.4.6 GRINDER:

47

933159.75
2618293.24

Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) 150 Tons

Heat Loss
35035.15 MJ

Clinker (2CaO.SiO2)

GRINDER

66566.78 MJ

Cement
33157.80 MJ
Fig 12

Heat input :
Cooled clinker for cooler = 66566.78 MJ
Gypsum sensible heat = 150 at 30C
Cp at 30C = 0.259 Kcal/kgC
Q

= 150 * 103 * 0.259 * (30 - 20)

= 388500 Kcal = 1626.18 MJ

Heat output :
Cement = 3000 Tons
Cp Value = 0.186 Kcal/KgC
Q

= (3000 * 103) * 0.186 * (35 20)

= 8370000 MJ
48

= 35035.15 MJ
Loses by radiation and convection

33157.81 MJ

Table 3.12 Energy Balance for Grinder

IN
MATERIALS

OUT
ENERGY(MJ)

MATERIALS

ENERGY(MJ)

Cooled Clinker

66566.78

Cement

35035.15

Gypsum

1626.18

Radiation loses

33157.81

Total

68192.96

Total

Overall energy balance:

49

68192.96

IN

OUT

MATERIALS

ENERGY(MJ)

MATERIALS

ENERGY(MJ)

Limestone

31991.98

Limestone waste

959.73

Clay sensible heat

1742.63

Clay waste

7862.69

Coal sensible heat

83748.15

CO2 from heater

429825.69

Combustion

35517081.60

Evaporation loss in

269937.38

Of coal
Air sensible heat

preheater
146626.89

Kiln convective and

14089473.69

radiation losses
Gypsum

1626.18

Kiln exhaust

19901226.46

Cooler to steam

933159.75

economizer

Total

35798547.43

Grinder losses

33157.81

Cement

35035.15

Uncoverted reactants

97909.08

Total

35798547.43

(Table 3.13)

50

THERMODYNAMIC FEASIBILITY
Consider a reaction
aA

+ bB

cC

+ dD

Thermodynamic feasibility determines whether the reaction will proceed from left to right or vice
versa. If the sum of the free energies of reactants is greater than the sum of free energies of
products, then the reaction will proceed in the forward direction and vice versa.
FT = FTR - FTP
The reactions considered in cement formation are
a) Calcination of limestone
CaCO3
b)

CaO + CO2

Formation of dicalcium silicate

2 CaO + SiO2

Ca2SiO4

Steps involed:
1) Calculation of standard enthalpy
2) Calculation of specific heat of reaction as a function of temperature
3) Calculation of enthalpy of reaction at a given reaction.
4) Calculation of entropy of reaction.
5) Calculation of net free energy of reaction.

Reaction I :

CaCO3

CaO + CO2

Table 3.14 Enthalpy values for calculation of limestone

51

Compounds

HKcal/mol

FKcal/mol

Cp Kcal/molC

CaCO3

-289.51

-270.8

19.668 + 0.01189T 307600/T2

CaO

-151.7

-144.30

10 + 0.00484T 108000/T2

CO2

-94.052

-94.260

10.34 + 0.00274T 745600/T2

Calculation of enthalpy :
H298 =

Hproducts

Hreactants

(-151.7 94.052) - (-289.51)

43.758 Kcal/mol
This shows that it is an endothermic reaction

(Cp)reaction

= 0.66 4.31 * 10-3T + 4100/T2 cal/molC

H1200 =

43.758 + 251200 (0.66 4.31 * 10-3T + 4100/T2)dT

H1200 =

41.59 Kcal/mol

Calculation of standard free energy:

Freaction

= (144.3 94.26) ( - 270.8)

Freaction

=32.24 Kcal/mol

Calculation of entropy :
S

= (F - H)/T
= -0.03 Kcal/molK

S1200

= S +

25

1200(

Cp/T)dT

= -0.03 + 251200 (0.66 4.31 * 10-3T + 4100/T2)dT

= 0.74 Kcal/mol K
As the entropy is greater than 0 the reaction is possible, according to second law of thermodynamics.
Calculation of free energy :

52

F1200 =

F1200 =

-1048.26 Kcal/mol

TS

As the free energy of the reaction is negative, the reaction is thermodynamically feasible.
Reaction 2:

2 CaO + SiO2

Ca2SiO4

Table 3.15 Enthalpy values for formation of dicalcium silicate

Compounds

HKcal/mol

FKcal/mol

Cp Kcal/molC

CaO

-151.7

-144.3

10 + 0.00484T 108000/T2

SiO2

-203.35

-190.40

10.87 + 0.008712T 241200/T2

Ca2SiO4

-377.90

-357.50

27.95 + 0.002056T 745600/T2

Calculation of enthalpy :
H298 =

Hproducts

Hreactants

(-377.9 (2 * - 151.7 - 203.35))

-477.95 Kcal/mol
This shows that it is an exothermic reaction

(Cp)reaction

= -2.92 0.016T 288400/T2 cal/molC

H1200 =

-477.95 + 251200 (-2.92 0.016T 288400/T2)dT

H1200 =

-504.91 Kcal/mol

Calculation of standard free energy:

Freaction

= (375.5 (2*-144.3) 190.4))

Freaction

=121.50 Kcal/mol

Calculation of entropy :
S

= (F - H)/T

53

= 0.407 Kcal/molK
S1200

= S +

25

1200(

Cp/T)dT

= 0.407 + 251200 (-2.92 0.016T 288400/T2)dT

= 0.146 Kcal/mol K
As the entropy is greater than 0 the reaction is possible, according to second law of thermodynamics.
Calculation of free energy :
F1200 =

F1200 =

-719.25 Kcal/mol

TS

As the free energy of the reaction is negative, the reaction is thermodynamically feasible.

CHAPTER 4
54

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT
4.1 GAS CONDITIONING TOWER:
Basic Design Data:
a) Height / Diameter (H/ D)= 3.5 to 4
b) Velocity of the gas entering tower, m/ s = 3 to 5 m/ s
c) Flue gas volume= 16760.42/ (2850* 1.2) = 581875 m3/ hr

4.1.1 QUANTITY OF WATER TO BE SPRAYED FOR THE EVAPORATIVE COOLING:

Heat lost by gas= Heat gained by water
Qloss = Qgain
Qloss = m* Cp* T
Where V= volumetric flow rate of gas entering the tower, m3/ hr
= 16760.42/ (2850* 1.2)
= 4.9 m3/ hr
= 4.9* 2850* 1000/ 24
= 581875 m3/ hr
Cp= specific heat of the gas at STP and is calculated and shown in table

55

Table illustrating Specific Heat and Density of Flue Gas

Flue Gas

Composition

Specific Heta Cp
(Kcal/ kg C)

Density
kg/m3

CO2

0.2656

0.23

1.964

O2

0.0224

0.228

1.43

H2O

0.0123

0.49

0.804

N2

0.6997

0.249

1.25

Cp gas = (0.2511* 0.23) + (0.0224* 0.228) + (0.0123* 0.49) + (0.6997* 0.249)

= 0.243 kcal/ kgC
gas= density of the flue gas, kg/m3
= (0.2511* 1.964) + (0.0224* 1.43) + (0.0123* 0.804) + (0.6994*1.25)
Cp of gas in kcal/m3 C = Cp of gas in kcal/kgC * density of gas in kg/m3
= 0.2431 * 1.4097
= 0.3427 kcal/m3
T2= temperature of the gas entering the tower, C (250C)
T1= temperature of the gas leaving the tower,C (150C)
Therefore, T= 250- 150 = 100C
Qloss= 581875* 0.3427* (250- 150)= 1.99408563* 107 kcal/ hr
Qgain= m* Cp* T(liquid) = m + m* Cp* T(vapour)
Cp(liquid)= Specific heat of water at the average temperature (100 + 25) / 2
56

= 1 kcal/ kgC
Tliquid= 100- 25= 75 C
= latent heat of vapourisation, kcal/ kg= 539 kcal/ kg
Cp(vapour) = specific heat of water (steam) at average temperature (100 + 25)/2
= 0.468 kcal/ kgC
T= 150- 100= 50 C
= 539 kcal/ kg
Substituting all the above values,
1.99408563* 107= (1* 75+ 539+ 0.468*50)*m
Thus the quantity of water of be sprayed for evaporative cooling is 31.28 m3/ hr
4.1.2 GAS VOLUME TO BE HANDLED:
At the inlet of the tower,
From the ideal gas law, it can be calculated
P1V1/T1= P2V2/T2
Where,
P1= 760 mm Hg
P2= 750 mm Hg
T1= 273 K
T2= 523 K
V1= volume of the gas at STP= 581875 m3/ hr
V2= volume of the gas at 250C and 750 mm Hg
= 760* 581875* 523/ (273* 750)
57

= 1129590.60 m3/ hr
At the outlet of the tower,
It must be remembered that both water vapour and gas exit through the outlet of the tower at a
temperature of 150C
Using the equation P1V1/T1= P2V2/T2
Where,
P1= 760 mm Hg
P2= pressure of the gas leaving the tower= 1520 mm Hg
V1= volume of the gas and vapour at STP = (581875 + 31.28)= 581906.20 m3/ hr
V2= volume of the gas and the vapour leaving the tower at 423 K
= 760* 581906.20* 423/ (273*1520)
= 450817.50 m3/ hr
4.1.3 ESTIMATION OF TOWER HEIGHT
The cross sectional area of the tower= volumetric flow rate/ velocity
Volumetric average flow rate= (V2 at inlet + V2 at outlet)/ 2
= (1129590.60 + 450817.50)/ 2
= 790204 m3/ hr
Consider the average gas velocity as 5 m/ sec
The cross- sectional area of the tower= volumetric flow rate/ velocity
= 790204/ (3600*5)

Hence the diameter of the tower can be obtained

58

*d2/4 = 43.9 m2
D= 7.5 m
Therefore the diameter of the tower is 7.5 m
Taking H/ D= 3.8
H= 3.8* 7.5= 28.50 m
Hence the height of the tower is 28.50 m
4.1.4 ESTIMATION OF GAS RESIDENCE TIME IN THE TOWER
Residence time tr= height of the tower/ velocity of the gas
= 28.50/ 5 = 5.7
Residence time of the gas in the tower is 5.7
4.1.5 ESTIMATION OF EVAPORATION TIME OF THE WATER PARTICLE
SUSPENDED IN THE HOT GAS:
The following equation has been suggested for calculation of evaporation time
t= * Dp2* * (W2- W1)/ (12* K* T)
where,
t: evaporation time of water particle suspended in the hot gas, sec
: density of water particle at inlet temperature of 25C= 62.3 lb/ft 3
Dp: diameter of water particle, m= 200 m= 6.56 * 10-4 ft
: latent heat of vaporization of H2O= 61.9 BTU/lb
K: thermal conductivity of gas, BTU/lbftf
K= 0.2656* 0.0325 + 0.0224*0.0412 + 0.0123*0.0358 + 0.6997*0.0389
= 0.0372 BTU/ lbftf

59

T: temperature difference between inlet and outlet gas C= 100C

W1= moisture in the water before gaining heat= 100%
W2= moisture in the water after gaining heat= 0%
Substituting all values in the equation,
=62.3* 61.9* (6.59* 10-4)2(100- 0)* 3600/12* 0.037* 100
= 13.43 sec
Therefore the evaporation time of water particle suspended in the hot gas is 13.43 sec

4.2 DESIGN OF ROTARY KLIN

4.2.1 CALCULATION OF THE INNER DIAMETER OF THE KLIN CAPACITY:
Q = *d2*u*3600/(4*V*1000)
Where
Q = capacity of the clinker in tonnes/ hr
d = inner diameter of klin, m
u = velocity of the gas in the burning zone of the klin, m/s = 13 m/s
V = volume of gas produced, m3/kg clinker
4.2.2 DETERMINATION OF VOLUME OF GAS VOLUME PER KG OF COAL
60

Basis: 1 kg of coal
Ultimate analysis of coal (weight fraction) contains:
Carbon- 0.85
Hydrogen- 0.05
Sulphur- 0.071
Nitrogen- 0.021
Oxygen- 0.0674
Ash- 0.0045

Calculation of oxygen requirement:

Oxygen requirement is calculated from stoichiometric principles:
C + O2 CO2
H2 + 1/2O2 H2O
S + O2 SO2
Amount of O2 required for carbon = 0.85 * 32/ 12 = 2.2667 kg
Similarly the amount of O2 required is calculated for the other elements
The calculated values are tabulated as:
Ultimate analysis

Oxygen

of coal (weight

requirement (kg)

Product (kg)

Weight (kg)

fraction)
Carbon 0.85

2.2667

3.1167

25.11

Hydrogen 0.05

0.4248

0.45

3.64

61

Nitrogen 0.021

8.829

71.1

Sulphur 0.0071

0.0071

0.142

0.11

Oxygen 0.0674

-0.0674

Ash 0.0045

0.0045

0.04

Model calculation:
CO2 = 0.85 + 2.2667 = 3.1167 kg
Similarly calculated from other products also, we get,
Weight fraction = 3.1167/ 12.41 * 100 = 25.11 %
Average molecular weight of flue gas = 38.65
Density of gas = 38.65/22.414 = 1.724 kg/m3
Gas volume/ kg coal = 12.41/ 1.724 = 7.2 m3 gas/ kg coal
Gas volume V = 7.2 * 1379.84/(4*2850) = 0.8714 m3 gas/ kg clinker
Using the ideal gas law, we can calculate the gas volume assuming the zonal temperature to be
1000 C and at atmospheric pressure
P1 * V1 / T1 = P2 * V2/ T2
Thus,
V2 = V = V1* T2/ T1 * P1/ P2
= 0.8714 * 1273/ 273
= 4.06 m3/ kg clinker
Using the values for calculating the inner diameter and substituting we get,
2850/ 24 = * d2* 13* 3600/ (4* 4.06* 1000)
d = 3.62 m

62

Hence the inner diameter of the rotary klin is 3.62 m.

4.2.3 CALCULATION OF THE KLIN OUTER DIAMTER, D:
D = d + 2t
Where t is the thickness of the klin, and is assumed as 0.2 m
Thus, D = 3.62 + 2 *0.2 = 4.02 m
Therefore the outer diameter of the klin is 4.02 m
4.2.4 CALCULATION OF THE KLIN LENGTH, L:
The length to diameter ratio of the klin as per the designed parameters must be in the range of 15
to 18
Here the length L = 15* 4.02 = 60.3 m
Length of the klin is 60.3 m

4.2.5 CALCULATION OF THE KLIN ROTATION TIME (t):

Klin retention time is
t = 11.2 * L/ (r* D* s)
where
L: length of the klin = 60.3 m
r: klin speed, rpm = 3 rpm
D: outer diameter = 4.02 m
S: angle of inclination of the klin in degrees = 3

63

Applying the above values,

t = 11.2* L/ (r* D* 3)
= 11.2* 60.3/ (4.02* 3 * 3)
= 18.66 min
Retention time of the klin is 18.66 min
4.2.6 CALCULATION OF THE % KLIN VOLUME LOADING
Klin volume loading range is 10- 14 %
The equation that is generally applied in such cases is,
% loading = 1.5 *w* t *s/ (L * A)
Where w is the clinker production, tons/ hr
W= 2850/ 24 = 118.75 t/ hr
t= 18.66 min
L= 60.3 m
A= * D2/ 4 =12.69 m2
Applying the above values in the equation, we get
% loading = 13.03 %
Therefore the % klin loading is 13.03 %
4.2.7 CALCULATION OF THE KILN POWER CONSUMPTION (P):
The formula that is generally applied in such cases is:
P= * L* (D/2)2/ 4.7
Substituting all the values we get,
P= 3.14* 60.3* (4.02/2)2/4.7
64

= 162.84 kW
Driving rate is assumed 100%
Power= P* 100/100= 162.84 kW
Therefore the power consumed is 162. 84 kW.

4.3 DESIGN OF CYCLONE SEPARATOR

4.3.1 CALCULATION OF DIAMETER OF CYCLONE (d):
Mass of the flue gas from the rotary klin entering the cyclone= 16760.42 tonnes per day
Therefore the flue gas volume entering the cyclone at STP per kg of clinker
V= 16760.42/ (2850* 1.2)= 4.9 m2/ kg of clinker
= 4.9 * 2850* 1000/ 24 = 581875 m3/ hr
Temperature inside the cyclone = 250C
Pressure in the high efficiency cyclone= 710 mm Hg
65

Flue gas volume entering the cyclone at 250C & 710 mm Hg can be calculated from the
ideal gas as follows:
P1V1/T1= P2V2/T2
Data:
P1= 760 mm Hg
V1= 581875 m3/hr
T1= 273 K
P2= 710 mm Hg
V2= unknown
T2= 523 K
V2= 760* 581875* 523/ (273* 710)
Flue gas volume entering the cyclone= 1193229.51 m3/hr
Considering, an average gas velocity of 15m/s
Area of the inlet pipe 0.1D2= 0.5 D* 0.2D
Where D is the diameter of the cyclone and can be found out as follows:
Area = Volumetric flow rate/ velocity
0.1D2= 1193229.51/ (3600* 15)
D= 14.87 m
Since the diameter of the cyclone required is very high, we can divide the volumetric flow rate by
4 and operate 4 cyclones each having a diameter d which in turn is given by,
d= 1193229.51/(3600* 15* 0.1* 4)^0.5
d= 7.4 m
Therefore the diameter of the cyclone is 7.4 m
66

Using Dc= 7.4m we can calculate other dimensions of the cyclone

Dc= collector of hoper diameter= 7.4 m
Jc= exit diameter of dust leaving (down)= Dc/4= 1.85m
Lc= height of cylindrical section= 2Dc= 14.8 m
Zc= height of the conical section= 2Dc= 14.8 m
Hc= inlet gas pipe diameter= Dc/2= 3.7 m
De= inlet gas pipe diameter (up)= Dc/2= 3.7 m
Bc= inlet width= Dc/2= 3.7 m
4.3.2 CALCULATION OF PRESSURE DROP IN THE CYCLONE:
The empirical drop given by STAIRMAND can be used to estimate the pressure drop:
P= g2/ (203)* {u12*2(1+ 2()2(2*rt/re/re- 1) + 2(u22)}
Where P is pressure in millibars
g2= density of the flue gas at 710mm Hg and 250C
Which can be calculated from the ideal gas law,
P1*V1/T1= P2*V2/T2
P1= 760 mm Hg
V1= 22.414 m3
T1= 273 K
P2= 710 mm Hg
V2= unknown
T2= 523 K
V2= 760* 22.414* 523/ (273* 710)= 45.96 m3/hr
67

g2= average molecular weight/ volumetric flow rate

= 38.65/ 45.96= 0.8409 kg/m3
u1= velocity of the gas entering, m/s= 15 m/s
u2= velocity of the flue gas leaving, m/s
It can be calculated as follows
Velocity u2= volumetric flow rate Q2/ Area
Where, area= de2* n/4 (since de= dc/2)
= 3.14* 3.72/ 4 = 10.75 m2
Therefore u2= 45.96/10.75= 4.27 m/s
r1= radius of the circle to which the center line of the inlet is tangential, m
= d- (0.2* d/2)
= 7.4 (0.2* 7.4/2)= 6.66 m
rc= de/2
= 3.7/ 2= 1.85 m
= parameter from the chart of the vs rt/re
= fc*As/A1
Where fc= friction factor of the spinning fluid
= 0.005 for the gases
Height of the separator= 4d= 4*7.4= 29.6 m
As= surface area of the spinning fluid, m2
= *d* h= 3.14* 7.4* 29.6= 687.79 m2
A1= area of the inlet duct, m2
68

= 0.5*d*0.2*d= 5.48 m2
Applying the above values in equation for ,
= 0.005* 687.79/ 5.48= 0.6275
From the chart of vs rt/ re, as the parameter,
= 1.05
Thus
P= 0.84/ 203* {152(1+ 2* 1.052*(2*3.6- 1)) + 2* 4.272}
4.3.3 CALCULATION OF THE EFFICIENCY OF THE CYCLONE ()
The approximate efficiency of the cyclone can be determined from the size distribution of the
solids present in the flue gas. The flue gas containing the solid particles of the size less than 20 is
greater than 50%, the collective efficiency of the designed cyclone is calculated as per the table
below:

Mean Particle Size,

Percentage %

Efficiency

Collection
efficiency (* %)

m
118.6

11.4

100

11.4

70.35

7.6

100

7.6

45.55

6.1

100

6.1

32.85

8.2

100

8.2

24.8

7.9

100

7.9

19.1

6.4

100

6.4

69

14.85

10.2

99

10.09

11.55

11

98

10.78

7.4

97.5

7.22

7.05

8.6

96.5

8.3

5.5

4.4

95

4.28

4.3

4.7

94.5

4.44

3.4

3.4

93.5

3.18

2.7

1.2

93

1.12

2.15

1.4

92

1.3

Therefore the collection efficiency of the cyclone is 97.6 %.

CHAPTER 5
COST ESTIMATION
5.1 Ready Mix Concrete Manufacture:

The following parameters are considered for estimating the cost of establishing a Ready mix
concrete manufacturing unit at any preferred location:

Fixed Costs:
- Cost of Land for establishment
- Plant & Machinery cost (Batching plant, transit mixers, concrete pumps, etc)
70

- Operation cost (Drivers, operators, mechanics)

- Salaries & Benefits of Employees

Variable Costs:
The variable costs shall include the following
- Cost of Basic Materials (Cement, Aggregates, etc)
- POL Cost of Plant & Machinery
- Labour charges towards pumping of concrete

With the above, the break even cost & recovery cost of the investments are determined.

The following table gives an insight into the detailed cost analysis of the plant. Year 6 is as of
2009. Also it must be borne in mind that while for majority of the tables calculation is done for 30
tpd (tonnes per day) production, in the rest of the project, assumptions have been made for 3000
tpd.

Estimates of capital cost of 30 tpd cement plants

Item

Total Cost (*50000 Rs)

71

Land and site development

7.67

Building and structures

134.83

Plant and machinery

306.67

Miscellaneous fixed assets

15.00

Preliminary and capital issue expenses

0.67

Pre-operative expenses

57.33

Provision for contingencies

20.00

Margin money for working capital

19.53

Total capital cost

561.70

Estimates of working capital requirement for 30 tpd cement plants (based on 90 per cent
capacity utilization)

72

Item

Inventory

Quantity

Rate/unit (*50

Total Cost

period

(in tons)

Rs).

(*50000 Rs)

1.25

1202

2.33

2.80

(b) Clay

1.50

261

1.00

0.27

(c) Coke-

302

50.00

15.10

(d) Gypsum

2.50

93

13.33

1.23

(e) Packing

1.50

22275

0.20

4.47

(months)
(a)
Limestone

breeze

materials
(bags)
Power

4.63

Stores and

0.73

0.67

4.60

0.50

Insurance

0.63

Goods in

0.50

7.77

0.25

5.40

consumables
Repairs and
maintenance
Salaries and
wages
Overhead
expenses

process
Finished
goods up to
naked
cement
Total

48.80
73

working
capital
Margin

19.52

Estimates of
annual cost

money (40

of

per cent)
Short-term

29.28

loan (60 per

production
of cement in
a 30 tpd

cent)

cement
plants
330 working
days/year

74

Item

Consumption

Rate/

Anual

factor per

unit

requirement (in

ton of cement

(*50

tons)

Total cost(*50
000 Rs)

Rs)

(a)

1.295(t)

2.33

2.33

3.02

(b) Clay

0.235 (t)

1.00

1.00

0.23

(c) Coke-

0.203 (t)

50.00

50.00

10.15

(d) Gypsum

0.050 (t)

13.83

13.83

0.67

Power

125 KWh

0.20

0.20

6.25

Limestone

breeze

Stores and

1.00

consumables
Salaries and

6.21

wages
Repairs and

0.90

maintenance
Overhead

0.67

expenses
Depredation

3.33

of fixed
assets
Amortization

0.63

of projection
cost
Insurance

0.28

charges
(a) Interest

5.60

on term loan
75

at 18 per
cent per
annum
(b) Interest

0.67

on Shortterm loan at
20 per cent
per annum
Cost of

39.61

production
of naked
cement

Total Cost

Item
Sales quantity (tons/year)

8,910

Net sales realization per ton if the cement is sold Rs 3200 per ton

46.33**

(a) Fixed elements (*50 Rs/ton)

(i) Salaries and wages

6.21

(ii) Stores and consumables (25 per cent)

0.25

(iii) Repairs and maintenance(75 per cent)

0.67

(iv) Overhead expenses

0.67

(v) Depreciation

3.33

76

(vi) Insurance

0.28

(vii) Amortization of project cost

0.63

(viii) Interest on term loan

5.60

Total

17.64

(b) Variable elements (*50 Rs/ton)

(i) Raw materials and fuel

14.07

(ii) Power

6.25

(iii) Stores and consumables (75 per cent)

0.75

(iv) Repairs and maintenance (25 per cent)

0.23

(v) Interest on term loan

0.67

Total

21.97

* For Break Even Charts refer to Figs 11

** Net Sales Realisation per tonne has been taken as Rs 2300, which is arrived at as under:
*50 Rs/ tonne
Retail Price

63.33

77

Sales Tax
5.33
Excise Duty

6.00

Packing Charges

4.00

Dealers Margin of profit and other expenses

1.67
17.00

Net Sales Realisation

46.33

Break-even chart for 30 tpd (1 30 tpd kiln)

78

Expected benefits of the project (based on the fourth year of production) for 30 tpd cement
plant
Item
A. Output and profits (in Rs 50 thousand)
1.

Capacity output (3 shifts)

1529

2.

(a) Value of output (net of excise duty)

1376

(b) Other income

3.

Value of output (as percentage of 1)

4.

Change in the stock of goods

5.

Sales, at factory price (2 (a) - 4)

6.

Raw materials

90
1376

(a) Domestic

116

(b) Imported

7.

Fuel and power

8.

Other inputs (specify)

487

(a) Stores and consumables

30

(b) Rent, taxes and insurance

18

(c) Other works expenses

20

(d) Repairs and maintenance

25
-

79

93

9.

Gross values added (5 - (6+7+8))

680

10.

(a) Depreciation

96

(b) Amortization of projecting cost

18

11.

Net value added (9-10)

566

12.

Wages and salaries

13.

Interest

161

14.

Royalty

15.

Gross profit (9-12)

593

16.

Operating profit (15-(10+13+1))

318

17.

Tax

127

18.

Net profit (16-17)

191

87

B. Productive capital (in Rs 50 thousand)

1.

Gross fixed assets

2.

Inventories

3.

Capital employed (1+2)

4.

Number of workers

1566
150
1716
71

C. Capital output ratio

1.

Capital/value of output (B3/A2)

1.25 : 1

2.

Capital/gross value added (B3/A9)

2.52 : 1

3.

Capital/net value added (B3/A11)

3.03 : 1

4.

Capital/per worker (B3/B4) ($US)

24000

80

5.

Capital/wages and salaries (B3/A12)

19.40 : 1

D. Productivity indicators (ratio)

1.

Productivity per unit of capital (A2/B3)

0.8 : 1

2.

Productivity per unit of labour (A2/B4)

19.72 : 1

3.

Productivity per unit of wages and salaries (A2/A12)

15.82 : 1

E. Input structures (proportion percentage)

1.

Raw materials/value of output (A6/A2)

8.4

2.

Fuel and power/value of output (A7/A2)

35.4

3.

Other inputs/value of output (A8/A2)

6.7

4.

Wages and salaries/value of output (A12/A2)

6.3

5.

Depreciation/value of output (A10/A2)

8.3

6.

Interest/value of output (A13/A2)

11.7

7.

Operating profit/value of output (A16/A2)

23.1

F. Profitability ratio (proportion percentage)

1.

Gross profit + interest/capital employed (A15+A13)/B3)

43.9

2.

Operating profit + interest/capital employed (A16+A13)/B3)

27.9

3.

Operating profit/sales (A16/A5)

23.1

G. Payment capacity (in Rs 50 thousands)

1.

Gross profit, less royalty (A15-(A13+A14))

432

2.

Tax provision (A 17)

127

3.

Repaying capacity (G1-G2)

305

Payback period = Investment / Gross profit

Payback period

= 1733.64/593 = 2.923

81

CHAPTER 6
PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

The concepts and implementations of instrumentation and control pervade all chemical
processes.
In fact, they go well beyond chemical processes to manufacturing, research laboratories, anywhere
measurements must be made and systems regulated. Instrumentation and control are essential to
the
operation of all modern processes.
Although many measurement principles and feedback control have been practiced for 2500
years or so, their scientific understanding has been built in the 20th Century. The ability to put this
understanding into practice is an important professional skill for the chemical engineer and more
importantly for the safety and smooth functioning of the plant..
This course transforms mathematics and theory into practice. The idealisms of theory
confront the realisms of actual systems. Process control and instrumentation here deals with the
economics of a process, and the various operations that are vital to the day- to- day operations and
successful product obtainment from the plant.

6.1 PROCESS CONTROL:

An objective of process control is continual improvement. Perhaps the most successful
approach to maintaining high standards of Portland cement quality is the statistical process control
method as elucidated by Dr. W. Edwards Deming. Statistical process control is a means to an end.
It requires a knowledge of how data behave, and how to extract all the information from this
principle: Persistent attempts at oversimplification of the subject is not nearly as productive as
equivalent effort directed toward a sound understanding of the fundamentals.
There are choices of chemical control parameters that exist today. Process control in this aspect is
essential. For example, it might be necessary to decide how much heat input q is to deviate from qs
(at steady state) to correct deviations from T (present temperature) to Tr (required temperature).
Hiring a process operator is an expensive (and given the alternative, unnecessary) process. Instead

82

the use of a machine to regulate, monitor and effectively implement this process is called
automatic process control.
The control system:
A control system may be divided into the following components:
1. Process
2. Measuring element
3. Controller
4. Final control element

Ti, load
Comparator
+

Controller

+
Final Control Element

+
+

Process

T, controlled
variable

TR set point -

Measuring Element

Tm (Measured Variable)

Instrumentation:
There have been marked leaps in the way instrumentation has been performed in recent
years. For example, in cement pants, where X-ray instruments for chemical analysis have
dominated both the laboratory and on-stream process control for decades; a replacement for
83

process control using neutron activation analysis has emerged in the past twenty years, and has
demonstrated its effectiveness. Laboratory instruments using flame emission and atomic
absorption spectrometry are also being reviewed for industrial and mass useage.
One of the main objectives of instrumentation and control is to keep the plant safe.
Developing alarms and effective interlock systems in this regard is crucial. Also keeping the
production rate at a desired level and maintaining top- notch standards of product quality are
crucial aims of the instrumentation set up. As illustrated in the process control section,
instrumentation can also help minimize cost by cutting labour cost and also by reducing size of
equipments.
One of the crucial parameters in instrumentation and design is the Process and
Instrumentation Diagram. A note on the following is given below:

Piping and Instrumentation Diagram:

A P&ID is a pictorial representation of a plant which shows all equipment

including the spares, plus the associated piping, valving, insulation and
instrumentation.

The piping and instrumentation diagram is developed by the process

department, and implemented by the piping department. Every pipe, big and
small, its size, class, individual number (for easy identification) and insulation
details along with those of supporting devices like valves and control devices are
represented here. Relative elevation between equipment, the drain system for the
various equipments and lines, auxiliary lines, vessel dimensions, etc is mentioned
here.

The piping and instrumentation sheet also shows the origin and destination

of each pipe, the design condition through the material will encounter through its
flow, and interlock details. Interlocks deal with the corrective actions that are
taken as soon as a runaway, uncontrolled or stray variable crossing the threshold
limits of the process is noticed.

Equipments, instruments or piping which are traced or jacketed are also

shown in this diagram.

84

There are three types of P&IDs which can then be further subdivided as

shown:

Systems P&ID: These show production, utility and environmental

protection measures.

i. Process P&IDs (which are for the main manufacturing process)

ii. Utility- generation P&IDs: They are mainly concerned with the utilities
(cooling water, tower water, steam, etc) and all the utility equipments including
boilers, cooling towers, heat transfer fluid heaters, etc
iii. Environmental P&IDs: These are for pollution control processes including
scrubbing, incineration, etc
Distribution P&IDs: These show how the utilities and non- process streams
are distributed through out the plant.
iv. Utility distribution P&IDs: These show the main header line which carries the
concerned utility and the taps from the lines and a tag indicating the equipments
they lead to
v. Safety system P&IDs: These indicate the depressurising and safety relief
systems, blowdown drums, stacks, vents, etc
Auxiliary systems P&IDs: These show compressor, lubrication and cooling
systems.

85

86

87

88

REFERENCES:
1. Manuals and other official documentation of Larson and Tubro Limited
2. Manuals and other official documentation of Technip Pvt Limited
3. Robert H Perry and Don Green- Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th edition,
McGraw Hill 1996
4. C E Dryden- Outlines of Chemical Technology, West Press Pvt ltd 1965
5. George T Austin- Shreves Chemical Process Industries Edition, McGraw Hill, 1985
6. F M Lea- The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 3rd edition, Edward Arnold Ltd 1970
7. http://www.colorado.edu/che/HrenyaGroup/Education/TextFiles/ProcessControlSyllabus.p
df
8. http://www.scribd.com/doc/6460063/Hopper-Design
9. M I Gopala Rao and Marshall Sittig- Outlines of Chemical Technology, Second edition,
Affiliated East- West Press Pvt Ltd, 1965
10. Brownwell and Young- Process Equipment Aid Design, John Wiley and sons, 1959
11. Coulson and Richardson- Chemical engineering, Pergamont Press Ltd, Oxford, 1964
12. Francis A J- The Cement Industry- A history- 1977
13. A M Neville- Manufacture of Concrete- 6th Edition

89