INDUSTRIAL VISIT AND TRAINING REPORT

A dissertation submitted in practical fulfillment of vocational training

in

Submitted by
1. AVIK BAL
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NERIST, Itanagar-791109
2. UPAYAN DEBNATH
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NERIST, Itanagar-791109

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CANDIDATES DECLARATION

We certify that the work presented in this dissertation submitted in practical fulfillment of
vocational training in Agartala Gas Tubine Power Plant, NEEPCO is an accurate record of
our work carried out under the guidance of Engineers and officials of AGTP.
We hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in
accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these
rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not
original to this work.

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CONTENTS
Cover Page

Certificate of Approval

Candidates Declaration

Contents

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview

1.2 Mission

1.3 Corporate objectives

1.4.Human Resource

1.5 Company profile

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Power Plant Engineering

2.2 Theory of Operation

CHAPTER 3 COMP0NENTS OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT.

3.1 Starting Engine.

3.2 Gas Compressor.

3.3 Combustion Chamber.

3.4 Gas Turbine.

10

3.5 Load Reduction Gear Box.

10

3.6 Generators.

11

3.7 Voltage and Frequency Regulation

12

3.8 A.C.Generators

12

3.9 D.C.Generators.
3.10. Electric power transmission and distribution.
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16
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CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
1.1. OVERVIEW
North Eastern Electric Power Corporation Limited (NEEPCO) , a Schedule "A"
Government of India Enterprise under the Ministry of Power was set up on the 2nd of
April, 1976 to plan, investigate, design, construct, generate, operate and maintain power
stations in the North Eastern Region of the country. NEEPCO has an installed capacity of
1130 MW which is 47% of the total installed capacity of the N.E Region. NEEPCO's
authorised share capital is Rs 5000 Crores at present and its net worth as on 31st
March 2012 is Rs 4780.01 Crores.
With its headquarters in the charming town of Shillong, the capital of Meghalaya,
NEEPCO is a power sector enterprise with projects located in the various states of the
North East.
1.2. MISSION
o
o
o

To harness the vast hydro & thermal power potential

To produce pollution free and inexhaustible power through planned development of
power generation projects.
To play a significant role in the integration and development of hydroelectric and
thermal power in the Central Sector covering all aspects such as investigation,
planning, designs, construction, operation and maintenance of hydroelectric and
thermal projects which in turn would effectively promote the development of the
nation as a whole.

1.3. CORPORATE OBJECTIVES

For fulfillment of its mission, NEEPCO has set the following objectives for the year
commensurate with the aims, programs and policies of the government evolved from time
to time:
o
o
o
o
o

o
o

To responsibly exploit the vast hydro & thermal power potential for sustainable
development of N.E Region
To undertake execution of new hydro/thermal schemes and undertake timely
renovation & modernization of existing old hydro and thermal plants.
To execute on-going hydro/thermal projects as per targets set, so as to achieve
commissioning of such projects as per schedule or ahead of schedule.
To ensure optimum utilization of installed capacity so as to achieve maximum
generation and optimum machine availability .
To improve the Quality Management System, NEEPCO is already registered as an
ISO: 9001:2008 Company, NEEPCO has also been accredited with OHSAS 18001
for occupational health and safety management systems and ISO 14001 for
environmental management systems.
To complete DPR of new schemes for hydro/thermal projects as per schedule or
ahead of schedule as and when estimated by Central Electricity Authority (CEA)
To promote industrial growth and prosperity of the N.E region by fulfilling the need
of supply of electricity thereby improving the quality of life of the region.

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To improve the socio economic condition of the neighbourhood by providing

infrastructure , medical schooling and the creation of productive environment
opportunities.

1.4. HUMAN RESOURCE

o

An integral part of NEEPCO's employee centered policy lay thrust on knowledge

up-gradation and development through seminars, workshops and training programs
both in-house and external.
Manpower strength of the Corporation is 2784 ( as on 31st May 2013).

1.5.COMPANY PROFILE
Authorised Share Capital

Rs. 5000 Crs

Installed Capacity

1130 MW

Projects Completed

7 Nos (5 Hydro , 2 Thermal)

Capacity Addition Program From Projects

922 MW
Under Construction
Projects Under Construction

5 Nos (3 Hydro , 2 Thermal)

Projects Under Survey & Investigation

2118 MW (4 Hydro , 1 Thermal , 2 Solar)

Manpower

2784 (as on 31/05/2013)

Certifications Received
ISO 9001:2008

Quality Management Systems (QMS)

ISO 14001:2004

Environmental Management Systems (EMS)

ISO 18001:2007

Occupational
Health
and
Management Systems (OHSAS)

MOU Rating for 2003-04, 2004-05, 2005Excellent

06
2006 - 07, 2007 - 08

Very Good

2008 - 09

Good

2009 - 10

Very Good

2010 - 11

Good

2011 - 12

Good (Provisional)

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Safety

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.POWER PLANT ENGIEERING
A power station (also referred to as a generating station, power plant, powerhouse or
generating plant) is an industrial facility for the generation of electric power. At the center
of nearly all power stations is a generator, a rotating machine that converts mechanical
power into electrical power by creating relative motion between a magnetic field and a
conductor. The energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely. It depends
chiefly on which fuels are easily available, cheap enough and on the types of technology
that the power company has access to. Most power stations in the world burn fossil fuels
such as coal, oil, and natural gas to generate electricity, and some use nuclear power, but
there is an increasing use of cleaner renewable sources such as solar, wind, wave and
hydroelectric.
In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat engine that transforms
thermal energy, often from combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy. Most thermal
power stations produce steam, and these are sometimes called steam power stations. Not all
thermal energy can be transformed into mechanical power, according to the second law of
thermodynamics. Therefore, there is always heat lost to the environment. If this loss is
employed as useful heat, for industrial processes or district heating, the power plant is
referred to as a cogeneration power plant or CHP (combined heat-and-power) plant
Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases (air and combustion
products) to directly operate the turbine. Natural-gas fuelled (and oil fueled) combustion
turbine plants can start rapidly and so are used to supply "peak" energy during periods of
high demand, though at higher cost than base-loaded plants.

2.2.THEORY OF OPERATION
Gases passing through an ideal gas turbine undergo three thermodynamic processes. These
are isentropic compression, isobaric (constant pressure) combustion and isentropic
expansion. Together, these make up the Brayton cycle.
In a practical gas turbine, fresh air from ambient atmosphere are first accelerated in either a
centrifugal or axial compressor. The air is screened and filtered to remove all dust particles
and other impurities. These gases are then slowed using a diverging nozzle known as a
diffuser; these processes increase the pressure and temperature of the flow. In an ideal
system, this is isentropic. However, in practice, energy is lost to heat, due to friction and
turbulence.
Gases then pass from the compressor (or diffuser) to a combustion chamber, or similar
device, where heat is added. In an ideal system, this occurs at constant pressure (isobaric
heat addition). As there is no change in pressure the specific volume of the gases increases.
In practical situations this process is usually accompanied by a slight loss in pressure, due
to friction. Finally, this larger volume of gases is expanded and accelerated by nozzle guide
vanes before energy is extracted by a turbine. In an ideal system, these gases are expanded
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isentropically and leave the turbine at their original pressure. In practice this process is not
isentropic as energy is once again lost to friction and turbulence.
If the device has been designed to power a shaft as with an industrial generator or a
turboprop, the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible. In practice it
is necessary that some pressure remains at the outlet in order to fully expel the exhaust
gases. In the case of a jet engine only enough pressure and energy is extracted from the
flow to drive the compressor and other components. The remaining high pressure gases are
accelerated to provide a jet that can, for example, be used to propel an aircraft.

Brayton cycle
As with all cyclic heat engines, higher combustion temperatures can allow for greater
efficiencies. However, temperatures are limited by ability of the steel, nickel, ceramic, or
other materials that make up the engine to withstand high temperatures and stresses. To
combat this many turbines feature complex blade cooling systems.
As a general rule, the smaller the engine, the higher the rotation rate of the shaft(s) must be
to maintain tip speed. Blade-tip speed determines the maximum pressure ratios that can be
obtained by the turbine and the compressor. This, in turn, limits the maximum power and
efficiency that can be obtained by the engine. In order for tip speed to remain constant, if
the diameter of a rotor is reduced by half, the rotational speed must double. For example,
large Jet engines operate around 10,000 rpm, while micro turbines spin as fast as 500,000
rpm. More sophisticated turbines (such as those found in modern jet engines) may have
multiple shafts (spools), hundreds of turbine blades, movable stator blades, and a vast
system of complex piping, combustors and heat exchangers. Thrust and journal bearings are
a critical part of design. Traditionally, they have been hydrodynamic oil bearings, or oilcooled ball bearings.

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CHAPTER 3:COMP0NENTS OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT.

Function of the Components used in Gas Turbine Power Plant.

3.1. Starting Engine: A starting engine is used as the main prime mover at initial starting
of operation. The compressor is initially rotated using a 360 KW 2300 RPM motion. Once
the turbine starts producing power the rotary motion of the turbine is used to rotate the
compressor by a connected common shaft.
3.2. Gas Compressor: It is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by
reducing its volume. Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped
housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A
diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy. They are
primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries,
chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants. With multiple
staging, they can achieve extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
Many large snowmaking operations (like ski resorts) use this type of compressor. They are
also used in internal combustion engines as superchargers and turbochargers. Centrifugal
compressors are used in small gas turbine engines or as the final compression stage of
medium sized gas turbines.
Axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-like
airfoils to progressively compress the working fluid. They are used where there is a
requirement for a high flow rate or a compact design. The arrays of airfoils are set in rows,
usually as pairs: one rotating and one stationary. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades
or rotors, accelerate the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also known as stators or vanes,
decelerate and redirect the flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades of the
next stage. Axial compressors are almost always multi-staged, with the cross-sectional area
of the gas passage diminishing along the compressor to maintain an optimum axial Mach
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number. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1 design pressure ratio, variable geometry is
normally used to improve operation. Axial compressors can have high efficiencies; around
90% polytropic at their design conditions. However, they are relatively expensive, requiring
a large number of components, tight tolerances and high quality materials. Axial-flow
compressors can be found in medium to large gas turbine engines, in natural gas pumping
stations, and within certain chemical plants.
In Agartala Gas Turbine Power Plant each unit employs a 17 stage axial gas
compressor.
3.3. Combustion Chamber: The combustion chamber in gas turbines and jet engines
(including ramjets and scramjets) is called the combustor.
The combustor is fed with high pressure air by the compression system, adds fuel and burns
the mix and feeds the hot, high pressure exhaust into the turbine components of the engine
or out the exhaust nozzle.
Different types of combustors exist, mainly:

Can type: Can combustors are self contained cylindrical combustion chambers.
Each "can" has its own fuel injector, liner,interconnectors,casing. Each "can" get an
air source from individual opening.
Cannular type: Like the can type combustor, can annular combustors have discrete
combustion zones contained in separate liners with their own fuel injectors. Unlike
the can combustor, all the combustion zones share a common air casing.
Annular type: Annular combustors do away with the separate combustion zones
and simply have a continuous liner and casing in a ring (the annulus).

3.4. Gas Turbine: A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal
combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream
turbine, and a combustion chamber in-between.
The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the steam power plant except that
air is used instead of water. Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it
to higher pressure. Energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the
combustion generates a high-temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas
enters a turbine, where it expands down to the exhaust pressure, producing a shaft work
output in the process. The turbine shaft work is used to drive the compressor and other
devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft. The energy that is not
used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, so these have either a high temperature
or a high velocity. The purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most
desirable energy form is maximized.
3.5. Load Reduction Gear Box: The gear ratio of a gear train, also known as its speed
ratio, is the ratio of the angular velocity of the input gear to the angular velocity of the
output gear. The gear ratio can be calculated directly from the numbers of teeth on the gears
in the gear train. The torque ratio of the gear train, also known as its mechanical advantage,
is determined by the gear ratio. The speed ratio and mechanical advantage are defined so
they yield the same number in an ideal linkage. In Agartala Gas Turbine Power Plant each
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unit employs a load reduction gear box which reduces the speed from 5000 rpm to 3000
rpm to synchronize with the grid frequency (standard grid frequency for India is 50 Hz).
Generator:In electricity generation, an electric generator is a device that converts
mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electric current to flow through
an external circuit. The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine
steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine,
a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air, or any other source of mechanical energy.
Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids.
An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of AC electrical generator that
uses the principles of induction motors to produce power. Induction generators operate by
mechanically turning their rotor faster than the synchronous speed, giving negative slip. A
regular AC asynchronous motor usually can be used as a generator, without any internal
modifications. Induction generators are useful in applications such as mini hydro power
plants, wind turbines, or in reducing high-pressure gas streams to lower pressure, because
they can recover energy with relatively simple controls.
To operate an induction generator must be excited with a leading voltage; this is usually
done by connection to an electrical grid, or sometimes they are self excited by using phase
correcting capacitors.
The primary supply of all the world's electrical energy is generated in three phase
synchronous generators using machines with power ratings up to 1500 MW or more.
Though the variety of electric generators is not as great as the wide variety of electric
motors available, they obey similar design rules and most of the operating principles used
in the various classes of electric motors are also applicable to electric generators. The vast
majority of generators are AC machines (Alternators) with a smaller number of DC
generators (Dynamos).

3.6. Voltage and Frequency Regulation

Most generator applications require some way controlling the output voltage and in the case
of AC machines a method of controlling the frequency. Voltage and frequency regulation is
normally accomplished in very large machines carrying very high currents, by controlling
the generator excitation and the speed of the prime mover which drives the generator.

Stand Alone (Island) Systems In smaller, stand alone systems particularly those
designed to capture energy from intermittent energy flows such as wind and wave
power the voltage and frequency control may be carried out electronically. In
principle these control systems are similar to Motor Controls and the the various
components are outlined in that section.
Grid Connected Systems In grid connected systems the generator voltage and
frequency are locked to the grid system. Changing the energy output from the prime
mover does not affect the frequency and voltage but will cause the output current to
increase resulting in an equivalent change in the generator output power. When
connecting a generator to the grid, it's speed should be run up so that it's output
frequency matches the grid frequency before the connection is made.

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Generator Power Handling

The mechanical shaft power P in Watts applied to a generator is given by:
P = T
Where is the speed in radians per second and T is the torque in Newton metres.
As with electric motors, the maximum power handling capability of the generator is
determined by its maximum permissible temperature.
Generator Load
Voltage and frequency regulation correct for minor deviations in the generator output as
noted above but large changes in the load demand (current) can only be accommodated by
adjusting the torque of the prime mover driving the generator since generally, in electric
machines, torque is proportional to current or vice versa.
Generator Types
3.7. AC Generators (Alternators)

Stationary Field Synchronous AC Generator

In a stationary field generator, the stator in the form of fixed permanent magnets (or
electromagnets fed by DC) provides the magnetic field and the current is generated
in the rotor windings.
When the rotor coil is rotated at constant speed in the field between the stator poles
the EMF generated in the coil will be approximately sinusoidal, the actual
waveform being dependent on the size and shape of the magnetic poles. The peak
voltage occurs when the moving conductor is passing the centre line of the magnetic
pole. It diminishes to zero when the conductor is in the space between the poles and
it increases to a peak in the opposite direction as the conductor approaches the
centre line of the opposite pole of the magnet. The frequency of the waveform is
directly proportional to the speed of rotation. The magnitude of the wave is also
proportional to the speed until the magnetic circuit saturates when rate of voltage
increase, as the speed increases, slows dramatically.
o

Generator Speed and Frequency

The output frequency is proportional to the number of poles per phase and
the rotor speed in the same way as a synchronous motor.
The alternating current output generated in the rotor can be connected to external
circuits via slip rings and does not need a commutator.
The high speed generator needs fewer poles, simplifying the design and reducing
the costs.
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Rotating Field Synchronous AC Generator

The power handling capacity of a brushed machine is usually constrained by the current
handling capability of the slip rings in an AC machine (or even more by the
commutator in a DC machine). Since the generator load current is generally much
higher than the field current, it is usually desirable to use the rotor to create the field and
to take the power off the generator from the stator to minimise the load on the slip rings.
By interchanging the fixed and moving elements in the above example a rotating field
generator is created in which the EMF is instead generated in the stator windings. In
this case, in its simplest form, the field is provided by a permanent magnet (or
electromagnet) which is rotated within a fixed wire loop or coil in the stator. The
moving magnetic field due to the rotating magnet of the rotor will then cause a
sinusoidal current to flow in the fixed stator coil as the field moves past the stator
conductors. If the rotor field is provided by an electromagnet, it will need direct current
excitation fed through slip rings. It does not need a commutator.
If instead of a single coil, three independent stator coils or windings , spaced 120
degrees apart around the periphery of the machine, are used, then the output of these
windings will be three phase alternating current.
o

Series Wound Generator

Classified as a constant speed generator, they have poor voltage regulation and
few are in use.
o

Shunt Wound Generator

Classified as a constant voltage generator, the output voltage can be controlled

by varying the field current. They have reasonably good voltage regulation over
the speed range of the machine.
o

Brushless Excitation

Rotating field machines are used for the high power generating plant in most of
the world's national electricity grid systems. The field excitation power needed
for these huge machines can be as much as 2.5% of the output power ( 25 KW
in a 1.0 MW generator) though this reduces as the efficiency improves with size
so that a 500 MW generator needs 2.5 MW (0.5%) of excitation power. If the
field voltage is 1000 Volts, the required field current will be 2500 Amps.
Providing such excitation through slip rings is an engineering challenge which
has been overcome by generating the necessary power within the machine itself
by means of a pilot, three phase, stationary field generator on the same shaft.
The AC current generated in the pilot generator windings is rectified and fed
directly to the rotor windings to supply the excitation for the main machine.

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Cooling
The efficiency of a very large generator can be as high as 98% or 99% but for a 1000
MW generator, an efficiency loss of just 1% means 10 Megawatts of losses must be
dissipated, mostly in the form of heat. To avoid overheating, special cooling
precautions must be taken and two forms of cooling are usually employed
simultaneously. Cooling water is circulated through copper bars in the stator windings
and hydrogen is passed through the generator casing. Hydrogen has the advantages that
its density is only about 7% of the density of air resulting in fewer wind age losses due
to the rotor churning up the air in the machine and its thermal capacity is 10 times that
of air giving it superior heat removal capability.

Permanent Magnet AC Generators

Smaller versions of both of the above machines can use permanent magnets to provide
the machine's magnetic field and since no power is used in providing the field this
means that the machines are simpler and more efficient . The drawback however is that
there is no simple way to control such machines. Permanent magnet synchronous
generators (PMSGs) are typically used in low cost "gensets" to provide emergency
power.
The voltage and frequency output of the permanent magnet generator are proportional
to the speed of rotation and though this may not be a problem for applications powered
by fixed speed mechanical drives, many applications such as wind turbines, require a
fixed voltage and frequency output but are powered by variable speed prime movers. In
these cases, complex feedback control systems or external power conditioning may be
required to provide the desired stabilised output.
Generally the output will be rectified and the varying output voltage fed through the DC
link to a buck - boost regulator which provides a fixed voltage coupled with an inverter
which provides a fixed frequency output.

Induction Generators

Induction generators are essentially induction motors which are run slightly above the
synchronous speed associated with the supply frequency. They have no means of
producing or generating voltage unless they are connected to an external source of
excitation. The squirrel cage construction is used for small scale power generation
because it is simple, robust and inexpensive to manufacture.
o

Fixed Speed Induction Generator

Fixed speed induction generators actually run over a small speed range
associated with the generator slip. They receive their excitation from the
electricity supply grid and can only be run in parallel with that supply. When
used on line, they are fine for returning power to the grid from which they
derive their excitation current but useless as standby generators when the
electric grid goes down. Their limited speed range restricts the possible
applications.

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Variable Speed - Self Excited Induction Generator(SEIG)

Small scale electricity generating systems are quite often stand alone
applications, remote from the electricity supply grid, utilising widely fluctuating
energy sources such as wind and water power for their source of energy. The
fixed speed induction generator is not suitable for such applications. Variable
speed induction generators need some form of self-excitation as well as power
conditioning to be able to make practical use of their unregulated voltage and
frequency output.

Operation

Self-excitation is obtained by connecting capacitors across the stator

terminals of the generator. When driven by an external prime mover, a small
current will be induced in the stator coils as the flux due to the residual
magnetism in the rotor cuts the windings and this current charges the
capacitors. As the rotor turns, the flux cutting the stator windings will
change to the opposite direction as the orientation of the remanent magnetic
field turns with the rotor. The induced current in this case will be in the
opposite direction and will tend to discharge the capacitors. At the same
time the charge released from the capacitors will tend to reinforce the
current increasing the flux in the machine. As the rotor continues to turn the
induced EMF and current in the stator windings will continue to rise until
steady state is attained, depending on the saturation of the magnetic circuit
in the machine. At this operating point the voltage and current will continue
to oscillate at a given peak value and frequency determined by the
characteristics of the machine, the air gap , the slip, the load and the choice
of capacitor sizes. The combination of these factors sets maximum and
minimum limits on the speed range over which self excitation occurs. The
operating slip is generally small and the variation of the frequency depends
on the operating speed range.
If the generator is overloaded the voltage will collapse rapidly providing a
measure of built in self-protection.

Control

In variable-speed operation, an induction generator needs a converter to

adapt the variable frequency output of the generator to the fixed frequency
of the application or the electricity supply grid. During operation the only
controllable factor available in a self excited induction generator to influence
the output is the mechanical input from the prime mover, so the system is
not amenable for effective feedback control. To provide a controllable
output voltage and frequency, external AC/DC/AC converters are required.
A three-phase diode bridge is used to rectify the generator output current
providing a DC link to a three-phase thyristor inverter which converts the
power from the DC link to the required voltage and frequency.

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3.8. DC Generators (Dynamos)

Direct Current (DC) Generator

The stationary field AC generator described above can be modified to deliver a
unidirectional current by replacing the slip rings on the rotor shaft with a suitable
commutator to reverse the connection to the coil each half cycle as the conductor passes
alternate north and south magnetic poles. The current will however be a series of half
sinusoidal pulses just like the waveform from a full wave rectifier as shown below.

The output voltage ripple can be minimised by using multipole designs. The construction of
a DC generator is very similar to the construction of a DC motor.The rotor consists of an
electromagnet providing the field excitation. Current to the rotor is derived from the stator
or in the case of very large generators, from a separate exciter rotating on the same rotor
shaft. The connection to the rotor is through a commutator so that the direction of the
current in the stator windings changes direction as the rotor poles pass between alternate
north and south stator poles. The rotor current is very low compared with the current in the
stator windings and most of the heat is dissipated in the more massive stator structure.In
self excited machines, when starting from rest, the current to start the electromagnets
working is derived from the small residual magnetism which exists in the electromagnets
and surrounding magnetic circuit.
3.9. Electric power transmission and distribution.
Electric-power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from generating
power plants to electrical substations located near demand centers. This is distinct from the
local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to
as electric power distribution. Transmission lines, when interconnected with each other,
become transmission networks. These are typically referred to as "power grids" or just "the
grid."
Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (110 kV or above) to reduce the energy lost in
long-distance transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines.
Underground power transmission has a significantly higher cost and greater operational
limitations but is sometimes used in urban areas or sensitive locations.

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A key limitation in the distribution of electric power is that, with minor exceptions,
electrical energy cannot be stored, and therefore must be generated as needed. A
sophisticated control system is required to ensure electric generation very closely matches
the demand. If the demand for power exceeds the supply, generation plants and
transmission equipment can shut down which, in the worst cases, can lead to a major
regional blackout. To reduce the risk of such failures, electric transmission networks are
interconnected into regional, national or continental wide networks thereby providing
multiple redundant alternative routes for power to flow should (weather or equipment)
failures occur. Much analysis is done by transmission companies to determine the
maximum reliable capacity of each line (ordinarily less than its physical or thermal limit) to
ensure spare capacity is available should there be any such failure in another part of the
network. Transmission efficiency is greatly improved by devices that increase the voltage,
(and thereby proportionately reduce the current) in the line conductors, thus allowing power
to be transmitted with acceptable losses. The reduced current flowing through the line
reduces the heating losses in the conductors. According to Joule's Law, energy losses are
directly proportional to the square of the current. Thus, reducing the current by a factor of 2
will lower the energy lost to conductor resistance by a factor of 4.
This increase of voltage is usually achieved in AC circuits by using a step-up transformer.
HVDC systems require relatively costly conversion equipment which may be economically
justified for particular projects such as submarine cables and longer distance high capacity
point to point transmission but are infrequently used at present.
A transmission grid is a network of power stations, transmission lines, and substations.
Energy is usually transmitted within a grid with three-phase AC. Single-phase AC is used
only for distribution to end users since it is not usable for large polyphase induction motors.
In the 19th century, two-phase transmission was used but required either four wires or three
wires with unequal currents. Higher order phase systems require more than three wires, but
deliver marginal benefits.
The price of electric power station capacity is high, and electric demand is variable, so it is
often cheaper to import some portion of the needed power than to generate it locally.
Because loads are often regionally correlated (hot weather in the Southwest portion of the
US might cause many people to use air conditioners), electric power often comes from
distant sources. Because of the economic benefits of load sharing between regions, wide
area transmission grids now span countries and even continents. The web of
interconnections between power producers and consumers should enable power to flow,
even if some links are inoperative.
The unvarying (or slowly varying over many hours) portion of the electric demand is
known as the base load and is generally served by large facilities (which are more efficient
due to economies of scale) with fixed costs for fuel and operation. Such facilities are
nuclear, coal-fired or hydroelectric, while other energy sources such as concentrated solar
thermal and geothermal power have the potential to provide base load power. Renewable
energy sources such as solar photovoltaics, wind, wave, and tidal are, due to their
intermittency, not considered as supplying "base load" but will still add power to the grid.
The remaining or 'peak' power demand, is supplied by peaking power plants, which are
typically smaller, faster-responding, and higher cost sources, such as combined cycle or
combustion turbine plants fueled by natural gas.

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Long-distance transmission of electricity (thousands of kilometers) is cheap and efficient,

with costs of US$0.0050.02/kWh (compared to annual averaged large producer costs of
US$0.010.025/kWh, retail rates upwards of US$0.10/kWh, and multiples of retail for
instantaneous suppliers at unpredicted highest demand moments). Thus distant suppliers
can be cheaper than local sources. Multiple local sources (even if more expensive and
infrequently used) can make the transmission grid more fault tolerant to weather and other
disasters that can disconnect distant suppliers.

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