Modern Physics: Experilvients

EXPERIlVIENTS IN
MODERN PHYSICS
Second Edition
Adrian C. Melissinos
Jim Napolitano
RENSSELAER rol. YTCJINlC INS1TI1.TrE
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To the memory of my father

Jiusto Napolitnno
Contents
Prefuce
XI
Preface from the First Edition
xv
1 E:tperiments on Quantization
1. 1. Introduction
1.2. The Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
1.31.4.
1.5.
1.6.
2
10
20
25
33
Electrons in Solids
45
2.1. SoIid Materials and Band Structure
45
54
63
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
The Prank-Hertz Experiment

The Hydrogen Spectrum
Experiment on the Hydro.gen Sp~trum
The Spectra of SodiumftDd Mercury
Experiment on the Resistivity of Metals

Expe,riment on the Hall Effect
Semiconductors
High Tc Superconductors
71
81
2.6. References
88
Electronics and Dara Acquisition
89
3.1. Elements of Circuit Theory

3.2- Basic Elcclronic Equipment
33- Oscilloscopes. and Digitizers
3.4_ Simple Me.a..suremeDis
81)
104
110
116
vII
viii
Contents
3.5. Op4;rnllonal Amplifiers
3.6. MeasUlCIUe.ms of Johnson Noise
3.7. Chaos
122
133
3.8. Lock-In Dete.ction
144-
3.9. Compu1e.t Interfaces
147
3.10. References
150
Losers
151
4. L The Principle of Laser Operation
4-.2. Properties of Laser Beams
4.3. The HeNe La~er

4.4. Measurement of the Trnn!:lverse Beam Profile
4.5. The Michelson Interferomeler
4.6. The Fabry-Perot Inlerfercmeter
Optics Experiments
152
156
159
]64
167
172
179
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Diffr.tclion from a SUr
179
5.3. Calculation of the Diflr.tCtion PaUem

5.4. DiBmction from a Circular
5.5. The Diffraction Grating
5.6. Fourier Optics
5.7. The Faraday Effect
185
188
198
201
5.8. Berry's Phase

5.9. References
210
2J4-
High-Res(Jlution Spectroscopy
6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.
Introduction
ISO
192
215
6.6. Saturation Absorption Spec:tro~copy or Rubidium
215
218
228
236
238
243
6.7. References
250
TIle Zooman Effect

Hyperfine Structure
The Line
6.5. The Zeeman FJfect of the Green Line of J98Hg
119
l\{agnetic Resonance Experiments

7. L Introduction
7.2. The Rate for Magnetic-Dipole Transitions
7.3. Absorption ofEnc.rgy by rile Nuclear Moments
251
251
255
262
Cont~ nts
7.4. ExperimenlII.l Observation 0 r the NllcieM Magnetic

Resonance of Protons
7.5. Electron Spin Resonance
7.6. References
8 Particle Detectors and Radioactive Decay

ft I. General Consideralions
8.2. Jntcrnctioos 0 r Ch:lrged l>".nticles and Photons
with Mauer
8.3. Gaseous Joniz.ation Detectors; the Geiger Counter
8.4. The SciotiHlltion Couoter
8.5. Solid-Stale Detectors
8.6. Nuclear Half-Life Measurement..
8.7. Referenccs
j"
273
283
293
295
295
298
320
333
344
354
364
Scattering and Coincidence Experiments
367
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Compton Scattering
361
369
9.3. M(\~bah~r Efte~l
3R5
9.4. Detection of Cosmic Rays

9.5. y-y Angular Correlation M~urements
399
10 Elements from the 171e01}, of Statistics

10. I.
10.2.
10.3.
10.4.
10.5.
Delini tiuns
Frequency Functions of One Variable
'Estimation of Parameters and Fitting of Data
Errors and Their Propag.ation
The Stati!\I.i~!\ of Nuclear Counting
10.6. References
409
423
423
431
445
454
465
473
Appendices
A
Studenls
475
A Short Guide to MATlAB
477
B_1. A MATI..AB Review
47&
B.2. Making Fancy Plots in MATLAB
4g1
Contonts
It
Laser Safety
483
Radioactivity and Radiation Safety
485
Optical DefectiDn Techniques
489
E.l. Pbo\.Ographic Film

E..2. Photomultiplier Thbe$
E.3. Photodiooes
439
490
496
COM/ants
499
Exercises
501
Index.
511
Preface
In the nearly forty years since the first ooition of this book was published..
the fundarnent:1l oollcepts ure of c~~un;.t: unchanged while many of the
detaIls are Jadicully dilTcrenL Thi~ new edition aIrempl~ 10 maintain the
emphasis On the fundamenlal importance of experimental physics and lnboratory technique. while updating Lbe equipment and tools used to set up
the experimenlS and 10 acquire and aIlalyze the data.
A:; much as possible. this revision is in keeping with the style of the
original text. The importance of eAp erirnenlill investig-J.lion and );ounJ. lab
oratory technique, as a way for &Iutl~ts to connect ad vrulccd physics topi~
to measurements carried out with their own hand. is emphasized. If anything, this ilpproocn 1$ even more importarlt than il was fony years ago.
Curricula have roctlsoo more and more on "intemctive" tedtniques in the
introductory sciences, and the advnnced laboratory is a primary way to
e5rlend this approach ro upper revel courses.

We have incorporated many ofthe changes that have oC(;urred in experimental techniques. ChilpteJ 3 collects topi~s in basic hlbol"oltory electronics
(including some simple e1.perimenlJ5 wilh demcnt.ary citCuiLS). as weU 3..'1
the somewhat more advan('(:d topics of OpAnlps. lock-in amplifiers. and
computer interf~cr-..~. ChapLer 4 focuse.... on lasers and optical instmrneors.
Data analysis and presentation is generally carried out with the progrnm
MATLAB; analysis programs are avnilable from the authors. Throughout
the hook. we make use of compute-IS and computer-controlled hanlware,
as well as various commercial software packages. as illust:rative options
for building such experiments. Also.. a collection of exercises. suitabl~ for
homework or examinations is included in Appendix G
xi
xii
Prefa~e
New experimeJ\lS have been added and the material has been reorgiUllzed. A number of new experiments in condensed matt.eI have bee.~
introduced in Chapter 2. including mea1lurements of the resistivity of metals using eddy currents. the Hall effect in bismuth, electrical, and therron'
properties of diodes. and high Tc superconductors. Chapter 3 includes new
eJ( periJnetlrs on Johnson noise. and chaos. Olapters 4 and 5 arc completely
new cmd several eApcriments involving lasers are di&C1J!lsed. These include
classical experiments on difftaction and inlCrferometry as well as a measurement of the Faraday effect and of Berry's pha.(je. ChaptCis 6 and 7 have
been updated and an experiment on saturation absorption spectroscopy ha..
been introduced. The materi al on nudeiU" physics and nuclear techniques
has been reorganized into Chapters 8 amI 9 and some new measurements.
including cosmic my e.xpcriment..~ and muon decay have been added.
Space limilation~ have forced us to drop scveml experiments. nod other
material, from the first edition. We have eliminated experiments on thcphotoelectric etTect. thelmionlc emission, the Hall effect in semiconductors.
Ruthcrforu scattering. and ... docity nod particle identification measUD>
ment... Some det.ailed discu!>sions of experimental techniques., such as the
prism spcctrograph and vacuum pumping, have also been removed.
One of the most dramatic developments since the first edition has been
the use of computers forrklla analysis and presentation.lndeed, today there
~ a multitude ofbolh commercial and free programs that run on a variety of
platforms. all of whkh would be suitable for the experiments we describe
here. In this text. for JMoy cases. we have chosen to use the progrnm
1vlAl1,A,B (nttp;{/IIVWW.mathworks.coml) to illustrate the analyses. Th~
student vcesion is inexpensive and well documented, and provides some
sophisticllted routines for things !luch as nonlinca r fitting and data presenlation. (Appendix B gives a brlefintroduction to the program.) However. we
emphasize that all of the necessary tools, including plotting, linear fiUing,
and so forth, are ~sily accessible through any number of programs.
This revision is built on advanced laboratory COUf8CS at the University
of Rochester and at Rensselaer Polylechnic Institute. as well as labomtory components of upper level leclUre courses. Our $tudents take part in
interactive cou.rses at the introductory level, and they extend this exposure
with this advanced laboralory material as they continue their education.
10 maoy cases, the ellpel"iments are developed. built, and debugged by
studenlc; who bave already gone throogh a dedi~ted advanced laboratory
COtmiC. In most cases, the data presented were acquired by students. These
students arc listed collectively in Appendix A
We iltegraleful to many of our colleagues for their help Olod suppOI1. In

particutar, A.C.M. than!::s Todd Olalock. Glen Hallit. and Cmis: Spencer.
who were in charge of the "senior lab" in receot years. He also thanks Judy
Mack for chccrfwlilld efficient [ypiog of early vel1lions of the mam.L<;;cripL
J.N. thanks Thh-Miog Lu for his 5tlppOn of this COUI"!\t:. Peter P~IS fo r Ws
efTorts 10 tenc:h and extend the laoorotory and fo r conrributing his notes on
U.<; illg 'MATlAB. aod Tom Shannon fur his maintenance aflhe equipment .
A.C.M., J.N .
Rochester. New Yurk
Troy. New Vorl::
Preface from the First Edition
rt is generally accepted thai training in the sciences, especi:llly at the
undergraduare level, is nOI c:ompler.e without it fair QlUounl of Jabof'll1ury

experience. This is particularly true in physiclS where the bnsic freshman and
wphomore courses are supplemenred by concurrent laboratory exerches.
At the j unior and senior level. however, lAboratory lfilining becomes
more important and forms the subject of an inde.pendent COUISC. R.,ther
than simple Jabor.;llory eXeJdses. the students now perform comp1ele.
e xperiments a.nd one c uuhl lilSt the aims of tbe course as follows:
(a) To Teach the srudcnt the. melbuth and procedures of experimenl::lJ
physicsal;m advanced level; :lild 10 gi .... erum coafidcm:e in his own ability
to ffif'415Ure physicn1 emitie... and rel::II..ionships between them.
(b) To familiarize lhe srudenl with modem rc::>caIch equipment and it<;
lL'ia; also It} make him aware of the most ba.l;ic l.CChniques pre.senlly used
ill widely varying, Ilelds of physics. ~

{c) To convinc.e the siudenilhat the matetial he studied J.Ild covered in
his lecrure course& call indeetl be tested eAperimentally; and 10 give him
the s."Cisfactioo of doing so himself.
On the other hand the real professional training fur srudellts who will
b~COtJle experimental physicists takes plac.e in gmduale sebeol during their
the!:.]$ wOTk; this is a period of intensh"e involvl!nll-'l'It in research bu[ within
a highly specialized field. It therefore appears that the best oppertuniry for
(t brosd look at the general e~perimental methods of physics still remains
in the junior and senior labor..tory cour!.es.
XVI
Prefa c e tmm tile First Edition
The present texlis-an outgrowth of such a laboratory course giveo by the

author at the University of Rocbester between 1959 and 1963 _It consisted
of a one-year course with two 3-hour meetiogs in the laboratory and two
I-hour lecture
.
weekly: the students had access to the laboratoJy
at all limes and. in gcner.ll, worked during hours of their own choice weU
in excess of the. scheduled periods. The students w()rked in pairs. which in
most cnses provides a highly motivating and successful relationship.
The material included io this course was selecWi from dlOse experiments
in atomic and nuclear physics that have l;tid the foundalion and provided
th~ evidence for modem q l1anrum theory. The experiments were sct up in
such a fa-won that they ,maid be completed ina lWo~ to four-week period of
norma] work taking into account the other demands 00 the sruden('s time.
A frequent tendency of students (especially the more enthusiastic ones) is
to become involved in experiments that are "almost original" or in setling
up new experiments; this, however. requires constructioo of lhcir own
equipment and can result io consider.ilile "gadgeleerinS" as well as leadi fl
to extended involve. nem, which a scnioreannotaffonL We found this to be
a common trap evenlUnlly teadiog to frustration and discouragement with
a. srudcnt having only a "progres~ report" or ~ marginal resllh to show for
one term of work.
For these reasons we used, whenever possible. comm(:rcial equipment,
and all eJlperimcnts were carefully tested before being handed ovct' to
the &tudent. The emphasis \V3.' 00 the "physics" of the experiment and the
interpretation of the results obtained; dc.arly, to obtain COIl~t result.. the
student had to properly adjust, use and understand his equipment. Furthe.rmore, a time limit could he set so that eight to ten ilifferell( e.xpcrimenL~
could be completed in one academk ycar. This variety nol only brings the
student in contact with a broader seglnent of phys;cs and of techfitqu~, it
also gives him the (lpporrunity of a 'fresh start" severnl times throughout
the course; and. most important, it keeps the student continuously intere8ted in spite or any setback or difficulty he may encounter in one or more
experimenb>.
The experiments described in the first four chapters of this texl are, in
general. e~icr tharl dle ones discussed later; each can usuafly be completed
in a one-week period, and at the University of Rochester are performed
io the second tenn of the junior
'This leaves then the two temls of
the senior year for the more advanced experiments described ill the later
chapters. The various experimenrs have been grouped accenting to the basic
physical principle rather than the special technjque. For each experiment
T
Pre fac e frolll tile first 'diticn
nii
the W\derlyins theoretical ideas are first iotroducc:J, then thl:! experimenEnl app::ll1ltus is dc-<;cribed in coosider.lble detail Md, tinnlly. the resulls
obtnined by the ~ lUdem.s are given and di!.<;;us~d . fa dtis respect we believe
that this te.ltl is not 0 iobornlory mrmual "; instead we have airw:d i1t :l
fairly coherent presentation of c.KpcrimenLal physics in spite of the limited
and occasional ly nnOOm selection of the experimenu. We feci thai. OUT
IIpproach is similaI to that of G P. Hamwell and J. J. Livingood in their
classic text " fuperim~nl"l AtOmic Physics," which appeAred- originally in
1933.
The leader may occasionally be surpri sed by the great de1o.il with which
we describe arpa r8 lu ~ or special procedure::; for anaJysis of data. We have
done 50 lO a... sisl those who Wil)' wlsh to sel UJ') B similar L1.borntory ilnd
bec:!usc r.h c~e.are the details the :.:tulknt ha'l u...ually 10 find oul by himself:
but :'tlro we believe that only through such demil can one ilCtiuire the real
tlavorof e.xperimen(;:l) phy~ic,. We have placed special emphasis on nurner
ical results and on 1:.implc calculations, emphasizing the usc. of dIe correcl
units.
Contmry to acccplcd practice we have indtu.led only 3 minimum number
of refen: n~~ : instead, wc hJ.ve giv ~n 3 selected bibliogrnphYlOl!ach subject
through which the interested reader may nnd all pertineot inform&l.tion. It
is, h()we\,u, expected Ih.at the :student i ~ familiar or is concurrently taking
it co~ on modem physics. The usual InBthemaOcalleveJ of culculn!> j ~
c.onsidered as a prerequisite and is freel y used throughouL
As meotiooe<i before. modem co nunercicl equipment is used whenever
practicable: this is lhe S3fIle rype of equipment ~ u...e:d in prt::sent-day
n::se.arcb amJ frequenlly is the basis for iI !luccessful teaching laboratory.
U is true. however, thar similar equipmenl can be obtained [rom ~everal
manuracturcrs 8I1d mat special appmlUi is preferably built in one's own

:shOp. We do have aD file the prinlol; of all such spec.i.l.I equipment an.;! \....c
will be glad TOsupply them on reqllest.
The list of c.xperimcnlS in this text is Dot complete. For clC3Jtlple. we
have oot included a discu...~ion of"c ohuent scilucring" (diiTraction) e.ltperimenls, of "electmmagne:r.ic specrrometen," and of '....isual techniques"
(bubble chamber, spark chamber, and nucleAr emulsion) in spite of their
successful perfomutnce by se.ver.d ::;tudenlS. We bope to be able to remedy
the$c omk-.ions in a fu ture edition. We also .-ewe that in some C~5 a
beller, or more eduC<1.lional. I cchn~que might be avaibble for the cxpcti
menlS presented bere. We w(luld be grateful to our n:..wel1l if lhey wish 10
indicate to us these altcmalives.
)(Viii
Preface
frOIl1
the First Edition
rn Hne with our original inteotion, all the dam and rc.<;llhs preseLlted
in lhis book were obtained by sruOOOlS of the "Senior L;lboratory" of the
Unive~ity of Rochester and the approprio:lte credit is given in the (ext. The
results presented here could not have been achieved wittlout the support of
the Physics Dcparullcnl of the University of Rochester; also major equip-ment was pun:hased l1uough a grant from the United States Atomic Energy
Commission and a trUllching funds gr..\Jll from the National Science Foundation. As is at ways the OlSe. whatever success this labor..llory did enjoy is
due to the oombirtoo efforts of many indi viduals. a large pan of which was
supplied by the participating srudenl,\. It is a special pleasure to thank from
bt,"I'e the graduate assi~f.aIl1S during lhe 1959-1963 period. On;, E. Grirtio.
J. Robbins, J. Mochel, and J. Reed. for tbeir contributions to the laboratory.
More than to anyone else the laboratory is indebted to Mr. F. L Reynolds.
who has been in charge of aU technical maueni and has kept the equipment
to operating condition; 1 wish to expre.<;s to him my personal gratitude
for his friendship nrul ror many heJpful suggestions connected with tbis
texL I al80 wish (0 acknowledge discussions with many of my t,;olleagues
in Rochester and, in panicular, Dr. W. P. A1ford. Dr. M.. F. Kaplon. and
Or. R. E. Marshak.
In the preparation of the manuscript [ benefited from the an work of
Mest)1S. Yu .Chang Lee. W. Stinson, and J. Pinero; most of the manu!:Cript
was typed by Mrs. B. M. MaISh, and to all of them r express myappreci.
ation for lheir excellent work. [ nm 011&0 indebted to the following of my
co \leagues fur reading early parts of the manuscript and maktng many valuable suggestions and. conections: Dr. P. Baumei stet on Clmptcr 2; Dr. T.
Castner 00 Chapter 3; Dr. D. Cline on Chapter 5; Dr. R Ellsworth 00
ChilPt.c:r 6; Dr. L. Bradley OD Cha.pter 7; Mr. C. Cook Of) Chapter 8~ and
Dr. J. Reed OD Chapter 9. Still. however, the responsib11ity for aU c:rWnI
is mine and I would appreciate it if thc readers could indicate thell} to me.
Finally, [ would like to thank my wife, Joyce, for her encourngemefll and
assiistance durillg the course of this W'OTk.
A.C.M.
Rochester, New York
..... .... .
-
~.
:4:<.
'
.......
.. .
......
..
. .
CHAPTER
Experiments on
Quantization
Lt. INTRODUCTION
A defining characteristic of present-day physics is that many of the quantilic!l. used 10 describe physical pllenomena are quantized. Thai j!;. such
quantities cannot take any OtIe of a continuum of values. but are restricted
10 a set (perhaps aD infinite set) of discrete values. Common ex.amples are
lhe inlensity of radiation of lhe ele ctromagnetic (icht. lhe energy of alomic
systems, or the electric chllrEe. Strong evidence for such quantizlltion is
obtained from ex.ptriments that will be ~,;crjbed in dus chapter:
(a) Millikan's experi.mI:Rt by which the charge on individual oil droplet~
is measured. The experiment shows that the charge is <llwuys an integer
multiple of the SIIlaliest charge observed; this is idtmtil1c.d with the chruge
of the electron.
(b) The Frank-Hertz experiment on the C;(citalion hy electron bombardment of atomic vapors. It is found that only for discrete bombarding
h~erim8Rts
on Quantizatloll
,
energies is such excitation possible. and the first excited state of the mercury
(Hg) atom is thus messW'ed.
(c) A measorement of spectra' Jines in the visible. In particular tbe
Balmer series of the hydrogen atom. as wei las the more complicated spcctra
of sodium and mercury wil1 be d'scussed.
All three experiments can be canicd out with commercially availDble
equipment from 5Cveral manufacnneI's. For insfance the Model AP~210
Oil Drop Apparatus" from PASCO Scic:ntific (Rosevi1Je, Cpr.)
is a fully assembJed system that yields excellent resul~. Two varielies of Millikan
are available from Tel-Atomic. Incorporated
(http://wWVII.telatom;c.comf). A Prank-Hertz tuhe with its oven can be

obtained from ELWE LclJrsysteme (Creuilingen. Geffi\any). Klinger Educational Products als-o offers a complete Frank-Hertz experimental setup.
PASCO Scientific also markets a "Precision Student SpectIometer" Model
SP-9268, which is fun), oquivalent to the spe<:trometer uscO to obtain tile
data described in Sections 1.5 and 1.6. Of course such an appanl.tus c.m
O1'SO be built in-house. and we shall describe the apparatus and data-takiTlg
procedures in sufficient detail.
1.2. THE
OIL DROP EXPERIMENT
1.2.1. General
In 1909. R. Millikan reported a reliable method for meMuring ionic charges.
It oonslsts of obst,...rviog Ihe motion of 1IJlU!1l oil droplets under the influence
of an ~lectric field. Usually the drops acquire a few electron charges and
thus conventions I fields impart to them velocities that pennit isolation a
drop and continuous observation for a considerable length of timc~ further.
the mass of the oil droplet remains rumosl constant (there is very slight
evaporation) during these long observation time~.
In principle., if we measure thl;: force due to the electric field E,
or
Fe. = qE = neE.
(1.1)
we C<ln ohtain ne: repeating this measurement for several (or the same)
drops but wilh differeDt values of the integer n, we call ex!n,ct the charge
of the electron e.
The electlic fore-e call be m~swed eilher by a nun method that is.. by
balancing the drop ngalnst the gravitational force ' or, as will be described
II . . . . ,
IIIII. .
. , ,
IIII .. 4 , .
~m/
1.2 The Millikan Oil Drop Experimint
:::::: : :here. by observing the motion of the drop under the iofluem:e of both fOICe:'.
Oil droplets in air, acted on by a constant force F. sOOn reacb a terminal
::::: : : .velocity gi vr:n by Stokes' law
::::;:>
.......
.. .
: : : . where a
, .
,
,
,
"
= 6;rat}v.
(L2)
i~ the radius of the (assumed spherical) droplet, J1 the viscosity of

:":':' the illr. and 1.1 the terminal velocity. To obtain the radju~ of the drop (needed
:::::: in Eq. (1.2) we observe the freefa11 of the drop; the gravirotiooal force is
...
..
....
...
,
(1.3)
,
,
,
,,
,
with p and (J' the density of air and oll and g me acceleration of srolvi1y.
Schem:llically, a."l'ihown in Fig. 1.1 the apparatus consists of IWO parallcl
phltes thal can be ahemntively charged to a coostant potential + V. - V.
Of' O. The drop is then observed (with" telescope), lUlU the lime t il takes
to travel through a distance d is mc~urcr.l Let F+ ~'1l0Ie lhe foree on a
~egatively charged drop with electric field up (time t+. electric force aiding
J
gravjty) and F_ the force with electric field dowll (time L, electric force
opposing gravity). Then
F = nt~(V Is) - ~JI'a'~(P Fo =
o)g
=6rrar;d (lilt)
0.4)
-3 rrtJ
(p - o)g
=61'ralld(l/IO).
where the sign cOlJvention:s. hr;.ld jf t i~ considered >0 when the drop
moves up. and I <: 0 when it is moving down (recall thnt e is oegative).
+V
iF,
e--.
~-...!-tFg-------,-E
I
FIGURE 1.1
1
S
Foo:cs on II dl1rl"gOO ail drop between \be pJates of a Millikan IWlIflItuS.
1 Experiments Dn QuantiZ8r\Dn
A convenient method of analysis is to write Eq. (1.4) as
Ve
-,---~
6nra'1 d
B == ~ a (p - o")~
1
(n):
An - B
-=-B
It)
==
(1.5)
Tjd
so that A and B can be ea~ily delermined.

Indeed a plot of lIlt) against n reveals lhe Iinenr relationship and the
fact 'bnt only infegervalues of n appear, proving that the drop has acquired
one, two, three, or more elecuic charges of value e. llild never a fraction
of that value. Thus we have clear evidence that the ionic cbarge picked
up by !he oil drops is qUQ1Jrized. FurthelJilOre, the absolute value of this
minimal electric charge is in good agreemeot with inferred
of the charge carried by the atomic electrons. t and thel dore is accepted as
the most accurate value of the cbarge of the electron.
1.2.2. The Experiment

The apparatus used in t.hil> labomtory (Fig. 1.2) consists of two parallel
brass plates tl4 in. dUck and approximately 2 in. in diameter; placed in
a lucite cylinder held apart by three ceramic spacers 4.7 rum long. This
<lSsembly is in tum enclosed in a cylindrical brass housing with provisions
for electlical conneclionf> and contalning two windows, one for illumination of the drops and one for observation. The top plate has a small hole in
its center for the admissioD ofihe oil dro~~ which are produced by spraying
oil with a regular a1ouUzer.
To charge the plates, a 500 V DC power supply and a
switch
are used, the plates are shunted by a 50MQ resistor to prcvenl them from
remaining cbarged. when t11eswitcb js open. For observations a lO-cm fecal.
length microscope is used (Cenco 72925), while illumination is provide d by
a Mazda) 0 17-W inrnp and condensing lens. To avoid convection currents
inside the apparatus, a heat~absorbing fitter (Corning infntred.absorbing)
is placed in the muminating beam.
The plates should be made perpendicular to the gravi18.tional field by
means ofthe three leveling :screws at the base of the apparatus and a le\'e1
II1II
:.:::: :
1.2 The Millikan 011 Drop Experiment
11:::
Ma...--da 1017
, ..
,. .
, ...
,, ..
, ..
..
Burgess u-320
SOOv lapprtl.l.>
,,.......
..
..
...
,
,
,
..
..
..
.
,
..
...
..
,
~
..
, '
lJ
\\
Oil openinog
1tOV
Be
FIGURE 1.2 Millikan oil drop cl.~riment ~hcm:ilcJc of the app:uatus..
placed on the top plare. Being fI cosine error. the deviution introduced hy an
angular displacement of the gravitational component from perpendicular
by gil is 1%. A value for the plate spacing s may be obtained by using the
~tage micrometer. The micrometer should be focused all a wjre inserted in
the oilholein tbe center of the lop plate, and the cross hnirofthemicromeler
should be moved illong Ihe length of the wire. Severnlmeasurements should
be taken and their tCsults averaged.
The velociticR aie determined by measuring with a stopwatch tho time
required for the droplel to cover a specified number of divisions of the
microscope ~C!3Ie. Crue musr be taken 10 avoid dr.lrts and vihrations in the
vicini ly of the apparatus: for thilt re<1oon and because of Brownian moliol}.
the drop may wooder or be displaced out of the field of the microscope. It
may (hen be necessary to reposition the microscope between measurements
on a single drop. Moreover. the drop should be kept in focus to avoid
parallax errors.
Both tbe microscope and the lighl source may be <*djuslcd by viewing a
:>m.dl wire inserted in [he oil hole. The light should be adjl.lsled so that the
focal poinl i ~ somewhat abe.!ld or behind the wire and the wire is more or less
evenly illuminated. To light the scale., a smaUlighl is pJaced next to the sIll
jml ahead of the eyepiece of the microscope.. The acruaJ distnnce to which
a scale division corresponds may be found by using a microscope slide
1 Exp eriments
on Quantization
on which a subdivided millimeter scale bas been scratcbed. 2 The eyepiece
focus of the microscope should not be chaoged during a run. since moving
the eyepiece dlaogcs the effective distance of the scale. (To bring the drop
back into focus tho entire micro~ope should be moved.)
It is impOI mnt 1.0 he.tparing in the amounl ofoil sprayed into the chamber.
In addition to gumming up the interior more quickly. Jarge quantities create
so many partic1c.~ in the mil;roscope field that without excessive eyestrain
it is virtually impossible to single out and foUo\'{ a ~ingle droplet.
Under the jnftuenoe of gravity, droplets will fall nt vilriOUS limiting
specds. If the plates an:: charged. some of the drops will move down more
rapidlYt whereDs others wHl reverse their dilcction of mOlion !>ince in the
process of spraying some drops become posi live1y ch,u:gc.d and others negatively charged. By concentrating On one drop dult can 00 controlled by the
field, and manipulatin g the sign of the electric field so that this particulaT
drop is relained. it is po!l~ibte to remove all other drops from the field.
The limiting velocity is n~chcd very quicldy and the measurement should
be started near the t()P or bottom of the p!aLe. Measurement should be
completed before the drop has reached a point in its travel whcre application of the reverse potential is insuffici<mt to save tbe drop from being
"gobbled up."
3
3
The den5ily in air of the oil used was 0.883 O.OO3 g/cm . It is desirnble
to tak-e mca~urements in the shortest possible time $ince, as previously
mentioned. the JlUISS of the drop changes through evaporation.
It is also important to make measurements on as many
charge.....
on the ssme or difieJ cut drops as possible. Thul'> after four or fi ve mc:asure~
ments of t!:l, t~II). and t" have been taken. the charge on the drop must be
changed~ this is accompljsbed by bringing cJose to one of the windows a
60
4
radioactive source (10 to loo J.l Ci of Co will do). The droplet should be
brought close to the top plate and allowed to f<lJJ with Ihe field off; on its
way down it will sweep up a few ions created by the source. This can be
che(:ked by occasionaJJy luming the field on to sec: whether the charge has
changed; rarely will a. drop pick up any charge when the field is on.
The power supply vohage should be checked with a 1% digital ntulti~
meter (DMM); microscope cnIibration should be checked before and after
57
2Note 'hat Ihe f ocalleagth of the micmsr.upe must not be enanged. bUl lrlstead !be slide
shCJUld be brought into the r~1 plane.
3This may be round by u simple mMsuremcnt.
4Ci == Curie"" :3.7 x to til di$in~tion~ per sccontJ.
..
'M ..
, -..
.
,- .
,. .
~
I ....
I ..
I"
~
1.2 The MillikBrl Oil Drop
Exp~lim~ot
1.92
15'
lea
C' 166
i;l
.,Z
I
D
~
I.Sot
I.s;?
I.B
1.78
1.78
10
20
15
:)0
;'!:S
T~mpe.rahlre
FlGURE 1.3
{"C}
V.LSroIijl)' of dry !!.ir a... (l fllncJl(1I'I M t(:/IIpernhllC.
The. data
poinlS are laken
from D. PnUl:li .mLl C. Gutlillger. FMd Mccluulic9. Cambridge Uni\,. Press. C-.J.mbrid~e.
UK. ]992. Thbk B-1. Th~5(: points are tittecl ta a serond-rler }XIlyl\Umil'lllnintrl'p<!lBlC: I()
tlle lernperarure in the laboratory.
the measuremenls. The same h.olds true for air tempernrure and pressure.
which arc needed for a correction to Stokes' law.
Indeed. when the di~mctcr of tbe drop is comparable to the mean free
pa.th in air, the vj~co~ily ." in Eq. (L2) s.houhl bl: replaced b y5
t}(T)
t1o(T) [ 1
+ aP
]-1
(1.6)
where rJo(T) is the V1SCO&ity of air a~ a function of T (Fig. 1.3), b =

6.17 x 10- 6 P is the air pressure in centimeters of mcrcwy. and a is the
rndius of the drop io meters (00 the order of 10-6 m). In analyzing the
data it is convenient t{) calculate ao by letting T) = l7o(T) in th~ ~econd of
STb.ls formula.. alt.e.roatively parameterized with hi P = Ai, "'here I h the mean-free
pa.1h of th~ n:it molt:eulcti, wa:s tb~ ~ubj:1 ofmucil rc=-rh Dr Mil..ti1::m and many clhers.
S<=~. fClr example, R. A. Millik..lIl. Plrys. Rfl'. 2l, ] (1923). Our v:iliJe fot b j~ taterl fI"O!"n Y.
Lquda. Pltys. Re~. 21. 550 (1m). Table I.
1 Experi me nts on Qv 8 rltinliDR
Eqs. (1.5); ao is then inserted in Eq. (1.6) to obtain 1)(T} and thus a more
accumtc value for G.
1.2.3. Analysis of the Data

Thble 1.1 is a sample
l1 r data
obtained by a student Two drops were lLc;ed
and :icvernl charges were measured; for each chilI&e six. measurements
were perfollllCd and averaged, wilh the results shown in Fig. 1.4. The drop
radiu... a was determined from the average values of llf{). Tbe viscosity 1J
~e.c; the correction from Eq. (1.6). Values of n that give consistent values
for A::: [(1/1+) - (1/t-)]f2n were identified The pertinent pacameter.q
for these data were
Pistm,.ce of fall
Tempc:.awre
T _ 2S'C
Pressure
p = 76.01
Density
p' = fJ
P\)tuJli:lJ
V." 500 V
Plate scpar.U jol1
1 ""
d'"' 7.6:J )( 10-4 m

tm
Hg
~ &&2kglmJ
-0
4.71 )( lO-3 m
TABLE 1.1
Data fnom the MiUikan Oil Drop &pcrimcnt
~)
fa
-27.9
-29.6
-28.2
-29.3
-29A
;} Cl ""
~}
+1.36
+3.66
+0.;5
-0.7l6
+2.35
-1.97
2n
Drop 1
-5.65
-1.18
-3.00
+&.69
0/'+)
(I/L)
/I
5
2
-O.JS2
-0, l5l
-0.155
IJl
3
4.66 x 10- 7 tn
-25.75
-2So4
-25.22
-25.22
-;24.4
-24.4
+3.91l
+9.73
+2.5
+9.67
+4.1
+1.73
+9.9!i
-0.144
-0.140
-2.12
-0.145
-5.42
-3.07
1
2
4
1
-0.144
-0.143
-Q.I44
-6.02
=* 0 = ,'L04 x 10-1 m
-3.071
- 5.6.5
-1.73
-0.133
)) ~ l.60 )( \0-:; N slm1

-O.l46
-O.lSS
Drop 2
-24.22
--........
,..
..
,..
..
...
,
,
,
1.2
,
,
TI1~
Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
.9
Drop 1
Flelo Opposmg Gravity
(1.5
;:
-1l.5
Fi&1d Aiding Gravity
-1
-t..5
-10
-5
II
Il
to
(Number of ale.::1!'an ehargas)
0.8
Q.6
0.4
..-.
I
...
1l.2
-02
~O.4
-0.6
-0.8
-5
4)
n (Number 01 Alac:tmn l:ha!g~)

FIGURE l.4
Plots of 1/l+ and l/f_
versu~ 11
whewn is IIIl integer. Negative valuc;s of n
Itre us.cd III n=pte.<;t:I'lt !he data IfIke:n With ll1e -electric field pointillS downward (i.e~ 1+). The.
data lIJ'1: from Table J.1.
10
I Exptl rim s nts
011
Quantization
Averaging the appropri81e columns in Table Ll (See Eq. (1.5)) we find

that
AI
= -0.1526 0.0046 g-I
HI :;: 0.0346 0.0009 S-l
Ie! == (1.52 0.05) x 10-\9 C
B2 = 0.0401;1: O.OOH> s-I
Az = -0.1419 O.0042 s-l

Ie!
== (loSS 0.05)
x 10-
19
C,
where the values of (: are calculated using the ,'aluc of A and the drop
radius as obtained from the value of B. They arc in good agreemenr6 with
tJle accepted value
leI
=:::
1.602
19
X 10- C,
Errors on A and B are simply taken to be the slandard deviation of the set
of mea."lll'eIT1ents. (See Chapter I 0.) The data are plotted in Fig. 1.4 along
with the sbaight lines predicted hy Eq. (1.5) using tJle \'alues of A and B
derived above.
The realization dIat tile elemental)' (hDdronic) panicles nee composites
of qnnrks that have ekctric charge of or ~ of the electron's cb;uge led to a
1
revival of the MiHOOl.n experimenL Automated versions of the e.~periment
have been built nnd ro.n for along time without revealing any such frJctiornll
charges.
1.3. THE FRANK-H ERTZ EXPERIMENT

1.3.1. Gl:neraJ
From the early spectroscopic work it was clear that atoms emined radiation
at discrete frequcnci-es; from Bohr'S modellhe frequency of the radiation
v is related to the change in energy levels tlrrough /:t.E = hv. Further
experiments demons.trated that the absorption of radiation by atomic vapors
aJso OCCW'IOO only for discrete frequencies.
611 is seen thAt in thh ~peci~1 case (partly bec;!llJ..o;: of the: low voltage).
. th~
drops iss!> sm:dl Ihat tho oorreciioo to the Slolc.ts ~1l3[i0lJ, i.e Eq. (1.6). i$ considerable
(aboul7%).
7See, fOTeumple., N. Mar ~I IlL, Plrys. Real D 53, 6017 (1996).
{,,'-~-.'.',
~?:r\
1.:3 The Frank-Hertz Experiment
:=::-:.:.:
.... ,..
11
t:~
~~::::::: II is then to be expected that th~ transfer of energy to atomic electrons by
:::::::'MY mechanism should always. be in discrete amount,,8 and related to the

~::::::~d.Olnic
spect.\"l1m through the equati-oo given above. One such mcchMism

~-:::: :6f energy transfer is by the inelaslic scauering of e1ectrons from tile entire
{:::::'iliom. u the atom that is bombarded does not beoome ionized, and since
~:::: :"littJe energy is needed for momentum balance, olmost the entire kineric
::::::: 'energy of the bombarding electron C1lll be trnru;ferred to the atomic system.
::::::::::-1. Frank and G Hertz in 1914 sel out to verify these coils.i.derntions.
:::::: :immely that (a) it is possible to excite <lioms by low-energy e1ectron bom~::::: baniment, (b) th.,.l the encryJ transferred from the electrons to the atorm
::::::: 'always had discrete values, and (c) Ihat the ... alues so obtained rorthe energy
::::::: levels were in agreemenl whh the spectroscopic rcsuhs.
:::::::: The ncces~ary apparatus consists of an c1ectroncmini ng ti lament and
::::::: 'an adequate structure for accelerating the electron.~ lO a. desired (variable)
:::::: :jx.tenlial. The accelerated electroD:5 are allowed to bombard the atomic
::::::: ,Yapor under investigation, and the excitation of he atoms is studied as a
:::::: : function of accelerating potential.
::::::: . For detecting the e...'I.citation of the atoms in the vapor it is possible to
:::::: : observe, for example.. the mdi atian emitted. when the atoms rehlm to the
:::::: : ground ~we. the change in olbsorplioo Or:l gl\len spcctmlline.. or some other
:::::::'l,eIatcd phenomenoo; however. a much more ~ensilive technique COOSiSlS
::::::: of observing the eleclCOn beam iL"elf. Indeed, if the electrons have been
::::::: accelerated lO a polential jusl eqUl11 to the energy of the firsL excited level,
::::::: some of them will excite atoms of the vnpor ill] d as a con:;equence will
::::::: Jose nlmosl all their energy~ if 11 small retarding potential exists before lhe
::::::: collector region, electrons that bave scattered inelastically will be unable
::::::: to overcome it and thus will not reOich the anode.
::::::: The~e conditions are cre4led in llle experimental arr.mgement by USI!]g
::::::: two grids between the cathode and oCf.lllCClor. When the potentials are dis::::::: tribulCd as in Fig. 1.5a. the beam is accelerated between the cathode and
:::::> grid l~ then il is allowed to drift in the interaction region between the two
::::::: grids and finally musl overcome the retardi.ng pOlentia.l between grid 2 and
:::::::the anode. When the thresbold for exciting the first level is reached, a sharp
::::::: dec.reOISe in electron current is observed, proportional to the number of col~
:~:::: : lisions tbat have occurred (product of the atomic density and cross section).
:::::: :Wben the threshold of the nextlevel is reached. a further dip in the collector
: , .. . . . . I
8Wh~n !hey F:main oollncJ ~fttr the C<JHi&i(JI'l,
12
1 Experiments on Quantization
Grid 2
Grid 1
I
I
Calhode'
(a)
V,,,,--
Anode
I
I
(bl
V. ce
___
1. .. ___ =.
I
I
7
I
I
{c)
V~~'- -- ':""-- ."

I
,
------------------
FlGURE 1.5 Different cun~rlIlill!lS of the potential in II Fl'lI ok -Het tz JU't'<lJlg<!II,errt:

(n) For<'lbstlvatio.o of II single e.,'>citlilioll., (b) for oh.~etValion ofa mulljple elcilAtion, and
(c) for measuring ilie ioni:raoOl'l potenlial
on a monotonically rising curve; indeed lhe number of electrons reacbing

the anode depends on Va,",". inaslUUch as it reduces space charge effects and
elastic :5caneriJlg in the dense vapor. In addition, the dips are not perfectly
sharp because of the distribution ofvelocitie." of the therrniooically
electrons. and the energy dependence of the excitation eros:. section.
An alrernate distribution of potentials is shown in Fig. l.5b. where V:. cc
is Dpplied at grid 2 5.0 that an electron can gain further energy after a collision io the space belween the two gridR. In this case when V~cc reaches
the first excitation flQlcntial. inelastic collisions are again possible and the"
decrease in eJeclron
is observed at the llJlode~ when. however. V"ce
reaches a value twice that of the first excitation potentia}. it is possib te for
an electron to excite an atom halfway between the grids, lose aU its energy,
and then gain anew enough energy to excite a second atom and Wlch gTid
2 with practically zero energy. Thus it is not abl~ to overcome the rerarding
potential to reach the anode, giving rise to a second dip io the current.
w.
::::::.......
......
~~:~:)
1.3 The- Frank-HerU Expe r~ment
13
::::::.:.:. :
:::::::::~: .The advantage of thi ~ !>elllp i8 that the current dips are much more pro~::: )~,ouDc~, ~nd it is easy to obtain r.vcfold ~r. even I~.brer ~ultipli~ty in.
;..:.:.:.j,be excItation of the first level. However, 1t tS pracucally lmposslble to
~:::: :A:serve the excitation of higher levels. As before. a slight retarding poten.
::::::: ";iil..1 is applied between grid 2 and the anode.. and an acceJerating potenlial
,.::::: Jl~l;\Vecn -the catbode and grid 1. sufficienl to overcome space charge effects
~::::: :M~ to provide adequate clcchon current. It is evident that the densiry of the
~:::: )~ic vapor through which the electron beam passes greatfy affects the
~::::::~rved roS.UIK Low densities t'e!;.ult in large electron currents but very
::::::: "~all dips; jll contrast, hjgh density has as It cl.Jn~cquence weaker ~urrents
::::~:: :!,\u,t pIoportionnlly Jnrger dips. Whell mercury vapol" is used. adjustmenl of
::::::: 'Uie.lube temperature provides control of the dens1ty.
Another important point is that in principle the experiment mlL~l be
:,.:..:.: 'performed with a monlltomic gas; si nee if a molecuJar vapor is bombarded,
is possible for the electrons to tIansier energy to the moleculnr energy
::.:::: :t~vc;ls which f onn almost a continuum. Some of the preferred elements for
~::::: .the FlUnk-Hertz experiment are mercury. noon. and argon.
{-:::: :: .. The !:atne apparatus aan be lL..ed for the m~~uTcment of the iol'lizrltion
::.:::: .potcntial-that is, lbe energy required to remove :ao electron completeJy
::'::::.f~m the mom. In this case. iDstead of observing the bombarding cleo~::: :r,ron beam, it is easier to detect the ions that are foooed. The djiitributlCH1
...::::::of potentials is as shown in Fig. 1.5c, where the anode IS made l>lightJy
~::::: 'neg<ltive with respect to the cathode; no electrons can then re!lch the
~:::: :.. noc.lc, which becomes an ion collector. The accelerating potential is
",::>incrcased until a. &harp rise in the ion current measured at the anode is
........... b
....
:.:..0 serve.d
~
~::::: : In both types of measurements the val nes ohtrunoo lor the accelerating
::::::: >.
:::::::3i
...
X::~poteDtial
...
have to be corrected for the conlacr porential difference (Cpu)
::::::: .between cathode and anode. 9 If in the excitatioD experiment the same level
::::;:::has been observed two or more times. however, the potential differenre
:::::::: bel weco adjacent peaks is an exact measure of the excitation energy, since
~::::)he contact poteI1tiul difference shifts the whole voJ1.'\ge scale. Once the
~::::: :excitation energy has been found tho contact potentiul difference is given
~:~:.: by the difference between this troe value Md the first peak: in turn the
~. . . . . . l
....
..~....:.:.:
:.>-'--~.-
"
~:::::'
9BIiefiy lhisj~ becaus~ the "wott fllflctioo" fat the metal of which the: SJlOOC is made is
::::::: . usually hig~t th!Ullhat (If t.h~ ~1I'to<k. Th<: work lmCt.ion.is a measure of the "ionization
,.:.:': .potentillr ufthc: metal. that is, of the CUl~ Deeded to e:ttrl!A:t:m electron from it
...
::::-> :
~."
::!=~:::
....
'.
X: . :
::::~:: :
14
1 ExpiHim9nts 0 n Quantiution
contact potential difference so round can be ust:d to correct the ionization

potenlial measurement.
1.3.2. The Experiment
In this laboratory a lnercury~fillc:d tube made by the Leybold Cowpany
(55580) was used. the electrode configuration is shown in Fig. 1.6. and
thc circuit diagrams for the meaSUlelUent of e~citation and of ioniultion
poteotial are given in Figs. 1.7a and L7b, respectively.
As seen in the cilcoit diagram. grid I i~ operated in Ihe neighborhood
or 1.5 V, and the reta,uiflg potentitil is of the
order. The anode ~ur
9
10- A
rents are on the oroer of

and are nl.e<!sured either with a Keithley
610B electrometer or with a highinput impe>Cinnl!e digital multimetef. f()r
instance. Hewlett-Packard 3440IA; adequate Wielding of the leads is
required to eliminate AC pickup and induced voltages. The diagnun (')f
Fig. 1.7a uses the distributioo of potentials shown in Fig. L5b, and the
accele,atiog vollage can be mea.<;ured with a DMM in steps or 0.1 V.
The Fmnk-Henz tube is placed in a small oven. which is heated by li1U1
voltage through a variac: it should be operated io the vicinity of 200"C for
the excitation curve and between 100 and 150C for the ionization curve.
To measure the temperaruce a ooppe.r-constantan thermocouple should be
FIGURE 1.6 Skt'lCh of a cyiindri(;w Fral1l:-Hcl1.Z tuk
m::::::::
m~~~~<
m::-:.:
~.3
The Frank-Kertz Experiment
1!i
~:::::::::'" .(a}
;."...::.:.:-:-:':' :
f:::::::::::::: .
:B:::::::::::::' ,
::::::::::::
;.:..... ..:: :..
,
'
'
,
~::::::::::~ ~::
........
~.,','.
::=:::::::::::: :
-=~- ----..(-=-
~::::::::::::
~._" ..... ~
+-...,q,~~-.rv--"'"'\I\~-~
;':.' .. , ' "
.....
I','.
;.: ' , ' , ,

~ ""'.
r............ ', .
::==.. " .
11ClV de:
III
::?::::~: :.
::?:
: :::
;.::.:.:.
..........
,'
~./
(h)
Kollhly
r---''P~~----+..;::;4~A:;:.1'"-_-..... 10
ekidrometBr
'
I' .' . , ' .
:z:::::
....... :.
X::::::::
~:.:.> :.
~..-" .. ~, .
I
Z:<~:'
:?::::>
::: ,''. ,
........
~:
.
..:.
::::.:.:
6V
Sloraga
banery
....._!,,'.,..---"N-.--....
1 20W
'--.-... 10K He~po..
~11OVde
_1_0_K_--,r.=-
::::::~flGURE 1.7 Wiring diagram f(lJ" the Frank-Hertz experiment {a) fur observation of
..:.:..:JtitaJion.
and (b) for observation of ionization .
.,
......Z:-:<. .
~:~::Iriserted
.
through the small hole of the futltace. The JUJlction should be

Z::::positioned on the side of the tube ncar the eJectrodes. The other JUTlction is
~:.:. :immersed in a themos of ice and water baLh. The potential developed across
:::::: :Jtie thermocoup]e is measured with a DMJ....I; Fig. 1.8 gives a calibration
;.:.:. :c'ucve for the copn.fr-COflstnntilll
thermocouple
1"'~:::::' The resoiulion and definition of both tbe excitation and ionization curves
:i~ a function of atom density (temperature) and electron beam density (filil,,::::~~ent and grid 1 vo]t."lge) and the e;~perimcnter must find tbe optimt.lm
.......
0:::::
::::::~~lIdili(lns..
However. for l.:l.rgc beam dcn~lies. a discharge OC<:Ol"S. which.
:::::::?bviollSly, sho~ld be avoided.

;:::::::: ,A snggc.'\tcd adjustment procedure is to set grid 2 at 30 V and then
i':::: :~vance grid J until the discharge sels in. as evidenced by the immediate
......
,'
I'
-:' .. , .
......
. :. . . .
;::::::
........ ::
',
X":JI:
16
1 Exp 9rim&nts on (luantintion
I!!
1:2
12
l'
10
11
10
9
c.
T
6
6
1)
3
<?
1
-"20
40
60-'-"'""80
100
120 140 160
100 200
2OW--' 0
Junctiut\ lempefatlJra (0C)

FlGUl~E
1.8
Calibrati(ln of wppert:onstanla 0 thermoc()\)ple using ia: Sf!!od:url.
build-up of the anodecu.rrent. Grid 2 should then be quickly returned to OV

and grid 1 set slightly below th~ discharge voltage; a reasonable filament
voltage is hetween 4 and 6 V. To determine whether the tube is overheated
it can be Laken out of the oven for about 30 s; the con~torcw(ent will then
increase and maxima may appear if such is the case. If the tube is too cool.
the emission cuITCnt
be large, and the maxima., particularly those of
higher order. will be washed ouL
It is pos~ible to use an oscilloscope for a simultaneous display of the
electron or iOD curlleJlt again.st accelerating porentiaL The sweep generafOr
(~awtoO[b) output is fed to the o~elenUiDS grid. white it synchronously
dri yes tbe hOO zonW sweep: the output of the clectroDlelCr is fed to the
vertical input. An excitation curve and an ionization cucvc obtained by a.
student in this fashion are shown in Fig. 1.9. Altentately a ~implc ramp
circuit can be bui It to drive die accelerating grid and the digitized output
of dte electrometer read directly Jnto a computer.
1.3.3. Analysis of tbe Data
Two sets of data obrained by a student for the-excitation potential arc shown.
Q
in flg. 1.10; both clmles were obtained al a temperature of 195 C and with
+ I Y on grid I. The filament voltage W/J..<; 2.5 V fur curve C and 1.85 V for
1.3 The Frank-Herb Experiment
11
18
I ExpeJiments on Quantization
is noticed every time the potential on grid 2 is increased by approximately

5 V. thereby indicating that energy is transfeue- I from the beam in bundles
("quanta") ofS eVonly. Indeed, a prominentlincin the spectrum ofmercmy

exists at 253.7 D m. c()rrtspondiog 10 1237.8/253.7 - 4.86 e V. arising from
Ihe transition of the 6s6p;' P, excited state (0 the 6s6s LSo ground state.
Our interpretation is that the electrons itt the beam excite the mercu..-y atom
from rhe ground state 10 the 1 PJ state. thereby losing 4.86 eV in the process.
The location of the peaks is indicated io Fig. J.1O and wa.~ measured i~
this case with a DMM. The average value oblainoo for the spacing between
peaks is
5.02 O.l V.
to be compared with the accepted ~pectroscopic va1ue fur the energy level
difference (as iurencly mentioned) of 4.86 eV.
Ulling the value found for the spacing between peaks and the locatiOl1
of the tint p~k, we obtajn the contact potential
(6.65 0.15) - (5.02 O.l) = 1.63 0.18 V.

As discussed in Section L.3.1, with the configur.ltion of potentials llsed
(Ag. L5b) it is more probable that the same energy level will be e~citecl
twice tatb"or than that several
levels will be exciled; indeed, this
is the way in which the data in Fig. LIO bave been illterpreted. This is .
not l>urprisinS if ODe considers me excitation probabilities for the energy
levels lying closest to the ground state of mercury. It iR possible, howeorcr,
by llsing different grid and volt.qge configurations (for example. Fig. l.5a)
and improved resolution. to ob.'iervc thee~citations to other levels, n.1.IJl.ely;.
3
6 1'2. fi3 PO. and 6 Pt.

1
For the ionizatioo potential. dCtta obtained by a student arc sbown in

Fig. l.U. A word of cant ion is to be added to the interpretation or such
ionization curves, which seem strongly dependent on filament voltage and
vapor pressure; indeed, the very sharp increase observed in jon curreut is
due to an avalanche (regenerative effect) of the ejected electrons ionizing
more atoms. the thus-ejecled electrons ionizing still more atoms, and so
on. This ava1anche does not neceSSarily occur as soon a~ the iooi:mlion
threshold is crossed. If the vapor is too dense. the ions recombine before
reaching the anode, thus masking the effect until complete breakdown
sets in.
The curve shown was takeo at a temperarnre of 155C wiLh a filament
vollageof2.6 V. If. then. theonsclofion current is taken to be at 11.4O.2 V:
!tW
W:::::::
1.3 The Fr.1nk- Heru Expe riment
:X.:.;. ;."
~~:::
;.:,::z
....... ....
...... . .. .
'W
......:-:.;.
I...
. . ..... .-<
,.....,...:... . .
,~.--
' .'
I ~..... . . . .
.... .. . .. ..
,,""'l.....
/I
':-:.:-:-:....
::.
'......... .. ', .
1:
:.:-:
... :.-: .-: .. . ;;e
..:. . .... ~:.>
.
0
.. .r . . .
'.r...
'....... ' . ..
51
I;
fi
4
'..%...,..
'~,,""'. ' ,
::--;::/ .'.
I ...... .
,:---",~,:- > ,
.. ...
. .r....
. .. . .
/
,......
,,........' .... .
,\-==~='--:::--_-.J.
(I
!j
10
15
'
,:-...
:.
:.:.
'
,
G\GzAoc&lereUt'lgM
........ . .
'X'-' '.... .
::::::: ~'J.~~ I.Il l!Jn(lI~n' ~m~ :1(,:o,:II:'l1.li oo;: .'Oltagein the FruIk-Hcro:u:pcri mClll.llI~
. . . ... ..
......
......
. . . . ....
I....;..:. ~~ QI
....."',.
.....
.
.......
, ' ..
8 V 15 due 10 the photoelectric effect
~~:: ~~d usi~s: ~he v:J.lue (or Ihe conlrnct POle~ti.1.1 p~viQtlsJy d.ete~n~ (from
.-:::the.c.'tCltalJUll
curve). 1.63 0.18 V. the lo nl~lUn poteoh ...1IS obtalOed as
,
..
:......
........:.:.;.:.
......
. ..
......
,0/..... ,'. ,'.

..... .........
( 11.4 0.2) - ( 1.63 O. IS) = 9.77 0.25 eV
;:::;::.~!uy in fail apeement with the nccepled vllue of 10.39 eV.

:::.-::::: : ;~ additional [elture of the curve Fig. 1.11 is a "knee"
in the ion cur-
:::::::r.~~lt. setting in :uapproJl:imau::ly 8 V: the obsctV:l.tionoflhis "knee"
as weu
'~-:' 5S.$trongly dcpcnoonl on the U'lmpcr:ll.JJfC 3nd Curronl densily. b\.ll can be
~:: ~cin sisll~:m.ly reprodUO!!d over a consjderabte range of these paramcll::ro. In
~::.o/der to understand thls behavior we remember lh:tt the arrival of ions 0'11
~:: 'qieanode is equivalent to the depatture of electrons; indeed, the ob.~erved
~::~havior is d ue 10 a photoelectri<: effect produced
at tbe 11llode, by short-
~::~;t\lelength liCht quanta (tbe e lutrons are furthf'.r ilccelernred by grid 2).
~~::~hen Ihe electIon beam rC:3ches 8 V. it can excite the 6 t PI leve l (lying at
~;::~:7
:::
eV above the groum.l statc. plus 1.63 v fur contact po1ential difference),
~~ the mercury a1Om~ radiale the ultra\o10kl liuc llt 184.9 nm when returning
,::::::J~ . the ground stale. 'nlese quanta an:=; "ery efficient in ejecting pbolueie.<;:X:: .~& from the anode, and the cylindrical geomeuy of the anode is most
:x;: ~\'ombl c
:::.-:~:. :-
~f:: ::
::::: . . .
,:--~:.;. ;.
:............:-:.
rOT
this process.
20
1.4. THE HYDROGEN SPECTRUM
The hydrogen atom is the simplest quantum-mechanical system. It consists

of an electron bound, due to the Coulomb force, to a proton. It is characteristic of bound quantum-mechanical systems that their total energy cannot
have any value, but that the system is found in one of a discrete set of
energy levels, or states. Transitions of the system between these states may
occur~ Such transitions must satisfy the basic conservation laws of electric
charge, energy, momentum, angular momenrum, and the other relevant
symmetries of nature~
Transition from a higher energy state to a state with less energy can occur
for an isolated system, and the larger the probability for this transition, ,
the shorter the "lifetime~' of that excited state9 During such spontaneous ,-,'
transitions of a quantum-nlechanical system to a lower energy state, a '
quantum of radiation, or one or more particles, can be emitted, which will
carry away the energy lost by the system (after recoil effects have been taken
into account)~ In the presence of a radiation field the quantum-mechanical
system can either gain energy from the field and change into a state with
higher energy, or lose energy to the field and revert to a lower energy state.
For all quantum-mechanical systems there exists a lowest energy state,
called the g round state.
By observing the quanta of radiation, or the particles emitted during
such transitions, we gain itlfoIlnation on the energy levels involved. The
typical example is optical spectroscopy, which consists of the accurate
determination of the energy of the light quanta emitted by atoms. Infrared
spectroscopy deals mainly with the quanta emitted by molecules, nuclear
spectroscopy with the quanta emitted in nuclear transitions, and so on. In
nuclei, however, the separation between energy levels is much larger't so
that the emitted quanta of electromagnetic radiation lie in the ganuna ray
region; thus different techniques are employed for detection and measurement of their energy~ It is also very common for nuclei to decay from one
energy state to another by the emission of an electron and neutrino (beta
decay) and for certain heavier nuclei by the emission of a helium nucleus
(alpha particle). Similar processes take place in the interactions or decay
of the elementary particles.
The idea of energy levels and their structure for the hydrogen atom was
first introduced by Niels Bom in 1913. However, a complete theoretical
interpretation had to wait until the introduction of the Schrodinger equation
in 1926. Even then~ for theory to agree with observation it is necessary to
,
1.4 The Hydrogen Spectrum
21
~~:~~~~s;a:~dditiOnal small effects such as the fine and hyperfioe strucrure.

.~
motion. and other higher order corrections. These corrections
derived using the theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED) so that
iodlayw"ean theorelically calculate the energy leve ls of the hydrogen atom
che amazing accuracy of I part in lOll.
We will use the Bohr thcory to predict the hydrogen energy levels.
!>e,;ause it is so simple. even though it assigns the incolTcct angular momen
the states . The posrulates of the Bohr theory are (a) chat t1'te electron is
in a circular orbit around the nucleus such that the angular mornen
is quantized in integral units of Planck's constant (divided by 2Jt');
; ~.an:leIJI. pr = mvr = n(h/21t} = nli; and (b) that the e lectron in this orbit
not radiate energy, unless a transition to a different orbit occurs. We
then calculate the radi i of these orbits and the total energy of the system,
~::;~~~P~;IUS k.inetic energy of the electro n. The attractive force between
~,1
(charge - e) and the proton (charge+c)or a nueiell.'1 (of charge
is the Coul omb force, which is set equal [0 the centripetal force.
total mechanical energy of the electron is
E=T+V
1
Ze 2
- mil - - - - - .
2
41l' to r
(1.7)
m, v. and -e are the e lectron's mass. vel{)(,;ity. and electric charge.

is the charge 0 0 the nucleus, and r is lhe "orbital radius" of the
t~~,~~~. HI T he potential energy. of course, is just the attractive Coulomb

}:
octween the e lectron and the nucleus. We can relate the velocity
= rna, where F is the Cou lomb force
is the centripetal acce leration . That is
.. ,to the other variables by using F

tI
Ze2
v2
- - - - m-
47l"to r2
r'
implies that
I
Ze
=----m 41t EO r
ItlWe ~ume that the nucleus is infin itely heavy.
(1.8)
..
, .
,.
, " ..
,.
,.
,.
, .
., .,.
,
,,.
"-'1
',
,A
,A
,A
22
"
,A
,A
,A
"'~
"
:::A~
...
.
If we introduce this result into Eq. (1.7) we obtain
E=
1 .Ze _
241t8o r
1 Ze =
-.::.!
1 zil =
24Jr8Q r
4iT80
,"
,"
,
,
-~ IVI.
2
(1.9)
At this point we can impose the Bohr quantization condition
Ii
r .-::.. n ...
mv
(1~10)
m,
to eliminate v in Eq. (1.8). Here n is the principal quantum number. We

obtain
_
m 2r2
---
nO'
_ _ __
II'
m 4JrBQ r
or
1
m
1
2
- = 2 2 "" ""'" Ze
r
n /i 41f 80
(1.11)
Inserting this result in Eq. (1.9) we find for the total energy
En
=-
2
4
mZ e
1
2(4Jl" eo)2h2 n 2 '
(1.12)
For the hydrogen atom where Z = 1, the expression in brackets in

Eq. (1.12) equals 13.6 e V. This is the energy required to take an electron
in the ground state (n = 1) and separate it from the nucleus completely
(E = 0). We refer to it as the binding energy of the hydrogen atom. It is
customary to introduce the Rydberg constant (wave number) through
En = -heRoo
1
n
2't
(1.13)
where
Roo =
1
109737314534 m-
:.
.
.
.':.
.,~
..
,.

..
.
.':::,.
..
and thus
El = -13.6057 eV.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, A
,
,
, ~.
, ~.
,~.
, ~.
,
,
,,
,
,
,
,"
,
Fwthennore, from Eq. (1.11) we can write for the radius of the orbits in
hydrogen
','.~~'-;"
, , ,~,
.ol~ol
,
, ,,
, ,
,
,,
,
,,
,.
,
,
,
. ,,
,
, "
,
,
,
-,
,
,
,
' .4 The Hyd r ollen Spectrum
23
f----------0-3
~\~(:
r---------------- 0 - 2
0.,:
%:
~:~::
I',
l iCe
-13.6 eV"----------------- 0-1
~}::~.GURE J .12
,~:.:.:.
Boergy-level diagram of the hydrogen alom iJCcording 10 the simple Bohr
theory
~$::'
~x;;::: with
I:
a", =
~ 4:;0 = 0529 1772
x 10- 10 m,
t\\\?fatlcd we Bohr radius.

:):::.:. The energy levels of the hydrogen atom that we deri ved can be rep~;" :.reseDtcd by Fig. 1.12. However. the lines observed in the spectrum
@;>correspondlOtransitions between these levels; this is shoWD in Fig. 1.13.
~~:: ; ~bere arrows have been drawn for aU possible lraositioos. The energy of
~::: ::a line is given by
:.~;.
~f\
~::::.::
,...... ..
, ...
V:
~.:-:-.
llEU = hcRoo
~: ::, :,
~:.;
(~-~),
nI
";
(1.14)
:_ where the subscript~ j and f stand for initial and final stme. respectively.
Since the frequency of the radiation is connected to the energy of each
%-:
~:::'
Bfquanrum through
~lr_.:
E = hl1
t\!)i:te finds that
I
m:::
v...x:
r,:{:
24
1 Exp e rim e nts on
au a ntizati 0 n .
....
I
t t Y Pa
,...
I
E
(.")
..... tt Bet
U)
0
~
)(
- La
r-....
CD
0
....
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,,
1:./1
<,
;0
t, "yti" ,
, ,
,
,
,
,
FIGURE 1.13 Transitions between the energy levels of a hydrogen atom. The lines La.,
Lf3, etc. belong to the Lyman series~ Bey;, Bp, etc" to the Balmer series, and Pat P~, etc.,
, ,
to the Paschen series, and so forth.
,
,
,
and
,,
, ,,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
1
-
:::::.!
Roo
Ai!
1
2
n
1
n~
I
..
,
,
,
,
,
,,
,,
,
,
(1.15)
f
Indeed~ the simple expression ofEq. (1.15) is verified by experiment to a
,
,
,
,
",
,
,
high degree of accuracy.

From Eq. (1.14) (or from Fig. 1.13) we note that the spectral lines of
hydrogen will form groups depending on the final state of the transition, and
that within these groups many common regularities will exist; for example,
in the notation of Fig. 1.13
v(Lp) - veLa) = v(Ba).
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Ifn! = 1, then
,
Ail
= 91.1
n?1
----"""
nf~ -1
nm
n'l -> 2
and all lines fall in the far ultraviolet; they form the (so-called) Lyman
series. Correspondingly if n f = 2, then
Ai2
= 364.4
n'J.I
. 2
nro
n.l -4
,
,
1.5 Expe riment
01'1
th e Hvd ro gen ,S pectrum
25
all lines faU in the visible part of the spectrum. forming the Balmer
}'nos. Forn I = 3 lheseries is named after Paschen and falls in tbe infrared.
1.5. EXPERIMENT ON TIIE HYDROGEN SPECTRUM
measure the frequen cy of the radiation emitted by atoms one can use
a grating or a prism 00 di sperse !.he different wavelengths. When
a prism. one exploits the variation. wi th wavelength, of the refracti ve
of certain media. Prism spectrometers are limited to wavelength
for which they are able to transmit tbe radiation; for example.
the infrared, special fluoride or sodium chJoridc prisms and lenses are
In the ultraviolet. the opucaJ elements are made of quartz. Also, the
Sen.siti,i" y of the detectors varies with wavelength. so thal different types
used in each case (lhemlOpile, photographic emulsion, photorube, etc.).
In this laboratory a small constant-deviation prism spectrograph and a
. reRection gra1i.ng spectrometer were used. We will consider in detail a
lm""",ement of the hydrogen spectrum with the grating, since an absolute
for the wavelengths can be obtained and visual detection is used. A
discussion of prism spectrographs is given in Section 1.5.4.
From Fig. 1.14, it is evident that the path difference between rays 1 and
+dter reftocti,," IS
BD - AC = CB sin Or - CB sinBi .
C B is the grating spacing d. The angles 6j and (Jr are bolh taken as
~:~:~:.~w;;h~:e~:n::th~ey lie on opposi te sides oflhe normal. Since for collstruc
the path difference must be a multiple of the wavelength,

: we obtain the condition
n).
It can be shown
ll
= d (sin 9r - sin Bi).
(1.1 6)
that the resolution of ~h e gratiog is given by

-
).
t>).
= nN,
is the order of dirfraclion and N the total number of rulings. The

.
apply to a transmission gratiog.
11 See Chaplcr S. Scction 5.5.
26
Experiments on
Ouantizatlc~n
.-
FIGURE 1.14 Schematic diagram of a reflection grating. A parallel beam of radiation is

incident along the rays 1 through 4 at an angle (:iii, with respect to the normal; the refiected
radiation is observed at an angle Or. The spacing between the grooves of the grating is d.
Grating
Focusing lens
Source
Collimator lens
~::::11~-::::::::;
Slit
FIGURE 1.15
Telescope position 2
Diagrammatic arrangement of a grating spectrometer.
The grating is mounted on a goniometer table in the general arrangement

shown in Fig. 1.15. A slit and collimating lens are used to fonrl a beam of
parallel light from the source, and a telescope mounted on a rotating ann
is used for viewing the diffracted lines. It is obviously necessary to ensure
1.5 Experiment on the Hydrogen Spectrum
27
:[I41""""""'" of the incident and reflected beams, nonnality of the grating.
so on. A suggested alignment procedure is as follows:

(a) The viewing telescope is focused for parallel rays (on some distant
(b) Then with the grating removed, the slit is viewed with the telescope
position 2) to ascertain that the slit is aligned and in focus; in this way
collimator lens is adjusted.
'"
(c) The source and source lens are placed in position and the alignand focusing are again checked The cross hairs are aligned with the
. :. (d) This position of the telescope is carefuUy noted since it represents

0 position. The readings on the scale should be made to one minute of
by using the vernier and a flashlight.
(e) From now on one may have to work in dark, or by draping the
with a black cloth.
(f) The grating is placed in position and aligned for normal incidence
= 0). This can be done by "autocollimation"; a strong light is focused
the slit and a cardboard mask with a narrow slit is placed on the
:1oiL.:JJWU.J ....Jl lens. The grating is then adjusted until the reflected image of the
....... ~.v~~ slit coincides with the slit itself.
Finally, the lines of the grating should be made parallel to the slit
the cross hairs); this can be done by viewing one edge of the grating
the telescope in position 1.
With any reasonable grating it is possible to observe the visible lines of
spectrum in several orders; thus we expect the measurements for Aid
be self-consistent, since
.
sm8m +l - sin 8m
(m
+ 1) d -
d= d
(1.17)
ma.ep~mOeml} of angle of incidence ei, or order. 12 The grating spacing

is usually stated by the manufacturer; for example, the grating in tills
I <Ih ...... o.t ......... , had rulings on the order of 7000 to the inch (d = 3.629 x
0- 6 m). However, d can be obtained by using one or more standard lines
known wavelength.
12Provided that both 8m and Bm+1 are taken on the same side of the nonnaJ.
28
1 Experiments an Quantization
The following data were obtained by a student using the grating spectrometer. The source was a low-pressure hydrogen discharge tube (Cenco
type 87210) operated at a few thousand volts; a 5-kV transformer and variac
were used to provide the variable voltage. The useful life of these discharge
tubes is limited because of the appearance of strong molecular bands after
some hours of operation.
1. 5.2. Deterl11ination of d
To obtain the grating spacing d, s-odium (Na) was used as a standard, and
measurement on three lines (for the shorter wavelength of the doublet) gave
the results shown in Table 1.2. Since for all the above measurements Oi is
the same, it follows that
-.
"
..
I. J,i
~ J,i
~ J,i
I
I
..,....
, 1i,J
!
,
!
,,
!
"
, "
"
..
,.,..
.....,.
.....
,...
.,
,
. ,
,,
..
,. 4
,
, ,
+a
..
01
and a least-squares fit to the linear relation fJx
, .
= y can be made; we
, ,' .. ".;i,
,
,
,
,
have
...
,.01
.......
,,..
, ..
,
,,
........
.,.
.."'
..."'
..."'
...
...
...."'
....
.....
.
~
........
N L:(nkAk sin Ok) - L(sin Ok) L(nkAk)
--
"
",i
i:=.,
, ",
,
, ", ~
,,
,
,,
,,
,
"
,,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,"
,
,
"
, ~
,"
,
, " Jl
, ~
,"
, ~
,
,"
,
,"
,
, ,
, ,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,
, ,
,
,
"
, ,
, ,
(1.18)
N E(nk Ak)2 - [E(nk Ak)]2
TABLE 1.2
.....
...
...
Diffraction Angles from a Sodium Source
'*
Ii
615.43
en
Ordern
linnm
..
.
..
"
0i = 19 12'
2942'
4127'
2
3
5558'
,"
"
,
,
,
1
2
589.00
2914'
4021'
...
..
,
,
!
,,
53 49'
7515'
=,
',*:
ii'
lite:
390 32'
5212'
7048'
ii'
,:
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,,
,
..
!
!
568.27
..
...
..
.
.
.
,
!
,
,
,
,
,
,
!
,
!
,
!
,
,
,
!
,
!
,
,
1.5 Exp!niment on the Hydrogen Spectrum
29
where the sums are over k, k = 1, 2, ... , N and N is the total number of
measurements. From the data of Table 1.2 we obtain l3
~ = 2.708.5 0.009 x
105 m- I
(1.19)
in good agreement with the manufacturer's specification.

Some care must be exercised when comparing wavelengths, since they
do depend on the refractive index, n, of the medium in which they are
measured,
I
c(vacuum)
c =----
hence
I
l(vacuum)
The wavelengths listed in most tables are given for dry air at a pressure
of 760 rum mercury. However, any theoretical calculation, such as in
Eq. (1.15) predicts the vacuum wavelengths. The refractive index of air
at stp is
n(air) = 1.00029.
(1.20)
1.5.3. The BaJmer Series

Measurements on the first four members of the Balmer series, which lie
jn the visible region, can be made with the spectrometer described above.
The data obtained by a student and their reduction are given in Table 1.3.
We observe that the obtained values for the wavelengths of the Balmer
series are in agreement with the accepted values at the level of 111000. We
can now test Eq. (1.15) and obtain the Ryd berg wave number. We note that
......
,.....
~1 =
RH
[~-~]
.
4 n2
So that from a least-squares fit

"
RH=~'
LAiPi
13 In reaching this result we have constrained 8j = 190 12'.
,
,
, ",
, ",
,
,
,
,"
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,"
,"
,"
,"
,
,"
,
,
,
,"
,
, ,
,
30
TABLE 1.3 Data on the Balmer Series of Hydrogen as Obtained with a Grating
Spectrometer
.l;
'II
tit ,
II
Ii
Color
,
Iii ;
'.
If;
Violet
Blue
Green
3312'
0
41 15'
0.22199
0.33378
2
3
2616'
3406'
4242'
0.11698
0.23483
0.35259
27 10'
3604'
4609'
0
Red
3011'
4257'
5929'
us
II
410.75 6
"
",
OJ
'Ii
41n.l7 Hs
433.82 8
434.05 Hy
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
, "
",
"
,"
,,
,,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, , ,
, , ,"
, "
..
..
.
..
485.75 10
486.13 Hp
'"
., "
1
2
3
ii i
II
0.13001
0.26316
0.39559
0.17720
0.35579
0.53532
Ii
Balmer series
identification
)..
au
'Ii
liS
.. Accepted
Calculated
A
Order
u,
21
656.28 Ha
657.94 14
' ,
"
Ii
fa
51
,
,
n 1 -- 3, .
lid
,
, ,
,
,
,
'I
Note. All wavelengths are in nm. These measurements used d = 3692.1 30 nm as detenn..ined
by the previous measurements on the sodium standard lines, and sin 6i = 0.32557.
where
Pi =
4nf
l
2 "
n1 -
4"'
gtvlng
RH
= (1.09601 0.003) x 10 m-
in good agreenlent with the accepted
RH =
Jd
14
value
'll
M+m
Roo = .1.096776 x 10 m
-1
.
",
Here M is the mass of the proton and m the mass of the electron.
1.5.4. The Prism Spectrograph
",
,
,
,
,
,
,
"
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Long before gratings becanle widely available.. prisms were used as the
dispersive element in spectrographs. Prism spectrographs are handy for
viewing a large span of the spectnlm and come in various ingenious optical
t.,..
,
,
,
,
,
14The difference between RH and Roc is due to the motion of the electron about the' ,.':
center of mass rather than about the proton.
..
IT
W"
1.5 Experiment on the Hydrogen Spectrum
31
~.'..,.
@f
~.
~>
~r
llit '
liiF
it:
w;
Mi:
110"
0::(
",.,.
~', ...
~W
AGURE 1.16
~(.-.
index ; thus it cannot be used fOT absolute measurements without careful
'
Diffraction of 11 ray III minimLim deviation throog.b II prism of apex Ingle A.
mY
~E:: arrangements. The dispersion of a prism is a function of the refractive
~>. calibration.
l'?(~,:-:
~n,
In the case of a simple prism at minimum deviation (see Fig. 1.16) the
~f~~:::,: ~~raction angle (J is given by
1\\\:.,:.
m ::;:::: :
w.{~:::,,:::
~':;{::,:::'
W::':-:"::'"
sin 9j
-.-
sm Or
= n
2J)r
= A
~t><thus
?:::::;::'
;::~;::.:
~
~:>:
Ii.
~~::;:-: -
~}:{::
rp:
(1.2 1)
where 8; and Or are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.

and A is the apex of the prism. In Fig. 1. 17 the refractive index of flint
glass as a functioo of wavelength is given. We note thai in the delcnnioation of wavelength from the diffraction angle the relation is by no means
linear and is in general of serious complexity. Further. most modem prism
spectrographs do nOt consist of a single dispersive clemen[, but of some
combinalion of prisms. The instrument used in this laboratory was of the
J:~:} "constant-deviarion" type. and Fig. 1.18 gives the optical paths for an inci~~}: "dent ray. It may be seen lhallhe angle of incidence and the aogle of ex it can
~f{: rema in fixed for all wavelengths by an appropriate rotation of the prism:
lIt:::
this
%::::::..
bas obvious advantages for positioning and alib'Tlment of source and

@.:::::: detector.
The rotation of the prism is calibrated to give rough wavelength indibut measurements are made on the exposed photographic plate
W<.:
Wtrcations.
~{::::.'
e::~':':.
l{;;;;:
111""
~J...
~;.:
32
1 Experiments
on Quantization
2.2
2.0
Flint g~ass
.'
Crown glass
1.4
2000
FIGURE 1.17
4000
6000
Wavelength (A)
,
,
,
,
,
Refractive index of various materials as a function of wavelength.
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
FIGURE 1.18 A constant-deviation prism and the diffraction of a ray passing through it.
or film. A known spectrum is superimposed on the spectrum that is to be

investigated, and an interpolation between the known lines is used.
The general arrangement of the spectrograph is shown in Fig. 1.19.
Source, lens, and slit should be aligned and the SOl:lrce focused on the slit.
By viewing through the eyepiece and varying the prism position, one can
get a feeling for the dispersion and the range of the instrument. To obtain
photographs of a spectrum, the telescope is replaced by the camera assembly. Several exposures can be had on the same plate; to distinguish different
spectra superimposed at the same location on the plate, the "fishtail," which
controls the length of the slit~ can be used.
.,
1.6 The Spectra of Sod ium and Mercury
"- - I I
rvcUS ng ons
33
Cofl9!aflt-devlallon prism
----j-------
so~r-;-- --&------
Slit
,,,.
,
Camara lens:--"T
Bellows i
:
Plate holder
c
E ,
FIGURE 1.19
1 i
J
,,I I 0
B,F
Schemalic arrangemenl of tlle corulant-<ieviatioo spectrograph.
,
I
I
"
~
,
d
i .z:;;::::..":!"~"'!:::,.":': : :; .: :~'
FIGURE 1.20 A spocuugnun of the fiffi four lines of the Balmer series of hydrogen
oblained with the tonslaIlt-dc";ation $pCClI'Ograpb.
IL'i
rt: sure containing hydrogen. sodium, and mercury lines is shown in Fig. 1.25.
"
b~(
~*~
1.6. THE SPECTRA OF SODIUM AND MERCURY
r@}
rf{
?A::::. l.6.1. General

*~;}: Mention
has been made in the previous section of the spectrum of sodium
ffH:(Na) and mercury (Hg); a brief analysis will be given here, since both
Ii
.....
.
.......
, ,
, ,~
, ,~
,
, ,
, ~
, ,~
....
, .....J
1 EXperiments on Ouantization
34
, ,
, ,.....J
".
..
..
....
.....
. ..
.~,
, ~ ,
,
, ,
,
, .... 11.1
, ,
,
, ,
~
elen1ents have been investigated in detail and are repre-sentative of the oneelectron spectrum (Na) and two-electron spectrum (Hg) correspondingly.
Sodium has 11 electrons, so that the n = 1 and n = 2 shells are completely filled and one electron (n = 3) is found outside closed shells. In
this respect the sodium spectrum sh,?uld be equivalent to that of hydrogen
except for the central charge that the free electron sees. Indeed, since the
nucleus with Z = 11 is "screened" by 10 negative charges (the n = 1
and n = 2 electrons) the free electron sees a potential -elr when far
from the nucleus and a potential (-Ze)jr + C when close to it, where C
is the potential generated at the nucleus by tile other electrons. However,
whereas in hydrogen only one energy level was found for each value of
n, a more complex situatioll arises in sodium, with severa11evels corresponding to the same n. This splitting is to be atttibuted to the fact that the
time-independent Schrodinger equation for the hydrogen-like atom,
,
'
.
, ... "'1
.''/
, ,. .
'
',/
.

....
,..

, ..
,
...
,...
,...
,..
~
~
,,
~
~
~
~
.....
~
,
,
, ......1
,
,
.~,
...
".
'"
, ..
, ...
, ..
,...
, ..
, ...
.
.~.
~.
ifill
..
,.
..........,
.....
," .1Ii",
,
, ..
iii
, ..
oj
01 ..
,
,
,
,
....
..........
.......
,
,
, ,
,001 ..
........
...........
.......
,
,
, ,,
,
,
,
, .. II
,
,
,
,
,
..-""
. . ...
...
,' ..
, .....1
, 'J{",
,- .. :;.:
"
,"
,"
,....
, ......II
, .. i'll,,,,
..........""'"
,
',
",
".~
, , .... rI.",
.-",
...,
, ," .. -.i
,"
.......
....."
...
..... ..
......
...
..
.......
....
,
,
, , ' .....If
2m
V 1/1 + 1i2 (E -- V)t/I
2
, ,.... 'III'"
, , ' ....,f
,,
,
, ,,
, ,
,
, ,
,
, ,
= 0,
admits solutions with a principal quantum number n, and angular momentum quantum number I, sucb' that n.. 2:: .[.,+ -'1; when the potential that the
electron sees is exactly of the 'Coulomb type as in the case of hydrogen~
where V
2
(-Ze )/r
En =-
II
iii
.............
...
, iii ..
, II.
,
,
'
,
,.. iI;.t'
,
,
, ,'
...
....
.. -.
......
..
, ,' .....i
,
,
,
,
,
. .
.........
....
......
....
..
~
~
,
, ' ....J
, ,,
,,
, ~
, ~
, ~
, ~
, ~
, ~
, ~
, ~
, A
,
,
,
,
the energy eigeri~alues

4
2
mZ e
III iii
(1.22)
Ii
....
....
.....
....
, ' .. lllIIIIi
, .... "1IIIIi
, ,
,
'"
are independent 15 of 1, and agree with the Bohr theory. However!l the
screened potential that the free electron sees is no longer of the simple
Coulomb type~ and the energy of the level depends on both n and l. Orbits
with smaller values of l are expected to come closer to the nucleus and
...
..
, .
, '
....
,.
,.
,.
,.
,.
,.
, .
,.
,.
,.
,.
, .
,,.
, , .
,.
,,.
,.
,, ..
.,
, ,..
,.
,..
,..
,..
, ,..
,
,.
,..
, ..
, .
, .
,..
.
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
thus be bound with greater strength; as a consequence their energy will be
~
~
~
lower (more negative)"
The energy level diagram of sodium is shown in Fig. 1.21, where the
levels have been grouped according to their I value. The customary notation
is used, namely, 1 = 0 -+ S state, 1 = 1 )- P state, 1 2 ,,> D state,
1 = 3 _.) F state, and so on, alphabetically. The last colunm in Fig. 1.21
gives the position of the levels of a hydrogen-like atom.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,.
,
,
,
,
,
....
....
...
......
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
15This is the so-called Coulomb degeneracy: a peculiar coincidence for the Coulomb
potential when used in the Schrodinger equation.
..
~
,
,
,
,
...,
,,
,
,
.,
.,.
,.
,.
,.
..
,
,
,
,
,, ,
,
...
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,
,
..
..
.
.
,:::
1.6
1=0
'=1
'=2
1=3
0
Th' Spectra
of Sodium
Mercury
"
SSlale
Pstate
Dstate
Fstate
.,-- .,-- .-,-.= .-,- .-.-,'s
,,'
'p
'D
'F
..
10
."
'e
.-
.-
!.!.:.l
,-
'-'-'
.!!..!.!
30
o
AGURE 1.21 The energy-level dia.gram of sodium, grouped according 10 Ihe orbital
angular momentum, The lasl column give.~ !.he corresponding position of the levels of
bydrogen. The le ftnand scale i.~ in lOS m- I , referred to 0 for the singly ionized sodium
alom: !.he rigbl-band scale is in eleclIOll volls refelTCd to 0 at the ground sUIte of the sodium
a Lam.
We note that the higber ,the vaJue of 1. the smaller the departures from
the hydrogen-like levels (as suggested q uaJitalively previously). and that
for given I the energy levels for different n 'S follow the same ordering as
the hydrogen-like atom, but with an effective cbarge Z* , which for soclium
is as follows: S states Z" '" 11/9.6; P states Z '" 11/10. 1; D states
Z ..... I; F states Z" '" 1.
1.6.2. SelectioD Rules

The spectral lines iliat we observe are due to transitions from one energy
state 10 a lower one; however, in analyzing the spectrum of sodium, il
, , 'A
, A
, ,
,
, ~ .J
........
........
....
..
,,
,,
,
,
36
, A
, A
,
,
,
,
, 'A
,
, A
, A
,
,, A
,
, A
,
,,
becomes immediately evident that not all possible transitions occur. Thus
certain "selection rules'" for atomic transitions must be operative, and it is
found that for all spectral lines 16
....
....
....
....
......
........
,A
A
, ,,A
,,
,
,
,
,
....
..
.
.
........
......
......
,'A,
, "J
"' ,
, J.
, ,
, A
,,/
"A
.til = 1.
, .... W",
,,,
,
,
(1.23)
615.43-616. 07 nm
(e) Green
568.27-568.82
514.91-515.36
497.86-498.29
474.. 80-475.19
466.49-466.86
449.43 449.77
(d)
(e)
(f) Blue
(g)
(h) Blue-Violet
589.00-589.59
(a) Red
(b) Yellow
A
A
This selection rule is readily explained by the quantum-mechanical theory

of radiation; it then means that only "electric dipole" transitions occur.
Indeed, the transition probability for electric dipole is larger by a factor of
(c / v)2 (c, velocity of light) from the next order, while under no conditions
do transitions occur in which the angular momentum does not change at all
(~l = 0). By applying the selection rule ofEq. (1.23) to the energy-level
diagram of Fig. 1.21., we obtain Fig. 1.22, which gives the principal lines
of the sodium spectrwn; since l must change by one unit,. transitions will
always occur between adjacent columns and never within the same one.
Figure 1.23 is a reproduction of the visible part of the above spectrum
obtained by a student with the constant-deviation spectrograph. Beginning
from the top (long wavelengths) we recognize the following lines (where
the wavelength is given in nanometers)
,,
,
, A
, A
,, "
,
.....
:.:......
..., ,"
..
. .....
..
......
......... ....
...,r
' ......
.).
,
,
"
,..'
.... iii
,,
,
,
,,
,
,
,
,
'
,
,
,
,,,
,
,
.. III
...........
..
.....
~
'''.~
,"
,'
.:;..:
, ," .oil-:
, ,"."".,J
, .Jl"",
,
.....
, ,".Ii-:
',:.:::
'''.~
...... ...-.
....
, .. i'"'""
, .~
""Ii ..
,
,
,
,
,
,:.,:..:
, .::.a:
, ,".. .rl
,
....
,o
, " ,;A
....
......... ..
...
....
......
J'.
, '.1',
', ""
, , .. .1""
,
,
,
, '''.~
',"ii.~
, ..
,
,
,
01
, .. Jl ... .
,,
.. .
, .. .II... .
'''.~
,'. ~
...
.
,".:;.:
..
.......'..-,.
.....
.....
.
, , , '.:;..\
, AJ
, .. "'"i'"',
,'
"
..... '4
, .,oJ
,
',"
, ...:..oJ
,
,
,
, .. li".J
(famous Na D lines)
,
,,
,
, A.I
, '.1
, A
, '.1
, A
,
,,,
,
....
........
........
.......
...............
.....
..........
..................
.......
......
~.AI
,,
,,,
,,
,
,,
..
, , OIl
,,
,,
, ,,
,,
,,
', ~
,,
,
, A
, A
' A.t'
,
, A
, A
,
, , A
,
, A
' A.t'
, A
,
, ,A
, "..
......
.........
........
...
......-..
1.6.3. Fine Structure
The data in Table 1.4 on the red, yellow. and green lines of sodium, viewed
:~:~......
with the grating, were obtained by a student simultaneously with the data ,,:~~~~
..
used for the detennination of the grating spacing d of Eq. (1.19). In the ,}~.
above data two wavelengths were given for each sodium line. Indeed, by'):;...
viewing through the constant deviation or the grating spectrometer it is ' :):..
easy to resolve into a doublet each of the lines that appear in Fig. 1.23; the '):...
spacing is on the order of several tenths of a nanometer.
'::~:~.
,"
, ,
----"",
16Exceptions (such as quadrupole transitions) are found in steller spectra
........
.....
, ,,
,
,,
'."'
,,
)~
...
.........
.........
.,...
........
.......
.
, oM
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
',.
1. 6 The Spectra of Sodium Bnd Me r c{Jry
37
7
6
5
10
30
40
n =3
FIGURE 1.22 The "allowcd transitions between the energy levels of sodium. The lVaveleogths in nngstroms (10 A = I run) of some of the principal lines are indicaled. NOli: thai
the P stales bave now been shown in two coltlJlll1s, ant: referred 10 as PZ(l1he othe r as
M
Pl/2; fbe smaU differenc.e between their energy levels is the ~fine strucrure."
.......
...
"
, ,.., ", .-.I
-
, ..
,
,
,
,
~.1
~.1
,~
38
1 Ex per i men ts
.-.....
..--,
...
...,
,
,,
,
Uu ant i za t ion
0n
,~."~
,
,
,
,
, ....J/l,J
~
, , .....J/l,J
616.1~
-.....
, ~.J/l.J
, .... .J/l~
-.
,.-
," ~
,, ~'.1

"
," ~
," '.1
=-
615.4"
....-.
...
.-.-..
,.~
...
WI. ..
, '.t~
,"
589.6'-
, ~
, ,
,,
" ....J
, A
...,
...;:..:
...
...
.
...
,
, ...
,
,...
,.-"JA
...
, ,....
, ...
, . .
, '.I'
,'.;...~
, . "",
~
589.0
, ......J
,,
, , . WI. .J
568.8
,
,
,
.~,
. . . . )Ii
.....
~
,.~
56B.3
.. .
.....
,
,
,
,
I : ' ;
.......
'.*01"
,
,,,
,
', ..... '"
, ... I
514.9
"~
, ... I
, .".1
' , , .".1
, , .".1
,,
I.
",.I
,,
498.3
...'''./
,,
./
.......
'
,,
,
,
,...,JA
, ,...;,t
,
497.9
.......
.........., ,.....
....
.......,.::-:...,
,
,
,
,
, , '/L
",.
,, ,.oJ'
475.2
. ' ..JI",
' "'AjJ,
' .o .. EJ
' . ~..j'.
' .o J
474.8
...
::.-:
' ,:::J.
,~ .... oofj
'.'.:.:
',X
:.:,~
,
466.9
'JI".
,'",
J'
, ;,;'
....
.'
, ,...;t'
,...;t'
, .. ,AjJ,J'l
,
466.5
449.8
,'
'
...
..}
, , "j
, ''"....
....::1
.}
......
' ~
,' ........~
449.4
,"":-:-1.
.
"2
':.;=..:. .
~.
...
:.:.~
....
.
.....
..
....
...... ....
.......
......
....
... ..
.......
...."...
'
FIGURE 1. 23
........
, ' :::-:
,"
,,
,
~
, ,, '.1'' .
,
,
, ~.
, .... iII
Photograph of the visible spectnlm (in nm) of sodium as obtained with a
constant-deviation spectrograph.
,
, , ~...
,
.
....
....
".....
..."
,
,
,
............"
,
,"
,
........
,"
," ,~
,
"~
.
.....
.."...".
...."
..-J"
.......-.. .
..
..
.-...........
..
,
,"
,
,"
,
,'
'
,
,
TABLE 1.4 Data on the Fine Structure of Sodium as Obtained with

a Grating Spectrometer
,,
,
!
"
Line
--
Order
,.
Yellow
.'"
Wi
"
lle (radians)
.l
5.8
5558'
5600'
5.8
4023'
5352'
5.8
8.7
4021'
5349'
7515'
7523'
23.2
2
4
3932'
J
0
70 48
3933'
2.9
23.2
!II
Ii
Ii
7056'
s:
II
, ..!IIill
, "ill
, ....ill
, "ill
u-
, ~
, -iII
....
'~."'iII
x 10-4
41 29'
4127
US
fh
'I
Green
ii'
ill
Ii
81
2
3
Red
,
,"
...
~~
, ~
, ~
, ~
, oj
....,.
....
.......
.,
,,
, , ,
, , ..
, ,
, ' ..
, , ,
, ,, ,
, ,, ,
, ,, ,
, ,, ,
,, ,
, ,
,, ,
,
,
,, ,
,,
, .
,
,
,
, 'A
....
.....
.......
,
,,
,
,
...,...
.....
.,,..,
......
.
,,
,,'
II
,.
,
,,
,
, ,
, ,
,
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
,,
,
..,,
,
, ,.,
.
, , .,
,.,
,.,
.
,
,,
.
,
,.
,.
,
,.
,
, .,
, ,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
..
...
..
1.6 The Spectra of Sodium and Mercury
39
To reduce the data we note that
where OJ is the angle of incidence. Also
fh = 01 +t::.6
iji(:' py letting sin t10fc ~ nOk. cos 60k ~ 1.
I~;~~: ~
3,692. 1
nm an;:~e~::gC:::":::;s
wiiliIDeoch
Wm:
~e, 0:::
(1.25)
:z .
:;;':: ':'
~ /~e obtain for {).).:
~!::/:
U...
tee
:
%::
::;:::
%.:.:'
UM
Red
Yellow
Green
(Elt&t
oil).. (F"xpminent, nm)
.0.)..
0.57
0.63
0.59
0.65 1
0.597
0.555
valu~,
nm)
W(
The experimental data are thus in '" 10% agreement with the exact vaJu~.
;:::::::-: " This splitting of spectral lines was named "fine structure" and must
{{if reflect a splitting of the energy levels of sodium; if we express the wave
lengths of the :;odium lines in wove numbers (ii = II" = vic, i.e.,
;:::::::: ,in a scale proportional to energy since !:::.E = hct::.ii), it becomes evi
f:~~j} 'dent that the spaciog in all doublets is exactly the same and equal to
I ::&ii = 1.73 x 10 3 m- i . Indeed, the doublet STl1Jcrure of alilhe above
~lf~f ),incs is due to the splitting of only the 3 P (n = 3. 1 = 1) level as can be
;.:~.::. ~een by referring back to Fig. 1.22. The splitting of the 3P level is due
~~f:jo the effect of the electron "spin" and its coupling 10 the orbital angular
~:r ( inomentum (designated by l). According to the Dirac theory, the electron
\ Possesses an additional degree of freedom, called "spin," which has the
?Ftpropertiesofangular morneorum of magnitude s = fi/2 (and therefore two
~{k:,possible orientations with respecl to any axis, fns =
or m s = -~).
Wry~be spin s can then be coupled to I according to the quantum-mecbanical
~H)~Iles of addition for. angul:rr momenta; ~s will result in a rotal angular
~p::~oroentum of magrutudc J = 1 + or } = 1 and tbe energy of the
~:}\ate will. de~nd 00 j. I.n the cas~ of sodium, the 3P level splits into two
&'e }evels, With J = and J = ~ designated as 3PI/2 and 3P3/2 separated by
~~)~.v= 1.73x 103 m- I .
11fC
sf
Wi
I~i
I~ ;
@,"
i0.~.:
+!
!,
A ~
A
,,
,
~
~
~
40
..
..
..,.....
....,..
,
,
,
,
~
~
, , .......J
...
....,
, , ...A"J
,
, 1O .... J
,
,J
, ,.J ....
... 1O ..
rIi.J
, , ".II
rIi,J
...
...,..,.,
......J
1.6.4. Electron-Electron Coupling; the Mercury

Spectrum
'
,
.,..,
,.~
', .. -.I
', ......1
,".. -.I
........
............
......
,....
,,
,
,
, , ,..
,
,
)11
.....
)11
The mercury atom (Z 80) has 80 electrons. These fill the shells n = 1, :::J.
n 2, n = 3, and n = 4 completely (60 electrons), and in addition, from \~~
..
the n = 5 shell, the 1 = 0, 1, 2 subshells account for another 18 electrons. ::::~
..
The remaining two electrons instead of occupying the I = 3 and I = 4' }~
11O.-;r.
subshells are in the n" 6 shell with I - 0, giving rise to a configuration ::::~~
equivalent to that of the helium atom.
, ':~i~~
We thus have an atom with two electrons outside closed shells ~n contrast ":~~~~
to the one-electron systems of the hydrogen and sodium type. In the two- ' ',)~
electron system., we can hardly speak of the n number of the atom, since ,}~
each electron may be in a different shell; however we can still assign a .::~~~
total angular momentum J to the system, which will be the resultant of ., .:)~
the values of each of the two electrons, and (as we saw in the previous .)~
section) of their additional degree of freedom, their spin. The addition of)~
these four angular momenta, II, 12, S1, 82, to obtain the resultant J can .:}~
be done in several ways. For the helium or mercury atom, the Russell-)~~
Saunders coupling scheme holds, in which 11 and 12 are coupled into a ~ ::'~~~~
resultant orbital angular momentum L and S1 and S2 into a resultant spin S; ',:~~~~
17
finally L and S are coupled to give the total angular momentum of the :~~~~
system J ~ Since S1 and 82 have necessarily. magnitude
the resultant S . :~~~~
has magnitude S - 0 or S = 1. It is customary to call the states with :~:~~
S = 0 singlets, those with S = 1 triplets since when S = 0 for any ,(~~
value of L, only a single state can result, with J - L + S = L; when :j~}~
S = 1, however, three states can result with J :.... L + S, L, L - S, namely :~j~~
J = L + 1, L, L - 1 (provided L #- 0). In systems where energy states :)~
have total angular momentum J, the selection rules for optical transitions }~
are different, namely
)&......
'fI';
, ,..
'.,..
''.1'
'j'
, '.Ii
, 1O.
, '.J'
!,
..............
,
~
,
, ' till,.,
'
~
,
,
,,
.......""'.,
.
, ....11
6.L = l
8.J=O,l
but not
J = 0 .> J = 0;
..
, ....1
..
, '<-::-:
( 1.26)
::::~
, , """.11
':J.
, ,'..j/,
PI
....
, ,.r.J""
"
''''''''
'.1".
,, ,'.j/,
o
and in principle no transitions between triplet and singlet states occur.
J
, ,111.. ,J
,'.:-::.:J
111
i;
17ln the ensuing discussion the quantum-mechanical rules of addition of angular momen-
....
' , . OIl
...
,oj
oj
,'j/,
.
.. .: .::.-:
',-.. J
,'. J
, 'Jo:
. ,. J
......
......-..
' ".:J.J
. . . . oj
tum are used. Even if the reader is not familiar with them, he can infer them from following
the development of the argument.
,,
. . . .1
, oil
oj
111
,
,
..-
...
...............
..
, ...
o
,
,'
, '
'
','.t'J
,'.t'J
','.t'J
, ,'.t'J
, ' ,'.t'J
','.t'J
,'.t'J
','.t'J
.t'J
.: .t'}
,'.t'J
oN
,.-'J
.: .t'}
,'.t'J
":%
,::a::
,
::~
.~
1.6 The Spectra 01 Sodium and Mercury
41
With these remarks in mind we consider the energy-level diagram of

Since there are two eleclrons oUlSide a closed shell, in the ground
both be in then = 6.1 = 0 orbit, and bence (due to the Pauli
must have opposite orientations of their spin, leading to S = 0;
spectroscopic notation is I So. For the excited states o ne should expect
a ramily of single t states and a family of triplet Slates; Ibe singlets.
" = 0, will be
I So
J PI
I D7.
for L = O. and necessarily, J = 0

for L = l , and necessarily. J = I
for L
2, and necessarily, J 2 etc.
the spectroscopic notation , where the upper left index is 2S + l.

jneli",rielg the lotal spin of the slate; the capital letter indicates the total L
the, at,om. (a,ccc>cding; '0 the convention); and the lowerrighl index stands
J . For the triplels, S = 1, and the stales are
forL = O,J= 1
forL= I,J=0.1,2
for L = 2,} = 1.2. 3 etc.
The energy levels fo r mercury are shown in Fig. 1.24 with some of the
lioes of the ~pec trum. It is seeD that the selection rules on t::.L
t::.J always bold. but that transitions with AS f. 0 do occur. It is also
be nOled that the fine SiJ'Ucturc . ilial is, the splitting of the 6s6p 3 P
is of considerable magnirude: .1.iiepo - )PI) = 1.9 x 104 m- 1;
A",-e, - 3Pz) = 4.6 x Ilf m- 1. Figure 1.25 is a reproduction of the supcr) )rDptJ,sed spectra of bydrogen (longest lines). mercury (medium length).
sodium (shortest lines) obtained by a student with the prism spectra
. B eginning with long wavelengths (from the left) one identifies the
OU" Wing lines of mercury:
's~,on!:es,
(a) Red
(b) Yellow doublet
(c) Green
(d) Blue triplet
(e) Violet
690.75 nm
578.97-576.96
546.07
435.84
404,66.
D~____1_$o~______1P_1~_____1_D~2_______1F~1__~___3_S~t_______3_P2________3P~1~____~3R~O~_____3_D3~______3D_2~______
3D_1______3_F.~~~3t_2
3F
10
I--
20
I--
30
-E
--
as6p 'P1
4078
40
(.)
3P2
c:':)
....
6s6p
sPo
50
co
Ol
~
.....
60
?"f:Jr#J"
70
80
J.-
1.90
6Jjs
A) in the spectrum of the mercury atom.
FIGURE 1.24 Energy-level diagram and the principal lines (in
'.
"
. .
--
- - . - ~ ~ ..... -"' -. L-. -. -~ -.. -. -. -"' -. -. -. -. -. _.0. -. -"' -. -. -. -. -"' . "' -. -.-. -. -. -.. _._. _. "._ .... _..... _.. L.L ~ _~ L: _:,.:_:.:,.:.: . :.: L:.:,. :.:L:.:.:.:.:.:.:.: .:.:.: .:.:.:.:.:.: ..:.:.:.:.:.:<. :<.: .
-
-.'
_.
-.
. - - ~
-:.:;~ ::~~::~~::~:~~~:~:~:::::::~:~:~::~~:::~:~~~::~~~:~~.:~~~~~:.:L~'~"~":~~':~~~~~~~:~~~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:::~::::~ :~::::~.:~:.:.~.: ~.:.:.:. ~.:.~.:":II:< .~II:.::~~:::::~:"~ :~: .:~:~~~:~::~~:~:~~~~.:.:
..
--
",".
- - .".
-.
'.
."_-
".
.
-
___
.:.: .~.:.
-
1.6 HIe Spactra af Sodium and Mercury
.~o';",n
43
Phologrnph of the superi mposed spe<:tra of hydrogen (long slit), mcrcury

. ,', length), ~ n d sodiu m (short sli t).
This concludes our discussion of the spectra and energy levels of

sodium and mercury atoms. The same treatment applies to all other
or two-electron atoms, as wel l as to those with a one- or two-electron
Qefici"n" y (hole) from a closed shell. Aloms with more elecrrons OUtSide
are treated on analogolL(, lines, but the coupling schemes
i~~::~::lm~
complicalcd,
rise, in the case of the rare earths, to
complex spectra.
ore
giving
as
_ _ _ _
-
_ .!.- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
-
___
II
II
.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:~~~~~~~:~~~~~~~:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
CHAPTER
Electrons in Solids
SOLID MATERIALS AND BAND STRUCTURE

>}~o"
mauer, as it can be perceived with our senses, consists of systems

very large numbers of interacting particles. In matter in the gaseous
the distance between molecules is great. and therefore the forces arc
In solids, however, the forces are much stronger. Understanding of
thermodynamic properties of "bulk" maner~ based on the microscopic
[he constituent molecules or atoms. was first achieved through
mechanics developed by Boltzmann. Because of the immense
of interacting bodies. the statistical approach is quite valid and has
highly successful. C lassical statistical mechanics. however. was
to explain several phenomena until quantum-mechanical principles
incorporated. As we know. particles with half-integral '!>l'in-such as
" electrons---obey ''Penni-Dirac'' statistics, while particles with integral
~.~ii!'--"" h, "'photc,nsand helium atoms-----obey Bose-Einstein" statistics.
fundamental distinction is that the former type ofparticJes must have
~.~'ODlpl,tely antisynunetric wave fU':lction, whereas tbe latter ones must
"
46
2 Electrons in Sol,ids
have a symmetric wave function. This leads to a different distribution

function for the probability that a particle will occupy a certain cell in phase
space.
The experiments in this chapter are primarily concerned with the electronic properties of solids. Since these properties are deternlined by
the behavior of their electrons!! it is Fermi statistics that are relevant.
Most solid-state materials have a crystalline structure; that is" the atoms
form a periodic lattice. Advantage can be taken of this periodicity so , :
that the macroscopic behavior of the crystal is predicted from the gen-., :':
eral parameters of the lattice and the atoms that forIn it. It is found":'
that the free electrons., instead of occupying distinct energy levels -as ":
they do in atoms and molecules . .are contained in certain energy bands~" ,: :
Knowledge of the "band structure'" is necessary in most considerations ' :
of the solid state and specifically in the understanding of the behavior :i
of semiconductors~ The motion of the free electrons or holes (contained :',
in the valence band) through the lattice can be studied in tenns of a,::'
single-particle approach~ Such phenomena as scattering and the absorp- :,:
tion or emission of vibrational quanta (phonons) are invoked and are : :
useful in explaining further details in the macroscopic behavior of the ":
sample.
i
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
2.1.1. The Fermi-Dirac Distribution

Let us consider a large ensemble of free Fermi particles (such as electrons);
I
the assumption is made that in phase space there exist many states that
3
these electrons can occupy. Each ucell" has a phase-space volume of h
(where h is again Planck~s constant), so that the number of available cells
for a differential volume of phase space is

.,
According to the exclusion principle, however, each cell can be occupied

by two electrons (one with spin up and one with spin down), so that thE:
number of available electron states is 2n~ If we integrate over the spacf
,.
1Phase
space is a space spanned by the momentum and position vectors of a particl(

Thus a particle moving in ordinary three-dimensional space will have six components j
phase space.
t
2.1 Solid Materials and Band StrLlcture
47
.co<"din'<es and divide by lhe volume, we obtain the number of states n'
unit volume per differential clement in momenfUm space:
0'
~ ~f!
[dO ~
V
OXYl
(2,)
h
dp,dp,dp,.
.p'''"''', we can obtain the Dumber of states per unit volwne per unit energy
~
] .'lerval d Wi
ni
= -
nl
dWi
2
1
= - 3 41lp 2dpi h
'
dWi
since for nonrelativistic velocities
p;
Wi=-
2m
_ 8n ~
= ni - -h
y2mJwi.
3
dN(w,) _
dWj
(2.2)
Equation (2.2), which was obtained from very simple considerations
i<J"eser'lSthe number of states per unit volume per unit energy interval (at
given energy) and is called the "energy density of states." We note that
a simple ensemble of free Fermi particles (a) ail energies are pemrissi<1>1. (sm""d N(w)/dw is a continuous and not singular function), namely,
energy is nol quantized; aud (b) the uumber of states i.ncreases with
further to specify our system. we wouJd like to know which
~~~1:~~e~n~e:rgy~.
many slates are occupied, orin a statistical fashion, what
probability that a state j of given energy Wi will be occupied. This is

,lhe F'enni--Dim distribution and is given by
N, [ (WI - WF) +1 ]-'
- = ex.p
2n
kT
(2.3)
k is the Boltzmann constant, T is lbe temperature of the system,

is a characteristic energy, called the Fenni energy or Fermi-level
IIIF
interesting to note the properties of this function, graphed in Fig. 2.1:

It is properly bounded, so that il can represeot a probability
0< Nr/2n < I.
...
...
.........
,
,
,
, , .I" II
,
~
;II
48
:-:~
~
,........
, .'.1'
, .
I.~
, .
,..
, ....
. ..J..
,..I.
, ,.
2 Electrons in Solids
~~
..I
....
~
I11III
, ....
, '~.i
.J
I .......
, '~.i
....
,.~
, '~.i
T=O
1-----__
'," .....J
' ..........J
, , ....II"
,,
, , .. ..II"
......
...
.......
.......
......
...
.
........
....
....."
".
..
, ,
,
,
,
~......,
;II
"
.. ..II ..
, ..
,
..II ..
..II ..
,.......J'
..
~.r
iii
I ......
,
,
..
ill . .
JJ
' .. . . . . . .
.. ~J
,
I
,'
......:--;
. . . .~
';:"4
,....-0
.......' ':.-::::
::-:
"'1..
".01:..;
"';:::;,-=
' .....
......
,:~:~:
,.,..
..
..
, ....ttfj
! , . . . .:.-:
,
,".
,
,'
,'
......
".":1
' , ' .J
"':";
Ut
,,.iF
,,:-:~
,
;/"
' ".;J'.
, ,
FIGURE 2~ 1
statistics.
Probability of occupancy of a state of energy wi as derived from Fenni-Dirac
~~
, , I
..1
I
U",
...~
"
,::::~
'J'~
", ....
".iJ
~
...
',,::::~
(b) For large values of

distribution
,..
Wi
it assumes the fonn of the Boltzmann ',)~
':~::~
::::;~
.::. z
,'''';=~
.:.......:. z
, . ";.r.
Const
exp{ -Wi / kT).
.....
:::~~~
.
''':-:
: :::~.::::
.....
,
"",,.
,
, ,'
,
,
(c) For T = 0 it is a step function, with
'
, , ".rl*J
, '"'.I'J
.<.:.~
, ,"' .....:j.i.
,. " '. z
Ni/2n = 1
Ni/2n = 0
:~:;::::
WF
.;.:..:::
Wi> wp.
:::::::=
::::::::
::::;,:,o:z
..
' ,''',:,0:
.: .. :. :;:
,.....,:,0:
'::::::;
Wi
<
:::::~
,;.:. a:
!,
(d) For T '# O~ WF has the property that N (WF) =

and as many states
above WF are occupied, that many states below WF are empty.
(e) In solids and for average T :f:. 0, the distribution function is only
slightly modified from its shape at T = 0 (for solids wp is on the order of
1
a few electron volts, while 1/ kT 40 eV- at T ~' 300 K).
'~::;:::
::::::::
:::;:::
::::::::
:::;z
....1'.
,""zjt
......~
,...
'
,
..
~.
:~::h
,..............
, " ~.. --iI
...';':...Jo:J'
':;;':
Combining the FenIu-Dirac distribution (Eq. (2.3)) with the energy .. ..
....
---..
......
density of states (Eq. (2.2)) it is possible to obtain any desired distribution~ .....
....';..:"
For example, the number of electrons per unit volume (density) at an energy , ....
',-..z
.......
w in the interval dw is given by
.
~
......
jt
"
, "
, " ~
,"',,"'
,'JO"'JII"'.
,,
~jt
' .. *",
~J'
'',-..
,
,
, , .. oIIf
exp
W-WF
,
kT
....
.
.....
............. .
... .
, .... JI'.
,
.l'"1A
, ,
,,
~
,
, ,
, ',
~
,
,
-1
+1
......
dw.
(2.4) <~~~
...
,
"~
,
,
....
If we express Eq. (2.4) in terIns of the Cartesian coordinates of the velocity, ',)f~
vx , v y , and VZ!I and integrate over Vx and Vy; we obtain the number of ,)~~
electrons per unit volume with a given velocity in the z direction, V z (in the , )J
, ,-....:J'A
, , - ..........
.....
OJ'
"...,.
....
..
,...
.....
....
""
""
,
, * ....
, .. I I .
,
, ..
,
,
JI
............ .
............ ....
.........
* ..
, , , ' JO
,"
," ,'"
, , , -,
,
,
, ...7
, ,
, , ...7
,
, ,
......
.iO
.. JIj
2. 1 Soli d Mallriats and Band Structu re
49
N{vJ
N(w)
r. o
~",-;]""""T,::. 0
\ ... ,/Tz>T,
\
.\,
1'1
101
(a) Number of electrons with an energy w in the interVal dU). (b) Number
." ,'",.,"' with l component of vl:llocity liz in the ioterval du z _
'inl.",'aJ duz). The result of this integration is 2
N(U t}dv z =
~: m_~_T_ 10 (I +C'P (WF -k;v;12)
dv,
(2.5)
!'B" Thelwo distributions given by Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5) are shown in Fig. 2.2.
Even though the majority of the elecuons in a solid are not free (as we
? :~;~~~ assumed), Fermi-Dirac statistics are applicable, especially to
In metal s 3tleast one electron per atom has several slates available
in !.he conduction band), so that it call be considered free; since there
be 6 x J021 free elecD'ons per gram mole. statistical methods are weU
.. Elements rrom the Band Theory of Solids
to now, no account bas been taken oflhe interatomic or intramolecular

that rnight act on the free elecuons. Indeed, we expect (from previous
that the consideration of some potential in tbe region where
move will result in the appearance of energy levels ; bowever,
of the periodic shUctuIe of this potential, instead of energy levels,
bands appear, and only the states contained in these bands can be
lA. SOlIUDerfeld. Thumrxiy1Wmics wuJ Sratistical Mechanics, p. 285. Acade mic Press,
, 1956.
,
,
. .. ,,
, .,
,
....

A
,
,
A

, A
,
~

,
A
, ......
,

,
A
,
50
..
.l
III ..
A
..
..
..
.....
.
..
,
A
,
,
,
,
,
, , , A
,
,
A
,
,
A
,
,
,
A
,
,
,
~
iii
.....
..
...
..
.,
,..

..
.
...
,
,
,
, A
,
,
, A
,
,
,
A
,
',"
',"
~
...
........ .
~
- Va
, , ......J,
...
', ..11.",
I
I
.....
.....
.
.....""'"
.........
...... . ..
I . . . . . . .../
, , A.I
'........1
,I
, '
..... J
J
...
,'"
FIGURE 2.3 A periodic potential !bat may be considered as an idealization to the actual' J<~~
potential of a crystal lattice.
,,<~~~
. ....
'" .
. ....
'" .
.....
,
,
, ,
, . . . Ji
, , , ....
'" JI
,
, , 01 ... .
,
, ....1
.........,
...
occupied (with any significant probability)~ In the following paragraphs ...,
..
.
"
we will sketch two approaches toward the understanding of the physical .............
.....
origin of the energy bands.
.....
...
.
...
. ..
Consider first the one-dimensional problem3 of an electron moving in
,
;,r
I ...
, ....1
' ,
I
"
....
01 .... .
....
I.~
,
'
,
"
,'
','
,' .... '.JI
', ...... .t'

~
, ' " ;;;/J;;;/J'
....
'
...
", ......~j\
a potential consisting of an infinite sequence of "square" wells of depth

Vo and width b and spaced at a distance 1 from one another (Fig. 2.3).
The solution of the Schrodinger equation for such a potential gives for the
electron wave function
.....
,.t.. l
, I .....~
-: .~::::
'.I.'"j
, ' . III",
tI . . . .
:.:
' , 01..~
," .......
'
...
r"J
,'"
, oI~"iiI'"
;OJ
, ' .... 01
,
.rl"J
... "'. ::-\

.........
" " '. . .1
,
,
..""'. ::::::.a:
,.}
..
,',
.. ," ...oi..
,- ::--:
,,"......"""':it:
:i':
,. ,..z
:::::~
(2.6)
:~:::~
'<::%
'. . . x
witbk = 2x/A ,,,.- p/lithewavevectoroftheelectron~ This wave function

ikx
consists of the plane wave part e , and Uk(X), which must have the
periodicity of the lattice, namely, Uk(X l) = Uk(X). If there are N lattice
sites, the length of the crystal is NI and we impose the periodic boundary
ikNl
condition "'k(X + Nl) = Wk(X) .. This leads to e
= 1, or
"
:~::~z
A~.
<.:. .~
'~::~~
:~::~~
'.'.A:.:
':::~a:
';::::::
:;::::::
: :::~:::
:~::~~
:::::a:
':::~z
:.:.... .giiI".
.
, .........
kNI '" n2rr
k=n2rc/Nl
n = 0., 1, 2., ~ ....
JI . , - .
:':a:
:::":::
(2.7)
....::::~:.:
'::::9.
:;:;:;::
:...~
~:: ~
Equation (2.7) determines the allowed values of k, which foml almost ".::. z
..
.-..-..
.......
a continuum because of the very large integer value of N. Note that for ,',..........7-g
...
-:'
:
"z
N = lone obtains the familiar "particle in a box" energy levels., with
,','".... :=:
,I:-~~
,'
,
r""'"
'
"JI'
, ' , ...,,/jJI
,
.........
',' ..
g
"~"h
,<:z
, ........
, ,.::z
.......:JI:..
,.....
,
.
z
. . :. a:
'''~
:=:
:=:
,',......:=:
:=:
'."~"JI'
,J,
' '.' .~",.".

,J, ....
'.' .~",.".
iii i
~",.".
'
3E. Merz.bacher~ QuanmmMe.chanics, third ed., Wiley, New York, 1998.
,>,
:,;~:~;:::
::::~
"JI'
,', .:=:
",...:=:
.
'.' .~",.".
'
,
,
'.' .~ ,.".
" '...?
>, :.~:::
'
:..:-~x
'::::~
:::::~
:::~~
.
: :.
2.1 Solid Materials and Band Structure
51
.'
:: :
::::. Having determined the wave function, it is possible tosolve the Schrodlnger
equation for the e nergy eigenvalues
.:.
(2.8)
0'
where H is the onedimensional Hamiltonian operator
/i 2 d 2
H = -lmdx 2
+ V(x)
and V(x) is now the potential of Fig. 2.3.

Tbe solution of Eq. (2.8) is given in graphical fonn in Fig. 2.4. We nole
: '.' the following:
(a) Even though all vaJues of k are aJlowed. discontinuities arise at k =
::: nrcl/ (note that for lhi s particular electron waveleogth, Bragg reflection
from the lattice will occur with a haJf-aogle (1 = 90"; nA = 71 sin hence
). = 2iln, and since). = 2n / k, it follows thar. k = nrr/ l).
(b) Not aJl values of the energy are allowed, but only cenain ''bands'';
other bands of energy are forbidden.
(c) The relation between E and p (or k) is no longer the familiar
parabolic
e,
(2.9)
I
I
-3".
Allowed energy bands
-2n
-ff
-,-i7
".
2".
3".
TTT
k_
(.)
[b)
flGtlRE 2.4 Re.~ults of the solution of the ~implified onedimensional lattice probleJn.
Plotor energy versus wave Dumber Ie = pIli for an electron in a crysta.llattice. (b) The
and forbidden energy bands.
f'''""d
..-....-.-

,
II
, ...
,
,
,
,
............-.
.."" ..
,........
III
A
II
52
II
,
,."'
,A-..
I
. . . . II
III II
, .. Alii
,'"
, IIIIlI
........
...
.....
,"'."...
, ,,.A
,"'
,
.. A ..
' A ..
.J
,,J .....
,
,J
.. ....
"
..
...
III
"
.. I
...
.... .,
, ,,..
....
, ,..
...... ..
,
...
"A
, ... lflii
, ' ,,"",J
, ...JI,J
......
....
lflii
lflii
,........
JIll
, .......
, lflii
,
lflii
, ....1
'.r.
.J
, ...., ,
, .A.I
~~
,
....
.... III
.... III
,111
. . . III
III!
. . . li
......
....
A.I
, , ..
,
-.I.
, ,, ..........
.. .
' .. ..
, ",..oI.l''''
,,-.
,
--2s
l1li
"
..}
, .. " :"r",.
~
,
..
'
.... .
..
..
. . . III
",,.oI.l''''
, 01 III
.01 . . .
' ."~~
........
".... .
,'.oI.Ja:
..........--,.
.... ........
" 01 III.
,
,'.
,
.., """,--.
,
.01.-, , "
,
"
.0: .. .
,',
-;/'
, "
, "
, .. 01 III
,
, , , " " ...-_
, .. 01 .-:
, ,
, " 01 .-:
, ,
...
, " 01 .-:
---1s
,,"'--,.
".-_
..
, ",--II
, " ...-_...
, .. " 01....-:
-_
, "
-:
., ~
,
,
...
::::~:~
...., .....'
', .... ::.:
,........
Interatomic spaoing
"'.;i
,'
..1
','
.......~
, , II ..
FIGURE 2.5
Energy levels of a system of six similar atoms placed in a linear array.
'
,, ' ,,.......II.':':
::.:
":.~.~
:.:"':...
:.:,'.'.~..:.:
'.::j=--:
.:.:.....:..:
, .01 ..
We can, however, r~tain this relation if the mass m is assumed variable and ::::~~~
'. :".?,
a function of k., narriely,
.' :,::;~~~
..:-:
, , ... .J
:-:
,.",
. ,."'....
','
:.'.:X
, ..........:-:
,... -II1II:-:
'.-1111~
(2.10)
::;;:a
...
-~
'
.-
':::::3~~
,
. J'
'~
.... ~
,,'.A~
The same fonnalism is carried over into three dimensions, but now
>~~
the bands are replaced by allowed (Brillouin) surfaces and the axes of
symnletry of the crystal must be taken into account.
.
A different approach is to start with a molecular wave function and study
its behavior as the number of identical atoms is increased. fu Fig. 2.5 are
plotted the energy levels against interatomic distance for the Is and 28
states of a linear array of six atoms (after Shockley). If, then, in the limit
the (almost infinite) array of the crystal is considered~ the energy levels
coalesce into bands. This is shown in the left-hand side of Figs. 2.6 and
2.7, where the energy bands plotted against interatomic spacing are given
for diamond which is an insulator (after Kimball}, and for sodium (after
Slater)~ which is a conductor. If the lattice spacing for the particular crystal
is known (from experiment), it is possible to read off from the graphs the
limits of the energy bands~ This is done diagrammatically on the right-hand
side of Figs~ 2.6 and 2.7; also indicated is the position (in electron volts) .
of the Fermi level (as it can be calculated, for example, from Eq. (2.4) and
the electron density within each band).
}:~
"X
':.A~
,};a
:~: :~:::
::::~~
':.A~
}:~
}~ill
' :.A7.
'\~~
<~~~
',' <~.o:
};~
. )~~
}~~*
'~
<~~ili
" J'
: :)~*
.:.-:
,
:}~:~
.)~~~
. . J'
.)~~
. ::~:~~
.'.. j'J'

....
'" .:1'
:,<~ ..Mr.
z
....1".
..-.
'.'llJ'
, .
.z
.. oil
.:~
: ,".rJ'
.....1".
".' ~
,. , ",,lilJlj
, ,' ..""g
:::
.:
:::~*=s
....
. .~...
,
'
,
2. 1 Solid Mate r ials and Band Structure
53
Ol81T1Qnd C (lSJ9.2s)2(2p)2
5.4 eV
2.
Valence band (2s (2p)f).
D;aQrammB~C
Sodium
&kett:h
Na(1S)2(2.s)2(2P)8(3s)
~r------- 2P
~j~?
LaIlit:1I spacing
~{.
t1t/
From these consideralions il is possible to understand the difference

and semiconductors. For diamond, for
.example. the valence band is completely fiUl!d (this fact follows also from
the atomic structure of carbon and the deformation of the energy levels).
~\ between conductors, insulators,
f@:::
W::
~=.:.
'I;
x~:::
Diagrammatic sketch
FIGURE 1.7 The energy band structure of sodium (conductor) as a function or I3ttitt
5paciIJg. The observed lattice spacing and ~sition of the Fermi level are 31so indicated.
~i
llik
@
i{~:
Valence !)and
.......
..
54
,,
,
, ,,
, ,.,

, ,, ,.
,
, ' a,.j
, ,,
, , .,
,,
,,

, ,, ,
, ,.,
, ,
....
.......
..
.....
.....
..
The next available states are approximately 5.4 eV higher and hence can- ::).
not be reached by the electrons, with a consequent inhibition of their }~..
mobility; diamond therefore behaves as. an insulator. For sodium, in con- }~.
..
trast, the Fermi level lies in the middle of an energy band, so that many',::;:::.
states are available for the (3s) electron, which can move in the crys- :):~.
..
tal freely; sodium behaves as a conductor. Pure semiconductors, such ?:~
....
as gennanium., have a configuration such that the valence band is COffi- ::')..
pletely filled, but the COl1duction band lies fairly closely to it (0.80 eV) .. :,)~~...
At high enough temperatures (that is~ on the order of a few thousands ":i~~~~~
of degrees), the electrons in the valence band acquire enough energy to:)~...
cross the gap and occupy a state in the conduction band; when this hap- :'\~~
pens the material that was previously an insulator becomes intrinsically ':,::'~~~
......
conducting.
':<~~~
Both the electric and thermal conductivity of a solid depend ori the ,',::')i~
.....
density and mobility of the free electrons. Completely analogous to the ,:):~~
motion of electrons is the motion of "'holes"; holes can be thought of '.:,<~~~
....
either as "vacancies" in an almost-filled band, or as electrons with negative >~~~~
4
effective mass. Due to their the'mlal energy, the carriers have a random :<~~~
2
motion characterized by (3/2)kT
E
m*v /2. When an electric field :' }~~~
is applied, a drift velocity is superimposed on the random motion of the ',<~~~~
......
carliers, resulting in a steady-state current flow.
:}~:
.
,, .,
,,
,
,,
',
,,
, ,
= =
......
..
..
JI
..
, ,,
Oil
,
, . . . . IIIIiI
,
,
~
..
.
.
..
".
....
, ..
...
, ..
....
.....
..
,
.
,, ..
..
, ,..
, ,..
, ,..
......
, ,, ,..
...
, ,,..
, , ..
..
, .
,
..
.II
,
,,
,,
,
,,
,,
,
2.2. EXPERIlVIENT ON TH E RESISTMTY

OF METALS
~
~
~
.~
~
In this experiment we will explore the physics behind electrical resistance :{:..
in metals . What's more, we will do it with a novel technique that measures ':):..
the resistivity of the metal, a property only of the type of material and \~~.
independent of the size or shape of the conductor. This technique, in fact, >~.
..
can make measurements of the sample without actually touching it,. and :::::.
,
,,
,
has found a lot of use in modem applications. It is based on the paper

C. P. Bean, R. W. DeBlois, and L. B. Nesbitt., Eddy current method for
measuring the resistivity of metals, J. AppL Phys. 30, 1976 (1959).
First, we make the connection between resistance and resistivity. We
assume that Ohm's law is valid, that is, V = I R, where R is independent
''-
' :(..
<:}...
,
,,
,\~
, .
,:)..
):.
,,,
.,....
, .
, '.
...
,,
,
,
,
,
,
4This can be seen from Eq. (2.1 0) and the negative curvature of some parts of the E (k) . <~~.
curve of Fig~ 2.4a. .
::;:..
, ,.
,..
,..
,..
, ..
..
,..
, .
, ,.
,.
,.
...
...
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
,
2.2 Experiment on the Resi stivi ty 01 Metals
55
):----L
FIGURE 2.8
An idealized resistor.
of voltage or current. Consider the idealized resistor picrured in Fig. 2.8.

The resistor has a length L and a crosssectional area A. A voltage V is
applied across the ende; of the resistor. A current I of electrons flows from
one end to the other, against a resistance R, which is due to the elecrrons
interacting somehow with the atoms of the materiaL
Consider Ohm's law on a. microscopic level. The magnitude of the electric field setup across the ends of the resistor is just E = VI L. The elecrrons
that cany lhe current will be spread out over the area A, so at any point
within the resistor the currfm density is (magnitude) j = I I A. Therefore
Ohm's law becomes
E = jP.
(2.11)
where
L
A
R = pand p is the "resistivity," a properry of the material that is independent

of the dimensions ofthc resistor. Equatioo (2.11) can be derived (Tom the
:~: '" lheory of electrons in metals. Tbe resistivity arises from coWsions between
: ::' the electrons and the atoms of the material. In a metal, the electrons are
.
essentially free, so without any coJIjsinos they wou ld continually accelerate
~: ::: under the applied fi eld with an acceleration a = tElm, where e and mare
the electron charge and mass. However, the collisions cause the electrons
to stop and then start up again, until the nexi coltision. if the time between
collisions is called T, then the "drift" velocity Vd is just
Vd =aT
eE,
= --.
(2.12)
Now if there are n electrons per unit volume in the resistor, then a total
cbarge q = (nAL)e passes through the resistor in a time t = Llva.
I'~.-.J"
-..
....
, -A.r-
, .......
,,
,,, --A.r
, A.r
,
......
...
......
-..
,, .......
, ...
-- '",
, ,'
56
~
,
.
, , ,."
....
.J
, ,. "',,1";
..
.
,......
-Jl"'"
... ..
.....
...,.. ...
, '-.r
,,..
'-.r
A.r
.....
,'.11 .1
, , .... J
,
, JI
,
,,
,
,,
,
T.ABLE 2.1
_
'''
..
"
Temperature
: :
Electrical
.
reSIstlVIty
"
Name
_.
z
,
:,
coefficient
(lO-3/K)
(~Q em)
"
'I
Ii
Therlnal
conductivity
(cm:1t:s)
';
JO
",;'
eo
JI
.....
I.".
...
, ....
11
11
26
29
Fe
Cu
Zn
Sn
Pb
Bi
_ _
' _ i l_ _
Ii
26.98
55.85
63.55
65.38
2,,65
9.71
4.29
..
.....:.-:
11
"."r'.
A~
, ..... .J
,,
,
(K)
11
1.67
5.92
30
11.50
50
118.69
20.65
207.19
82
106.80
208.98
83
_'=_ _,, _ _:; _ _ _ _ _ _ _
6.51
6.80
4.19
4,,10
0.16
11
..
0.083
0.020
." .
.. J
... .
11",.
,.j
..
...
11
11
.. ..
...
11 . .
... . .
,. Y" .r
, :.-:
11
'
..
.
'.
, 11" ."L..
.....
.
......
395
'
420
. . . ..
}
11
11 . . .
11
.....
........
11
.... '
,
~
,,' ...
.. '"''''.~
" '-1
333
300
...
...
"'A...~
.....
~
~
",.",
"
",
...." 60
,.
11
'"
.-.
.....~
, .......
:.:
',' .......
......1'
, . .
' ' :.:.~~
': ;=;::x;
, ' ,11 ."'.:,:
,'~
,',
.."' .... .r
11
',
...
3.36
',
0.53
0.18
0.94
0.27
-JJ
.,,/",
.... ......Ji
11
13
"'"
,11 11.. .J
AI
...
,
,
. . ...
11 ....... "j
, ...
'
"]I.
. . . . '"
..
Electrical and Thermal Properties of Metals
]I.
86
11
, "
..
~.J'
11
iI"
... _
.;
118
111_ _ _ _ _
;;__ _ _ _ _
'
_ _
" _ ._
., .......::;::
:' :'::~a::x:
.........
,........
' ,"
Therefore~
the current density is

.
I
J =.
A
1q
:.~
.}
III
.-.
'::::~:=::
, '.I':fi.
"':;:111~%
",".111..~
1 nALe
= -A ---'t = A . .Ljvd
.
= nevd,
Ii
.; '<.;...~z.
.....
, '. '.I'~
',::::~~
(2 13)
.:}w.
, ... ..trl
':':~.1
::::~~
.: ::~~:<=
and therefore,
' .: :::~xJ'J'
",
...,;::::
, , ,,,."7)'
:':'..]i}',
m 1
(2.14)
p :=: .. 2-
ne r
Often the "conductivity" (j == 1/ p is used instead of the resistivity.
5
Electrical resistivities are listed for various metals at room temperature
, '.'.;"~
, ... ",."J
:::::;~
,':':A:x:~
.A~""
,'';';A::Z
. A:X:
,,:-:-:~
, A:-r...-:
,:.:A::p'
:.;-:z:~
, .... ..
..;.:-:.r.r
.
, ... r"J"
,~
, .... .1''-
......:.:::
, - - -1'
',
::::::~
in Table 2.1. Also included are some thennal properties, which are closely
related to the resistivity through the underlying physics. 6 One of these'
is the temperature coefficient of resistivity, defined as {I / p )dp / d T. This
quantity is in fact temperamre dependent as we shall see~ and the quoted
numbers should be valid near room temperature.
Clearly, the fundamental physics of resistivity lies in the values for the
collision time L . The interaction of the quantum-mechanical electron waves
and the quantized lattice of the metal crystal accounts for the collision time
:, :::::~:?~
... ;r;r
,'-.r.r
':,::::::z
. . .
,::::~
..
.. /'.1.':,:
:::;~
, ',/,.1... :; ... ~
.--::::
::::::?
"
'~.jt)i
:;:;:a:
::::~~
:.;';;.~
~
II
jt)t
:-:'~aa
::::~~
,::;:~
:;::;~
::::::::;
'::::~~
5Values for Z. A, resistivity, and thenllal conductivity are taken from L. Montanet <)~
et al. Review of particle properties" Phys. Rev. D 50, 1241--1242 (1994). The temperature ::::~::::
.. -.,:..:
coefficient of resistivity, and all data for Zn and Bi, is from D. R. Lide, eRe Handbook of ': ,:.~~
Chemistry and Physics, 56th ed., p. F-166, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1975. The DebyeJ~
temperature is from E. U. Condon and H. Odishaw (Eds.), Handbook of Physics" 2nd ed.~ ': ::::~~'.I'!
Part 4, Tab1es 6.1 and 6.3, McGraw-HilI, New Yor'k 1967.
'::}~
6An interesting exercise is to plot the electrical conductivity 1/ p against the thermal '::j~
conductivity (see Exercise 30 in Appendix G).
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2.2 Experiment on the Resistivity of Metals
57
in a pure metal crystaL If there are impurities, then the scattering will
contain an additional contribution. We can write
1
T
=----+---TCRYSTAL
"(IMPURITY
The scattering from the crystal depends crucially on the vibrational energy
stored in the crystal lattice, and therefore on temperature. The impurity
scattering is essentially independent of temperature.
'>
:::::
I"..::~...!;
F~:;~~::,u~:~:~:~~~~r~i~i~:~:::~Yi!~!~e~i: ~~i~~o~
...: ....:!:"",:::,,,,:.,..
surrounds a magnetic field that changes with time. That is, we measure
a signal V(t) that is proportional to some dB/dt. The magnetic field B
W:. is generated by the "eddy currents" left in a metallic sample when the
W:
sample is immersed in a constant magnetic field that is rapidly switched
[{, off. Figure 2.9 shows how this is done. In Fig. 2.9a, a cylindrical metallic
~::::: bar is placed in a constant magnetic field whose direction is along the axis
..::I! .:~ ~~I~~~r:~~S::::;I;~e~~:a~s i~~: !:::~~:!~~~e~~::a:e~~

..:).,,:'.:.,:,
,.'
is filled with electrons that are essentially free to move within the metal.
(:~ i:. ~:. :, i:.' the

m::~t
~~~eU:~~~n~~a~~~~!~ ~~a:~:~~a~~~:~tr~::n~e~~
external magnetic field. These so-called eddy currents are loops in the
f:: plane perpendicular to the axis of the sample, and they generate a magnetic
Ii
~::::::':
jo:~:.:
z:- .
i-:-:':-.'
?:::::::
~~~~{
B
(a) Field on
(b) Field shut off
The eddy current technique for measuring resistivity. (a) A magnetic field
BO permeates a cylindrical metal sample. (b) Eddy currents set up when the field is shut off
generate a field B of their own. The eddy currents, and therefore B. decrease with time at
a rate that depends on the resistivity.
FIGURE 2.9
.:.:.;.
fit:

......
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2 Electrons in SoHds
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58
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I
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field of their own~ See Fig. 2~9b. However, as soon as the external field is_
gone, there is nothing left to drive these eddy currents~ and they start to
decay away because of the finite resistivity of the metal. The time it takes
for the currents to decay away is directly related to the resistivity, as ~e
shall see.
We again use Faraday's law to detect the decaying eddy currents. The
magnetic field set up by the eddy currents also decays away with the same
time dependence as the currents. Therefore, if we wrap a coil around the
sample, Faraday's law says that an induced EMF shows up as a voltage
drop across this coil. This voltage drop is the signal, and the rate at which
it decays to zero is a measure of the resisitivity of the metal sample~
In order to determine the voltage signal as a function of time, one needs
to solve Maxwell's equations in the presence of the metal. The derivation
is complicated, but outlined in Bean et aL (1959), where a series solution
is obtained by expanding in exponentials. For a cylindrical rod, this series
takes the form
C(
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where Ci is proportional to p and the A are roots of the zero-order Bessel

function, i.e., Al = 2.405, A2 = 5.520~ A3 = 8.654, and so on. Since the
A increase with each tellO, for long enough times, only the first term is
significant because all the rest die away much faster~ That is, the falloff of
V (t) with time will look like a single exponential if one waits long enough,
but will be more complicated at shorter times.
For a cylindrical metal sample where the external magnetic field points
along the axis of the cylinder, the result is
<:~.r:.--~~....:'
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V(t) =
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Vo = lONpBo,
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and t = 0 is the time when the external field is switched off. fu this
equation, r is the radius of the cylinder, expressed in centimeters, and p
is the resistivity of the metal, expressed in ohms-centimeters. Also, N is
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59
the number of turns in the detector or "pickup" coil and Bo = /Loin (in SI
units) gives the magnetic field Bo set up by a solenoid carrying a current i
through n turns. This equation is only valid for times t on the order oftE or
larger. At earlier times, there are transient terms left over that cause V (t)
to fall off more rapidly than given by Eq. (2.15).
2.2.1. Measurements
....
-~ ,',
The lifetime tE given by Eq. (2.16) is on the order of tenths of milHseconds. Therefore. the magnetic field must be switched off considerably
more rapidly than that This is hard to do mecilanically, so we will resort
to an electrical switch, using a transistor.? The circuit that produces the
switching magnetic field is shown in Fig. 2.10. 8 A garden variety 6-VI
2-A power supply puts current through the solenoid, creating the magnetic
field Bo. However, after passing through the solenoid, the current encounters a transistor (32 I!TIP 122) instead of passing directly back to ground.
The lead out of the solenoid is connected to the collector of the transistor, and the emitter is connected to ground. The base is connected
through a l-kQ resistor to the 600-Q output of the HP 3311A waveform generator. The waveform generator is set to produce a square wave,
oscillating between around -10 V and + 10 V with a period of a few
milliseconds.
Consider the current through the solenoid. First, the DC power supply
is connected so that the solenoid is always positive with respect to ground,
thus the collector voltage is always above the emitter voltage. Second, the
base-emiuer acts like a conducting diode, so there will be a voltage drop
across it of around 0.6 V when it conducts. Also, if there is no current
through the base, then the base-coUector junction is reversed biased and
no current flows through the transistor, or therefore through the solenoid .
That is, the switch is off. Now when the wavefonn generator is at +10 V,
the current through the base is iB ~ 10 VII kQ = 10 rnA. This turns the
switch on and lets the current flow through the solenoid pretty much as
if the transistor wasn't there, so long as Ie {JIB = 10 A. You might
want to measure the resistance in the solenoid coil to make sure it does not
7This transistoris actually a "Darlington pair," which effectively gives a single transistor
with a gain parameter hFE
f3 = 1000 or so. VeE 6 V does not exceed the specifications.
8For students with minimal experience in laboratory electronics, Sections 3.1, 3.2, and
3.3 should be consulted.
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60
2 Elee t ron sin Sol ids
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HP3311A
600 Ohm
Lo
Coax to scope channel 1
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FIGURE 2.10 Switching circuit for turning the magnetic field on and off. It is a good idea
to check the current through the solenoid by measuring the voltage at tlle testpoint timed
against the HP3311A square wave generator.
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draw a lot of current, but since you are using a 2-A power supply, it is a
good bet that you are in the clear~ So, when the square wave generator is ::::::~
at +10 V., the solenoid conducts. However, when the generator swit~~es to ,}~~~
-10 V (or presumably anything less than around 0.6 V), the solenoid and ',}~~~
..... :the magnetic field shut off. This is, t = 0 in Eq. (2.15).
:~::::~
r.
The pickup coil is wound on a separate tube., which can be inserted inside ):~;~
the solenoid. One can then introduce and remove different metal samples ::~:~=~
from inside the pickup coil. By connecting the terlmnals of the pickup ::)~
...
coil to a digital oscilloscope, we record values of V (t) corresponding to :{~
.
Eq. (2.15)~ There is one complication. The magnetic field shuts off so fast :}~~
......
.
that the instantaneous induced voltage in the pickup coil is very large~ That :}~
......
is, At is so small that dB fdt ~ llB / 6.t and therefore also V are very <~~
large. An oscilloscope would typically have circuitry that protects it? but }~~~~
. .
one should take some care to avoid damaging the equipment. To fix this :}~:;
. .
problem, the simple circuit shown in Fig. 2.11 is used to connect the pickup ,,}~;~
coil ternnnals to the oscilloscope input. The two diodes are arranged so that ' ")~~;;
..
any CWTent is taken to ground~ so long as the voltage is bigger than +0.6 V ':<~~;
or smaller than -0.6 V, for diodes with VF = 0.6 V. That iS the circuit:~}~
~'clamps?' the input to the oscilloscope so that it never gets more negative, :tJ~~
but still big enough to make the measurement.
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In (from pickup coii)
FIGURE 2.11
61
Out (to scope)
Clamping circuit for the oscilloscope input
Sometimes we see the signal "ring" just as the switch shuts off. That is,
we see the decaying exponential but a rapid oscillation9 is superimposed
on it, and this gets in the way of measuring the decay time. If the ringing
goes away while the signal is still decaying exponentially, just use the data
past the point where the ringing is gone. Otherwise, a resistor should be
attached in parallel with the scope mput. It is best if you can get a variable
resistor, and play with the values so that the exponential decay is unaffected
but the ringing is thoroughly damped out.
Before measuring the resistivity, one should know what the solenoid
circuit is doing. Connect a probe to the junction between the solenoid and
the transistor collector. View this on the other channel of the oscilloscope,
and confinn that you see what you expect That is, when the square wave
is high, the solenoid is conducting and the voltage at this point should be
around + 1.2 V, i.e., the sum of the two forward voltage drops for the C B and
BE diode equivalents for the transistor. On the other hand, when the square
wave is low, the solenoid should not be conducting and there is no voltage
drop across it, so the voltage at this junction should be around +6 V, i.e., the
voltage of the DC power supply. This probe should now be removed since
the oscilloscope channel is needed to make the resistivity measurements.
Next, connect the pickup coil to the clamping circuit and plug it into the
second channel of the scope. Do not put any metal sample in just yet. You
should see a voltage spike, alternatively positive and negative, when tbe
magnetic field switches on and off, clipped by the diode clamping circuit.
N ow insert a sample into the pickup coil. Watch the pickup coil signal
on the scope as you do this. The effcct of the decaying eddy currents
9The circuit has lots of "loops," each of which is essentially an inductor. Any capacitance
somewhere will cause oscillations, but the exact source can be hard to pin down. One should
take care to wind the pickup coil in a way that minimizes the inherent capacitnnce. A good
way to do this is to crisscross the windings of each layer.
.
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FIGURE 2~ 12 Resistivity data taken with a high purity aluminum rod as the sample. The
decay is clearly not described by a single exponential at the earlier times.
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shou]d be clear~ You may see some transient oscillations of the signal
right after the field shuts off, but there should be plenty of time left aft~r
these oscillations die away for you to get a smooth curve~ Figure 2412
shows data acquired with a 1-in. diameter high-purity aluminum rodiO at
room temperature as a sample~ The data points are the output of a digital
oscilloscope displayed using MATLAB. Note that at the earliest times, there
are higher order contributions to the signal (as deSClibed by Bean et al.), and
one must choose a suitable range over which the data are indeed described
by a single exponentiaL
4
The fit shown in Fig. 2.12 yields a decay time tE = 3~051 x 10- s~
Then, from Eq~ (2.16) we find for the resistivity
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~
...
. . . ..
. . . ..
. , ....
..
I
I
,I
,
. . ..
,
,
....
....
~
I
I
..
III ..
III ....
III ..
I . III ..
.....
......
III ..
III ...
III
..
.....
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. ..
,
I
......
III ..
III ...
,
,
III ...
....
.....
III ...
III ...
.....
III ..
.II
....
where we used the fitted value of tE and r = 0.635 em. This compares ' .::i}~
well with the value listed in Table 2~ 1.
,: :::j
,
III
III
,
I
.....
.....
I
..
,
,
I
,
I
~.
,
,
III
III
..
....
., ,
, .,
, ..
, .,
, ..
, .,
, ..
, ..
, . ....
,
, .,
, .....
,
, .,
, .....
.,
, .,
I.
I
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
I . III
I
I
,
...
III
III
...
III
,
I
,
,
I
,
I
,
.....
III
.,.....
.. ,,
~
III
III
.....
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......
I
.....
1 Prom the Alfa Aesar company, http://www.a~fa.com/~
III
III
III
2.3 Experiment on the Hall Effect
63
The main source of systematic uncerlainty is likely to come from the

times over which the decaying voltage signal is fitted. At short times, the
decay is not a pure exponential because the transient terms have not all
died away, so we want to exclude these times when we fit. At long times,
there may be some left over voltage level that is a constant added to the
exponential, and again, a pure exponential fit will be wrong. Varying the
.upper and lower fit limits until we get a set that gives the same answer as
a set that is a little bit larger on both ends is one approach. One"should be
convinced that the results are consistent. For example, use aluminum alloy
rods of the same composition but different radii, and check to make sure
that the decay lifetimes tE scale like r2. This should certainly be the case
to within the estimated experimental uncertainty.
Having learned how to take and analyze data on resistivity. we can now
investigate the temperature dependence. It is best to start simply by comparing the two samples of
dianleter aluminum rods, one an alloy and
the other a (relatively) pure metal. Vary the temperature by immersing the
samples in baths of ice water, dry ice and alcohol, and liquid nitrogen .
. Boiling water or hot oil can also be used. These measurements are tricky.
One must remove the sample from the bath and measure the eddy current
decay before the temperature changes very much. Probably the best way to
do this is to take a single trace right after inserting the sample, stop the oscilloscope, and store the trace. Then one analyzes tbe trace offline to get the
decay constant. One might also try to estimate bow fast the bar warms up by
making additional measurements after waiting several seconds, e.g., after
saving the trace. This would best be done with a sample whose resistivity,
. and therefore t E, can be expected to cbange a lot with temperature. Pure
aluminum is a good choice. Remember that the temperature dependence
will be much different for the pure metal than for the alloy. Try to estimate
the contribution to the mean free path of the electrons due to the impurities.
!-in.
2.3. EXPERIMENT ON THE HALL EFFECT
In Section 2.2 we saw how collisions of electrons with the crystal lattice
lead to an electrical resistance, When those electrons are forced to move
under an electric field. If one also applies a magnetic field, in a direction
perpendicular to the electric field, then the electrons (and other current
carriers) will be deflected sideways. As a result an electric field appears in
this direction, and therefore also a potential difference. This phenomenon
64
....
..
..
...
..
....
..
..
.
,,
,,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
,, .
, ,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,,
,
,
,
,
, ,
2 Elee t ron sin Soli ds

-
is called the Hall effect, and has important applications both in identifying ,:)
the current carriers in a material and for practical use as a technique for ,i~;
measuring magnetic fields.
i:'~
.
Let us rewrite the microscopic formula for Ohm's law, but this time :,: :.
taking care to indicate current density and electric fields as vectors, and i,:~.
to also note the negative sign of the charge on the electron~ Following :'i::.
..
Eqs. (2.12) and (2~13) we write
....
.,.
, ,
, ,
,,
,
,,
I~"
,,
,
,,
,
,
,
.....
,
, ,
,
(2.18) ':,::'.::
...
.
,
,
,,
,
,
,
,
.,.
..,
,.
, ,..
, ..
, ,..
, ,,..
,
, .
':',:~':
, .
,..,
, , .
, .
, , .
,
.
,
or
_m_V_d
= -eE~
(2.19)
t'
,
,
~ ~'
It is clear that in Eq. (2.19) we have made an approximation, replacing ,::,),;

the time rate of change of momentum, i.e., dpfdt = mdv jdt, with an '::)::.
expression that uses the average aCGeleration Vd/ T. This is how we have, ",:'.<,
taken into account collisions with the crystal lattice.
-:':):.
It is straightforward to modify Eq. (2.19) to take into account the effect i). .
of a magnetic field B. We have
: ,
,
mVd
= -e{E + Vd x B).
If we assume that the magnetic field lies in the

cyclotron frequency
We
.
......
..
..
....
..
..
,:~:
, ,"

, , '.
,,
,,
,
, ~
,
,
,
,
,,
,
,
,
,
,~
z direction~ and define the
== eBjm, then we can rewrite this equation as
:/.
, ,,
,,
,,
,
,
,
,
,,,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Consider now a long rectangular section of a conductor~ as shown in ',:

Fig. 2.13. A longitudinal electric field Ex is applied, leading to a current'
density fl owing in the x direction. As this electric field is initially turned ':
on, the magnetic field deflects electrons along the y direction. This leads to '
a buildup of charge on the faces parallel to the xz plane, and therefore art
electric field Ey within the conductor. In the steady state, this electric field
cancels the force due to the magnetic field, and the current density is strictly,
...
Magnetic field 8 2
~l i :>
65
~x
t t t t t
~~~}\
(a)
Section
perpendi~ular
, jx
':.:.:.:. drift vefocity

starting up.
@(:lue,t
(b)
~~~r?
~{>:.
-E~
Section
@\parpendiCUlar
f:::::::>
@~i::/ . d:~:~~
t;::::::::iri steady state.
8::::::::::>
~{<;
W~~~::::
(e)
AGURE 2.13
The standard geometry for discussing the HalJ effect (after Kittel),
~::;:::::::
~~~j~::::in the x direction, hence Vd y = O. From Eqs. (2.20) we therefore have

r::
~::::::::
~::::::>
;:::::::::::
~:::::::::::
Ey =
mwc
e
--Vdx
mwc
= -e
(er
)
e Bi
--Ex = -wcrEx = ---Ex
m
~t<;I'he appearance of the electric field Ey is the Hall effect
M?::
A CO Ilvenient experimental quantity is the Hall coefficient RH. defined as
t>
i~!~jj:r
RH
==
Ey
jx B
(2.21)
mf?i'he quantities Ey. jx. and B are all straightforward to measure, and in our
~~~~~~~~<~jmple approximation for electrons in conductors we have (from Eq. (2.18
~~~~>jx = ne2rEx/m; therefore,
!?:Il~i:]~: :
~r:::
1?:':-:'
W;:::>
!t.~~::
@.:;::::
m:::::::
W1k
:&:.... '.
RH
e~T Ex/m
(neTEx/m)B
(2.22)
ne
I
I
I
I
,
,
,
,
,
,
66
....
~
....
..
.
..
II
.II
....
~
II
.II
..
II
. . . II
'L .....
I
. . . II
I
I
,
,. . .
II
, ..
, ..
, .
, .
, .
, .
~
.....
. . . II
~
..
II
.....
~
~
....
~
. . . II
That is, the Hall coefficient is the inverse of the carrier charge density~ In (~~~.
fact, the Hall effect is a useful way to measure the concentration of charge' ::)~.
carriers in a conductor. It is also convenient to define the Hall resistivity as ::~t
the ratio of the transverse electric field to the longitudinal current den~ity, }}
that is~
',}~:
.
~
..
....
BRH,
.....
== Ey/jx =
PH
,
,
,
II
...
~
.II
..
.....
(2.23) >~~~
.
I
I
. . . II
. . . II
which depends (in our approximation) only on the material and the applied::::J
magnetic field.
': :~~J
I
., ,
, ..
, .
I
~ ..
....
~
,
I
III III
...
. . . III
~
III III
~
III III
....
~
I
,
,
2.3.1, Measurements
I
I
III III
...
?:~:
....
~
I
,
,
,
III III
~
III III
I
,
III III
I
I
III III
...
III III
In order to nleasure the Hall effect, one needs a sample of a conductor~':/~~

but not an especially good conductor. This is because one also needs a:)~~~
relatively low carrier density ne in order to get a sizable effect; this of\t
course leads to a relatively high resistivity~ As seen in Table 2~ 1, bismuth'<~~~
is a good candidate metal~ and we describe such an experiment here. 11
::r~~~
.
Tile setup uses a bismuth sa mple with rectangular cross section~ mounted ,)~~~
on a probe with attached leads for measuring current and voltage. A ther;..::)~~~
mocouple is also attached to the sample so that temperature measurements ':~~j
.
can be carried out The magnetic field is provided by an electromagnet.'}~:~
3
capable of delivering a field up to ----5 kG over a volume roughly 1 cm . ,:)~~
The bismuth sample probe is shown in Fig~ 2~ 14~ The width of the bismuth ':}~:
sample is w = 6.5 mm and its thickness, measured with a micrometer,- :(:~:
4
is t = 1.65 x 10- m. The effective length of the sample is the distance,; )t
.
between the leads used to measure the current ("white" and "brown~ as. )~~
.
shown in Fig~ 2.14). In our case, this distance is e = 7 rnm~ Current is {:?
supplied by a DC power supply, connected to the sanlple through the "red~' (:~:
.
n
and "black leads. The Hall voltage is measured with a digital multimeter~ }~:~
.
using the "green" lead and the output of a potentiometer used to balance }~:~.
the voltage on the 'white and "brown~' leads~ A separate bundle of wires- /~~
are cOlll1ected to leads that carry current to the heating resistor, and to a.:: :~t
thermocouple that measures the temperature of the bismuth sample.
:)~~
Begin by determining the Hall coefficient at room temperature and for a>j~
relatively high magnetic field. Tum on the electromagnet power supply td<t
I
III
. . . II
.....
.....
.....
. . . II
I
,
,'wlol ........'YI'I'I'I.m L'
III
......
.....
I
III
III
.. .
. . .~
11 Semiconductors also make good candidates, with a very low carrier density compared.: )~?
to a metaL For a desctiption of such a senlp, see A. Melissinos, Experiments in Modern,:)~~

Physics, First ed . Academic Press~ New York, 1966A
' ,:}~
.. .
,
I
,
,
III ..
....
..
....
~
III
....
....
..
....
..
III
....
... .
I
...
... .-
....
..
... .
...
III
I
,
III
III
~
I
I
.... .
..
,
..
I
I
.
~
III
III ..
I
,
....
.....
I
,
....
.. .
....
,
I
III
...
..J.~
2.3 EXlJeriment on the Ha ll Effect
'"~
67
"
"
"
l'l'OURE 2.14 Schematic of the probe used 10 make meR.SuremeolS of the Hal l effect
bismuth. Electrical connections are made to the bismuth sample using co pper leads. A
r"~rno<o,<pl."" weU as a resiSlorwhich acts as 11 heal source, isal5(l auacbcd to the.~ample.
, _'__ .'~_ .. bundles of wires emerge from the probe, one of which is used excl usively for
::"~""' the sample and for mr:as urin g its lempcrarurc.
:;,"",md 4 kG. I! will likely need an hour or so to stabilize. In the meantime,

the sample probe removed from the magnetic field, 1\10 about 3 A
;~:l~::: the bismuth sample, and adjust tJie poteotiometer so that the Hall
:~::'
is zero. Return the cUrrent through the sample to zero. The sample
get quite hot while iT is conducting so much current. Be careful not TO
iT, or to touch il to anything else.
When the elcclJ'omagnet is stabilized, measure and record the magnetic
by some other technique. Now, place the sample
center of the magnetic field. Quickly ralse the CWTent I thro ugh
sample to 3.0A, and record the Hall voltage VA. Then, quickly, reduce
current by 0.25 A, and record the Hall voltage again. You should carry
series of measurements out rather rapidly to avoid leaving the bismuth
'saJmple at high temperature for any extended period of time. When you
reduced the current to near zero, and recorded the final va1ue of [he
........
_.
J.
'"
... '"
.. "'" oil ..
, " '"
J.
..
"
'"
......
'" .. oil
,. ..... III
"A" III
.JJlA",.
'" " '" ... ...
J.
.,'"""'" ''"".....
. . ...
...
.' ,..../''0'
"
68
"A .. ..
.............
2 E'ectrons in Soiids
.. lOll
,. A
"
'" .II ...-......
---
, ",. ""'
,, ",,'"JI.. .
"
JI
. ',
..
...........'"
,.
,.AI
..
'"
'" III: ..
,. .. .J
,.11"'"
.. """'
'" ....
..
,
"
'"
,.AI
..
-,/"
' . . . . .JIi....
,
"
'"
'"
'"
'"
.. '"
lit '"
'" .. III: III
..
, , """'
'" "'"
.. III
, """'
.. litIII
., .....
, ... ""'''''
, "
, ... "'" ""
"
3.5
".
"
..... III .
"
..... III ,
'" ... III III
'"
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. . . . . . III
. . . . . III
'"
'" '"
III
.. ..
. . . . . . . III
.. III ...
'"
. . . . . . . . III
'" '"
,
2.5
lit III
"
Slope=1.23 mV/A
lit III
,.AI
.. III
..... lit ,
. . . . II
'" '"
'" '"
II
......
...
'" . . . . III III

'" ..... II
. . . . . III III
, '" .. II II
"--'
' ....
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...
111
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III III I
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-:c
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,,
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...
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.....
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....... ...
, ,.........
,
. ...
......
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. . ..
,. .......
.... ...
.......
....... ...
'.,...-........
..............
..--. . .
,. ..--....
...-...
.....
...........
.---...
.....
...-...
....
......
..
......
...-.....
......
.
......
.. ...-..... .
....-... .
......
.....
......
. ...-... .
,..........
. .....
,
......
, ....... . .
. ..
,...
.........
...-..
, .. .---..
, ......
....... .
,
.a
,.AI
' , " "',.AI

II
->E
"
....
. "'.A=--:
,
,.AI , .
,
"
"'''
"'"
, " '" II1II
"
,,
,,,
,
,
,,
>
"'ffi 1.5
,"
, ,
,
, ,
,
. . . . . . III
..---
II ...
..---
"
...
,
,
II . . . . ...
II . . . . "
..
" II . . . . "
, .. II "
, , II . . ..
, II ...-. . . .
, , II . . ..
,
, ,
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
,
',
,,
,
II . . ..
II . . . .
II . . ..
.. II . . . ...
'~
'
...
, .. II . . . . .
, ,
, , ,"
,
"
,
Current through sample (A)
" II . . ..
II . . . .
, II . . ..
, II . . . . .
,
o~----~----~----~~--~--~~~--~~
II . . . . .
II
.....
..........
.....
.
...... .
...... . .
......
........ ..,
..
.
.......
.
..........
...-....
.---... .
......
.---....
..
....
.............
.---....
.......
.---...
....
,"
II . . ...
,....
,,
JI "
"
,
I
, , "
"
.---. . . .
Ill . . . . . ..
"'"
'''.''''',r,
"
FIGURE 2.15 Sample of Hall effect data, taken at room temperature and with a magnetic ::~:)~~;~:
, , .s- .
field B == 4.42 kG
":~:=:~~~:~~
.
..... "'"
.....
"
"
....
....
.
....
.....
.
."""'."
....
......
.............
........ . .
,"
",
,
"'"
'Ill ""' "'"
"'",
, "
,
..Ii
,
.........
...... . . .,
............
,
,.
'
Hall voltage, remove the probe and recheck the value of the magnetic \~~~~~~~~
..........
field.
/:::=:=::
........ ..
.........
A sample of data taken in this way, at room temperature and with B =- ' :)t~~~~~
4.42 kG, is shown in Fig. 2.15. A free linear straight line fit gives a slope :':\~~~~~~~
of 1.23 m VI A .. with an intercept very close to zero. In terms of quantities ',\~~~~~~~
.........
related to our measurement, the Hall coefficient (Eq. (2.21)) is expressed by ,.:'>~~~~~~
...... . .
,
,,
,
,
"
,
Ey
RH =
'Pw=
-_
jx B
VH/W
VHt
I/(w X t)B
1B
=
- .
dVH t
-_
dl B
.......
...... . ... ..
..........
:}~~~~~~
,.
' ....................
....... . .
'
>~:~=~:~
....... ..
, , .........
, .........
,
..
..
. . . . . . III
where we note that our data yields a very good direct proportional ,:':\~~~~~~
relationship between VH and I. Using SI units, this yields
, ,<:~;~:~
...... ... .
........
,
.............
,
,
,
......
......... .. .
.....
1.23 X lO-3
-4
1. 65 x 10 m
O442 T
= 4.59 x 10- m
, 'Z,:
Ie
,:::::~~~~~
'<:'::~~~~~~
.
A
.....
..........
.....
.....
This is quite close to an accepted room temperature value of RH ~ 5.4 x<)~~~
7 3
10- m /C for pure bismuth metal. The uncertainties in measuring the,:}J~~~~
,
uu
,,:.:,~ '..I'~
,',~ .....",r,..
,,' "
,
,,,,
'"
01 . . . .
~
dimensions of the sample can easily account for the discrepancy.

' <?~;~
Of course, this sample and this setup can be used to determine the'::\~~~
.......""'"
resistivity of bismuth. Outside of the magnetic field; measure the' voltage1~
,
..... .
........
. ...
........
.........
........
..... ..
.....'""''""...."'""'"
,
, ,
, ,,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
'" '""'""'""'"
,,
,,;
,,; "'"
"'
" "'"
II "'"
, , III
,
, , 01: "'"
, .... II
, ,
, ,
"'"
, II ...
,
,
.......
........
......
.........
.....
.... ...
,"
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
....
oj
II ..
oj
oj
oj
..
oj
..
"
oj
..
... .
oj . .
..
69
TABLE 2.2 Sample data. taken by a student, for the resisti vi ty p of

bismuth as a function oftemperature, using the Hall effect apparatus
T (oq
T (K)
-80
-60
193
213
233
253
273
293
313
333
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
P (f"n-cm)
70
85
96
110
121
134
..
150
163
drop along the length f. of tbe bismuth sample, as a function of the applied
current, and determine the resistivity p from the ratio
Ex
dVx wt
p=--=--.
I,
dl
The temperature dependence of each of these quantities can be detemlined

by heating (and cooling) the probe, and recording values as a function of
temperature using readings from the thermocouple.
Table 2.2 lists some results for the resistivity p in (~Q-cm) as a function
of temperature. To examine the temperature dependence it is best to make
a log-log plot of the data vs T since we expect a power law dependence.
Tills is shown in Fig. 2.16 and when fitted gives
p ex T152.
Note that at room temperature (T = 25C)

p
= 1.4 X
10-4 Q-cm
in reasonable agreement with the data of Table 2.1.

Indeed, one expects a T 3 / 2 dependence of the resistivity on the temperature because of the following argument. From Eq. (2.14) the resistivity is
inversely proportional to the mean time between collisions, as long as the
carrier density remains constant. Now the mean time between collisions is
given by
r
= A/V,
,' . -0
.0,...
..
",, -:::
.r-.r
' .l ,,/"A
70
~1'
-';r
..
"':.-:.-:
:'-..r
>:, .. :..Z'-:
~
"""~0
........
..
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..
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'
.......
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JI",
,,
..
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......
..
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, ...... ..
...
Ji . . .,("". .
,
,,
Ji IIIi ... ...
,.JI..Ii .. ..
.l
......
..
lOll! ..
. . . IIIi
.......... JIIII
......... ..
,' . . :II..Ii:z
..... ,
, ........ ,
,
.. ..Ii ... . .
JI
.AI ..
..
oI..AI
.l
..
........
........ ,,
' .. .....
, ,
,
..
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..Ii
..Ii
:II
..
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...
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,
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,
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,
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,
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,
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.. '" ..Ii ... . .
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...
III
.AI . .
..Ii . . "
"
..Ii
, , "
, .......
,
..
..I
..
..
..
......
"
..Ii
......
..Ii
III
..
..
....
..
..
,II
..
..
..
....
..
,
I
......
III ..... ..
III .. ..
..
......... ..
III . . . . ..
..
........
..
........
I
..
.........
..
......
..
......
..
......
......
.
......
...
.....
.
..........
......
.
.........
...... . ...
.......
...... .'".
.......
....
.......
..
......
.
.......
.....
. ...
.........
......
..
......
.
.....
.
.
.......
.
...... ... ..
.......
......
.......
...... . ...
......
III .. ...
I
,
....
,,
,
,
,,,
,
,
,
~
~
..
III .. ..
,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
(25QC)~139 (~ ..cm)
.
102.4
III
..
..Ii . . . .
..All . . ...
III . . . .
I
..
..All ..
..
.. ..Ii . . . .
I
. . . . . II I
~ '" III . . .
"
AI
. . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . ..
..
......
III
..
I
..Ii
'"
..
..
..
......
..
..
......
..
"
...
III
. .
AI
..
......
..
..I
..
......
.
....
.
.
......
.
.
.........
..
......
.
.....
.. . .
.......
.....
.......
.....
.... .
.......
..
..
.......
.. ..
....
.
.
........
......
... . .
.......
....
.........
...... . .. .
"
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
, , ,
, ,
, ,
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
,,,
,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
...... .. ...
........
.....
.......
..
......
.
.
.........
.
.......
. ..
......
.....
........
.... .. ..'"
~
~
...
Temperature T (K)
.......
.
.....
.
.
........
...
....... ..
~
~
FIGURE 2.16 The resistivity of bismuth as a function of temperature, taken with the f!:aU\~:~:~~~
effect apparatus (data from Table 2.2.) The data are fitted to a power law form.
' ",:::~:~~~~~~
........
.......
......
......
....... ... .
.........
,
, ,, ,
,
, ,,
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
...... . ..
........
.........
........ .
,
.........
,
.........
.
.........
,
, .......... ,.
where A is the mean free path for scattering, and v the thennal velocity of}f~~'
..
the electrons. For v we can use
}::~:::::
...
..
....
...
....
.
.
......
......
........
......
1
3
......
,
",.
",.
, ,,
,
,
",.
",.
,
,
,,
,
,
,
,,
,
,,
.
,
, , .. .
.

,
,,
.
,,
,
",.
",.
-mv = -kT
or
= J3kT/~'~
.......
.....
... ..
....
.
.
.
..
...
.
.....
.
...
.....
.
....
. . .. .
increases,)}~:~:
.",.
",.
",.
.",.
",.
",.
",.
The mean free path, A, decreases as the collision cross section

namely as the lattice vibrations increase with temperature. It is found that::){:
......
....
A is inversely proportional to the temperature~ and therefore
:(:~:~:~
......
.....
....... .....
3 2
t ex: 1/ T /
)~~)
. ... .
...
, ,
,..
,
~
",.
.. ..... ...
.....
.
.. ..
.......
,
.
.
, .... .
.. ... ... ..
,.. . . ....
..... .. ...
, ,,..
, ,........
.......
, ,.
.......
....
......
. . ...
.......
, ..,
.. .
,.... .
,
or using Eq. (2.14),
.II
.II
...
.II
...
,
,,
,
..
,!
,
,
, ,
...
......
We can also examine the temperarure dependence of the Hall coeffi-)(}

.....
cient In this case it is best to plot RH on a semi-log plot vs 1/ T. The<t<
reason is that the Hall coefficient (see Eq. (2.22)) is directly inversely pro-}\(
.. . .
portiona! to the carrier density; and we expect the carrier density to depend,::<{
. ..
on the temperature by an exponential factor, such as for instance shown.:::
"...
in Eq. (2.28). The data are plotted in this way in Fig. 2.17, and we recog~,:?}~
nize two distinct slopes. As expected, RH falls with increasing temperature:<\>
.. . .
,
, .
, .
.........
.. ..... ,
, ,, ,.
. ...,
.., .... ..
, .... .. ,
, . . ..
, .. .. ..... ..
,,
, ..
, ,
,
~
~
,
,
,
,
........ .,,
......... .. ..,
...... .. ....
........... ....
............
. ... .......
, ,,
, ,, , ..
, ,
,,,
, , ..
, ..
, , ..
, , ..
, ,
, , .. ..
, , ..
,
..
, , ..
,
..
, , ..
,
,
,
,
2.4 Semiconductors
2,5
3.5
1IT(K)
FIGURE 2.17
71
4.5
X 10-.3
Measurements of the Hall coefficient as a function of temperature.
because the carrier density increases. By fitting the data to the form
n ex exp(-Ej2kT),
we find for the two regions
low T,
high T,
= 0.02geV
= 0.120 eV.
Such energy differences are typical of the excitation of impurities. It is

also relevant to note that the camer density at room temperature is
n
= l/eRH = 1.35 x
10 19 cm- 3 .
This is quite high and typical of a conductor.
2.4. SEMICONDUCTORS
2.4.1. General Properties of Semiconductors
We have seen in the first section how a free-electron gas behaves, and what
~an be expected for the band structure of a crystalline solid. In the second
..,,
..
..
.
..
.
,
.....
..
... ,
, ..
,
,,
,
, ,
,,
,
,,
,
,
72
..
..
......
..
..
...
..
..
.......
, J

, ,, ,
,,
,,
,,, ,
,,
,
, ,
~
..
....
of the;}~:~..
,
,
,
section we applied the model of a free-electron gas to the behavior

resistivity of Dletals. In the present section we will study some prQperties.::}~..
of semiconductors that can be verified easily ill the laboratory, where wei; :~}..
will make use both of the free electron gas model and of the band structure:,.::}..
of the material. As mentioned before, a semiconductor is a crystalline ::/
solid in which the conduction band lies close to the valence band~ but is,:}~
..
not populated at low temperahlres; semiconductors are unlike most metals ?~~~.
in that both electrons and holes are responsible for the properties of the;\~~....
semiconductor. If the semiconductor is a pure crystal, the number of holes-,: :~~~~
(positive carriers, p) is equal to the number of free electrons (negative:::}:
carriers., n), since for each electron raised to the conduction band, a hole,:)~:
is created in the valence band: these are called the intrinsic carriers. A1ri:~:i:
practically important semiconductor materials; however, have in them a:)~~
certain amount of impurities that are capable either of donating electrons-::;J~
to the conduction band (making an n-type crystal) or of accepting electrons}~~~j
from the valence band, thus creating holes in it (making a p-type crystal).}~~~~
These impurities are called extrinsic carriers and in such crystals n ;;fo p-..>J
Let us then first look at the energy-band picture of a semiconductor as ir\~~
is shown in Fig. 2.18; the impurities are all concentrated at a single energy,(~~
level usually lying close to, but below, the conduction band. The densitY</~
..
of states must be different from that of a free-electron gas (Eq. (2.4) and,:?~..
Fig. 2.2a) since~ for example, in the forbidden gaps it must be 0; close to'i>~
1
the ends of the allowed bands it varies as E /2 and reduces to 0 on the edge.,': \~.
....
..
.....
..
,
....
..
..
..
II
II
II
III
, iii ..
,

, ,,
, ,,
,,
,,,
,
, ,,
,
,
,
,
, ,,
,
,
~
~
~
....
..
..
..
....
...
...
.. ,,
. ..
~
JI
JI
,.~
,,
,
, '" "
,
,
, .. JI
,
, ,
, ,,
,
, .. II
,
,
,
,, , , ,,, ,
,, ,
,, .,
,, ,
,
,, ,
,, ,
,
,, ,
,
II
, , ,.
,
'11 ..
,
, ,,
.
,
, , .
, , ,......
.. '"
,
, , ,......
.. '"
,
, , ,. .
.. '"
, , , ,......
,
, ,,
.
,
'11 ..
,
, , , '" ,
,
, ,
,,
,
, , , .. Ii.
, , . .. .
, ,
, ,,
.
" , ....
, , ,. .
~
.
..
..
.
...
..
....
...
..
......
..
..
......
.....
......
.....
...
~
,.
II
JI
Other fined
D(/E)
bands
,
......"
"
....
....
......"
..........
"
........"
..
11
..
11
..
III
..
FIGURE 2.18 Energy band structure of a semiconductor without impurities. On the left~;:::~::
....
hand side the Penni distribution for a free-electron gas is shown~ 011 the right-hand side the~:::::~
....
.
..
acmal density of states D(E) is shown.
,>:;::......
..
, ,..
....
, ..
,
,,
, ,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,,
,,,
, ,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
, ..
,
,
,
......
.....
........
...
......
....
.....
''''
,
,
.. ,
.. ,
.. ,
,
.. ,
.. ,
..
11
JI
..
11
..
,
,
..
AI ..
, AI ..
.. II
,,,
2.4 Semiconductors
73
the other hand, the Fermi distribution function, Eq. (2.3), remains the
The only parameter in this function is the Fermi energy, which can be
by integrating the number of occupied states (Fermi function times
of states) and setting it equal to the electron density. It is clear,
hr.'''P.'UPr that if we are to have as many empty states in the valence band as
OC(:UDIea ones in the conduction band, the Fermi level must lie exactly in
middle of the forbidden gap12 (because of the symmetry of the trailing
of the distribution). In Fig. 2.18, the density of states is shown to
right and the Fermi distribution function to the left. We measure the
VVO'H"'~'~ of the Fermi levelfrom the conduction band and define it by EF;
exact value of EF is
Ep
E
(m*)3/4
= -~
+kTln ~
m:
(2.24)
Since the Fermi level lies below the conduction band, EF is a negative
quantity, Eg is the energy gap always taken to be positive, and mj; and m;
: are the effective masses of holes and electrons, respectively. If we and WF
.
for the actual position of the conduction band and Permi level above
tile zero point energy, then
To find the density of electrons in the conduction band (or holes in the
. valence band) we simply substitute Eq. (2.24) for WF' into Eq. (2.4), multiply
by the density of states, and integrate over w from w = we to +00. When,
bowever, the exponent
-(WF - w) ~
Eg
"2 + E
(2.25)
kT,
the Penni distribution degenerates to a Boltzmann distribution. (Here E

: . is the energy of the electrons as measured from the top of the conduction
. band; obviously it can take either positive or negative values.) With this
assumption the integration is easy, yielding
n=
27rmekT ) 3/2 e E F /kT
h2
::::::
(k
27rme T )3/2 e
-E /2kT
h2
l2If the effective masses of p- and n-type carriers are the same.
'
(2.26)
...... . .
. . . . . ...
. . . . . . ..
III~
, ....
.II
....
..
I ..
..
, .... ,-..1
. . . . .. . -
,.J.J".........~1
..-.
-,-' .....
..........y.
- ,
14
II
.J/l
.II.
.........:;..:
-,'
....
-- ,,, ......
............-;...
, .
......,...
- , , ......
.... :..-....
- , ...... .
.,.J"" .........J1
,
..
JI
. . . . ..
..
.II
..
"" ..
'"'
, ', ............jA
-'
II
similarly,
'
,..
.......
. . . . . . .-"'"
........
..
' .. .III .......
',
-.
....
........
, ,
~.
....
_.,,/
II
.,j"",
..
, ...... ........-,AI
I'. ......~.J
3/2
kT
2X"!..h
,' ... ..
~ .1
e-Eg/2kT.
h2
(2.27),:::)J~~
".~~
, ........
, .II.. jill
,
, , .......... ...
......
....... ...
'." .........-j
.r-,
, , ............... .J
,.-
..
JIll.
...
It is interesting that the product np is independent of the position of the:}{~a

13
Fermi level
especially if we take me mh
."
:i\~~
n?l = np =- 2.31
.
X l031T3e--Eg/kT.
.
'
... ~
"'
-'
.. ,:)~1$
.... ..
..
, ....
. " oil,
, ,
, ' , J.~ .J
"~""""'j
From the analysis we expect that as the temperature is raised, the density~~~
of the intrinsic carriers in a semiconductor will increase at an exponential{~~~
....
rate characterized by E g /2kT. TIlls temperature is usually very high since<)~~
Eg ~ 0.7 V (see Eqs. (2.29))~<~~~~
We have already mentioned that impurities determine the properties of:)3~
a semiconductor, especially at low temperatures where very few il1trin-(~~~;t
sic carriers are populating the conduction bandp These impurities, whelt:\&~
in their ground state~
usually concentrated in a single energy levet)3]
lying very close to the conduction band (if they are donor impurities} oJi/~~~
very close to the valence band (if they are acceptors). As for the intrinsid(~;~
carriers. the Fermi level for the impurity carries lies halfway between tlufii~~
conduction (valence) band and the impurity level; this situation is shown in}~:~~
Figs. 2.19a and 2.19b. If we make again the low temperature approximation}f~~~~
ofEq. (2.25), the electron density in the conduction band is given by
~:}:~
~
" ... '.J'~
are
,~
".,r
.ilytA
01
. . . .J/l. .
".J/l~
:~::::: ~
, . 0I~..r
-J"
".I"'.-
::;::--:
(2.28')/:~'::-::i
,
II
' , ' ,", ..

,
.IIIAII"~
<III . . . . .
.~~
:::::::~~
of
',' .......... '..l"
where Nd is the donor density and Ed the separation of the donor. energy}~~t
level from the conduction band. In writing Eq. (2.28), however, care must}~:~
be exercised because the conditions of Eq. (2.25) are valid only for very~nl~
low temperatures. Note, for example, that for gerlnanium
,;:~:~:~
..........
,
~""'''",rA
,,
Eg ::- 0. 7 eV,
and for kT ::;:: 0.7 eV,
T = 8000K
"' . ..r
....
....... ..
01
....
.....
......
...
......
.....
.........
......
"' ...
....
.
...
.
.
... ......
",All ...
'" "'..II
"'
..
...
.. All . .
, '", '"
, ..
, , ,
, ,, '" '"
whereas
Ed = 0.01 eV,
, ,,
'"
All
...
.II . .
...1.
l1li
, ,
, , iii
,
, , ,.., ", ,, ,
,
, ,
and for kT ' .': 0.01 eV,
= 120K~
... .
',iii ...""
";: ~ :~~
(229)....
. '" .
-'-x
...............
.',
"'.."
'
, "'"
, .. iii
,
Thus at temperatures T ~ 120 K most of the donor impurities will be in the~)i~

conduction band and instead ofEq. (2.28) we will have n ~ Nd; namely~(~~~
, ,.... .oI.
............. ..
........
- ... .
,
,,
,,
01 ..
13This result is very general and holds even without the approximation that led ~\~~~~
Eqs~ (2.26) and (2.27).
>:~:~:
.....
...........
.....
,,
,,
,
,
,
,
...........
......
..........
............
.............".....
....
....
..
......
......
,
,
,
II
,
,
,
, , , ......
, ,
,,
, ,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,.
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
1
....
01
,
:~!:
2.4 Semi co n d uctors
de~a~ribed
75
Fi~~
AGURE 2.19 Same as

in the legend to
2.18 but with the addition of
{: impurities. (a) The impurities are of the donor type and lie at an energy slightly below
~:? the conduction band. (b) The impurities are of the acceptor type and lie slightJy above the
:}: valence band. Note the shift of the Fermi level as indicated by the dotted line.
III: !he density of impurity carrie" becomes saturated. ODce satumtioD has
~~?been reached the impurity carriers in the conduction band behave like the
lil!!~free electrons of a metal.
!~j:!: 2.4.2. Sketch of p-n Semiconductor Junction Theory

~r: Semiconductor materials with high impurity concentration. when properly
~f: combined, form a transistor. Junction transistors consist of two junctions of

~~}dissimilar-type semiconductors. one p type and one n type; the intermediate
:~~>region, the base, is usually made very thin. We "vill briefly sketch the
~~~:::behavior of such a p-n junction and then see how the combination of
i~< two junctions can provide power amplification; for this we will use our
~r:knowledge of the band structure of semiconductors and the position of
~?the Fermi level, as developed previously (Figs. 2.18 and 2.19). When two
i~?materiaIs with cllssimilar band structure are joined, it is important to know
~L~t what relative energy level one band diagram lies with respect to the
1{):lther:
the answer is that the Fenni levels of both materials must be at the
~'.'.'
!?:~'ame energy position when no external fields are applied; this is shown
u.. F'
220 .
~:::::ln 19. .
~~~{:. From the energy diagram of Fig. 2.20, it follows that only electrons with
~lEe > il We will be able to cross the junction from the n material into the p
Irgion "",I only hoi.,. wi!h E, > "W, from the p region into the n region"
'.'...............
'~"~-m~
. , ...
,
.......
.. ...
."
:::~::::~~
.'
.II
."
}::::W
:-:.:-:9.=:
76
."
.II
:::~:::::~
... 13.
::::::::~
Increasing
potential
DownhfU
<:::::~
. ::<:::~
::::::A*
.'?:::~
.:g
U)
":}:~~
.:::::::~~
(3.....
~
lLO
LL (])
-v
.1. We
Preferred
direction of
7".
:':-:.:w.
. :::::::~::::::
. ,,:-:.~w.
:/;::m
Increasing
potential
<{~m
mOtion::A
?
. ,. r.~
_. _
:::::~M
FIGURE 2.20 Structure of the energy bands at the junction of an n~type and a p-type@~
. ,,,;.:~.*
'
,
..
r:::::::
'. :-:-r:w.
semiconductor.
:;:::~~
Minority
'.:: ::::~m
carriers
Reverse bias
(a)
""",
to+of
Battery
... '<:~~:~~~~~
'.
-----.
"
aWh
, ,.r.@
, ,
Fermi
1evel
~----.
to- of
.~
:':-:-r.=
.....
' ,
, ,
Battery
.::::::~~~mmm
. .....
.........
to+of
to - of
'"
'"'" . .
.....
' ,
, ,,
, , ,.
..
, , "",r,
Battery
.:.:~~
... ~.:.:~
Minority carrlers
Battery
-v
::::m
~.,......:
I' -::::::
:',::::::m~
,. . .:m
,,::::::.~
:~:.:.~:~
"
yh=:
,:~::::=::
,
-v
oool.
":::;:~$
n
n
.. "':::::~m
I
-- - - -
~m
Fermi level
,-....-.-_
....
-.-
.:.: {:~~:iI'*:::::h
iii
....
,:::=:=%
'<':':m
, ::::::;m%
- ....... fZ.
"''A.~
. .. ...
,'.:.:.:.... ~.
~
' ',~
"'A
'
..
...
.
"
AI
."
tl%
FIGURE 2.21 Structure of the energy bands at a biased n-p junction: (a) reverse bias and,;
(b) forward bias. The solid dots represent electrons, whereas the open circles holes.
.<)~
...
:/1. ,,..m
',:::.::~=::;::
Ii"~
Holes in the n region or electrons in the p region are called "minodtY:iil~

carriers." Indeed. there will be diffusion of some minodty carriers acrossci~
.rm
in the vicinity of the j~nc~on.14..

~ now a reve~se ~las IS ~pphed -that 1~. one tha~ opposes th~ furthe~:::g
motIon of the mmont~ earners th~ Fe?ID levels will become displa~ed}~
. '.
14The .
.. I
res~lt of such diffusion is the buildu~ of a local charg7 density, which prevenij@~m
furthe: ditr:'slon. Throughout the present analysIs, however, we will neglect the local effec~~:~~m
at the Junction.
:::::~:m.
' ,,:.:...~%
. ~/.
, ......
~rI'
'l~
::::~~:~
.::::~m
:::::
'::::~~**
......
..
..
... .
:::~:'~
......
.:.:.~
,.., , ...
J'rI'
'
','
"'
, ,
, ,
I
II
:?:::::
~~~L
2.4 Semiconductors
77
:::::::.
%=.'.:
~~L:A We and D.. Wh are increased by almost the full voltage, making any motion
~:::::of minority
carriers across the junction very improbable. Figure 2.21 b, on
~~t:the other hand, shows the situation whenforward bias is applied (favoring
~~~<tbe motion of minority carriers). The Fenni levels are now displaced in the
~~~(opposite direction so that the barriers are lowered. However, the full bias
~~~(voltage does not appear as a difference between the Fenni levels because
MUdynamic equilibrium prevails. There is a continuous flow of minority car~:~<riers in the direction of the electric field (holes obviously moVing in the
~~t~pposite direction from electrons) and as a resu1t a potential gradient exists
1t:along the material; thus the entire bias voltage does not necessarily appear
if>at the junction itself.
:f:?:::. We will now consider two junctions put together; in Fig. 2.22a, p-type,
ir::n-type, and again p-type material are joined. When no bias is applied. we
~~~>expect the Penni levels to be at the same position, with the resulting config1t\1ration shown in the diagram; in agreement with our previous conclusions
~{:from the consideration of a simple junction, we see that barriers exist for
!f(the motion of holes from the p regions into the n region, and also for the
~r:motion of electrons from the n region into either of the p regions.
~t:: Figure 2.22b shows the double junction under operating biases; note
~f:::that one junction is biased forward, the other is biased in the reverse direcit(tion. The n-type material common to both junctions is called the base,
':-:~:':-.'
;.:-:.:-:-"
ojo:.:.:
~::::>:
~~~~>
~r>:
:
Operating bias
(b)
?:=:::::.
~::::::-:-
t'
~:::::::-,.
~::::::-
..
~~~~~>.
to-of
?:=::::.
~:::::
f:-::::.
Emitter
Collector
~:::::::
~tL
WW<
f?:':':-:'
~~j=:(:
holes
-V
~. ~o
1'; -::
o.Q
0000
holes
\la~aS~W8170000"j
Battery
o:-;;;o~o~-
eE~i:u.H..!!:o'----
;le~r~nS:E ~ ~';t~~
~~
8~ V
~~'I~:~GURE
k?ias
ec
to 0 of
Battery
2.22 Structure of the energy bands ;or a p-n-p junction transistor: (a) with no
applied, and (b) with operating biases. Note that the emitter is forward-biased, whereas
~!!j!:the c611ector is reve~e-hlased.
.", . ...*
......
a:::
.... -""'
__;g..r
~
, .~-~
."
.. ".~~
78
"
JI
...
. ...>:':~~~-0.
, " .
.."'"~~ ,'....
."'--2::
_,_
""-"....... ~'JJI
' " ........
.. " "...
.. "'" .''''
..
.. ".. -'i:.:
1~~
JI III
"
.. .x:
while the p type of the forward-biased junction is the emitter; the p-type ))M
II
,
'
'
.,; oil
"
'" WI II1II
" ... "'"
: JI
material of the reverse junction is the collector. A completely symmet~tjm

ric d~vice consisting of n-p-n materials ~ill perfo~ similarly when ::)i~
the bIases are re;ersed. Fr~m th~ en~rgy '!iagram of FIg. 2.22b w~ ~an.}@j
s~e that ~Y v~mg ~e ~rrutter Junctton ?Ias .we can contr~l tb~ Injec- ))@
tion of nunonty carners Into the base region; If the base regIon IS made
::(iffi
which pomt they wIll nnmediately cross It, smce It represents a gam m )~~
potential energy. ~ hE is. the minority carrier current inj.ected in~o. thet~~
~ase .over a potentlal bamer D.. ~h ~E B), . the p~wer requIred for m~ec"j~
lion IS Pin = hE D.. Wh (E B).; smularly if he IS the hole curre~t m~o<~
~out == heb.Wh(EC). Thus if Pout> Pin: thedeVlcelsapoweramph~er; \~

power gaIn.
\::$:
'.
,:;:::.;. =:
,.... . *
~~5.:--h:
'~m
' , ' ~ili'
,
-I"
2.4.3. Measurements of the I-V curve ofa pn
..
...
JIJDctionii~
~.Y"":.
.
... .
.. ,' .
my~
, , ..---.
, ,
~
is discussed below. One simply measures the current as a function of\~~
the number of carriers in the. conduction band. That ~. the carriers <r~m:
J~~h = (Je;~)O e~p(eVB./ kT): where VB .IS the blas voltage across ~e \i~*~
diode. The IDlnonty ,carners wIll cancel this current ex~tly when there
lS(W:
. ::::::i&f
fOIu}
eVBlkT -.
1)
I -- l 0 (e
<:::~:~:
(2.30)."::;::~:%:
...~~~q:--h""::
...
,,"'.-~h
.._~:--h.
w-
A photograph of the experimental setup is shown in Fig~ 2.23. A silicon'}~~ll

pn junction diode is attached to one side of a copperplate with conductive}~
I
a hea~ source. A thenI1ocouple is also attached to rec~rd the temperature.)~

A Kelthley Model 617 Programmable Electrometer IS used to vary the:~~
scan, and the temperature as determmed by the thermocouple are recorded::~
.....
. "'~m
"::Jm*
.......
...
.....-;w.
'
",
~.
,'
~~
"
>~:~Im
.. ..
..........
,
''
,
,
~
~
. .;::~:~~
, ....
,
. ""-
~{:
2.4 Semiconductors
79
AGURE 2.23
Photograph of the setup used to measure the propenies of a diode.
~:, : :
~.j . : . :~;r;~~o ~~~:;:7h~:;:~~il~~:!~ the power resistor, giving the
.~i:; ~~~cdiode
To analyze the data we musl appreciate that the diode does not obey the
I5
equation (2.30) but operates in the recombination regime.
(2.3 I)
it!;: and the last approximation is justified becau~ the term exp(e VB /21c T) 1.
~{:
Therefore. we presen t the V -/ curves for VB > 0, on a senti-log plot in

Fig. 2.24a. From the fit we tind the slopes
T = 24<>C= 297K
e/2kT = 21.3 V-I
319K
= 19.6 V-I
342K
= 18.9 V-I .
_...
......
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~~
-)=@
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80
--::~:::::~%~~
... ~~
-:. . -: ':~~w.:
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-.-.'-......
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..
..
..
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(a)
10
.. T=69C
o T=37"C
T="24 C
102
I~." " ~~
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III
:~~~X
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~
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~~
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11
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Q~4
Bias voltage (VB)
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-0.5
-0.4
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-0.2
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-~
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,'
Bias voltage (VB)
"
,','~
\lj)W!l
FIGURE 2.24 Measurements of the current through a diode as a function of bias voltage,
for different temperatures. (a) is for positive bias, plotted on a semilogarithmic scale. ,: :}~1.~
Exponential fits are indicated. (b) is for negative bias voltage~ plotted on a linear scale.
":<:~~~
,'......
.........
. .....
..... *
,
...
II
.......
.
.........
......
.
.......
.... ......
,', "',".*.r.
......
...
.
......
.
..............
.
..........
".......
'........
..........
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......
.
.......
.
.............
.
..........
/..
..........
..........
........
........
.....
.
.....
.
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..:"'."/..
~
'~
,
'
,
,
,
~.
~.
,
' ,
,
','
, '
, ,
,
,
,
~.
,
,
,
','
, ,
, ,
'
,',~
','~
, ~
,
',
, ,~
,
,,
,
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~.
...
:,',:.......::~::x
:::::*
'
,.~~
,':,':-;..~*
....... X
, , .".. i.'"
'
2.5 Hillh Tc Superconductors
81
Thus, using the value of the Boltzman constant k = 1.38 x 10- 23 11K we
find that
,= ( 1. 73 0.05) x 10- 19 C
in good agreement with lhe value of the electron charge.
The different intercepts are an indication of the variation of 10 with
temperature. (Of course at VB = 0, I = 0 but this point cannot be reached
on the logarithmic piaL ) A better way of detenni.ning 10 is by applying
negative bias. From the negative bias data (Fig. 2.24b) we find that
'[' = 297K
10 = 3.9 pA
303K
= 4.4 pA
310K
= 6.7pA
319K
= 11.6pA.
llle reverse cumnt is proportional to the minority carrier density. As the

temperature increases, the population density increases as
no: e- E,/2J:T ,
where E~ is the energy gap between the vaJence and conduction bands.
From the data we find that
E,=O.84eV.
This is in reasonable agrccmem with the energy gap in silicon (1.1 e V at
room temperature). Systematic error can come from a number of sources,
includingconlacl potential differences and the extent to which the negative
bias data of Fig. 2.24b has reached its asymptotic value.
2.5. ruGB T, SUPERCONDUCTORS

2.5.1. Introduction
:',
;:
~~
I.n 1911 it was discovered that certain metals completely lose their electrical
:;"
resistance wbeo cooled to very low tempcrarure.~. typically less than 10K.
The loss of resistivity sets in sharply when the critical re.mpe.raJure Tc is
crossed. This is anaJogous to a phase transition belweeo different slates
Iii'
of maUer, as for ;nstance from ;ce to water. The ph ase d;agram for the
~::
,-:
;;
82
2 E'ectrons in Sends
uzing field H as shown In Flg. 2.25. Values of Tc and Bo for some common . ::::::~ii
Tc
Ho
Lead (Pb)
7.81 K
0.0803 T
MercuI)' (Hg)
4.1 K
0.0411 T
.: (:~m
. ::~Jm
. .~w.
The b~sic ~echanism is ~at at low te~?erature electro~s bind in pairs ~th .)~w.
t.J.c~ and can ~ov~ thro~gh the lattlce Wlthout sc~ttenng, namely Wlth~ut}~~
resIstance. This gIves nse to a supercurrent, which once started cont.J.n-}~~
voltage) IS removecl In fact, all of the pa1fs occupy the ground state and can :.(~~@.
also have the ~roperty. that .no magnet.J.c field can eXIst mside th~ super-)!1@.
~annot change, dB / d t =
o. This IS because any change 1D the external field .H~
-------.--.. -
:.:-:~@
microscopic theory of superconductivity proposed in 1957 ~
::\i@
:::::~~@
....
::)%,@
III
III;.....,
~Y.l.
..::: :;w.:~~..y..:
.....
.'~ffijo"/.o
. ....
.,
......
. ..
I.
III
.. ::::::@j
,
I
,
.,.W
.....
III
2.5 High Tc Suparconductors
@:: :
Ir
Coollid
:::~::>
mt:: .
~.;-:-;.
t?(
?:t:::: _,
~:;: :;;::: .
t)
to)
~rY
Ie
templlfature
t)
Ii
:m::..
;\';j:'
83
B.
to)
8. -- 0
B.
temperatUle
t')

(d)
8. -- 0
(g)
~~{{~GURE 2.26 Bcliavior of a superconductor when placed in II. magnetic field. (a-d) The
+ <-Jlcid is swiu;bcd 011 after the sample is coolecl below Te. (e,n The field is applied before
~K::::t(;o1in8 me sample. In eitb~ case the flux is cllpeUed from ille superconductor and no field
~t{f~:trapped in its interior.
Ijir'::~eexternaJ fi eJd inside the conductor. In a superconductor, however, B = 0
~::::: (ill the interior region, irrespective of whether the field is applied before or
~.~.~,~:. ,: .,
r the superconductor is cooled below Te. This is shown in Fig. 2.26.

' <The exclusion of the magnetic field (fiu.x) from the interior of a superWi(:~~nductor is called the Meissner effect and can be easily demonstrated by
F ?:teVitating a small permanent magnet above me surlace of a superconduc~~n_?r: This is shown in Fig. 2.27 wh~re the solid lines are the magnetic field
~x)ines of the permanent magnet. Smce the superconductor must expel the
~}~ux from its interior, the induced surface currents produce the field shown
@}~y -the dotted lines. They exactly cancel the external field in the jnterior of
~::;~e supen;:onductor. Ho:-",cver. outside the superconductor there now ex..is~s
~:l:maglleuc field opposite to that of the permanent magnet. Thus there IS
~r;a: force puslting the small magnet away from the superconductor. As the
~:
...:.::.;.'_.
Ute
IimiL.
f:?J~:%/
- - - ,.
- .....~.
......

~
-

- - --

- - .~~.

- -
- -
~
~~~
B4
........
.. .
~
-::::::~j
.II
....
..
...
.II
....
.II
...
.II
_ __
~~~
.II .......
.II
I.
....
.II . .
....
_.~
Penuanent
____.\-------- magnet
.. .. .. ....
.....
- . . . _. ...
- .. ... .1-:.
.
.....
......-
_rtti_~
._
. . . . ._
..
__..o..l,
- . . o
..
..
.II
..
....
.II
.II
.II _ . ._
. . . . . ._
....
..
. ..
..
... . .
..
.II
.II
I . . . . .. .I
....
_,.-
'._
rtti
~_.',.".""
(I~
-:
:::::~~
;-
'
.-:':-:.:?
I
...-___- Superconductor
....
rtti
...
.II
....
. . . II
..
III
...
..
..
..
..
III
, ,. ,
I
..
..
III
..
.II
.II
,.....
. ,. .
...
..
..
.....
.. . .
... .
~
III
)~:~fW
FIGURE 2.27 A permanent magnet is placed above a superconductor. The solid lines:::;~
are the flux produced by the permanent magnet. The dotted lines are the flux produced by:::::
. ....
the induced surface currents and completely cancel the external flux in the interior of the<}~;
.,
superconductor. In the exterior they give rise to a lift force.
:::;::
I
III
,
I
,
,
..
...
. . ..
,
,
,
... .
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~
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~
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I
... .
I
.. ...
I
....
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III
~
...
....
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III
III ..
III
I
I
.......
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I
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.: ::::~~~~W
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_-.-_'
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._
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... ......
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- --
...
FIGURE 2.28
liquid nitrogen. Courtesy Colorado Superconductor, Inc.
_..
_."
-
...
___
.'
.. .......
---
:01. . . . . . . .
--
---
__
.,. . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .=
..
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m
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.:- -.::! . -:::::~m

'
..
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.~ ~
~
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---.. _ . - . -.' -.--.-~
--. ...... .~-~.--.
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. .:..:. .:~~ ....:..:.~.:.;.~.:...::z;
..~.~
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_.
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.,
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,
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,
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. . . ..
. . ..
~
.. ...
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.::~: ::~m~r?
, ~ ... r?Y"';
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...
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. : :::::~~~
distance increases, the magnetic lift force decreases; equilibrium is reached \~~M
when the lift equals the gravitational force on the magnet. Figure 2.28 is)@
an actual picture of levitation due to the Meissner effect using the high
..
:.-"/.
superconductor discussed in the next s e c t i o n . > i f
.
.::::: :~~%.1.
Tc:4~
,
... ' ... '."'Y""

~
I
,.,... x:
I
..
... .
I
.. ...
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I
I
,,~~
....
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,
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,
,
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2.5 High
Tc
Supllfconduclors
as
Superconductors are widely used for the construction of high-field magThey are also extensively used in some of the most sensitive scientific
""rune..",, finally, they display fascinating quantum-mechanical effects
a macroscopic system.! 7
Observation of the SupeTconducting Transition
inYBCO
>
1986 Bednarz and Milller reported superconductivity al temperatures

excess of 40 K in certain samples of La-Ba-Cu-O. It was soon dis""e",d that the YBa2Cu301 ceramic (YBCO) undergoes transition to
superconducting state above 90 K. Pellets of YBCO can be manuin the laboratory by mixing the chemicals in powder form and
iornp"e"singlhem in a steel die using a hydraulic press (to approximately
>~:;;~~PSi).
pellets are then heated in a furnace to about 900"C in an
atmosphere and allowed to cool. However. il is by far more canveto order 1-in.-diameter disks of YBCO from a commercial supplier.
,eli.blesource is Colorado Superconductor, P.O. Box 8223, Fon Collins,
80526.
, To measure the resistivity of the sample, a four-point probe. as well
thennocouple leads, are artachcd to one side of the disk as showo in
.2.29. The probes can be fastened using cooductiveepoxy.1R The whole
'j,:;~~~~ placed in a flat container that can be filJed with liquid Nilrogen.
J
be laken as the sample cools or, as was done for the data presented
. by fIrSt cooling tbe sample for 2 ruin. and then removing it from the
N2 bath. Temperature and resistivity arc recorded as the sample
through the superconducting transition.
'!" n,efour connections (see Fig. 2.29) are spaced equidistantly, separated
a distance s, typically ...... 1 mm. A high-impedance source supplies a
,~::::current 10 the outer terminaJs, 1 and 4, and the voltage across
:~
2 and 3 is measured. For a flat sample of thickness t s, as
present case, current rings emanate (rom the Oilier lips. so mal the
*"istan,:ebetween terminals 2 and 3 is
>
R=
1"
X2
I'"'
P
p dx
- - = - lPn x
=-1n2.
21rxt
2Jrt
s
21ft
R. P. Feynman. The Feynmall uctu.n:Y. Vol. UI. Lecrute 2[.

' ! 'llb,ro,ruu',~;;. pellets can be obtained with all the leads auachcd.
...... , ....... ..
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current
ree
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YBCO pellet
11 .. . - .
II . . .
..
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,
:,.:..-.
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Thermocoupte
'~-:
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...........
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,
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273K
.. :::::::~~~~~
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.;.~. .~~
,
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, , . .... :"".r.
.. .
',',
,
~~
:}~:~~~:~
........
Ice water bath
FIGURE 2.29
apparatus.
,'
Schematic of the connections to the four-way probe and of the measuring:n~!~~

,',,:-:.:
,".......~
~
,.:.:~
:':::::~;*
. .x.
- ,<::::
..:..-%-......
..,. """
.
.
......
- ".. ... .... .:=::
"'"""
"
F~ermore. due to the presence of two outer tips,

a thin sample
.II
..
..
"~.""""":3
V23
= 2I R. so that fot/i!iW
':::;::::%
...~~
"
.
,,' . . . . .
:::~::::~::.::
, ...
... :.:.;....,.
.r~
11t
P -ln2
<-:.:..:&
v
;;
:"':::~:~
(2. 32X::::~:::::
,::::::::*
' . ..x
--
':~::::~X
:3
.....
..
,,.x
",..1 .............
'
,::}~:x
Note that the probe spacing s does not enter Eq. (2.32).
,,.....
In these measurements, the constant ClUTent source provided I ~~(~~~1
500 rnA to terminals 1 and 4. Typically, in the normal conducting stare?i~it.
V23 ::::: 1 mY, whereas below the transition, V23 is at the noise li~t of~J~W
the HP ~4:401A meter ~sed :o.r ~he measurement (V23 ::::: 10 IlV). Smce':j@
the ttanslt10n occurs rapIdly It 1S Important to use a computer to record the:~~~m

data. In the present case data were recorded every 0.33 s. The lIP meter was,:~}~*
connected to the computer through an RS232 serial port, the thenIlocouple:jU.
voltage and source current through an ADC card.::~~j
,'','........
~x
........
...
,..... . .
"''''x
.......... *........
,
'
'
~x
,,' .....
......
x
,<-:.~
,
,~ooI.
',:: :~::~$
,:.'~:;~.rx,..
.......... .
,
.. ,...
''x
....
....
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,
, ,
,
01
._.~.
tJI
2.5 High Tr; Superconductots
81
--,.-...:'.
~r.~'
0.'
,.."
,!: .i
.
~.
.'
0.4
:.
~'
';0~=:'~5"CC'OO~--~'~:---~"~O---'~'~5---,=~:---,=,05---'~~
T emperature (I<)
'l<'U,,"2.30 Plot of V13 vs r. Below tb e lranitioll at T := 9s uK th~ voltage on the

renninAJs is compatible with zero. 1lIe transition width lJ. T < 10 K.
Results obtained by a student are shown in Fig. 2.30, which is a plot of

vs T. It is clear thai a phase transition occms at T = 98 K. The width
the transition is AT < I K. Note that tbe voltage Vn below Tc is too
[0 measure.
For T > Tc the resistance across tenninals 2 and 3 of the probe is of
Rn = Vn / 21 ~ 7)( 10- 4 VI i A =0.7 mO .

(2.32), using f = 1 mm we obtain
p
= 3.15
10- 4 Q-em.
is two orders of magnitude higher than the resistivity of metals (see

1) but is to be expected for a ceramic material. The gradual increase
the resistivity with temperature for T > Tc is also expected since (be
'n~;::~:~~i~tr<>ns scatter from the lattice thermal vibrations as discussed

~
2.2.
, z
', ....._*,
,
', ..... .....:z.-
"""~-~
...
,. 01"
, 0I"
,:
I
i:.l
~-~.-
'..... r.
"
88
.......
A~~._
..
III
I11III.1".
..
,II
..All
..
...
... _
.
... ......
.....
i.
' ...... ..Z

I
..All
...
..
"'
. . . . . . ....:
'-:;..:
...
, -.t'..I'
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....
,.
.......
, ..
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,',
,
_
2.6. REFERENCES
"
.....
.
-~
,',
,
'"~-~
..All
III
.~~
",
: ':- :.~A-~;l".J
.fA.
...
III
-~
I ' I.JI . . . .
, A,:.r.
:.;a.
,
..All
'
..All
For the material covered on semiconductors, the reader may also cOllsult)\~~
the following texts"
::::::~~~
'A~~
,'
A~
. . . ..All
,.""
~~
,.~
.. .AI . .
..
:II
..
;.i""i.
W. C. Dunlap, Jr., An Introduction to Semiconductors, Wiley, New York, 1957. Brlefbut clear treatment", (~~~~
R. A. DUDlap~ Experimental Physics: Modern Methods, Oxford Univ. Press, New York. 1988. Detaile~\
discussion of semiconductors, their physics~ and device applications.
. '<:::~:~
C. Kittel, Intn:duction to Solid State Physics, 7th ed.~ Wiley, New York, 1996. Amore general treatment:<~~i
of the sohd state,
.. :::==~~~~
W. Shockley, Electrons and Holes, Van Nostrand~ New York. 1950. A thorough presentation of th~'::}~:~
::::::rn
.
sub'1ect.
...
:'-.:::::
,': ':'.r':~Q.
'
'
. '.r' :'--.1.
:'' :......
:-.r'm
.,..,.,.0
:J
' .... f"f".
',' >:'.r':i
A C. Rose-Innes and E. H. Rhoderick" Introduction to Superconductivity, Pergamon, Elmsford, ~~(f@l
.:~::::m~~
... '.~
1969.
.'"
.......
'''''''.~
. "''''
can consult
.....
, .., ,
- })-;.mij
'
"
,'..-.......'.I'm
,
'::::::ii
PA't 1989.
":-:.=~~*
..
-::::
.....
.... ..2::
,
':.'.~
,
.....~-~
.....
:..:
:"'~-~"
.. :..;
.....
~
. . . . .A_..~
, . . . till
, ,
",
. .',....
..~A~rY...t.
-y~~
,,:<.:.:".r~--l
."-A- r.I'''
,..
-.I'~
,~ '~""~7"-:
}::;:~~
': ...~~7h
...
':
~-~
, .... ...
.' "~~:::::@
" ....~~~.H:
'.....
::~:::=~~
~m
~-?&
':}~@
:r~~~~~
.........2::
','.'.A
,.:~J.=::::
. "JrO
"::::::~
':::::~~
".~
, , , ....
, ........
,
......
Ii
,
".'~
, ........
,
Ii . ,
':.:::m
:}~:mw.~
"w.
"">::::~~
"'@ili
, .. .01
. . "'
. "''''''''m
.. . m
...:::~
'.', """"a
....
.....
.,
' ,,
,, ,
,
,
.... ,,
....
. \:~i
..
.....
..
, , ,,
, ,
, . ,
,
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,
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01 ...
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....
CHAPTER
Electronics and Data

Acquisition
to this point, we have described measurements that require only

laboratory equipment. Before continuing, however, we will
:... o,"u,>~ a broader range of topics in electronics and data acquisition.
every measurement made in a physics laboratory comes down to

a voltage, so it is important to have at least a basic understand. of electronic circuits. It is not important to be able to design circuits, or
to completely understand a circuit given to you, but you do need to
;r..-;.:.Ii'Ti""", enough to get some idea of how the measuring apparatus affects your
W::fSUlt. This section introduces the basics of elementary, passive electronic
You should be familiar with the concepts of electric voltage and
W::it.UJiTellt before you begin, but something on the level of an introductory
~x:::~eJtennin!ing
89
90
3 Electronics and Data Acquisition
...
...,
...,
....
.
.
. ...
..
,.
, ,
, , .,
,
, ,.,
, .
, .
I
,,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,,,
,
,,,
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
,,,
~.
.
.
physics course should be sufficient. It is helpful to have already learned :i,:'~~

something about resistors, capacitors, and inductors as well, but we will,:)
review them briefly~
,: '~:.
.
, ,
3.1.1. Voltage, Resistance, and Current
, ,
,
, ,,,,
,,
,
,
,
,,
,
,
,
,, ,
,
, ,
, ,
,,
,
..
.
.
.
..
.
Figure 3.1a shows a DC current loop. It is just a battery that provides the :,:',:'~
electromotive force V, which drives a current I through the resistor R. : ,:':,
This is a cumbersome way to write things~ however, so we will use the' .,: :.
shorthand shown in Fig. 3.1b~ All that ever matters is the relative voltage' ,:,:':
between two points, so we specify everything relative to the "common'~-,'::,:~,
or "ground.'" There is no need to connect the circuit loop with a line; it :,:~:.
is understood that the current returns from the common point back to the':'>
tenninals of the battery.
, : ,:~,
The concept of electric potential is based on the idea of electric potential ::i;~
energy, and energy is conserved. This means that the total change in electric- :i:'~
potential going around the loop in Fig. 3.1a must be zero. In terms of ':,:':
Fig. 3.1 b, the '\roltage dropH across the resistor R must equal V. For ideal. ':,:)
resistors, V = I R; that is, they obey Ohm's law. The SI unit of resistance '.::'~
is volts/amperes, also known as the ohm (Q).
,:':
Electric current is just the flow of electric charge (/ == dq jdt, to be :i~.
precise)~ and electric charge is conserved. This means that when there is a ,:'
"junction" in a circuit, like that shown in Fig. 3.2., the sum of the currents ,:'
flowing into the junction must equal the sum of the currents flowing out. ,:;
In the case of Fig. 3.2, this rule just implies that II = 12 + [3. It does not 'i
,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
(a)
+v
(b)
+
R
v~
--
FIGURE 3.1
The simple current loop (a) showing the entire loop, and (b) in shorthand.
3. 1 Elements 01 Circuit Theory
91
I,
I,
~~.:
a?:;'::;;
~::::;:.
~nr
x
11.1
RGURE 3.2 A , ;mpl'
-":"~";Ij"''';""r'
V'\r--,
R,
R,
R,
R,
AGURE 3.3
R.esistOfS conn&ti (3.) in
~es
and (b) in paraDe!.
W?matter whether you specify the CWTtnl flowin g in or out. so long as you arc
b/ consistem with this rule. Remember that current can be negati ve as weU as
f~}~ positive.
~~:L: These rules and definitions allow 11." to detcnnine the resistance when
V: resistors are connected in series, as in Fig. 3.3a, or in parallel, as in Fig. 3.3b.
i,:~t..... :~::.~!~:~~~:~~:: E:t=t~:~~b~~~W:~:~E~~;

.. . .
::7 d';::;:::':
;: , them arc I RJ and I R2, respectively. Since the vollage drop across the pair
e
must equal Ihe su:
+ I R2. 0'
II'
t.~.U lf RI and Rz are
o~:~
:ri~:'
connected in parallel, then lhe voltage drops across each
[:!t are the same, but the current wrough them is different. Therefore 1R =
~;( It Rt = IZR2. Since 1 = 11
~@:
@\
R = ~+
+ fl, we bave
I
R2
Resistors in parallel.
~:;:-.:::
t::} Remember thaI whenever a resistor is present in a circuit, it may as well
(i.:\ be some comb;natioo of leS;sto" that give the righl value of ",lslance.
...... ..
.....
... ...
.......
....
...... :..:,.'
........
...
.....
... . :..:
........
::..:
, ' . . '"' ... Yo
, '"
, -*.~
92
,,
',
,
,
' ,
.. ,,
,
Electronics and Data Acquisition
....
,iii
, ::::::~:~
, ... ~.,tI!
......
......
......
...
....... ..
.....
, ....
' , ' .......... "
,.......
, ...
,
,,,
""..III: :,,;-,
""'~
, ...
,
"
A very simple~ and very useful, configuration of resistors is shown hiJ~~

Fig~ 3~4. This is called a Uvoltage divider'" because of the simple relationshipr~~J~
lJetween the voltages labeled Vout and Yin. Clearly Vin = I (Rl + R2) an~}~:~
Vout ~ I (R2), where I is the current through the resistor string. Therefon;{:~:~~
I , . . . ", ..
........ ...
, , ...... . .
,
"
I11III
. . . ..All
..........
. . . . . . I11III
':':.:';:"..i
, ...... ~
R2
Vout ~ V i n " .
Rl + R2
(3.1 ):<~~~
:.~-:zjo:
......
..........
.....
~
, ,
,
That is, this simple circuit divides the Uinpnt" voltage into a fraction deter~~@~
mined by the relative resistor values. We will see lots of examples of thi~)~;~
sort of thing in the laboratory.
)~~
Do not get confused by the way circuits are drawn. It does not mattet/~~~
along It are at the same potenttal. For example, It IS common to draw a{:~~~
voltage divider as shown in Fig. 3.5. This way of looking at it is in fact an:U;~
easier way to think. about an "input'" voltage and an "output" voltage. ~i.
,~ _ 01....~
,,', ......
.......?
,
, ... .JIA
:.,:-:.:
.........:?......
...:-:.1
.: .: -:. :"':~".JI,
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/:=:~~~
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:-r.
': :~:=:~:~
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. . . .II . .
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..
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I
FIGURE 3.4 The basic voltage divider.
I
I
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>I . .
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.... ..
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, ,
An alternate way to draw a voltage divider.
.. .oJ
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.01:
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FIGURE 1.5
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. . . .oJ
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..
......
,.
..
..
.01: ..
.01: ..
,"
.oJ
3.1 Elements of Circuit Theory
93
Capacilors and AC C ircuits

:; : capacitor stores charge, but does not allow the charge carriers (i.e.,
"ClTO,)S) to pass through it. It is simplest to visualize a capacitor as a
of conducting plates, parallel to each other and separated only by a
amount. If a capacitor has a potential difference V across its leads
bas stored a charge q on either side, then we define the capacitance
q / V. It is easy to show that for a parallel plate capacitor, C is a
~onstan[ value independent of the voltage. In general, it is possible, but not
to calculate C from the geometry of the conducting surfaces. The SI
of capacitance is CoulombsNollS. also known as the Farad (F). As it
out, one Farad is an enormous capacitance, and laboratory capaciypically have values between a few microfarads (11F) down to a few
nticromicrofarads (11i-<-F).1
It is prelly easy to figure OUI what tbeeffectivecapacitance is if capacitors
connected in series and in parallel, just using the above definitions and
rule about the total voltage drop. The answers are
I
- = C
C1
C = CI
+ -I
C2
+ C2
Capacitors in series
Capacitors in parallel,
is,just the opposite from resistors.

Now let's thlnk about what a capacitor does in a Circull. Let's take the
R2 in the voltage divider of Fig. 3.4 and replace it with a capacitor
, . This is pictured in Fig, 3.6. The capacitor does not allow any charge
',am':" to pass through it, so the current / = O. Therefore the voltage
across the resistor R is zero, and Vou.. the voltage across the capacitor
just equals Vi.c. You may wonder, what good is lhis? We might have
as well connected tbe output terminal to the input! To appreciate the
jiopo'rt",,,e, of cap":;'"rs in circuits, we must consider voltages that change
,,,,;S[,o,
:: :: lfthe voltage changes with time, we refer to tbe system as anAC circuit
: , the voltage is constant, we call it a DC circuit. Now go back to the
~oltal!e divider with a capacitor, pictured in Fig. 3.6, and let the input
11 IlJ.lF = I pF (picofarad).
...
..J
.... ..
'
I ,II
.....
..
......
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..
.......
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...... I
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,
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,
I
94
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,
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,
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,
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- - , , .........
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, '.l .........
.l
.l
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ill
.. .
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.l
. . . . ...
. .
, ,
,
,
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- , ,.....
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,
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,
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1
,
,
....
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,
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,','
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,
-FIGURE 3.6 A voltage divider with a capacitor in it
-..
'" " V
=Ii
<
0
-
fort>O
.,/
I
,',.',.
,,,
..........
.. ..:
(3 .2). ........
.........
,),}~~~
(3 . 3 ..........""""
1
, ,
......
............... ..
.... ..
..
........ ..
, , ,..
1
for
, ., ,
l/jn (t) = 0
01 ..
.... "" .II
...
.................
..
.
...
.
..
....
. ....
...
.......
.....
..........
........
'"
......
.. .""
........
.........
.... .
....
....
.
..
.
....
...
.......... ..
..
.. .
......
..
........
...
......
.
....
..
.
..
.
..
....
..... ....
.....
..
. ....
.......
..........''""
,
voltage change with time in a very simple way. That is, take
""
..
..
01 ... .
':;~
~,~.:.:~
.' ,
,
" '
..
~
~
"
,,',
,
,
..
,.j
...
,..)
"'
..
and assume that there is no charge q on the capacitor at t = o. Then fo~<~~~

t > 0., the charge q(t) produces a voltage drop Vout(t) = q(t}fC across,':)~
the capacitor. The current I (t) = dq / dt through the divider string also)~:~
gives a voltage drop I R across the resistor, and the sum of the two voltage;{~~
drops must equal V. In other words
,,:~::::
.. ..
, "'..J'
,.j
"'
..
.......
...
, ' ~ ,..
,
,
~
~
dq
d V:out
V = Vout + 1 R == Vont + R dt- = Vout + RC' dt
,::::::
(3_4)}~
..........
.
o. This differential equation has a simple solution. It is :}~.....
.
,,,
and Vout(O)
~
~
, ,,
,
~
Vout (t) -: V[l - e- t / RC].
(3.5)i{~....
....
., , ,
,,
,,
Now it should be clear what is going on. As soon as the input voltage is;}..
switched on, current flows through the resistor and the charge carriers pile\~
up on the input side of the capacitor. There is induced charge on the ouwu(~~~
side of the capacitor, and that is what con1pletes the circuit to ground . :').
However, as the capacitor charges up, it gets harder and harder to put:~~,
more charge on it, and as t . ) 00, the current does not flow anymore and).
Vout ..,. V. This is just the DC case, where this circuit is not interesting- :~~
.
anymore.
:::.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,,
,
,
,
, ,
,,
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
95
value RC is called the "capacitive time constant," and it is the only

scale we have in this circuit. That is, statements like "t ~ 0" and
~ 00" actually mean "t RC" and <Ot Re." The behavior of the
will always depend on the time aR mea.~ured i.n units of RC . So now
sec wbat is interesting about capacitors. They are sensitive to currents
are cbanging with time in a way that is quite different from resistors.
is a very useful property that we will srudy some more, and use in loIS
;r~~;:::~;'~~"nden<:e of any function can always beeXpres~d in terms of

and cosine functions using a Fouricr transform. II is therefore common
with sinusoidally varying functions for voltage and so forth, just
oaIizillg that we can add them up with the right coefficients to get whatever
dependence we want in me end. It is very convenient to use the
number notation
v (I) = Voe iw1
(3,6)
fo,'tiJ=,varying(i,"", AC) voltages. where it is understood that the voltage

measure in the I<lboratory is just the real part of this function. The
frequency w = 2xv, where v is the frequency, that is, the number
second. This expression for V (t) is easy (0 differentiate
It is alsoa neat way of keeping track
integrate
the pbase changes signals undergo when they pass through capacitors
other "reuctive" components. You will see and appreciate this better
we go along.
Now is a convenient time to define impedance. This is just a genera1:\z'"'>o of resistance for AC circuits. Impedance, usua11y denoted by Z, is
(usually) complex quantity and (usually) a function of the angular fTe9"e,,"y w. It is defined as the ratlo of voltage drop across a component to
current through it, and just as for resistance, the SI unit is the ohm.
"linear" components (of which resistors and capacitors are common
'"arr'pl,,gl. the impedance is not a function of the amplitude of tbe voltor current signals. Given this deflnilion of impedance, the rules for
equivalent impedance are the same as those for resistance. That is, for
:~:~~::~;;:,:;in~~s,eries, add the impedances. while if they are in parallel, add

The impedance of a resistor is trivial. It is just the resistance R. In
case, the voltage drop across the resistor is in phase with fue current
it since Z = R is a purely real quantity. The impedance is also
of frequency in this
For a capacitor, the voltage drop
nd"p"ndent
casco
... - z;
-....
.. "" ..
-:.:-:
. ....:.*.'.1'''
:rit
..
.... "'
. ... .. "' ."'A~
._-
. . ::?
'A::a;'.I''.I'
JlJI
......
- ....
, . "' ~
~
-.. . .A*
96
-.~
....
. . . . . .AI
Oil
..
__ ..Ii
........... . .
..
..... "' iii

.. . . . . iii
,
. . . .AI
- - , ..... ,,!',J
->}~]
, J"%.I'
the impedance is
, ,.. . ......"'''.1".1
Yo
..
1
Z(w) = I (w,-')
=.
C'
t
lW
V(W, t)
.JIll
--
...........!IIi01_
..
,,
"
'. a,. ......... ~
- "
"' iii ... .
.. "' iii
. . . . . . . . iii
- J",I'
"
.
(3 7)" .. .
.........
.. ::::
':'~ . . . . ...Ii....., , { " .
, .......~'
iii ,
"
" " ' , .. ... ".JII

III .JII. . ~
",
"
...,.;
,........
.
",
"
iii
'J
".JII
..
..I
'~
A"~
Now the behavior of capacitors is clear. At frequencies low compared,f@

to 1/ RC, Le., the '''DC limi t," , the impedance of the capacitor goes to){~~~
infinity. (Here, the value of R is the equivalent resistance in series witli,:~~@i
the capacitor.) It does not allow current to pass through it. However, as the/~i~~
frequency gets much larger than 1/ RC, the impedance goes to 0 and thetj1~j
capacitor acts like a short, since current passes through it as if it were n~t;>~~~~
there. You can learn a lot about the behavior of capacitors in circuits just)~@
by keeping these limits in mind.
':<~~~l
We can easily generalize our concept of the voltage divider to include/~;~
AC c~cuits and ~eactive (i.e., frequency de~endent) componen~s likeH~~
capacItors. We WIll learn about another reactive component, the Induc-<}:~j
tor, shortly. The generalized voltage divider is shown in Fig. 3.7. In this<~~~@
.t'~
case, we have
'<J~
..
~~
,'';.:......
.'.r:7::,,~
.
" .::"
Z
_
.
2 ,_ .
'itfJ
.<:;::~~
Vout(w, t) - VinCa>, t) "
Z" - Vin(W, t)ge,
(3.8):~::::~~
, ', .
Z1 +
, II " ' .
.;::::~~
.. :~
""0
,.j
number, In tefillS of two real numbers g and t/J. We refer to g = ~ Vout l/ IV'in I :':::::~~
....
'. .. ...zz
,,'.......
. . z
.....
,
. . . III
'
. . . iii
,.,.
, , .... "'oil"~
r.::::
,......
,
, .II "fll
......
,',.......
.....:y;
. ."
,. .....
. z
,
,,
'
'A~
,'..A
. ..... ... z
.....
......
.. .
' ...
","'A"z
', ,.,.A:z,
.
..'AZ
...
' ,..
.
.
,,'..A
...
:z
' ,..
....
....
......
.
,
.........
, ,.....
. ...
......
, ,....
.
.
.. ....
.
.
..
A:":
' ,, .....
,
,'
,
,
~
~
....
..........
, ... .r..
, ,
,'
, .......""'Jtl
, '"
...........
.... rll.~
'" . . . fill.
, 'A~
A
," .....'.A"'jI
:z''''
'" . . . rilL
, ,"',
......
....
..... .
....
....."':;.:
....
.... ;....."""'
....
.
.....
....*.
!
,,
,'
,
, , ,'
:.
.11
.... tlL
,'
,.
, , , ...............
,
,
-
, ,..~JI
'
,
.........
.... ..
.
, ,.... "'., ,.....
.......
, ......
. "'JI.
, ,,....
....
', ~,,/'
, , , .........
" , .... . ...
~
,
,
"'.~
"'.~
"
.... .
......
..--.
.................
.
.
....
.... ..
,
, , ... or./'
,
,,
,
,
"
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
,
,
,
, ,
"
,
"
,
-FlGTJRE 3.7
. ..--.
.....
The generalized voltage divider.
........
... ..
......
.. ..---.
..--.
.. ..---.
I
I
. . . ..
..
..---.
. . . ..
..--.
,
, ,
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
,
, ,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
, ,,
,
, or
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
, _.......
or
I
.II
~.II.
....
.....................
.....
.. ....
.......... ..--...--.....
.. ..
I
....
....
... ......
..
....
...........
. ....
..........
. . .....
....
......... ....
3.1 Elemlnts of Circuit Theory
97
the "gain" of the circuit, and is the phase shift of the output signal
to the input signal. For the simple resistive voltage divider shown
Figs. 3.4 and 3.5, we have g = RI/(RI + R2) and = o. That is,
output signal is in phase with the input ~ignal, and the amplitude is
reduced by the relative resistor values. 1ltis holds at aU frequencies.
,.; The
phase is an important quantity, so let's take a moment to
at it a little more physically. If we write Yin = Voe itUf then according
(3.8) we can write VOUI = g Voeiflll+~. Since the measured voltage is
the real part of these complex expressions. we have
Yin
YOU!
= Vo cos(wl)
=
gVO COS(WI
+ )
functions are plotted together in Fig. 3.8. The output voltage crests
time different than the input vallage, and this time is proportional lo
phase. To be exact, relative to the time at which ViD is a maximum,
Time of maximum VOU1 =
_.!L x T = _P..,
2n
T = 271" /w is the period of the driving voltage.
0.'
0.8
0 .
0.2
.....,
....
0
....
-,
RGURE 3.8
"
30
"
Tlm.
"
Input and output voltage's for the generalized voltage divider.
.........
.,.....
., "' ..
..
. ."'.......
..'"""....
.
, ,..
Y,. ,. ..
,,,
....
, ,,
,
...
... , .....
' "'..
,,
,
98
3 -Electronics and Data Acquisition
II ..
'"
II . .
II
..
, , , '"
,
II . .
II III
. . . . "'" III
'"
..
, '"
"',/
'"
..
II . .
"',/'
11
.. "'" III
... A
..
II . .
' . . . . . "'A...
'"," .. '" ",,.....
..."'.....
"
,
'"
..
'" A ,
II . .
Now consider the voltage divider in Fig. 3.6. Using Eq. (3.8) we find ~~~
.......
.... ..
,
~
'" ....
......
, , , , ........
.
, ,
, , ,.. .. II '". ...
~
.... ..
1
iwC
1
Vout = Vin- .
l ' ~ Yin 1 + iwRC'
R + .---.,ilrJC
, .. .. ......
, ........
, , .. .
,
..
II
....
..
II
..
..
II
..
..
..
..
II
....
..
'" III
....ill II
'" III
'" '" II
.. .... II
..
, ~, ,..~ .. '" ....

,.. , , .. .. '" '" II
, , .... . .
, , .........
..
. . . . III
,
,
,
..... '" III

.. '" III
... "' .... III
..
, '" .. . .
, , '" '"
, '" '" III
,
'" III
, , '" '" .....
'" till
, , , '" '" '" .....
, ... '" '" II1II
, , ... ... '" '" '" '".... I11III
, , .. .. .... ,
, .... '"
,
.'"
.......
.....'" . ,
....
,',
,
I
"",
The gain g of this voltage divider is just (1 +

and you call<\~~
see that for (i) = 0 (i.e., DC operation) the gain is unity. For very larg~))~
frequencies, though, the gain goes to O. The gain changes from unity to o.l~
for frequencies in the neighborhood of 1/ R C. We have said all this before, :}~~~~
but in a less general language.
.
. . )@
However, our new language tells us something new and mlportallt:{:~a
about Vout, namely the phase relative to Yin. Any complex number z can~::\~~~
be written as
. ...::?~~:~
..... .
.....
2
2
(1)2 R C )-1/2
, , ,','
..Jt
, '" . . . . -0lil
, ,
,
. . . "" oM Jill
, .. Ii ..
, , "" .. Jill
, oM Jill
, , .. Ii
....
.
(3 ,9)"::~::~::~
....
.....
,
,
,',
,
, ,
....
............
~
... .
......
... .
, ,
. , . , .. . 01
, , ,
,
where
..
. . .. . .
, ',. II.. ..
I
01 J
,
,
01
, . . . . . . .)
, ........
, . a.-.
::--:
, , '" IIj
tjJ = tan- 1 hn(z~

Re(z)
,'
,',' .. .. 11
'. "'" "'J
{3.10r~}~~
... '4
,
,.....
.. c;t"-c;t"...
,.....
..
..
... .......1
~
,,
,,
is called the "'phase'" of z. Therefore, we find that
1 + i~RC
.II
. -..
.II
...
-,/'
,,,
'~c;t
... ..
..........
-.111
~
~
.... ..
.......
.. ...
'
,
' ,
'
,
, ,
1 - iwRC
1
l>
i + w2R2C2 = (1 + w2,R2C2)1/ie
......
.....
......
............
..
..... . .
..........
_J'
'
,
,
'
I
.....
....
...
,
,
,...
.. .
I
I
.II
... - .
.II
.oil
III
... .oiI ...

III
.... ........ .
I
.....
...
In other words, the output voltage is phase shifted relative to the input\~~~
1
voltage by an amount cP = - tan- (wRC). For (j) = 0 there is no phase.>~~~
shift, as you should expect, but at very high frequencies the phase is shifted >~~~~
,<:::~
by - 90.
.... -.
,.I' ........
, l1li
...
l1li
.II
. . . III
,
, ,, ,
,
,
,
..
..
...
.... ......
.. OIl
III
,.~
3.1.3. Inductors
. . . . III
,.~
. . . III
, ' ..........
,
. ..
.......
..
. . .~III
...
Just as a capacitor stores energy in an electric field, an inductor stores <~~~~
energy in a magnetic field. An inductor is essentially a wire wound into/~~~~
the shape of a solenoid. The symbol for an inductor is
. The key is iil,:,(~~
....
the magnetic field that is set up inside the coil, and what happens when the. ',)~~
current changes4 So, just as with a capacitor, inductors are important when}~~~~
the voltage and current change with time, and the response depends on the:/~~~
frequency_
. ::\i~
.,,..
~
....
, .. 01
, .. 01.
, 01
01
....
...........,,
....,,
...
....
.....
...
.....,,
. ......
,
...
.........,,,
.....,,
,,
, ,, ,
, ,
,
,
, ,,
,
, ,
ot ...
, ,
, ,
,
, ,,,
, ,
, ,,
,,
,
, , ot
,
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
,
, , .oI
,
,
...
..
........,
...
3.1
Elements of Circuit Theory
99
. . The inductance L of a circuit element is defined to be
L=-,
I
~;:;:::::::""JJ'-"'-'
N is the number of turns in the solenoid and <t> is the magnetic flux
the solenoid generated by the current I. The SI unit of inductance is the
. m 2 /Ampere, or the Henry (H).
Now if the current I through the inductor coil is changing, then the
Ill<.'''''''-~~ flux is changing and this sets up a voltage in the coil that opposes
in the current The magnitude of this voltage drop is
V
.=
Ioe iw1 , then V
d(N4l) = L dI.
dt
dt
I Z. where Z is the impedance of the inductor, and

= iwLI or
Z
= iwL.
(3.11 )
can use this impedance to calculate, for example, Vout for the genervoltage divider of Fig. 3.7 if one or more of the components is an
:: You can now see that the inductor is, to a large extent, the opposite of
:IBl:amlCltOI. The inductor behaves as a short (that is, just the wire it is) at
frequencies, whereas a capacitor is open in the DC limit. On the other
an inductor behaves as if the wire were cut (an open circuit) at high
::m:QU.en~:leIS, but the capacitor is a short in this limit.
One particularly interesting combination is the series LC R circuit, comone of each in series. The impedance of such a string displays the
pnlenc)m(~ncm of "resonance." That is, in complete analogy with mechanical
""'~"n'>n,.,'" the voltage drop across one of the elements is a maximum for
. certain value of w. Also, as the frequency passes through this value, the
.
ve phase of the output voltages passes through 900 If the resistance
., is very small, then the output voltage can be enormous, in principle.
Diodes and Transistors

:ReSlsltorI5, capacitors, and inductors are "linear" devices. That is, we write
= I Z, where Z is some (complex) number, which may be a function

frequency. The point is, though, that if you increase V by some factor,
- , .... Yo
,
...... .
, ... AI.
.. :-:
:-: -: ~-~
~
'
101
.... 101
! 101
III
, , .......
.r
101 . . ..
..I
..III . .
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then you increase I by the same factor. Diodes and transistors are exam-,:,:,<:~:~
pIes of "nonlinear" devices. Instead of talking about some impedance Z.U:]
we instead consider the relationship between V and I as some nonlinear\~}~l~~
function. What is more, a transistor is an "active" device, unlike resistors-,-'<{}.
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.......
capacitors., inductors, and diodes, which are "passive." That is, a transistor':~~~~~~~
takes in power from some voltage or current source, and gives an output)J~
that combines that input power with the signal input to get a response~ It:~{:~
to be that many of these functions were possible with vacuum tubes:::ij~
of VariOllS kinds. These have been almost completely replaced by solid~<}~ili
state devices based on selniconductors. The physics of semiconductors and::':}~~
semiconductor devices was discussed in Sections 2.1 and 2.4.
,,}~~~~~
The symbol for a diode is ~ where the arrow shows the nominal direc~<~~~~;~
tion of current flow. An ideal diode conducts in one direction only. That)j~~
is, its V -I curve would give zero current I for V < 0 and infinite I for:::J~~'
V > 0" (Of course, in practice., the current I is limited by some resistor: )~~~~
in series with the diode~) Thls is shown in Fig" 3.9a. A real diode, how~<\~~j
ever, has a more complicated curve, as shown in Fig. 3.9b. The current(?i~i
I changes approximately exponentially with V. and becomes very large:}!tl
for voltages above some forward voltage drop VF~ For most cases, a goo(l;:{l~~$.
approximation is that the current is zero for V < VF and unlimited for=:{~~]
V > VF. Typical values of VF are between 0.5 and 0.8 V.
::~~~~~~
Diodes are pn junctions. These are the simp]est solid-state devices~ made(:~:~:~~
, . .A..-.
of a semiconductor, usually silicon. The electrons ill a semiconductor fin,)}:~
....
-~Te.rgy1..LrdlRl.~n'1rmalllh9'\1l1lotJ110Y.e. throuj!Jt,the bulk material~ s.o ;:?~~~~~.
the semiconductor is really an insulator. If electrons make it into the next>~...
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FIGURE 3.9 CWTent I versus voltage V for (a) the ideal diode and (b) a real diode. ',:}
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band.. which is normally empty. then they can conduct electricity.

can happen if, for example, electrons are thennally excited across the
gap between the bands. For silicon, the band gap is 1.1 eV, but the
thennal energy of electrons at room temperature is "-'k T = 1/40 eV.
silicon is essentially an insulator under nonna! conditions, and
particularly useful.
That is where the p and n come in. By adding a small amount (around
parts per ntillion) of specific impurities, lots of current 'carriers can
added to the material. These impurities (called dopants) can precisely
how current is carried in the semiconductor. Some dopants, like
:{I.<~."'U''''' give electrons as carriers, and the doped senticonductor is called
since the carriers are negative. Other dopants. like boron, bind
extra eleotrons, and current is carried by "holes" created in the otherfilled band. These holes act like positive charge carriers. so we call
semiconductor p-type. In either case, the conductivity increases by a
of '" 1000 at room temperature, and this makes some nifty things
So now back to the diode, or pn junction. This is a piece of silicon,
p-type on one side and n-type on the other. Electrons can only flow
p to n. That is, a current is carried only in one direction. A detailed
gives the I-V curve shown in Fig. 3.9b. See Dunlap (1988; full
in Section 3.10) for more details. If you put voltage across the diode
the direction opposite to the direction of possible current flow, that is
a "reverse bias." A small "leakage" current flows as shown in Fig.
9b. If you put too much of a reverse bias on the diode, i.e., V < - V~ax,
: will break down and start to conduct. Typical values of V~ are 100 V
less.
Transistors are considerably more complicated than diodes,2 and we will
scratch the surface here. The following summary closely follows the
tntJroauctlOn to transistors in The Art of Electronics (full citing in Section
10). For details on the underlying theory, see Dunlap (1988). A trans ishas three terminals, called the collector, base. and emitter. There are
main types of transistors, namely npn and pnp, and their symbols are
in Fig. 3.10. The names are based on the dopants used in the semi~VILJUlJ"""JJ materials. The properties of a transistor may be summarized in
lThe invention of the transistor was worth a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956.
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FIGURE 3.10 Symbols for npn and pnp transistors~
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reverse all the polannes.)
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1. The collector nlust be more positive than the emitter.
-::~~');:j
Nonnally the base-emitter diode is conducting and the .

base collector diode is reverse-biased.
. <\~
,}}:~
that cannot be exceeded without ruining the transistor. If you are .
specifications to see what these limiting values are.

. ,,:;:::~:.~
4. When rules 1-3 are obeyed, Ie is roughly proportional to 1B and/fi~
can be written as Ie = h FE lB. The parameter h FE, also called
':, ,:}~~;i
fj, is typically around 100, but it varies a lot among a sample of
:,(:~:~i
nominally identical transistors.
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Obviously, rule 4 is what gives a transistor its punch. It means that a",3J~]
transistor can "amplify" some input signal. It can also do a lot of other \j~
things, and we will see them in action later on.
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3.1.5. Frequency Filters
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Simple combinations of passive elements can be used to remove "noise"\~

from a voltage signal. If the noise that is bothering you is in some specific.)~~~~~~
range of frequencies, and you can make your measurement in some other'>~~~~i
, ,. . x
range; then a frequency filter can do a lot for you. Frequency filters are~~
.....:.-:
usually simple circuits (or perhaps their mechanical analogs) that a1low~~l
onI y a specific frequency range to pass from the input to the output. You then'})~~;~
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103
{:>make your measurement with the output. Of course, you need to be careful
~f)of any noise introduced by the filter itself. The circuit shown in Fig. J.6 is
~( a "low-pass" filter. It exploits the frequency dependence of the capacitor
impedance Zc = 1/ i wC to short frequencies. much larger than 1/ R C to
[::\ ground, and to allow much smaller frequencIes to pass. A.J:, we showed
earlier, the ratio of the output to input voltage as a function of frequency
W~{ II = w/21f is (1 +w2 R2 C 2 )-1/2. You can also use inductors in these simple
~f circuits. Remember that whereas a capacitor is open at low'frequencies
~t> and a short at high frequenci~s, an ind~ctor behave~ just the. opposite.
~~? Figure 3.11 shows all permutations of resIstors, capacItors, and mductors,
and whether they are high- or low-pas~ filters.
..
.
[t: Suppose you only want to deal Wlth frequencIes m a specific range.
W{>Then, you want a "bandpass" filter, which cuts off at both low and high
~r:frequencies, but lets some intermediate bandwidth pass through. Consider
the circuit shown in Fig. 3.12. The output voltage tap is connected to ground
tt
rut.
ffi?:
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Circuit
Clrcu~
Type
Low pass
High pass
Low pass
High pass
Low pass
High pass
FIGURE 3.11
Simple passive frequency filters.
Type
HGURE 3.12
A simple bandpass filter.
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3 E'ectronics and Data Acquisition
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through either a capacitor or an inductor. Therefore, the output will be zero : ,:~<~~~=~
at both low and high frequencies. Analyzing this filter circuit is simple ':'i<~~?
I~
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Vout
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ZR
Z LC
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where ZR - Rand ZLC = (ZL"l + Zc1)-1 with ZL = IjiwL and',,:))~~

Zc = iUJC~ (Note that L and C are connected in paralleL) The result is ':)j~~
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and as advertised, g ~ 0 for both (J) Rj L and for w 1/ Re. However~ :,:,:.)~:~
frequencies near v = (J) /2~ = 1/ (2rr .JL C) are passed through with.little <)~~i~~
attenuation. At OJ = 1/.J LC, g = 1 and there is no attenuation at all. Can, :':\~~~~:~
you see how to build a "notch" filter, or ''band reject" filter, that allo~s all ':,:iH~~~
frequencies to pass except those in the neighborhood of (J) = 1/.JLC?
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3.2. BASIC ELECTRONIC EQUJPMENT
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COlmections between components are made with wires. We tend to neglect ,:,<:~~
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the importance of choosing the right wire for the job, but in some cases :,:,}~~
.....
it can make a big difference. The simplest wire is just a strand of some <}~
.
conductor, most often a metal such as copper or al uminum~ U sually the wire ,,\~~~
is coated with an insulator so that it will not short out to its surroundings, ::'.:):.
or to another part of the wire itself. If the wire is supposed to carry some <:::=
..
small signal, then it will likely need to be "shielded," that is, covered with ,):~:~
.....
another conductor (outside the insulator) so that the external environment :/~
.
does not add noise somehow. One popular type of shielded wire is the, :i)~....
"coaxial cable," which is also used to propagate "pulses."
::'<~. ,
Do not forget about Ohm's law when choosing the proper wire. That. ',:?~~
is, the voltage drop across a section of wire is still V = I R., and ,<:~}
..
you want this voltage drop to be small compared to the "real" voltages ,::\~.
involvecL The resistance R = p x L/ A, where L is the length of the,,:,)~,
wire, A is its cross-sectional area, and p is the resistivity of the metal. <?.
Therefore~ to get the smallest possible R, you keep the length L as short ,>~.
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3.2 Basic Electronic Eqllipmenl
HIS
practical, get a wire with the largest practical A,3 and choose a conductor with small resistivity. Copper is the usual choice because it has
~~r: low resistivilY (p = 1.69 x 10- 8 n -cm) and is easy to form into wire
~p.: of various thicknesses .!Od sbapes. Other conunen chaiets are aluminum
~~r (p = 2 .75 X 10- 11 [l-cm), which can be significantly cheaper in large
~y : quantities. or silver (p = 1.62 x 10- 8 [l-cm). which is a slighUy better
!*I~H conductor, although not usually worth the increased expense.
~('
:\
The resistivity increases with temperarure, and tbis can lead to a partie-
M: .
not enough cooling by convection or other means, then R will increase and
the wire will get botter and hotter until it does serious damage. ntis is most
common in wires used to wind magnets. but can show up in other higbpower applications. A common solution is to use very-low-gage (Le., very
~.. . ~::~;,:~~~O:;:ef:;~s"pth: ~. ::~' ~':::d;~~eh:~;~n~~~e:.:;~:

~~:'
~r
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:~~~.;: =::rh!~! ~h:=:n~~;:: ~~~~:~n~~! ~~er
Acoax.ial cable is a shielded wire. The name comes from the fact that the
ffi>wire sits inside an insrnator, another conductor, and another insulator, all
~} in circuJarcross section sharing the
same axis. A cutaway view is shown in

Fig. 3.13. Coaxial cable is used in place of simple wire when the signals are
::?:::;. very small and are likely to be obscured by some sort of electronic noise
[:::: in me room. The oUlSide conductor (caUed the "shield") makes it difficult
~~t for external electromagnetic fields to penetrate to the wire, and minimizes
g1\:
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the noise. Thls oUlside conductor is usually connected to ground.

A second. and very imponant. use of coaxial cable is for ''pulse trausmission.'" The wire and shield. separated by the dielectric insulator. act as
a waveguide and allow short pulses of current to be transmitted with little
distortion from dispersion. Short pulses can be vcry common in the laboratory. in such applications as digital signallransmission and ic radiation
detectors. You must be aware of the "characteristic impedance" of the cable
when you use it in this way.
Coaxial cable ha~ a characteristic impedance because il transmits the
,signal as a Irai Dof electric and magnetic nuctuarions. and the cable ilselfhas
characteristic capacitance and inductance. The capacilance and inductance
of a cylindrical geometry like Ihls are typically solved in clementary physics
:I
Ii
3Wire diameter is usulilly specified by the "gage number." TIle mlalIer lile wire gage,
.::: the thicker the wire, and the larger the cross-sectional area .
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3 Electronics and Data AcquiSition
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Cutaway view of coaxial cable.
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texts on electricity and magnetism. The solutions are
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and
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where a and b are the radii of the wire and shield respectively, and JL are::!~~~
the perrnittivity and permeability of the dielectric, and l is the length of the<J~~t-=.
cable. It is very interesting to derive and solve the equations that deterrnine<J~]
p~e propagation in a co~al cable: but we will not do that here. ~nett~
thing you learn, however, IS that the Impedance seen by the pulse (which:'::;:jm
is dominated by high frequencies) is very nearly real and independent ofum
frequency, and equal to
..<~:~~~~j
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b
1 J.L
,
L
Zc = C = 271: '(7 1n ;;
(3.12) jj@~

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This "characteristic impedance" is always in a limited range, typicaUY\J~

50 ::s Zc ~ 200 Q, owing to nanrral values of E and f.L, and to the slow ):}~
, AJ'J'
variation of the logarithm.

,~}~~~
You must be careful when making connections with coaxial cable, so <}~
. . ..
that the characteristic impedance Zc of the cable is "matched" to the :i>~~~~
load impedance ZL. The transmission equations are used to SllOW thaf'ii)J~~
the "reflection coefficient r, defined as the ratio of the current reflected :\:~~~:~
.. -.....
from the end of the cable to the current incident on the end, is given by .'i)~~~
........
.......
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. . . . J{-II . . .
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That is .. if a pulse is transmitted along a cable and the end of the cable is not<~J~
conn.ected to anything (ZL = 00), then r = 1 and the pulse is immediately.:,:)~~~
111_,..
reflected back. On the other hand, if the end shorts the conductor to the ::}~;:;
......
shield (ZL = 0), then r = -1 and the pulse is inverted and then sent.}~~;~~
back. The ideal case is when the load has the same impedance as the cable. <~~~~~
....
In this case, there is no loss at the end of the cable and the full signal ;:)~~~
.....
is transmitted through. You should take care in the lab to use cable and <~~~~~~
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3.2 Basic Electronic Equipment

'fJlf~u:onlcs
101
that have matched impedances. Common impedance standards
.are 50 and 90 n.
Of course, you will need to connect your wire to the apparatus somehow,
and this is done in a wide variety of ways. For permanent connections,
. especially inside electronic devices, solder is usually the preferred solution .
. It is harder than you might think to make a good solder joint, and if you
.are going to do some of this, you should have someone show you who
. has a decent amount of experience. Another type of permanent'connection,
. called "crimping," squeezes the conductors together using a special tool
that ensures a good contact that does not release. This is particularly useful
if you cannot apply the type of heat necessary to make a good solder
joint
Less permanent connections can be made using terminal screws or binding posts. These work by takin g a piece of wire and inserting it between two
surfaces that are then forced together by tightening a screw. You may need
to twist the end of the wire into a hook or loop to do this best, or you may
use wire with some sort of attachment that has been soldered or crimped
on the end. If you keep tightening or untightemng screws, espedally onto
wires with handmade hooks or loops, then the wire is likely to break at
some point. Therefore, for temporary connections, it is best to use alligator clips or banana plugs, or something similar. Again, you will usually
use wires with this kind of connector previously soldered or crimped on
the end.
Coaxial cable connections are made with one of several special types of
connectors. Probably most common is the "bayonet N-connector," or BNC,
standard, including male cable end connectors, female device connectors,
and union and T-connectors for joining cables. In this system, a pin is
soldered or crimped to the inner conductor of the cable, and the shield is
connected to an outer metal holder. Connections are made by twisting the
holder over the mating connector, with the pin inserting itself on the inner
part. Another common connector standard, called "safe high voltage" or
SHV, works similarly to BNC, but is designed for use with bigh DC voltages
. by making it difficult to contact the central pin unless you attach it to the
correct mate.
For lowlevel measuremertt you must be aware of the thermal electric potential difference between two dissinrilar conductors at different
temperatures. These "thermoelectric coefficients" are typically around
I IJ. V rC, but between copper and copper-oxide (which can easily happen
if a wire or terminal is oxidized) it is around 1 mV;oc.
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108
3 El e ctronics and Data Ac quisition
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3.2.2. DC Power Supplies
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Laboratory equipment needs to be "powered" in one way or another. Unlike

the typical,! 00-V, 60-Hz AC line you get out of the wall socket, though, -this
equipment usually requires some constant DC level to operate. One way
to provide this constant DC level is to use a battery~ but if the equipment
draws much current the battery will quickly run down. Instead we use DC
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Power supplies come in lots of shapes, sizes, and varieties, but there ':':<J~
are two general classes. These are '~oltage" supplies or "'current" supplies, "<)~~
and the difference is based on how the output is regulated. Since the inD;er '::?f~~~
workings of the power supply have some effective resistance, when the .:<~~~~
power supply must give some current, there will be a voltage drop across ::)~~~
that internal resistance., which will affect how the power supply works. In .'~)~~~
....
a ,i;voltage-regulated'" supply~ the circuitry is designed to keep the output }~~~~~
voltage constant (to within some tolerance), regardless of how much current }~~~~~
is drawn. (Typically, there will l:te some maximum current at which the ,<~~~
regulation starts to fail. That is~ there is a maximum power that can be )}~~~
supplied.) Most electronic devices and detector systems prefer to have
a specific voltage they can count on, so they are usually connected to ::::=:$
.. .
voltage-regulated supplies.
,?~:~
A 'current-regulated" supply is completely analogous~ but here the eir- ,}}~
..........
cuitry is designed to give a constant output current in the face of some ,<~~a
load on the supply. Such supplies are most often used to power magnets, <:~~
since the magnetic field only cares about how much current flows through :::::~~
.
the coils. This is in fact quite important for establishing precise magnetic ,{::~
fields, since the coils tend to get hot and change their resistance. In this <:~~
..
case, V = I R and R is changing with time, so the power supply must ::}~
.
know to keep I constant by varying V accordingly. In many cases, a sim- ,{;~...
pIe modification (usually done without opening up the box) can convert a }i~.
power supply from voltage regulation to current regulation.
;:t......
The output terminals on most power supplies are "floating." That is, they ::}~
are not tied to any external potential, in particular not to ground~ One output, ':!}
(sometimes colored in red) is positive with respect to the other (black). You' ,:i/~
will usually connect one of the outputs to some external point at known :'!)
potential, like a common ground.
,<~..,
You should be aware of some numbers. The size and price of a power i:~:;
supply depends largely on how much power it can supply. If it provides a:).
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I~':::voltage v while sourcing a current I, then the power output is P = I V.
~:~>A very common supply you will find around the lab will put out several
m?/volts and a couple of amperes, so something like 10 W or so. Depending
1~>()fi things like control knobs and settings to computer interfacing, they can
~{:cost anywhere from $50 up to a few hundred. So-called ''high-voltage''
~~{)>ower supplies will give several h~ndred up to several thousand volts, and
M?:::can source anywhere from a few rrucroamperes up to 100 rnA, .and keep the
~t)voltage con~tant ~o a level of better ~an 100 .mv. Still, the power output
~~?<Qf such deVices IS not enormously high, typically under a few hundred
~~>:watts. The cost will run into thousands of dollars. Magnet power supplies,
~@)hough, may be asked to run something like 50 A through a coil that bas a
mt{resistance of, say, 2 n. In this case, the output power is 5 kW.
Er:::Wf(~.2.3. Waveform Generators
@t::.
[%::~W~vefonn gener~tors" produce an ou~ut voltage s.ignal ~ (t) that varies

[~t~>m tIme. The functIOn V (1) can be anything from a SImple sme wave to an
~~1<}lrbitrary function you program into the device, but increased flexibility can
[f:<sost a lot of money. Most wave.form generators, though, do have at least
M\}ine wa~es, square waves, or tn~gle waves, and can vary the freque~cy
@F<~"er a wI.de range. Low frequencies are pr:etty easy to get, but for very high
[:~>Jrequencles (above a megahertz or so) things get much harder because of
r~?:'~iray capacitance giving effective shorts. You can also vary the amplitude
offse~ of t~e output voltage over several volts.
.
SometI~es.mstead of a "wave" ?utput,. one n~eds a "puls~"-that l~, a
@{:::'Slgnal that IS hIgh for some short penod of tIme, WIth the next Signal commg
~?>after a much longer time. Most waveform generators can accomodate your
~t>.wishes either by providing an explicit "pulse" output, or by allowing you
change the symmetry of the waveform so that the "0 to 11:" portion of
~~)::?~e wave is stretched or compressed relative to the "11: to 211:" portion.
[r(a.nd
@t>>.
W{>t.o
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tf::::3.2.4. Meters
~t>::
&~~:::::Now that you know trow to obtain some voltages, including time-varying
rut/o~es, and bow to connect these voltages usj~g wire and cable, ~o~ m~st
WtJhink about how to measure the voltage. The slffiplest way to do this IS With
Wr:~~eter, partic~~arly if the v?ltage is I?C, (Most ~eters do provide you
~t:::~th AC capabilIty, but we Will not go mto the detaIls here.) An excellent
llij::::::>.
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reference on the subject of meters is given in the Low Level MeaSUre"lentit\:~
........
Handbook, published by Keithley Instruments, Inc. This handbook, as wen.:;/~~~~
as other matelials, are available from Keithley at http://www.keithtBV.Eom/.<~~~~~3
At one time, people would use either voltmeters, ammeters, or ohm-':;\j~:~
meters to measure voltage, current, or resistance, respectively_ These days,',:{}
although you still might want to buy one of these specialized instruments:,,::):~:3
to get down to very low levels, most measurements are done with "digitati>~~~
multimeters~" or DMMs for short. (In fact, some DMMs are available now:::\~~~~~
. .
that can effectively take the place of the most sensitive specialized meters.}\~~~~~
Voltage and resistance measurements are made by connecting the meter in)/~~
parallel to the portion of the circuit you are interested in. To measure current,;)~~~
......
the meter must be in series.
,}:~~
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Realize that DMMs work by averaging the voltage measurement over::'i?I
some period of time, and then displaying the result. This means that ifii:)~~
the voltage is fluctuating on some time scale., these fluctuations will noti:)~~
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be observed if the averaging time is greater than the typical period of the:~~
fluctuations. Of course the shorter the averaging time a meter has (the~~
. .
rugher the '~bandwidth" it has), the fancier it is and the more it costs.
<)~~
Meters have some effective input impedance, so they will (at some level).>~~~~
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change the voltage you are trying to measure. For this reason, voltmeters :):~:~
....
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and ohmmeters are designed to have very large input impedances (many :?~~
megaohrns to as high as several gigaohms), while ammeters "shunt" the ;:}~
current througb a very low resistance and tum the job into measUIing the <~i~.
(perhaps very low) voltage drop across that resistor~
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3.3. OSCILLOSCOPES AND DIGITIZERS
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3.3.1. Oscilloscopes
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An oscilloscope measures and displays voltage as a function of time. That ':~.

is, it plots for you the quantity V (t) on a cathode ray tube (CRT) screen :::.
as it comes in. This is a very useful thing, and you will use oscilloscopes:'~
in nearly all the experiments you do. A good reference is The xyZ s of ':'~
Oscilloscopes, published by Tektronix, Inc. You can download a copy <
from http://www.tek.com/under "Application Notes for Oscilloscopes.'"
The simple block diagram shown in Fig. 3.14 explains how an oscillo- ',:
scope works. The voltage you want to measure serves t\Vo purposes. First, . i
after being amplified, it is applied to the vertical deflection plates of the '
,
'::i
3.3 Oscilloscopes an d Di !lil izllrs
111
System
AGURE 3.14
This
mean~
Block diagram of an oscillm;cope.
that the vertical position of the trace on the CRT cor
"';p<llods linearly to the input voltage, whicb is just what you want The
vertical scale on the CRT ha... a grid pattern that lets you know what the
input voltage is.
. The horizontal pos.ition of the trace is controlled by 8 "sweep generator"
whose speed you can control. However. for repetitive signal shapes, you
:i want the signal to "start" at the same lime for every sweep. and this is
';, detennined by the "uigger" system. The place on the screen where the
:; trace starts is controUed by a ''horizontal position" knob on the front paneL
,:: One kind of trigger is to JUSt have the scope sweep at the line (Le., 60 Hz)
:~': ; frequency, but this will not be useful if the signals you are interested in
;;::; do not come al that freq uency. Another kind of simple trigger is to bave
':': the trace sweep once whenever the voltage rises or falls past some level,
::: i.e., a "leading edge" trigger. There is usually a light on the front panel that
fl ashes when the scope is uiggered.
Oscilloscopes almost always have at least two inpOl channels. and it is
: possible to trigger on one channel and 1001: at the other. This can be very
: useful for studying coincident signals or for measuring the relative phase
.. of two wavefonns. In any case, lIle trigger "mode" can either be "nonnal."
in which case there is a sweep only if the uiggercondition is met, or "auto"
::
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3 Electrclnics and Data Acquisition
112
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where the scope will bigger itself if the trigger condition is not met in-::>~:~~
..
some period of time. Auto mode is particularly useful if you are search-:(~Im
ing for some weak. signal and do not want the trace to keep disappearing}~{:M
on y o u . U I i l i & .
You have several controls on how the input voltage is handled. A "ver-<dill
tical position" knob on the front panel controls where the trace appears on:j~m
the scr~en. You will find ~ne of these for each input channel. The inp~t:/~~@
"couph~g" can be set to ~lther AC, DC, or ground. In. AC mode, ~ere .IS <Jili&..
~
keeps any constant DC level from entenng the scope, and all you see)~~~
is the time-varying (i.e., AC) part. If you pu: the scope ~n I?C, then the}~M~
constant voltage le:el also shows up. If t?e mput couphng IS ~ounded,<::{~~
then you force the Input level to O~ and this shows you where 0 IS on the >j~m~
screen. (Make sure that the scope is on "auto" trigger if you ground the}~~&~
input; otherwise, you will not see a trace!)
<::@~~
Sometimes, yOll also get to choose the input impedance for each channel. . >~:~~l~
Choosing the "high" input impedance (usually 1 MQ) is best if you want >JW~
to m~asure voltage level~ and not h.ave the oscilloscope ~nteract with the>@@~
CirCUlt~ However, the oscllloscope Will get a lot of use looking at fast pulsed .:::::::~%~
x...
signals transmitted down coaxial cable, and you do not want an "impedance >j~~~~~~~
mismatch" to cause the signal to be reflected back. (See Section 3 .2.1 ~) .<~~~~1:~~
Cables with 50-0 characteristic impedances are very con1monin this work~ ::}~1:~
so you may find a 50... Q input inlpedance option on the scope4 If not, you .:r~~t~~:
should lIse a "tee" connector on the input to put a 50-0 load in parallel::}::::::::
....... .
ThIS
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the input
.::~::::~~::::
By flipping switches on the front, you can look at either input channel's . ::}~:~:~:~
Wlth
trace separately, or both at the same time. There is obviously a problem,

though, with viewing both simultaneously since the vertical trace can only
be in one place at a time. There are two ways to get around this. One is to
alternate the trace from channel one to channel two and back again. Tbis
gives complete traces of each, but does not really show them to you at
the same time. If the signals .are very repetitive and you are not interested
in fine detail, this is okay. However, if you really want to see the traces
at the same ti me, select the chop option. Here, the trace jumps back and
forth between the channels at some high frequency, and you let your eye
interpolate between the jumps. If the sweep speed is relatively slow, the
interpolation is no problem and you probably cannot tell the difference
between alternate and chop. However~ at high sweep speed . the effect of
the chopping action will be obvious.
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T> You should realize by now thai. b.igh~frequency operation get.e; hard, and
3.3 Oscilloscopes and Digitizers
113
~:: ;.:
r:
the oscilloscope gets more complicated and expensive. Probably the single
:::: _:most important specification for an oscil loscope is its "bandwidth," and
::\ you will see that number printed on the front face right near the screen.
:/ The number tells you the frequency at which a sine wave would appear
only 71 % as large as it should be. You cannot b'Ust the scope at frequencies
:::: approaching or exceeding the bandwidth. Most of the scopes in the lab have
20- or 6()..MHz bandwidth.~ . A "fast" oscilloscope will have a oandwidth
of a few hundred megahertz or more. You will find that you can vary the
sweep speed over a large range, but Dever much more than (bandwidth)-l .
The "vertical sensitivity" can be set independently of the sweep speed, but
scopes in general cannot go below around 2 mY/division.
On most oscilloscopes, if you tum the sweep speed down to the lowest
value, one more notch puts the scope in the XY display mode. Now, the
trace dlsplays channel one (X) on the horizontal axi!l and channel two (Y)
on the vertical . For periodic signals, the trace is a Li!lsajous pattern from
which you can determine the relative phaseoftherwo inputs. Oscilloscopes
are also used in this way as displays for various pieces of equipment which
have X Y output options. Thus, the oscilloscope can be used as a plouing
device in some cases.
3.3.2. Digitizers
In order to measure a voltage and deal with the result in a computer, the
voltage must be digitized. The generic device lIlat does this is the analog~to
digital converter or ADC. ADCs come in approximately an infinite number
of varieties and connect to computers in lots of different ways. We wiU
cover the particulars when we discuss the individual experiments, but for
now we will review some of the basics.
Probably the most important specification for an ADC is irs resolution.
We specify the re..~olutioo in temlS of the number of binary digits ("bits")
that the ADC spreads out over its measuring range. The actual measuring
range can be varied externally by some circuit, so the number of bits tells
you how finely you can chop that range up. Obviously, the larger the
number of bits, the closer you can get to knowing exactly what the input
voltage was before it was digitized. A "low~resolution " ADC will have 8
bits or less. That is, it divides the input voltage up into 256 pieces and gives
the computer a number between 0 and 255, which represents the voltage.
A "high-resolution" ADC ha~ 16 bile; or more.
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114
3 E' e ct ron i csan d Dat a Ac qui sit ion
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High resolution does not come for free. In the first place, it can mean~~(i~? ~
lot more data to handle. For example, if you want to histogram the voltage)~f~
being measured with an 8..bit ADC, then you need 256 channels for each/~:~:~g
histogralD. However, if you want to make full use of a 16-bit ADC~ every<\~~~~
the speed a~ which a. v?~tage can be d.igitized. Generally speakin?, it ~~!:@~
does for a large number of bits .

'. ::::::::~~:m
""'''~
There are. three general c1~ses o~ ADCs, referred to as flash, peak~)!~
voltage sensing, and charge zntegratlng ADCs. A flash ADe, or "wave-}};]
fonn recorder," simply reads the voltage level at its input and convert~r::m
that voltage level into a number. Th~y are typically low resoluti~~)~
but run very fast. Today you can easily get an 8-bit flash ADC that:?~
II
enough so that Just about any tlrne-varymg SIgnal can be converted to/~~
numbers so that a true representation of the signal can be stored. in a;{~
computer.)i~
you are really mterested ID. For example, If you only care about the maxI-?d
mum voltage value, you can use a peak-sensing ADC, which digitizes tbe.<:/*
.
maximum voltage observed during some specified time. Sometimes, you:{t~
are interested instead in the area underneath some voltage signal. This is<:'~~~~~m
the case, for example, in elementary particle detectors where the net charge; .:/~~~~
delivered is a ~easure ~ the particl~'s en.e~~. For applications like
you can use an mtegratmg ADC, which digItizes the net charge absorbed.,::}~:~
over some time period, i.e., (1/ R) ft~2 V (t) dt, where R is the resistance at'}J~~
the input . For either of these types, you can buy commercial ADCs that ::'}~@.
digitize into 12 or 13 bits in 5 }1S or longer, but remember that faster and <~~~
more bits costs more money~
<~~~~~a
The opposite of an ADC is a DAC, or digital-to-analog Converter. Here<t~~~a
the computer feeds the DAC a number depending on the number of bits'~ \~J~~
and the DAC puts out an analog voltage proportional to that number. The. ::\~~~~
simplest DAC has just one bit, and its output is either "on'~ or "off." In this <i)~~
case, we refer to the device as an uoutput register." These devices are a way :.:.}~~
of controling external equipment in an essentially computer-independent :i)~@
, ..oiI."
fasbion.
. <:::;:~:3
...
In many cases, you want to digitize a time interval instead of a voltage. >~~J~~
level. This can be done with a L'time-to-analog converter'" (TAC), followed<)~~~
by an ADC. However, both of these functions are now available packaged <;~~~~
.....
....... ."
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this,fM
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3.3 OsciJloscopes and Digitizers
115
m/
)?ina single device called a IDC. The rules and ranges are very similar as
?jDrADCs.
?>
Devices known as "latches" or "input registers" will take an external

If)bgic level, and digitize the result into a single bit. These are useful for
g whether some device is on or off,
perhaps if something has
~}happened that the computer should know about.
[t When a device is busy digitizing, it cannot deal with mor~ input. We
@/tefer to the cumulative time a device is busy as "dead time." Suppose r
[({is, the time needed to digitize an input pulse, and Ro is the (presumably
t~>tandom) rate at which pulses are delivered to the digitizer. If Rm is the
~~t:measured rate, then in a time T the number of digitized pulses is Rm T.
[)'The dead ti~e incurred in time T is therefore (RmT)r, so ~e number of
@{pulses lost IS [(RmT)r]Ro. The total number of pulses delivered (RoT)
W:~<must equal the number digitized plus the number lost, so
[t:',tellin
I[
or
RoT
~ RmT +RmTrRO.
::::::::and therefore
?:~::::>
z::::>
..
fD
-:-:':',
Ro
Rm=---
(3.13)
Rm
1 - rRrn
(3.14)
1 + Ro
~~::::. or
z::::<
~t{
~:}"
~~~~~
r_~...::.:,:.. '
r:.~:.~ :
..::::.::,,:
Ro=----'-"-
The "normal" way to operate a digitizer is so that it can keep up with the
rate at which pulses come in. In other words, the rate at which it digitizes
(l/r) should be much greater than the rate at which pulses are delivered,
that is, r Ro 1. Equation (3.13) shows that in this case, Rm ~ Ro; that
r: ~: .j: : .: .: ,'. is,

the Futhennore,
measured rate
very close
to the true
rate,
which israte
justis what
by
want.
an isaccurate
correction
to the
measured
givenyou
Eq. (3.14), which can be written as Ro = Rm(1 + i Rm) under nonnaI
:.:.:- operation.
t: On the other hand, if i Ro 1, then Rrn ~ 1/. That is, the digitizier
{:: measures a pulse and before it can catch its breath., another pulse comes
~?> along. The device is "always dead," and the measured rate is just one per
f> digitizing time unil Essentially all information on the true rate is lost,
I~~~i:~:~~:'P%c~1~3~:~:~::".::.~~~:c:~~I:::;;v~~
::~:: .
~~~~:
::~::
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.
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.
...
.
.
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., .............. , ....... -- , , . .........
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.
fi;.
. "....
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. . . . II
. . . II
. . . II
116
II
..II
II
" . .".
" "
..II
..II
.",.
3.3.3. Digital Oscilloscopes
,
, , ... " " "
, ," " "
, , "
... "
,,/
"
"
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"
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,
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,,/
rhe digital oscilloscope is a wonderful device. Instead of taking th~}~~

... -input voltage and feeding it directly onto the defiection plates of a CRT:?~-~::(Fig. 3.14), a digital oscilloscope first digitizes the input signal using:::~~{....~::~::
"j
"
"
....
, "
,J
...
, , "
flash ADC, stores the waveforlD in some internal memory, and then ha!t.:}...:~ ~
~
other circuitry to read that memory and display the output on the CR~tr~::::
We then have the voltage stored as numbers, and the internal computer i~~~~~..
:*
, " "
the digital oscilloscope can do just about anything with the numbers. Ev6(~@J
though it works very differently from analog oscilloscopes, digital scoP~~~J~~j
The same ternllDology IS used, and Just about any function found o~: al~(~~~;m
analog scope will also be found on a digital one.
.' :::){~
.II.
II .II.
.......
II .II.
II .II.
'
3.4. SIMPLE M EASUREMENTS
..
..
.'. ' ..... " ~~

,', ""' ~
'. ,............
... . .
:f~~
.; . ':':'~~M
are most easily put together on a "breadboard." This is a flat, multilayere~~J~~@

surface with holes in which you stick ~e leads of wires, resistors, capacI'<J~
tors, and so on. The holes are connected mtemally across on the componen~j?I~
pads., and downward on ~le p~wer ~ads.
'<:::::::~~
COlmect two l-kn resIstors III senes on the breadboard, and then connect~~:::::~:~
the terminals of the power supply to each end of this two-resistor stringi~(I~*
Measure the voltage across the output of the terminals. Also, measure theiHt~
current through the string. Now connect two more I-kn resistors in serie~~}~:~~
with the others. Move the connections from the power supply so that once~:\~i~~
current measurements. Now measure the voltage drop across each of th~~}~:~~
four resistors. Compare the result to what you expect based on the voltag~~~}~~:~
divider relation. Use your data and Ohm's law to measure the resistance of.f~~~i
each of the resistors. Compare the resistance values you measure with th~~~J~~~~
nominal value.
<:~):~~~
Remove the DC power supply and replace it with a waveform generatOt.(~1~
Set the wavefornl to a sine wave. Use an oscilloscope to compare thej~{:~~~
voltage (as a function of time) across the resistor string from the waveforlll;tJ~'
generator with the voltage across one of the resistors. Put each of thesef)~
into the two channels
of
the
oscilloscope~
and
trigger
the
scope
on
the<~~~~~j
.
. .........::.:
channel corresponding to the waveform generator output. Look at botb:}~:~~~
..
',
,'
.......
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....
::.:
:'',:-:.~
. :....
.......1';/
::::
..
.
, ,,...
....
:x
..
.:x
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..
.
...
,"'-:x
..
.. . :x:.:
...
:.p}~
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:x
..
....
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,' ....
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' . . . .::.0:
...
,,.,,,,
,}
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'
"
,,
,
,
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3.4 Si mple MII8su r emants
117
simultaneously (on either chop or alterlUlte) and compare the relative
lIrnplirudes of the "input" sine wave across !.he string. aDd the "OUtpUI"
slne
across the single resistor.

. Now connect a resistor and capacitor in series. Choose a resistance R
>;:~:~~::~il:~e'~ so that the inverse lime constant 1/ Re is well within the
range of the waveform generator and the oscilloscope. Just 3:;;

resistor string, measure the amplibJde of the voltage across
the resistor or capacitor, relative to the waveform generator signal
across the front and back of tbe pair. (You should take care to set
DC offset of U1e waveform generator to 0 using the oscilloscope to
:'~;:the offset relative to ground.) Do this
function
frequency,
well on either side of 1/ Re. Also measure the phase of the output
, relative to the input sine wave. Figure 3. 15 sbows how to make
measurements on the oscilloscope CRT, using the circuit shown.
to Fig. 3.8 for ioterpreting the input and output waveforms in 'tenus
"of ,'in and phase. It would be a good idea to select your frequency values
as a
of
j~~~:~:'~~~nil~n stead of linearly. That is. use 110, 2VO. 4110 ... , limn where
~:~ i your.
low frequency. Make a clear table of your measurements

pial the galn (Le . the relative amplirude:;;) and the relative phase as a
funCljolwl'f",q"ency,. Do not forget that you measure frequency 11, but most
FIGURE 3.l5
Measuring gain and re!at.ive phase on an oscilloscope.
..
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118
.II
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....
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ill
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.-:

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10-1
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--tt'
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(!J
10-2
..
....
III
..
..
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..
III
..
III ..
III
III ..
III ..
10
10
Angular Frequency (Hz)
III
III
III
III
III

III
III ..
. . . III
III
III
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III
....
III ..
..
III
III ....
..
..
10-3
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III ..
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III ..
III,
III
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..
III ... ,
....
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90
80
70
CI.I
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<l)
..
III
.-
III ...
::::::::;~~[]
...
III
III ...
III
. . ... ..
ri
::~~.~w.
. . .. . .
- - . . .....
. . ...
-: : :
........~
....
III
.II
....
.II
.II
....
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.II
...
.II
....~
:-:::::::::~ill?~~~'
y/.
. ....
60
.II . .
.II
10....
g
o
.II
....
50
. . ...
-. x
-
::::: W
40
............
:.:.:.:.~~~
~
30
20
.II
.... ..
. . ... . .
10
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
::::::::~~~ill?~ffi
......
.. ..'.'
.......
- --
102
:.:::::::~~rrm.W@
text for the values of R and C.
. :.: ':':'~~mw
W
~ III ...
III
.,,::::::;:~. ~
2rrv. A sample of d.ata and calculatton IS plotted
1~
FIg. 3.16.
'TIl~%~
and capacItor (0.1 ILF).::)~M

.'.-:. '..,~mW~
,:-:.~ 'W
,.
'~w
.. ::::::~
...
IIIW
.-;.
III
:-:':~~W
III
III ...
III
....
III
3.5 Operational Amplifiers
119
use the waveform generator as a pulse generator and study the

using your R C voltage di vider circuit. Compare the input and output
shapes as a function of the width 111 of the pulse. What happens if
RC? What about fl.t RC?
6'/";.,.. .,,,nt
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
can get in the way of your measurements by causing things to change
you do not want it. These changes can happen as a function of time,
temperature. etc. To fight this, you want your apparatus to be
:.:.~.:.:.J.<1U"" against time, frequency, temperature, etc. The most common way to
this is using negative feedback. The idea behind negative feedback
you take a part of the "output" and subtract it away from the "input,"
::~:'~QUL"H'LE> it to "feed back" to the output and discourage it from changing .
. :: Consider a generic amplifier, like that shown in Fig. 3.17, which amplithe difference voltage between its inputs to give an output voltage. Let
gain of the amplifier be a. That is, for the circuit in Fig. 3.17 we have
= a Vin. We apply negative feedback by taking some of the output
and subtracting it from the input. This is shown in Fig. 3.18. A
voltage divider is used to take a fraction {3 = R2/(RI + R2) of
output voltage Vout and subtract it from the input. The amplifier now
not amplify Vin directly, but instead amplifies Vdif = \'ill - {3Vout .
r.-":"iTlh.,n
Vout = a Vdif =
CI! Vin
CI!,B Vout ,
Vout
a
g=-=--.
Vin
1 + a{3
t
Vln
Gain=~
FIGURE 3.17 A generic amplifier.
(3.15)
.........-:.-:._-Jj
....,.. :;:
, , ~
, ,
,
11;';3
,..,.
,
"" lit
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,
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JI
. . . . .~.
, . . . . . WI..}
120
:.0:...
...... :-:
: - . : .. : 11.......
,
..
,. . . .
'
.J"'"
II
JI
"'" lit
. . . . III : . . ;
.......
,
'''.II''~
..
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..
II lit
....
II
1111~
' .......
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II lit
..
.......
:JII
....... oil
, 'JIll".
....... .,;
, .. II lit III
, .... ""::h
:..;
,,' .........
.... 11""2
..
..
JI lit
....
II . .
II1II
, ....... fIIIJ1
' , . . . JI . . . . . : ; :
..
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I
..
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..
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..
lit
01
......
.:"':
......1112
,
' ,
..
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..
II
----..
I , , .. .. ...iI
II 111:.0:'
III "
, ...... 22
,
'
Gain=a
..
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II
, .. II III
. . . . . . III
' , ,........
...... """-Jj
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<,<,. :-:
. .:.z.:1
.
. .
. . ,,.... . "'"'2
:.z.
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II
..
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..
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....
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.... III::::
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"'2
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7.
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, I . . . . :;.:
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.
'",........01.=-:
I
,'''
, , ...... ..oil...
:;;
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'
, ' , ..
,',
...... 2
'
'I
II "'"
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01.
' , , .. .. .. '" 01
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.: ::~: ~:~:"2Ji
", ......
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2
2
:;;
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......
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.......'..
..
, . . . 01.
' .. .I ..
, , 01 ..
",
,
. . . 01 ..
. . . . . till : . :
:<-:-:.~
~
,
'
FIGURE 3.18 A generic amplifier with negative feedback.
, ,',
~
, , , . . . . . wi
" a l l .. _-;"
. ! , ! . . . . . .: : : :
'
j ..........
..
III
, ..... "7;1
...........
:->:-:. :.~
" ,
,
enormous gain. That is, ~ is very, very large. So la;g:, in fact, that af3
no matter how small f3 IS. That means that the gam IS
g
1.
II ..
II
. ><)~
,'
for (43
qm
,
1
Rl
-{J ..... 1 + R
..
....
.........
~.~
"::~:::::~:;:;
(3. 16fm
,,., '" .. III..:.
,......
::::
.."1IjM
..-..
....:~~".-;,.
, ,
...
JI.
.. ..-..
The gain ofthe system only depends on the ratio ofa pair of resistor value~~~I~
and not on the gain of the generic amplifier. It is hard to get resistor valueKij
to change, so this amplifier circuit is very stable. The generic amplifie~f~~~
with gain ex, however, is likely to depend a lot on frequency, temperature~}~~~
:<.:.:~~
and so on.
::::::~:~
As you might imagine, commercial versions of the genelic arnplifie:#}@
shown in Fig. 3.17 are available in lots of flavors. They are called oper4i:'~)~i
tional amplifiers or opamps for short. Instead of a box, they are represente~I~~
by a triangle, as shown in Fig. 3~19. The two inputs are labeled "+" an~l~~~~~
u _ " for phase considerations. The + V and - V tenmnals are where yo~~~~~]
apply a voltage source to power the opamp. It is common to leave thes~f~~~
off of schematic circuit diagrams. Opamps are cheap. Most cost less th~~~~~;j
$1, although you can pay a lot if you want special properties. All have very)~~~
large gain. i.e. a upward of 10 or more, up to some frequency. (Remen:rf~

her that capacitance kills circuits at high frequency because it becom~~J~m
a short.) An old, popular opamp is the model 741, which is still widel~~~~~~~
used today. A version of the 741 in standard use today (the LF411) h~'~:~~@
4
gain of at least 88 dB (Le., a ::: 2.5 x 10 ) and can be used up to fre+~~~@.
quencies of tens of kilohertz or more, depending on the feedback circui~J~~
4
".1':
.1
. , ', ,......
.1'.1
'~."""J
~
. ' ,,~ .........
J
Pi
.......
, , ... 01":-:
:':~::~:~.*.:-:
.....
, ..... . :..;
..... :..;
~
"
"
..
, .... ..t
. ':~::::~x:~~
" ' ......"'..;/'.1

, ..... ~J
>:.:.~ ~
..
:: :~'l~:or"':A
, :,, :' :,, ~' :
..........:or...:
~,,}
, _......... r:JIfJ
3 .5 Operational Amplifiers
111
+v
Out
-v
HGVRE 3.19
Opamp notation.
>--,-__v".
11<0
100
FIGURE 3.20 An amplifier circuit with gain of 100.
i~~~::;':: and Hill (1989; see Section 3.10) tabulate the properties of your
variety opamps. They also tell the interesting story of how opamps
developed. and wby the 74 t is such a mainstay. A common use
opamps, of course, is just as a negative feedback amplifier. You pick
Rz so that the gain given by Eq. {3. 16) is 8 ~ RII Rz. For example.
build a stable amplifier with a gain of ...... 100 up to a lciJobero. or so, you
build the circuit shown in Fig. 3.20.
Another application of opAmps connects to our discussion of passive
: ~~~;~'i~(;see Section 3.1.5.) The effective input impedance of an opamp in
:?
feedback is huge. That is because even though you apply a voltage
the input [0 the opamp is Vdi! = Vin - fjVouI ~ Vin - fj(Vinl fJ) = 0
~-.r~
:Y~
AI . .
':<.:":":y~
,' ........
~y~
.... ..
. ,',', " "~-~~

, " " "
122
...." ..
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....
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,,,
,
..
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r-~
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Vout
Vln
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I , I." ........'l.J.
- '.
FIGURE 3.21
A high-pass filter with input load buffering.
:', :-::'~.x::J'~
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1 1 .. . . . .
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,I
....
it draws no curreut. This makes the opamp ideal for "load buffering.m~j~
That is. you can use it to make the input to ,some ~evice (like a fil~er ~<ij~
perhaps a meter) large enough so that you can Ignore Its effect on the CIrC~~~~~~~W
tt:at feeds it, For instance. you might ~uild a high pass ~lter as shown W,@1m
Fig. 3.21. All the output of the opamp lS fed back to the mput, thus fJ = ,.~(~:~~~W
and ~ =, 1. :aowev~r. Zin = 00 (effectively) because of the opamp., s9:i~~j@
all this C~CUlt does IS cut off the output of the source for Ct) < 1/ R C lik,~@jj
a good high-~ass filter sh?uld, ~ the opamp were not there. ,you woul~t~~
need to add ill the filter mput Impedance Zfilter = R + 1/ l we to th~~:~;~~
source circuit. See Dunlap (1988) for further clever variations on acth"~i~i~~
".;"~"'.~-=*
::::::::-r...:
filtcrs.
....
SO
"
,........
.,,................ . .*-%
~
''''
~
-~
~ ~
'
.,,' ........
.........
.. .. '%
,' .........
.
..,', ....
....
............ '%, .......
.........
....
,''..
.........
.....-''%%-..........
...
.. ..
....
....
,. .....
..............
~
'
"
3.6. Mf:ASUREMENTS OF JOHNSON NOISE
-~
~-'%
'
,',
, ,
-~
~~'%
'
~
,',
,
,, ,
,
,
~~
In this experiment'" we will measure a very fundamental source of noise .. Ifj~~~1
has to do with the motion of electrons in a conductor and the heat energy/~~~~
(random motion) associated with them. This is called "Johnson nois~~!~t~]
....... .
because it was originally measured by J. B. Johnson. Some people caU}~~~
it "Nyquist nOi,se." because the, phenomenon JO,hnson ~easured was
correctly explaIned by H. NyqUIst A more genenc tenn 1S "thermal nois~(~J~:~
Some journal articles on similar experiments are listed at the end of ~'~~~~~~j
chapter. You might also want to go back. and look at the original worJ:@i
of Johnson and Nyquist, published in J4 B. Johnson, "Thermal Agitatio~~~~~~]
of Electricity in Conductors," Phys. Rev. 32., 97 (1928), and H. Nyquis~~~~~~
''Thermal Agitation of Electric Charge in Conductors~" Phys. Rev. 32, l1Q~~~~~lli
, ,' .........::::
(1 928) _
:::~::::~~~:~
.......
,
firsM{j
~.~
",
>:.:.:...~~
~
9.t
.....
, 1 I . . . . . . . . .: : : : :
,I
....
,1, ........
' 1 . . . .. ~
,
,
,
,'
...
.....
.......
. . ..
,.;
"" .J'~
.'>:.~.: ~.J
I........."
',', .. '.....
,,- ....
,........:.--....:
1
0I.~
01 ..
~ ~
,
,'
.: ':-:. :.*y,...;
,
_
1
01 ..
01
01
,.,."...
.J
3.& Measurements 01 Johnson Noise
123
Thermal Motion of Electrons
will outline a simple model of thermal noise as presented by W. Henry

references). The model is based ou ral\dom lhennal fluctuations of
el,"'ron, in a one-dimensional resistor of length L and cross-sectional area
The resistor has reslstance R, and a voltage drop V = I R across the
. The current l. and lherefore the voltage V, arises from the thennal
Jluoluati,)Os thaI allow more electrons to move one way ~ another in
short time interval to.
On average no current flows through the resistor, and the average value
V is lero. That is,
(V)
= O.
other band. the thermal fluctuations slill give rise to a finite voltage
a function of time; in other words V (t) # O. Therefore, the variance 4
V is not zero; namely,
u~
= V -
(V))')
= (V') -
(V)'
= (V') f
O.
Thi s quantity (V2) = u~ is called the thermal or Johnson Doise voltage,

will measure in this ex.penment.
From Ohm's law and the definitions oFcwrent and charge, we can write
~:: 'and it is what wc
Uv
C1iR
= uq R
to
eO':x/L
=--R,
to
: , where L is the length of !.he resistor. and CI~ is the net x motion of all the
electrons in the measuring time to. Ifwe can reduce this to the motion of an
: individual electron, then we can use a microscopic description of current
and resistance. If there is a total of N independent and random electron
. motions (i.e., ''random walks") in time to, then
4nte ~tIld~t may want to review Var10DS definitions in the theory of statistics. given in
: e,,,p'"' 10.
-~
_ ..II.JI . . .-
..
...~
......
........
. ......~..:~
- .. ....
- ..........
.. . . ..
........
. ..........
. . . . . . oil
iii ...... ,
-.... ":m
124
AI
.AI . .
III . .
,.
..III
- :.:.~.:.:...:~
........ 011
"'"
~
.....
- :.;<.:~:
..%~
......
..
" ..... ..
O'V
.L
II.
R~
of
,A
JI
III . . . .
"
..
.. AI
(3.17)<~~~~~
_ )~{:~W
to
-.......~~. ~
the numb er 0 f wa1kS ill tune to. SO)!i!!i!!~

N
= (nAL)
to
:-::::::::~~::?$
.~~~w.
n ALto
"=
'!
'
. .... -: .......
-:.: ~. jI'm/
. ..
.
where n is
~e. number d~Dsity of conduction electr.ons. and L
is
"
'J'f~:-:
"..
01 ..
.....
~e tim~)iliml
,:;/;~~~m
single electron is
~here m. IS th~
.. :.:.:-~. ~~
... "w
mass of an elec.troD and we note that mOll.on IS
oI)1~r%~
Therefore)~
2
t:1d
- ........~... %
:m
';:::::::~~::~
-.:::;::::~:.
-
':::::::::~:m:~m~~
We note that (see Eq. (2.14
:':.;JI:"':"~%
" " .. .. :J'~
:. :;:. ;.
.... =m::
-, ' ........... oil
~. .
:.,.~m
::::
" " .. ..
"ri"!
.~ . . . . JfIII
~ " . . . lflii
L 2m
L
==
p
::::::
R,
A ne2 7:
A
",
2
V
e_,
L2
2
e
-=-..
ii
.....
, "
:; ::::::::~.~
...
where p is the resistivity.5

Finally, put this all into Eq. (3.17) to get
2
=
Cf
-':':':':.~~':::
.: .:.:.:~~~
"
11 . . . .
>~{:~im
.-' 2
': :;:::::~.X:::
Ud
N 'R 2
__ )~{;~~
::: :~~::::~:: ~~
t2
:-:~-::~::mi"
..
nALfio kTr:2
1:
R
-m-t2-'
O
_ A ne,mi' kT R2,
..--
....
~h
>t~~~m
. ,.....
~~
::<?~~
. .... ,..... . . . --':::~:::~~~~
01
. . . . . . . . _ .......
. )~:~:~:~
........-'::::::::
.'
.'.......... . w
is because we are dealing with a single electron.
.II . .
-- :.:.:.;~:.~
.:}}jij
.' ..........7',.,(.
. . .... -..'.I":J'ili; . . ., ."'.I":nrl'Jt

rI'
'..,...-,X:';:
'"
~
....
, ,
"
...
.......
'
.
.....
..1":.
....
.... ..
,
,
. '",:jrh
'"
',
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ' ,.
,
.', ',
,
...
.
-....
.....
<II
.. .
""
-.I
.......................
.. .....
:.:-:.~~
..
, .... ...
I
,
,
,
..
"'~
....
,
..
III
III ..
,01
3.6 Measurements of Johnson Noise
(V )
2kTR
= --.
to
125
(3.18)
: It is customary, however, to express the noise using the equivalent

. : bandwidth 1'1. v = L/210. Therefore, we have
(3.19)
In order to measure the voltage V, we will need to amplify or at least

the signal in some way. Let g(v) be the gain of this processing
at frequency v. Then the output voltage fluctuation d (V2) integrated
some small frequency range dv is given by
nrr.rp,,,,
d (V2)
= 4kT Rg2(v) dv.
r'' are made by integrating the signal over a relatively large

1'1. 11. This bandwidth is typically determined by the gain function
, which is large only over some finite frequency range. We therefore
the expression
IT... '.... ' ' ...
narmVVHlm
(3.20)
G and D.. v are constants defined by
G 2 D.. v;;;;
fooo g2(v) dv.
(3.21)
will measure the Johnson noise in a series of resistors, and use the result
.
a value for Boltzmann's constant k.
:: . The setup is shown schematically in Fig. 3.22. The voltage across the
...
R is immediately processed by an "amplifier," which essentially
this voltage by a function g(II). The Olltput of the amplifier is
m.::(mea~:un~d using a digital oscilloscope. You will use the oscilloscope to
(V2), given by Eq. (3.20). By changing the value of R (simply by
W::yplaIl,gITI,g resistors), you measure (V2) as a function of R. and the result
be a straight line. The slope of the line is just 4kT G 2 A v, so once
. have calibrated the gain function of the amplifier, you can get k. (You
. assume the resistor is at room temperature.)
... - h
..... ,,. ..........

......
.......
..........
.........
.
.........
:.r..
.........
"7"":;:
. ..'" ...
.....
..
.
.
.. ...
.
.
. ................
........ j
Electronics and Data Acquisition
""
..
..
. . . . . . . . II
. . . . . . . . . II
126
.II
.II
.-"JO
. . . .,
'"
. . . . . . . III II I
""
..II
..
..II
,.-.-.
.........
.... .-.-.
..............,.-.-.
'
'
.............
'
.......
.. .....""ioI
........ ..
. .. ...
..... .. .. .. ,. ....
.. . . . .
... . .........
.
....
.. .. ..... ,.,.,. ......~~~
...
.
........
..
...
.
2
......
.... .. ....
.. .....
..... ...........
......
. .. ....,. . "'". .
.......
......
.....
'A:~
....
. .. ..... ....
.:::;::::~:~~
... .....
, ...... ..
.........
.. .. ....
. ......
......
.. ........
.:.~.:.:
.
.. . .....:~
...... ...... '..." . ..
.
..... ........9"'b.
. .. .. 1"1"'-'"
':':':':~~m
........
.
...... ... '" ''""...
..
::::;:=~::~ml
. ...... ..... .'" '"........
....
. '" '"..
......
.......
"'.
...
'
" .,j."M
......
. .. '" ..... ..
. . ... "'''''~M
'" .
. .... .. '"
..
.. A
A ~ . . . ""
";...j
... A
. . . . ,. .. II'
'"
'"
..
,-
,
'"
...
,
,J
""""
..)
......
..
Ampmier
-- ... ,
......
Digital
OscUloscope
.. JI . . II1II. j "-"-.
. . . . "II . . ~
'"
'"
'
..,/
.II
II . .
.....
. . . . . ..
.. .. 01
.. 01 ..
. . . . 01
FIGURE 3.22 Schematic for measuring Johnson noise.
..
"
......
.. 01 ..
. . . 01
,.",
, .. III """
..o.o
'"
"
"
..o
"''''
......
.o
.o
~...:
Let's look a little more carefully at the properties of the amplifier. W~}~~
..
... '" ......,.
will be working in the several tens of kilohertz range, so to estimate ~~~~~~:.%'~,:~':::::
gain we need, take a bandwidth 8. v .-:. 10kHz. The digital Oscilloscop~~~~t.
imphes that the .no~al gaUl G ~ust be on the o!der of 1200 or more~~@
measure the nOIse In a l ..kQ resIstor. The amplifier also needs to h~~:~~~~ .......
low noise and good stability itself, if we are going to use it on such a sm~}JI
s.ignal. A ~gh-gai~ opamp with negative feedback (see Section 3.5) soun"m1li
like the nght solution..
/::::~:::w
If we are gomg to do the Job nght, we want to make sure that all ~:~~I
loscope, for example. That way, we can measure the function g ~ v)
bandwidth :filter on the output of the amplifier. In the beginning,
Q~:::~:
YO'~~:~:~
... -::::
The first "ampli~er'" you ':'~ use, there~ore; is. shown in Fig. 3.2~{ftm
Fo~ now the bandWldth fil~r IS ~ust a ~. With an mput and ?utput, ~!~
Wlth knobs !OU can .tum:1he gam-prOd.uc~g~atc6ttne~~1,"I1Itl?'f:0.:1
other hand, IS essentially a cut-and-dry application of opamps and negat1.~~~
feedback. In fact, as shown in ~ig. 3.2.3, two .such negative ~ee.dback 100~~~
are cascaded to get the appropnate gam .and m.put charactenst1.cs.
fi~~~
loop uses a HA5170 opamp and a low gam. while the second stage IS higA!i&i
.: ,:~:::::~:.~
........",m
..
'" .
!h:
.. ''; w.
,
:::}:~:~
, ..
.......
..
. ..
"'~.N
.,>;.:.~].
,,
'"
, , "'
..... . .X
,.,.....
.....................:
,' "'MIIi..~
.,.IIi
,
.....
,
, . . . II
II ..
, II
'
oil
--
II
AI
, ...
.. ,y
...o
II ..
,
3.6 Measurements 01 Johnson Noise
HA5170
121
HA5141
R,
Band Pass
Filler
R,
R,
Oul
FIGURE 3.23 Amplifier SIa,ee {or mea~urement of Jobnsoo noise.

NC
-+v 0uI Sal
Bal
- In -+1" -v
:i'!,GURE 3.24 Pinout diagram for the opamp chips used in this eKp!:rimeot. We are nOI
"BaI" connectio ns. The nOlalio n "NC' mesns
~no
connection:'
and uses a HA5147. 6 Good starting values to use are R] = lOn,

= 100 Q, and R3 = 2.2 kQ. This gives the fi rst stage a gai n of 11 and
second stage a gain of 221 times the bandwidth func tion imposed by
opamps and the bandwidtb filter.
All of these components. including your input resistor R (but nol the
bandwidth filter), are mounted on a breadboard so you can
things easily. The pinout diagr.un for the HA5 170 and HA5 147 is
in Fig. 3.24. The opamps are powered by 12- V levels applied in
with O.l-IJ.F capacitor.; to grouDd. to filter off noise in the power
Connections to the breadboard are ronde using wires soldered to
"><nm",,,;.1
::, "11~
,,,", for figuring out the rightopamps aod amplifier circuit in general goes to Jeff
RPI Class of '94. More details on lhis circuil desi&n are available.
...
. . . . ...~.
.........
--- -:-:-;":":-::'
.........
..........
. ... ;.r-....
..
- ..............-.1":
JI
JI
. . .~
..
II ...
JII
JI
..
128
3 Elee t ron i c s a.n d 0 at a Ac qui siti 0 n
_~
JlJI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..
... .... ....r"iIIf""rIf'"
-: -:':':.;'~~:m"'~
...
. . .....~"'
_
JI
II
JII
...
AI
..
...
II
,,"..tic
-.............: .. -t....
Set up the circuit shown in Fig. 3.23. Check things carefully, especially J:)i)I~
you are not used to working with breadboards. In particular, make sure-th(\~;~~:.:
12-V DC levels are connected properly, before you turn the power suppl)<?~m
and the output of the bandwidth filter goes into the oscilloscope. The lowe~::J~m
and upper limits of the bandwidth filter are not crucial, but 5 and 20 ~u:jl
are a reasonable place to start
:};~:~
the CIrCUIt and meas~e the ,output .on an OSCIlloscope. The output ShouI<:t:4~
look the ~ame as the Inpu~ (I.e., a sine :vave of the same ~equency ~), b?~W~~~.
the amplitude should be bIgger. The ratio of the output to mput amplitud~~4ffij
of very large gain, around 2.4 x 10 , and the output amplitude must ~ les~W~
than a few volts so the opamps do not saturate. That means that the mp\i.t~~
3
<d~
wave wlth such a small amplitude.
the amplItude down by a known factor. This diVIded voltage

Rbig.
and
Rsmall
IS
used ~:;:::;m
usmg an ohmme~er, ra~er than t~ trust the ~~lor co?:~?~i]
somewhere between 10 and 100. It IS. also a good .ldea to see the ou~ut ?N~~
... ... ....

...... .. .........
- . . .... . .
- - . . ... ""
....
.lO
..
""
..
.. .. A
.. :::::::::::ll!Il!!
Waveform
generator
. . ...... "" ..
- ::::::::;;IJ:m
. . "" .....
- ........
Ramall
Amplifier
Digital
oscflloscope
..
. . . ..
..
..
..
oi
.01 ...
....... ..
..
..
....
.01 ""
II. JI.~
....
. .'.....
......
"
........
.. . . ...... ......
...........
... . . . . . ......
. .......
. .... ....
.
. . ..
.'" .......
.... . . ..
... .
. . ..
.. .. .......
.... ..
.. 01
.....
......
oi ..
..
..
..
.01
oi ..
. . .....
.. ,::::::~~~~~
... '~~
.Ii ,
as
FIGURE 3.25 Calibration scheme for the noise amplifier.
..
..
01 ..
/:=~~~{m~.
::: :::::~1i
.......
.. .. . . ..
. ' .....
'~
.......
.. .. .. ... . ..
- . . .. ...
...
........ .
......
. ....
.' ......'~.~
. ....
..... . . . ...
- .
....
. . ....
.
- . .. . .
.
.. .. ....
.
:-:
3.6 Measurements of Johnson Noise
129
2500,---~---.----~--~---,----~---.--~
Negative feedback gaill
....
::::::: .
~ 2000
~jl:
.2l
~{
1500
"C
c:
03
:;:;; 1000
C.
03
'0
.~
, Bandwidth limits
500
OL-__
__- L_ _ _ _
10
15
_ _~_ _~_ _ _ _L -_ _- L_ _~
20
25
3D
35
40
Inpul lIoltage frequency (kHz)
~~{F,IGURE 3.26
Sample of data used to determine g(v) for the amplifier followed by the
~t:commercial b~dwidth ~lter. The simple negative feedback formula gives a gain of 2431,
~:::::'and the bandwIdth filter IS set for uLO
Il~:: .
t~~F
= 5 kHz and VfII =
20 kHz.
Make your measurements of g(v) by varying the frequency of the waveVJonn generator, and recording the output amplitude. Of course, you must
@{a1so record the input (i.e., generator) amplitude, but if you check it every
~{)iIne you change v, you can be sure it does notcbange during your measure~f:Ihent. Measure over a range of frequencies that allows you to clearly see
W:)the cutoffs from the bandwidth filter. including the sbape as g approaches
W>Zero. Also make sure you cautinn that the gain is relatively flat in between
tlfthe limits. An example is shown in Fig. 3.26. The setup used R\ = 10 n,
= 100 n, and
2.2 kO, so the total gain should be 2431, and
*~<witb bandwidth filter limits at 5 and 20 kHz. The main features seem to
@:be correct, although the filter has apparently decreased the maximum gain
~...
.
f:{ablt.
[t: Now take measurements of the actual Johnso~ ~oise.as a function of R.
t~?Remove the wavefonn generator and voltage diVIder ll1puts, and put tbe
~tresist?r. ~ou want to m~asure across the ~nput to ~e am~Ii?~r. Set the time
t.{J;ler dlvlSlOn on the oscIlloscope so that Its bandWIdth liIll1t IS much larger
:~::than the upper frequency you used on the bandwidth filter. For example,
~I'lfthere ",e 10,000 poin" (i.e., ,ample,) P'" tnlce ond you 'et the "ope to
@?:R2
,
II!:
...~~::-
R3 =
..........
......
..
.,.-'
-~
, .. .II ..
, -' of . .
, ,... .II.....
of .II
,. ,. ...
.
.
.
, , . . ...
...
. . .. ..
. . . . . .]1
130
-'
E
"5
.. .II ..
.. ,. .II
. . . . II'
.. ..."" .....
. . .. ...
20~------~~----~------~~----~
>'
-'
-'
II'
of
. . . . II'
Single sweep
. . . . II'
of .II
-'
-'
of .II
of ,.
-'
of
""
.II ..
. . . . .,. m
............m
...
....
.......
. . ..... .. . . .
......
. .
.
10
....
III
..
III
..
...... II1II
III
....
III
...... ..
,. ... II'
II'
..... ~
-10
.........
::::::::~:~
......
'.~.
-~~------~--~--~------~------~
0.5
1.5
...... .
...........
. ...........
.
. . ...
.....
2~--------~------~~----~------~
100 sweeps
-'
... ,JI
~.
. . . . ..
.. ..... .
. ..:-:-:.:':W.'
......
...........
.........
............. ...
.........
..
.....
.......
..
. ... .. . .
~,JI
... ,JI
. . . . .AAmA
. . . . . . .. .
III
..
III ..
.. J......
..
..
.. ..
........
.. III
.oj
.. .
....... .
... "'A~
.. ..... ..........
..
......
..
. . . III
.. .
...... ~.
...
..
.<1
,
. . .. . .
........
;;:::::::.
..........m
,
..
.<I ..
...........A
.... "fA:
.... :..
',
..
.I
cuts off at 20 kHz, then this would be fine.
;::::::::::~m:
the l~wer limit was only ~ligbt1y smaller than the upper li~t?
'}<~~I
of 100 traces. The average looks the "same" as the sIngle sweep, but It;~:}~:~W:
t~o~gh the! are confined wIthin. ~e limits of the band:Vldth filter. Most@~
mean and variance of the trace. This will be useful for your analysis. ~~
oo
You need to dete~e the value o! G2.6.v ~ Jo g2(v)dv. Make ~<~
plot of g2(v) as a function of v and estlmate the mtegral under the curve:<:~
answer usmg the MXI'LAB functlon trapz, which performs a trapezo1(b~tj~
:.:.:.~~.~~.
..
.,:.: .. :.~:~:
.. " .1'
. ::::;:;~~:~ili:
.... ......
.'. ' ....."..~
,JI~
m.
..
.....
."
%
., ..
........

'.r'.~
...
........
.... ..',.... ~
'
...
...
'..".~.
.'
' ... A.
,JI......
,JI
3,6 Measurements of Johnson Noise
131
22,----.----,-----.---~----~----._--_.
20
16
116
g<II
-g
12
:g,
10
14
III
>
.l!1
:;
2
o~--~----~----~--~----~----~--~
',-
10
12
14
FIGURE 3,28 Data taken by measuring the standard deviation of the output voltage signal,
as a function of the input resistor value. The slope gives k, while the intercept gives the
,qui,,"~' inpu. po;" ,01"",.
,=&ti'g . . <h' ~plifi" "", x b~dw;dlh.
::-:
:>
il:
'
Input resistance (kn)
"fie,
.....
,'" integration given a list of (x, y) values. For the data of Fig, 3.26 one finds
that
G 2 J1v
= (7.9O,5) x
107 kHz.
Next we make a plot of {(V - {V2} as a function of R. Note that

since (V) = 0, the above expression reduces to (V 2 ), The plot is shown in
Fig. 3.28 and a linear fit gives
(V2) I R = (1.33
.~::
0.08) my 2 /kQ
,: and an intercept at 4 m y2 .
We can now calculate Boltzmann's constant k from the above data using
.;,:_: :'
'__ Eq. (3.20) and setting T = 298 K (room temperature). Using units of hertz,
F volts, and ohms, we write
~::
:=:::
~.
k=
(1.330.08) x 10-9
:~.:-
I
.
~:;>.
-23
=428
90
10 = (1.42O.13) x 10
4TG 6v
x 9 x (7. .5) x 10
2
This result is in excellent agreement with the accepted value k

10-23 J/K.
:::::.
I'~'.'
(V 2 )1 R
11K.
= 1.38 x
.............///-....
-::: :~~:::::~:
-.........",-..-.."':J.-~ .,
-.'
- ' " '"
:-:.: .~.:.~::
132
.A"~'"
-<::::;::::::::::
:-:...~
...........
. . .. .. ..~~J
- . . ... .... .... .. .
...... ,
.II
..
- JI . . . . . . . . . . .
.J1
~
0IIII,
....
....
..
. . . . . . . . .III lflii .. ....
.. .oil..
.. ..
IfIII~X
...........-...... ..
....
.. ...
- .II ...... 0lIl....
.....
A
.. MIll
....." , . .... '
The intercept of the line in Fig. 3.28 is the noise at R = O. You would!HJg):
expect this to be zero if Johnson noise in your input resistor were the only- -~~:}~;~:~~;:
thing going on. The input opamp, however, has some noise of its own, due)t~i~~~~:
to internal Johnson noise, shot noise, and so on. The specification sheet for <~~~~~~~~~3
the HA5170 gives an equivalent input noise of around 10 nVI Hz. How<}~~~~~~~~~;
<~~~~~~~ij~;
does this compare to your measurement?
There are a number of variations and extensions to this experiment. For /~~~~~~W~~'
exa~ple, instead of simply using the oscilloscope to determine the standard. <:~~~~~~t~~;
deviation" use ~~ an~ the trace data (as in Fig. 3.~7) to get the values :)~1!j~jil
and examme therr dlstnbutlon. You can get the data Into an array trace~..}~~~~~~~~~~~:
and you can use mean(trace) and std(trace) to get the mean and standard :<==~~~~:~;~:'
deviation. The series of MATLAB conunands used to plot the distributiori)~J~;i;~~:
might look Hke
<::::~~~~~::::;~~j
... ,.. ..... .
.'..............
....... .
..-"",,,,,,,,,%,,.,,,
. . . . . . . . . . . . .J
...........
.
.
....... .....
.......
..........
,. ......x;..... ,
,~
..."'"...,
... .........
.. .......
.....,
0.
..
.
..
"" ,
. ..... .. .............. ..
..
bins = linspace(min(trace), rnax(trace), 50);

[n, x] = hist(trace, bins);
stairs (x n)
,
......
.......
..
..
'
...
.....
...
........ ..
.........
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~
-.......
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II
.
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..
...
...
I .... ,
I ......: . : ,
I:, . :WX
.1"-'"
... .I"~'
distribution is rather
Gaussian~like. as you expect, but you could test to::iM~j

IJI
JIII . . . . . . . . ...
...
.J" .. .
.........
JI
. . . . . . . ., , ; -. . . .
..
~:::::~:~:~::::~
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~
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......... .... . .
I
I.
~~:-:_~
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....
IJI~
............
I
I
I
JI
..
z-~'
... ~
.....
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..............
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......
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...
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........
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..
,
..
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......
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.
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.
. ............. . .
............
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.
.
..
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...........
.
.
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II
I
...
CD
"~"
~ 40
JI
"
~ ......... ,
...
:~
~,.
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..
~~
...
+-"
.........
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,
,
~~
JI
. . . . . . . . . ...
-::::::::~::::=::I...
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.....
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.
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.
.
..................
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.
.
, ..... "'"' .......
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.
- ..
...., ..
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, ..................
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.... "' ... .. . .
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-
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. "' .......
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........
..
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...
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.
.
.....
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-....
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..
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.. ........
........
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.............
.........
X;
.
.
."........
.
..
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:.:
...
.
.. ..........,""
.
..
..
.
..
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. ..........
.
.
.
.
..............
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....x......
.. .
.......
.
..
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........... .
.......
. ."..........
X;
.
.
.....
.
..
.
.
_I.
:::.:;
.,
............ ...........
...........
~
~
::::J
(U
[1)
...
IJI."~
..... ,
I
~
........ ~
50
..
.............
JI
...
............. I
"
30
"
"
~ ~
-"
--
~~
.~
:-:.~
~~
'j!.~
"
~ 20
E
"'~
~"'
.~
-'
:l
"'~
~...
~:-:.~~
~'
10
...... A . . . . ...
"
"
...
JI
.............
JI
.........
"
"
...
...
-10
_:
I'
-5
Ii
-0
Output voltage (mV)
_,
'
III,.J
"
........... I
...
... I
........... I
.......... I
10
>:\:~~~:::::~~.a
......
. .. :::.:;.......J!iI.
JI
.. .
....
....
FIGURE 3.29 Histogram of the individual voltage values from a single sweep trace. The.<~~~~~~*~~;
line is a Gaussian distribution, with the mean and standard deviation determined from the :<t~~~~~~
trace data, and nonnalized to the number of measurements.
.:>=::~:*~~~'
......
.
..........
... .
..
..
. . ... . .... :
....... . ./h
...... ....,
..... . ....:?.;
.
..
..
..
......
.."
" . ... ..X" .....,
....... . . . ...
'''..
.
'" ...
" ....
,......
" . ..
. . .....i
- , ..
.... . . ....i
.
" .'".
.... re; . . '
..... ,JIA..JII ... ,
..............1"'.1'
......
...
I . . . ...
" . "'. .m.

~.'
~..
,
'
" J . ..
.. ..
...........
...............
,
~..::.....,
:: .
. .:~~:::
.....m;~~;
_ ..... "...,
~~,
'..l" .....
3.7 ChilDS
133
see whether this is really the case by comparing it [0 !:he Gaussian with
the same mean and standard deviation, and considering the X 2. (See Chapler 10 for definitions and discussions of these quantities.) Some digital
oscilloscopes have the capability of perfonniog a real-time Fourier analysis of tlte input. Tha[ means Ihat you can actually demonstrate that the noise
spectrum d(V2)(dv is indeed "white," mal is, independent of frequency.
This is straightforward data to lake, but will require that you learn more
about Fourier analysis to interpret it.
...
One nontrivial circuit modification would be to make your own bandwidth filter. For example. consider the circuit shown in Hg. 3.12.' Try
assembling components that give you reasonable parameters for the gain
integral in Eq. (3.21). A simpler kind of filter might simply be two RC
filters, one bigh pass and one low pass, cascaded in series. If you want to
do active buffering. tbough, be careful to use an opamp that works at these
frequencies. Another interesting variation is to use a few-kiloohrn resistor
as input, but something mechanically large and strong enough to take some
real temperature change. If you immerse the resistor in liquid mtrogen, for
example. it should make a large (and predictable) change ill the JOhnSOIl
noise.
3.7. CHAOS
We now discu.~s a measurement that uses nonlinear electronic components
to explore phenomena characteristic of complex physical systems.
3,7.1. The Logistic Map and Frequency Bifurcations

We are used to the notion that physical systems are described by differential
equations that can be exactly solved for all times, given an appropriate set
of initial conditions. This is not true io complex systems governed by nonlinear equations. A typical example is the flow of fluids. At low velocity one
can identify individual "streamlines" and predict their evolution. However,
when a particular combination of velocity, viscosity, and boundary dimensions is reached, turbulence sets in and eddies and vortices are formed . Tbe
motion becomes chaotic. Many c haotic systems exhibit self-similarity: that
7Th.is, in fact. is WMt Johnso n us~d in his 1928 paper. You might want
and compare your results 10 his.
[Q
look it up,
........
~-~
.... -~
. . . ... ..
. . . . oil OIl
. . . . till
...
::::::::~:-w.M
- . . .......
-... -ill
oil
and so on, Such scaling IS uruversal; It IS observed m all chaotlc systems,,>}~W

, A partic~arly simpl~ case, is that of ~ystems that obey, the logistic map>n1~m
mtroduced m connectlon WIth populatlon growth, DesIgnate by x j the}::::Jrn
number of members of a group at the time j. Here the group may be the~:>i:~$:~
population on an island, the bacteria in a colony, etc. The index j labels a
finite time inte~al (such as a day or, a year) ~r the successi~e "~enerations.">m~~~
.(f1@
: ::::}~~ID~:~
....
would hold that
.........
.
.. . . .m;
:,.:
..
@
...
.. .
.
- ". .m
.
.. "m...
"
......
"
~~.,
.oil
JI
..
..
..
..
.,, ....t"'..
...........6.~
...............
..
..
...'
""".....
,.~.I'
".
.01 . . . . . . . .
.I .... ..
..
.. .01
.. 01
.. ... ..
........~
II ..
..
However, the population WIll also decrease due to deaths~ In particular If' <~~~~m.~~
the food supply on the island is finite the death rate will be proportional to}:~:~~
,.
. . . . " ....
..
.'""........... ...W
m;.
..
.
m"
XJ'+l
= AXJ- -
sx.
1
::.-:
.. .. ..
-..........
. .W'...
"
-.I
..
..
(3.22) .. -:>~:~:m;Q<~:
.......
.
... ..00
.........
.. .
.. ..
.. ...
A and s are assu~ed n?nnegative. We s,ee imm~di~tely that if A > 1 ~dYt~W.1~

s = 0 the population Will grow exponentially, while If A < 1 the population )?~~:~
will tend to O. The map of Eq. (3.22) can be rescaled by introducing
))~~~~~
-........
. ... ....~-%:::::--'
.. .... ..
. .. ......-%........
'"...........
...._.......
0
..
.
..
.........
-...
, .......
. .. 0j-j_.
.._...
""
. .. . ... ........
.. .. .
..........
.. . ..... i,..............
.
.
.
.
x
_.
......
.......
......... . . .....
.,.... . .. . .....
........
. . .... . .
.. . .... . .z -.
... .
...........
.. . . . ....... . . ..
.............
.. . .
...
...
...
...
...
for all j.
~% ~
...
~-%-j-j~ ~"
-...,..-:
-Z
...... :
:::--,..-:
(3.23}Hi!i~j~~~
-......~~%%3_.
.
Then Yj obeys the logistic map
..
.....
I11III
........ oil
.. ..
. . . . ..
. . . . . . oil
.. ..
...
~...
~:-
.' , ..............
Yj+1
= )..Yj (1 - Yj).
.........
....... 4r",Ii ...
The above map has the interesting property that if the reproduction rate for?:i:@m~
one generation is restricted in the range
-<nt~~~W:~i
--. ,.....-_:~jI"/.--.
.. . . ..u;.... .
:'::
.. ... ... ~
.. .... ..:..... ..........~03%3~~
........ ..... .
.
.
...
. .... ...
....
.
.
..
.
'"''
.
..
. .......
.
...
. .....
... . ...
. .. . ~."'".
........
... .....
.. . .....
.. ........
. ....
.... ~."'"..
...... ....... .
"'".
. :<::
. .~
..:..ym/.:
,
......
h.
. . . .. ...... ...
. . ..
.
:,:<:~~m:
m~~
,,.....
......
r...:.
::::;...
.
..
...
. . .. .~y.
o<
..
Of
..
..
'"
.J/I
"
...
. . . . .~
..
A < 4,
.~:'
...
...
..... * .
"
.
.
*
.,.... x:.
~
'
"
then Yj remains bounded between
~.
..
..
II ..
. . . . m;.
""m;'
,
'
o < Yj
,,
,
< 1.
..
..
..
"'"
' . .
,...... ill"'"
'. '.' ......
::::::::~i~:
... ...~Y~.
1834).
.
'.,.....m
.""W
. .
.
"
'
.
W
..
..........
:.:-illJx:
.',',............ ....ti.
rn
.
"'m:J""';.
. ,'.........
, . .. ...
.
.
"'".
, . .. ...
.. ~m..
, ,, .
.
, . ... .......
,
,, ,, ...... . .
~
.
,......
...
.
. . ..
.
"
......
':::::::~:~
3.7 Chaos
135
We are interested io the fate of the group after many generations, namely
io the value of Y1 as j ""* 00. We find, as already stated, that
If ).,:::; 1,
as j -+ 00 Yi ""* 0,
the population decays to O.
If 1 < }" < 3, as j -+ 00 Yj -+ Y ""* y. the population tends to a
stable point y., namely
yo. = )",y.( t _ y.)
(3.24)
w1th solutions
y. = 0
In tbis ease the solution y . = 0 is unstable, because jf Yo =

(I: infinitesimal) Yoo will tend to (l - II},,) .
I:
When}" :;. 3 the system behaves in a very different manner. A,<;. soon
as ).. > 3 but}" < 3.4495 . . . the population alternates between 2 stable
values. When)., > 3.4495 ... the population alternates between 4 stable
values until ).. > 3.54 ... , where it alternates between 8 stable values; for
.t > 3.56 . .. the population alternates between 16 stable values. and this
continues at ever more closely spaced intervals of ).,. We say that there
is a bifurcation9 at these specific values of A. These results can be easily
checked with a pocket calculator or a simple program. Table 3.1 gives some
typical results for).. = 2.8 , ).. = 3.2, and )., = 3.5, and the stable JXlints are
shown in the graphical construction of Fig. 3.30.
What is plotted in Fig. 3.30 is Yfin. 1 vs YiniLial , The continuous curve is
the equation of the logistic map Yf = .tYiO - Yi). In Fig. 3.30a the cwves
TABLE 3.1 Example of Stable Points
of the Logistic Map
A = 2,8
A =3.2
)" = 3.5
yo. = 0.6429. , ,
y. =0.5310 ...
=0.799.5 .
y . :: 0.382& .
=0..5009" .
= 0.8269.
:: 0.8750 ...
9Henri Poincare in 1900 had noticed such behavior in mechanical syslems and named
it tile "Cllchange of stability."
(a)
(b)
y final
y linal
1.0
Yf=Yi
1.0
~=3.2
A=2.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
A=1.0
0.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
1.0
Y initial
0.2
0.4
0.8
0.6
1.0
y initial
FIGURE 3.30 Plots of the logistic map: (a) for A = 1.0 and A = 2.8; for A = 2.8 there is one stable point at y* = 0.6429 .... (b) For
A = 3.2; there are now two stable points at y* = 0.7995 ... and y* == 0.5130. See the text for details of the path leading to the stab1e
pOints.
. '
,
..
.
.
.
.
'"
..
....
....
.......
..
' "
. ""'"
.......
..........
....
_._ .. .
.........................................................
................................
,' .... ~ ~-" ........ ',,~ ....... -' .. ",.' ..........
- .. .... ......
,. ~ ~ ~ ~ - - - . - .---.-&-.-- .--- .. -.-&-~-.-.& . -.. -.&.-.&.-.~ .. -.- - . - ~ - - - - . - - ~ ~ - - ~ ~"_"
"~
L" :..~.:,,:.:. ~.: .:.:. :.:":.:.:........ ",'..L . '''.IIo..''. ...... L. . . -..... '..... o. ~.: 'L::.:.~.:.:.:.:.:.:.: ': I I: II:. :11.",, .... ,, "'.,. "' . " a" a"'. "' ""',,.
",
"
"
"
,,",,'
"
'
"
'"
'
"",
'
'"'
"
'
.. ' " ' - ' .. ' .............. ' . "
........... - ........... L ... ...... L ...
"
.
.
.
. .....
. .....................................
.'
.
.
.
. .
................
........
............
"... .... ..., ' , .. , .................................
.................
.
.......
".....................
.
.
..... ..................... . ~ ..... -.... ,, .. ,,,,,",," .............. ~ ...... ................................ ~ ..... .......... .... -.. ~- ................ ..... ".~ .... .......................... ~ .. - ...... .................... .. ............ .......... -... ......... ............................................... "' ................... -. ..
~
'L'" L. L. L-.. LL"' LL LLL' :LL LL:oI LL:. :L~. ~L:. :L:. :.:." L:':L~L:L' L L:L:' L' L ... ,'1.- L . L... 10 .,.", "',."''','',.;.: ~ Il.'" :"':"';.:.:" :.: ~ :";10 : ~ ;.;.:'" "' ... "' ... -."' ... I "' .................".... "' . "' . "'. ~ ,.,"1
,
,'
",
""
~ .................................................... -
11< - "''' : " : . : . : . : . : - : " ' : . : " ' : . : " ' : . : . : .
: . : . : ...............
"
"
"
.............................. "
"
"
"
"'.
,'
"
'
' "
'"
"
"
"
.."
,.,
"
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ." . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I."
,,'
'"
...........
"," . . . . . . "'
3.7 Chaos
137
for A = 2.8 and A = 1.0 are shown, while in Fig. 3.30b the curve for
A = 3.2. The lines for Yf
Yi are also drawn. We can follow the path
from some initial value Yo
0.1 in Fig. 3.3Oa to the stable point (indicated
by a circle). Given YO we find Yl = Yf at the intersection with the curve.
However, Yl must now be used as an input. Yi. so we use the Yf = Yi line
to locate Yi and proceed to find Y2 and so on. The process converges to the
circled point at y* = 0.6429 ....
It is also evident that the same construction for the A = l'curve will
lead to Y*
0.0. In Fig. 3.30b we start (for more rapid convergence)
from Yo = 0.2. We now find the two stable points at Y* = 0.7995 and
y* = 0.5l30. The map requires that one stable point leads to the next and
vice versa.
When A > 3.5699... the population no longer reaches a stable point
but takes on an infinity of values in the range 0 < Yoo < 1. We say that
the system behaves chaotically. This persists in the remainder of the range
3.5699 .. < A < 4.0, but one finds regions of stability where an odd number of stable points exist. The dependence of the bifurcations on A is shown
in Fig. 3.31 where the A-scale is highly nonlinear in order to show enough
detail; the vertical scale gives the values yj(j -* 00) of the stable points.
The remarkable discovery by M. Feigenbaum in 1975 was that all systems that exhibit chaos follow the same (universal) behavior and that the
difference .Ll n = An+ 1 - An of the values of the parameter at which bifurcations (period doubling) occur converges rapidly as n -* 00. In particular
as JZ -* 00 the ratio
=
=
An+] - An -* 8 = 4.669201660910 ...

An+2 - An+l
(3.25)
tends to the universal number O. For instance in our previous example An

is the value of the reproduction rate A at the nth bifurcation.
However, also the amplitude of the population at the stable points
exhibits universal behavior and scales according to a different universal
number a. Let y;(1) and y:(2) be two stable points of a given branch at the
bifurcation value An. We define
l1y*
n
and it holds that as n -*
= yn.. (l)
y,*(2)
00
l1y:
-*l1Yn+J
-*
Ci
= 2.5029078 ....
(3.26)
, .......
. .. ,...0
;I
,
, ,
"
...
..
.. ..
".
;I
;I
..
......
,.
,.
, ....
..... ,..
, .. ......
......
. ... .....
.. ..,..
, ......
.....
..... ..
, ,, ....
.
......
..
..
""
..
,,....
...... --.--..-q ....
.'. ....A
. . .. ,. ..
;0
..
...
".
.-
,J
..
'"
...
138
..
"
,J
.....
..
,J
......
..
. . . . . m
m
'
..
..
"II
..
... A
,J
..
..
..
..... A
. . . . . A . . . - . -
'
",.
,J
..
..
....... A
,J
..
..
.. .. ..
..... A
:..
.. , . . .
, ...... "'J
.' .:}:::::~:~1t:
...... ...
.......
. .. ..
.
1.0
,
. . . ,.
,, .. ,.
, . . . ,.
.......
.. ... ..
.
. ...............
. .. ... . .
_*.
: . .:::::::::::.~..
-:
........
.
. .,. .
... ;
.. .. ..
' . . :m
' ' .........41 ~

'.
~.
'
;0
.......... JIll
.....
.,II
..
,AI . .
.,II
..
. ... . ...
......
..........
. , ... .
......
. ...... ...
,AI
0.8
...........
. . "'"
. . .... .
y~
0.6
...
... .
....C
. .......
.......
..........
.oj
........
...... ....
. . .. .. ...
~
. . . . . 01
. . . . . . . 01.1
. ... .........
.. ..........
.:.:.~.:.:
. ....
..........
........
...... ..
...........
. ..........
. .. . . .
.
.:::::::~:.
.. .....
.....
.
.
.
... .. . ..
..........
.....

..
.. .........
.....
.
.........
.
.
....
........
.. . .
.....................
m
.':':':.:': W
. m
;I
01 ...
...
..
<0
3.45t
.... .
. . . J ...
t3.5699
.. J
.. J
..
..
...
::::::::~Jt'm'
A.
nonlinear In order to clearly show the bifurcatIons. The black parts of the plot Indlcate tbe;}}~
@j
...AA.
. .... ~
....
...... ..
"
"
They are always found to be the s~e for all pr~blems. We ~ verify
this:tlW
~{}~]=}
':':':':A:~~
.
.......
AA_~~-
to the accuracy that can be reached In the expenment descnbed below.
.......
. . ......
':-:':'l'~
ior. This is not so surprising because the diode is a nonlinear device. The::::::WI
.,--..... .
4~.
." ,
....
..
......,
" .;c-.
laThe intervals .6.y; must be chosen appropriately as is also evident from Fig. 3.31.
4 ,.-,
" .;c-,
.':::::::~
~~:
......Jt'~~~
'. '....
....
.
.
.
... ..
J".~.
'--.
" " ,.-.

. . . II ..
::::~oo
........
.... ' .'"'"
, 4 ...
... " m...
" "
"
II
.......
~ II
3.7 Chaos
139
L
b
a
+
.':':-:
:~ ~.:
if
>
Conducting
FIGURE 3.32
Non-conducting
The diode-R-L circuit. The equivalent behavior of the diode in its two
states.
~J.~~:
~~~~{
20mA
~1~~
!l~l:;
__
A_no_d_e--t~ Cathode
10mA
==:::I==""""t"--t-t---t--... V
i-:.:.:-:.-:.;."
FIGURE 3.33
2V
~:~::: .
~~E
The I-V characteristic of a diode.
@L:
~::::::
effect was first reported by Linsayl! and was analyzed in detail by Rollins
@~( and Hunt. 12

~:::::
;:::::. The circuit is shown in Fig. 3.32, and the I-V curve of the diode in
;.~} Fig. 3.33. When there is a positive voltage across the diode it conducts
~t::- and appears as an ErvtF of magnitude - Vf, i.e., as a voltage drop. In its
:~:) nonconducting state the diode behaves as a capacitor C and will draw a
i~~} charging current. These two states are shown schematically in Fig. 3.32
where we also indicate our convention for positive current flow.
:~~>
The source is assumed sinusoidal of amplitude Vo, so that the voltage at
:~~{L point a of the circuit is
:t>
I.H"~t~~:;;{~i~:~*~r::~:;;4:t
I
:.Jo:.:."
1295 (1982);
R. W. Rollt"'
'"~F~:
--:......:-z~?'"m/
III
-~:
.I"
~~.~_~..
~~.AJ
..
..
~ .:-.:~.....:
. :.:z.z.
Y.
III
.11
III ...
.......:
.1".-
-}}~:w
...........
3 E1ectronics and Data Acquisition
:~::
.....
..
. . ..
-,.-.....
~~
....... ,,-,
-"''''''''~~
-.
--. j f .... ..""' "'"..- ,/'~
"
'
I
if . .
-,.-. . . ~
III . .
.. ' ............."'"
III
- , . -. . . '
-}::=:::=m:=
:=:=:::
current in the circuit and the voltage at point b (i.e .., across the diode) _::}~:~:
:~:~:
..,........
"
...
..
~ ~
~
~ ~
~
"
" " "
~
conducting state, obviously Vb = - Vf, whereas in the nonconducting _:<~~~~~
-:~~~~~
.
...
~ ~ "
""........ "
~ ~ "
~
,litude need not be the same for every cycle. This happens because the _~>~~~:~
:<.z-:~:
Ie does not stop conducting as soon as the CWTent goes to zero but has ->}~~m:
:~~<
:~:::
=::::
..... III
.... .III
. . . . III
III JIll
. . . . III
.. .III
,,~,
- ........ 111 III
... ..
..
.... ..
"
III
:\~~~~::mili~
....
-.....
(3 28) .-:.: .:.:.m:.:~,...
............
I.......
. :}~~~~:~m~//.~
Y":'-.
......
.....
hls expression 11m I is the maximum current during the current cycle; 't"m:)~:m
, Ie are constants. If I1m' is zero then the recovery time t'r is also zero.. :~)~~~m~
..
..
..- .
... ..
. . .... ..
"
:~~)
",. -..,"......
...;. :. :-
""
~~::::
._.,
":t~:
......... '
~~~~\
Ie depends on the value of fm in the previous cycle in a naninvertible >j~~ w.:~~~~:~

lion. We have a mappingt~jm
C~{
.. .
. ...
.'........
..........
.
. .....
..."
..~
.. ID
~
.:
mY~~"~":: :
;-"...:;~~::
':::::~~~~::::-m~:
'. ~.m.
,.. ,.. .,
.. " .
. . . . .: - - / . .
~~:::::
... ,
.........
" ,...,
..
oK
oK
~..... oK'
......"-.,.....
"
rhe period of the source To = 2T! / Wo defines the cycles or generations .-/}~;@
he system. The source voltage sets the reproduction parameter through ->~~~~~~:
=Vol Vf. The voltage across the diode Vb (in the nonconducting state) :?~~~~~~~
elated to the population Yj in the j th cycle. Depending on A, the voltage/I~~~
repeats with the period., To. of the source, or with period 2To. 4To, and .. ):~j~~~~:
on until Vb becomes completely chaotic. A numerical analysis of the /:J~~~~
-...
-:=:::.
"...........
.... ....
.:.:.~~:~~%~:
.,
............
. .. .... ...... .
..:....
3In the conducting state we find that
~~..
. " 11......,.,..........
"
%~
:.:.~
:~:..
;:::::::::~~::i
.....
. ... .. . . . .
........
~...... ~~. :.
......
,.- ~...
...
--}:::::%~::
.......Y',r:,....
-
-:::::~:::*::
-::::::::~y/.:..
. . .. '.",/"
.
.... .m-.
le nonconducting state we find that
'(t)
Vol
R2
+ L2(I)2 -- w6}2/m2 cos(wt -
'b(t) = Vo cos rot - I (t)R - L(d/ fdt)
-':::~~::.~::.
9b)
+ Be-(2RIL)t COS(ldb t + tfJ)
. }:;~;~mm;
.....
:.-~
::.:....
:..~~~~r~~h..-::.
. . ... ::--h
.
. .. ...
. ......
.. ...
.
.
:-: .-: .:.:%.Y....:..
;---..-:
......
.
.
%.
.
. . .. .
I
..
..
~..
~
aJo
= l/JLC
... " .
-~m::::;
. . .. .
:::::;~~;ili::::::
.' ... .. ......
.y.....:.
~
::::::~::mY*h:
.
......
:~<~~~;::--m=1h.
.... ~-:...
.
.:::::::~~~.~~~
-....
. ... .......
......
A~
B1
rP are constants.
~.-j
,,
;~~~(
~~~~~~j
M:~~{
:~t
~M::
. ~~~~>
. ,.................. ,,
--:.:.:~:
,.~.
,'
. . .:. .
. ........../ .
..~
~',
~,
... ....... ,
~: .. :~:
.....
~:::::~:
. ........ ,
_....
.. _,~,
E:=..J"--",,-. " - '

-~-
~:=:::::
r-_"
. ~{::::
:::::::
:...:.:-:
..
....
,......
.........
........
,,
,
,
~~::::,
............. :
.~~:
'
.........
......
.. . .
..................
:::
,
.,.....
..
-.. .. ... ... '

.."..~...:.-:
'
....
.",'.'
.~~:::
............
......
.:~:::.
.......
......... ..
~:~:::. .
. ..
.~~:::
... .
. , ...........y. ..
... ..
... m ...._..
<Hmru
~~~~f
-:.: .:";"x:=:
. . .:. ;
..
.. ......
-:::::~~~~~m%
. . ....._... .~.:--h
. ~mili
..........
.....
'-'-.-"~....
~~::..
........
..
.....". .'..
:
...... ..
..... -
3.7 Chaos
141
0r--,r-~--.r---r--~
0r---~-'t---c-f--+--~
-v, f----+~
~n+l)
'l(n + l)
3URE 3.34 The current llIld voltage in the dioc:le-R-L cireuil shown as a furu;tioa of
7.3. Experimentll Results

)e circuit is set up 3S shown in Fig. 3.32. A Hewlett-Packard function
:nerator HP3325 is used to drive me circuit A fairly hefty variable inducnce (L = 10 mH) is used since thc diode capacity is small. The series
sistan~ was R ::::: 50 O. The diode should Dot be too slow (such as are recier diodes) nor too fast Good results wereobtaioed with a IN4007 diode;
ber diodes. namely IN4001 and I N5404, gave qualitatively similar (but
lantitatively different) results.
The first step is to tune the inductor to find the resonant frequency ofllie
rcui!. In this case it was found that WO/27f = 71..5 kHz :::::: 1/(21l"..JLE).
Figs. 3.35a-3.35d are shown the voltage across the diode Vb and the
iving voltage Vo. For Vo < 0.875 V. Vb has the same periodicity as
I. However just above Vo = 0.875 V, Vb alternates between two difrem values as shown in Fig. 3.35a. The effect is clear. but not very
onounced, because the data have been taken only slightly above the first
furcation. Figure 3.35b corresponds to Vo = 2.033 V where the secId bifurcation sees in. The period of Vb is now four times that of Vo .
~ain the difference between the two high-level srates is very small and
.:.
-.- '-'-'-~-m
-': ...
.:.:.:~~~
~~
-
.II. .
_ ..
.
.
...
....
........~~
::::~:::::::m~
.... y~
--'~"""""m
...
... . .
-
142
-.... m
.....
.II
....
..
.II
..
~~
~....
~~
..
---:: ::::::::~~ill
....
..
--...
ill
:.~ ':':':~:m'
-
....
I
.II
~. . . .
.II
~~
...
..
...
.. ..
...
--:.:~:~~*.
-.'_.'~.JIIj."'
....... .".. X,
-
.II
~~.r%
:: :~::::::""ra'
-
.II
...
..
...
-:: :~~::::~:%~Xj
_'_-:.......
...... .r*.r'
-- ........ .r.r'
-
.II
*
. :,
..
..
~~
~~*.J'.J'.
.II
..
~~
...
-->:-:.:.~Y/.r'
:-:<.:.:~: *.J'.r'
.II
.....
JI
"
...
~~'
-.' . . . :
~
.II
..
.......
... . .
...
..
~~~~*.
...
..
. . . . II
II
I~ ~~.~
. ...... ' ,.....J'.r'

.:", I.:.:............
:'~.:.&~.r.r
y/.I
.'
.. II... . . . . . .
I~
I
I
I
.'
I
I
I
I
.,
..
X-
......
III III.... . . .
III .....
.....
..
III . . . .
III . . . .
...
..
..
..
...... :.-:.
x
.X
~
......
.. ...
..
...
.............. J
. . ....X.
..
.....
......
. . . . . ~..
.... ~
.........
I
.......
IIJ
.
II
x.
.
... ..
. ......
.....
III . . .
III . . . .
ri......~.r
..
. . . . . ~.
.. . . . .
I
..
....
XX
.........X
:.-:
......
,~~
..
...
.X
III ...
III . . . .
...
I
..
....
.....
...
..
..
.~
III III III... . .
.~,
III . . .
I ~
I
~
..
x
"X
.......
'
.......
~ ~~
I ............
,~ '
I
I
~:::
........
..
..
I
I
I
. . ..
~
........ I
~
.........
~ ... .
........
I
..
.........
.......... .
I
I
~.
.....
.....
I
I
.... X
~:.-:.
I
..... ~
I
~
.....
~.:.:
,~
I
~
...
..
........ I
.... ~
.,~
....... I
. . . . . . . . . . ..
. , ....
...
..
.. . . . .
...
...
.... ~
....... .
..... ~
~
....... .
.......
. . . . . . ~ .. .
....
. . . . . . . II
~
I
I
I
....... I
....... .
I
I
~
......... I
~
. . . . . . . . ..
I
.... ~ ... I
.........
.II
FIGURE 3.35 Oscilloscope traces of the voltage, Vb, across the diode (upper trace) and <:~:~~~~~~~:
of the driving voltage Vo (lower trace). The driving frequency is 71.5 kHz. (a) Immediately _.}}~:~:::
after the first bifurcation. Note that the upper trace is bimodal and has period 2To. (b) -}}::~:::::
Immediately after the second bifurcation. Note that the large peaks are bimodal; the period. _.: :}:::::~::
is 4To. (c) Inunediately after the third bifurcation; the period is now 8TO. (d) Chaotic ::~}:::::~::
behavior.
:~~:::::::~:::
I
.....
...........
.II
.......
........
.II
..
.....
.II
..
..
.II
..... .
........ _
I
I
-
......... .
.II
. . . . . ....
.II
....... .
. . . . . . . ..
I
........ I
. . . . . . . . . ..
I
.II
....... I
~
I
,
I
-
. . . . . . . ..
......... I
I
.II
.II . . . . . . . .
I
.II . . . . . . .
....... _
I
I
I
....... I
. . . . . . . . . ....
.II
....... .
~
. . . . . . ....
I
..... _
I
I
I
I
I
.II
.II
..........
..
that between the two low-level states is not observable. The next scope ::>}~:~:'
traces, Fig. 3.35c, correspond to Va = 2~280 V and were taken right \~{:~~~::
after the third bifurcation. The period of Vb is now eight times that of_ .~~~~~.
Vo and similar connnents apply as to the distinguishability of the differ.. _: }}~:~:
ent states. A fourth bifurcation was observed at Vo = 2.340 v. Finally >}~~~~~
Fig. 3.35d shows Vb when Vo ~ 2.355 V where chaos was observed to - :>}~:~:
I
..........
..........
......
"n
set l
.......
.II
.....
.' . . . ..... . . ....

,
. . . . . ...
..... ~ ,
,~~
~
I
~
..... ~
I
I
,
...... .
....... ,
. . . . . . . ...
A plot of the bifurcations obtained for this diode is shown in Fig. 3.36.- . <~~J~~~:
14
The error in determining the exact bifurcation voltage is 5 mV~ We . \j~~~~:
sunnnarize the results in Table 3~2. From these data we calculate the .<)~~~~:
,
I
,
I
I
LILLI'"
I
I
I
I
I
I
[4A more precise detennination of the voltage at which bifurcation occurs can be made
when a signal analyzer (FFr) is available. In this case the onset of period doubling is evident
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
from the appearance of subhannonics in the frequency spectrum.
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
........
~
~
I
,
,
I
I
..... . .
...... .
. . . . . . ...
....... ,
. . . . . . . ..
~
~
...... ,
I
~
. . . . . ...
I
....... ,
I
~
. . . . . . ...
I
~
I
I
,
I
I
I
,
,
I
I
,
. . . ~ ...
....... ,
. . . . . ..
,
,
..... .
I
I
. . . . ~ ...
........ ,
. . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . ..
~
....... ..
I
........ ,
. . . . . . . ..
~
. . . . . ...
~
. . . . . ...
~
....... ,
. . . . . . . ...
I
I
,
~ .. ,
. . . . . . . ..
....... ,
. . . . ~ ...
~
........ I
........ .
~
...... .
. . . . ~ ...
~
........ ,
....... .
........ ,
. . . . . . ...
I
...... ,
. . . . . . . ...
~
......... ,
~
. . . . . ...
I
~ ... ,
. . . . . . . ...
,
..... ~
. . . . ~ ...
I
........ ,
....... ~
I
..... ~ ,
I
~
. . . . . ...
~
~~,
. . . . . . . ...
I
I
I
. . . . . . ...
........ ,
. . . . . . . ...
........ ,
. . . . ~ ...
........ ,
. . . . . . . . ..
......
,'~."~'"
I
I
......... ,
,
...... .
..... ~
,,'.~".'"
I
I
....... I
I
I
....... .
....... ,
...I ..... .....
3.7 Chaos
143
3500
MOO
2500
2000
ax,
1500
1000
500
o
o
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
FIGURE 3.36 Plot of Vb vs Va as measured for the lN4007 diode. The bifurcations are
clearly observed. Some I:l. Vb spllCings are also indicated. Chaos sets in at Va = 2.355 V.
TABLE 3.2 Bifurcation Data from

Measurements of Cbaos
Bifurcation
Vo (mV)
1st
875
2033
2280
2340
2355
2nd
3rd
4th
Chaos
Feigenbaum number 8. We have
= 1158 7 mV
A2 = 247 7 mV
A2 - A,
A3 -
A4 - A3
= 60 7 mV
144
and therefore
even though in.put .from only the first fo~ bifurcations was use~.
.HMW
sIble WIth the present data. As pomted out prevlOusly, the
mtervals::::{~
ratIos of .1..y! seem much larger than a. TIns
part to discontInuous Jumps
ill
15
due m part to the fact::}~~~w.
Vb at certalD values 15 of Vo- However<:)~~~@
decreases in subsequent bifurcati.ons by a multiplicative factor; this fac-:?j~.:

tor seems to converge toward FeIgenbaum's a. We also note that for the>:~~~@:
reglOn<t~M:
.II
.II
..
..
'~m
'~m
..
.,...... ..
_.'"~~~mjl"%""':
.~ . . . :-r.r: ..
..
..
_
<~~~~~;~~}
3.8. LOCK-IN DETECTION

~
.II
.II
.II
..
..
,,.. m.
I
~%
..
..
....
.II . . . .
. . . . ..
..
..
we can be senSItIve to th~ phase of the signal a~ well as its freque?c!,:<tm:
lock-m amplifier..
. .
which you are aware of. It may be completely buned
ill
.{:~M
nOIse, however, <}~~~m:
CaI~leS a reference that vanes at the frequency of the SIgnal. The slgnaI::?~~~m
,..,.,. . w
m
...
..
..
III
""
""!I"!!'
.,,""
...
...
m.~
',,..............,'.%.
. . ..%....
. .'. ,
:.:.:'~.%.m..
.....,'... . %..
,.,
.
%.
. :>:)~~
..
III
III
.. , "
..
~~.
,. ''''m
.,.'.......','".%
::::::
.
..
....
..
,.
._ ...;.....
..
III
III
...
3.8 Lock-In Detection
145
sA! V
il
F
~~,
,,
~ r-------~r-------~------
Output
Filter
!l:ll
FIGURE 3.37
The lock-in amplifier acting on an in-phase signal.
laser,motor
so you
turnfor
thethe
laser
on and
off rapidly
a mechanical
The
drive
chopper
gives
you thewith
reference
signal. chopper.
The lock-in amplifier takes the reference signal and uses it as a switch.
For half the period, the switch is "up," and it lets the signal input pass
through it with no change. For the other half, the switch is "down," and it
reverses the sign of the signal (i.e., multiplies it by -1) before it passes. This
is shown in Fig. 3.37. The result of this is a modified signal that is always
positive, instead of oscillating around 0 like the input signal. A low-pass
filter takes out the remaining oscillation and lets the DC level pass through.
This DC level is read off a meter, presented at some output connector, or
digitized by some computer, depending on the lock-in amplifier.
Now consider what happens if the signal is out of phase by 90 0 with
respect to the reference. This situation is shown in Fig. 3.38. Now the
.. output of the multiply stage is still something that oscillates about O. The
average DC level is D, and that is the output of the lock-in amplifier. So, as
... , promised, the lock-in amplifier only detects signals that are in phase with
f: the reference. Most lock-ins have a "phase adjustment" knob on the front
.{ that allows you to maximize the output signal. If you have the phase 180 0
1:::::.1::::::::::::!:::::'
I1::e:c~~~~t!~~:i,~~~~;~!:!o:. ~:::w~r~sh~~:i~~:'
1,
~;~~~: ~:~;!~~Yisst:;S:~;Si~~ :;:=;~;~i~:~:!~t
....
A~AMA-:::::
.. ..... ttl"".
)}~:~~$.
.....~
146
....... ..
. . ... .
.: :::::::~~: ~
:::::::::~
::::::::::w
I
I
I
I
I
~ ~---+----~'----~----+I----~
c:
... ........ ...... . ......

...... . .
t
I
..
II
.oil
...
..
.:.:.:.:. ~
:::::::::~-~~:
...
.
.......
......-'-~
''."r. ... II
............~~~
"
<::::~~~:~'jI'~:
..
.....
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FIGURE 339
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Using a lock..in amplifier for modulation spectroscopy.
:~:?~;~~
<::::;:;ffi
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deternlined by the R C time constant of the filter.
have an NMR slgnal as a function of the large magnetic field that polanzes <)~;m
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3.9 Computer Interlaces
141
is modulated (i,e., made to oscillate) by setting x to some central value xo

and making it osciUate aboutxQ by a small amount 6.X. Then the amplirude
6.y of the modulated signal is given by
6.y=
dyl
6x.
dx .to
In other words, the output of the lock-in it; the derivative of the line shape
y(x). It does this, of course, while throwing out any noise iliat gets in
its way. One common technique, described in detail by Dunlap (1988),
is to sweep the value of x many times and record !be output ;n a multichannel analyzer. This uses signal averaging to get rid of any remaining
noise.
3.9. COMPUTER INTERFACES

Many of the experiments described in lhis book. as welJ as in many
undergraduate instructional laboratories, can be done without the use of
sophisticated computerized data acquisition. Indeed, in experiments such
as the Balmer series in hydrogen (Section l.S .3), the Faraday effect (Section
5.7), and the y-y angular correlation in 6OCo (Section 9.5.4), for example,
there is much instructional value in tiling. recording. and analyzing data
"by hand."
Nevenheless. directly interfacing a computer with the experiment makes
it possible to take data much more quickly in many cases, and thls also
has much instructional value. Furthermore, some experiments that bad
once been very difficult, if not impossible, i.n the instructional laboratory, can now be done with relatively simple and inexpensive computer
interfaces. A wide variety of commercial ioterfaces exisl, and it is not
possible to cover all of them in this textbook. Indeed, the marke t moves
quickly and differeol options appear and disappear very regularly. A recent
publication, available free from Keithley at hnp:IIWtNW.keithley.com/, is
the "Dala Acquisition and Control Handbook." However. a number of
standard situations apply.
The simplest computer interface is a "scria1" interface using an RS232
standard conununications port on the computer. The electronics on your
computer and in the data acquisition device [0 which you wish 10 interface support a standard "handshake" protocol for moving instructions
and data back and forth between the two devices. AU that you need is
".. . . X
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148
3 E'ectronics and Data Acquisition
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WOrk4 This software is very often available using a free download from the }~~~~~a
vendor of the data acquisition device. For example, for their line of digi-Hm~
tal oscilloscopes, LeCroy Corporation (http://www.lecroy.com/) provides:t@
a program called ScopeEx.plorer for this purpose. There are many other })~~
examples.
-<::::~~
It is a good idea to consider "middleman" comp~ter inte~aces, so that)JID.
your computer and software can talk to one specIfic deVIce, 31ld then })~
this device can be connected to any number of other instruments that ~:'):~~j
d.f!C.
ki
d
f
d
Th
d
th
u
--+"
. " ... ~*
acqurrelilerent D S 0 ata.
IS cuts own on e mtel~ace pro- .:',::?~~~
grams" that must run on your computer and with which you need to .}}~tJ
become familiar, and gives you more flexibility for your experiments, at . {~
the cost of a bit more ~xpense. For example, ~emier Software & Technol-r~
ogy (http://www.vermer.com/) sells the "Umversal Laboratory Interface")!i
(ULI~, a serial computer int~~ace.that then connects ~ experiments through . )~
a vanety of analog and diglta1 mputs for measunng ~oltages, .currents, <)~
scaler counts, and so forth. The conlpany also sells InexpensIve com- ::':~}~~:
puter programs for controlling the ULI from any number of a variety Of)":!~
computers.
' :,:::::;:*:
. 7;:;'
Serial interfaces are simple, but they are slow~ They transfer data one bit )}:~~
at a time ("serial"), and the number of bits per second (the "baud" rate) is
limited by the simple cabling and connection standards to some 56,000 bits ::}~?:~
per second (56 kbits). This is fast enough for many applications, but the)ii*=
experimenter can quickly be needing (or wishing for) a higher data rate. ,>~:~:~:
, ....=-:.
Faster data rates are provided by parallel intetfaces~ where many ,\~:~~:
.......,::.:.
lines connect the computer to the data acquisition apparatus, or possi- .'::~~~~~*
bly through the network connections to the computer using an ethemet <~~~~j
connection and TCP/IP protocol. At thIS point; the number of hard- /:::~
ware and software options increases enormously, including interfaces )~~~~~
designed and built in the laboratory itself. Some companies that sell such :)~~
interlaces and software include Agilent Teclmologies (http://agi1en1.com/), ::}~~
Keithley Instruments (http://www.keithley_com!). and National Instru- -'.\iw
ments (http://www.nLcom/), among others. LabVJEW from National ::i:)m
Instruments is a very popular software tool for laboratory interlaces which :'ij@1
featmes a grapbical programming environment, but which can be diffi- . :<~~#
cult to use in an undergraduate laboratory setting without the necessary:::1~
support.
'::::=*
Probably the most popular standard parallel interface is GPm or "Gen-}@
era! Purpose Interface Bus." Also known as the IEEE-488 standard, or as :)~~
\}@]
,. A
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3.9 Computer Interfaces
149
HPID by people at Hewlett-Packard Corporation (now Agilent Technologies), GPID uses an ASCII code to communicate, very similar to most serial
line communication systems, but uses a 24-pin connector, allowing data
to be transferred in parallel at some level. It can transmit up to 1 MByte
per second, within this communication protocoL In order to communicate
with a data acquisition device equipped with a GPm port, some sort of
computer port is also necessary, generally provided using a plug-in card,
available from several manufacturers depending on the type ol computer.
Virtually all commercial general use data acquisition software packages
provide for communication through GPIB, including ScopeExplorer and
LabVIEW.
One thing to keep in mind is that the next step after data acquisition
is data analysis. Depending on what software you may use for analyzing
your data, you should try to acquire the data in a way that is amenable
to your analysis tools. Once again, this can be solved with commercial
products if you have the resources. In this book, for example, we use MATLAB for data analysis, and it is possible to purchase from The Mathworks
(hnp://www.mathworks.com/) toolboxes for MATLAB for instrument control and for data acquisition, although we are not making use of these
specialized toolboxes in this book.
Depending on the local expertise and available resources, the variety of computer interfaces can become quite large and complicated. We
will use a number of different options for the experiments in this bookl6
including
a LeCroy Digital oscilloscope and ScopeExplorer to measure the
decays of eddy currents in metals (Section 2.2).
a plug-in board for control and voltage readout, operated with
Lab VIEW. for a high-resolution optical monochromator (Section 6.3.3).
a Vernier ULI and LoggerPro software to count and record Geiger
counter signals to measure nuclear decay rates (Section 8.6).
a Canberra multichannel analyzer and a GPm interface to measure gamma ray spectra, including an experiment on Compton scattering
(Sections 8.4 and 9.2).
a home-built time-to-analog measurement system for determining the
mean life of the muon (Section 9.4.3).
16The reader should be aware that it is unlikely (and unnecessary) that these options be
duplicated exactly in your own laboratory.
.-.....
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3.10. REFERENCES
. ';';':':m
' . '~ .........~
I.
ics is~
...:::::::::~~
,' ....~~~
::~::::::~
..
P. Horowitz and W. Hilly The Art ofElectronic$, second ed.~ Cambridge Uni".
Pres~ Cambridge~ U~ :,tlJ~
1989.
::::::::::~
'.....
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~
,
>~-:.>:.~
!
~.~
A student manual for this book is also available. A good book with intro-<A~
ductory chapters on solid-state electronics, including the physics behind.)~
diodes and transistors, is
:;;~~~~~:!
.;':. .
......
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:~
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'
R. A. Dunlap, Experimental Physics: Modem Methods .. Oxford Univ. Press!, Oxford, 1988.
..
.t ..
,/''''
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' , .. .. .... ..6.
'j'.- -.~
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~
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Some good articles that discuss the physics and experimentation of.' ..i,}~jW
.;-:.:~.x:%:
,
thennal noise can be found in
.....
....
'
.~..,
oj
..-.:.--~
,'I .........'l~
.'' .......
.........r.l.
.: ::::;~:~
~...:
'.
.,'. . . . . *
R. W. Henry!' Random walk mode) of the;tlllal noise for students in elementary physics!' Am. J. Phys.:~'::;~::X
, . ... X
41~ 1361 (1973).
..:i~~:~~:X
P. Kittel. W. R. Hackerman. and R. J. Donnelly, Undergraduate experiment in noise theullometry, Am...i:\:~~~
J. Phys. 46 94 (1978).
}:::~:~
D. L. Livesey and D. L. Mcleod, An experiment on electronic noise in the freshman laboratory,. <~~~~i
Am. J. Phys. 41, 1364 (1973).
;:::;;=:~
...............
~
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1
'
,
There exists by now an extensive literature on chaos. Some suggested/!ij*

references are:
'::}~~~
, ......:-rJ5.
....
:. :-:....... .:.r-:.."
' ,
".....x..:-:.
~
,.........
....
~
M. J. Feigenbaum~ J. Stat. Phys. 19,25 (1978); 21" 669 (1979).

L. P. Kadanoff Phys. Today 36 (12), 46 (Dec~ 1983).
.
G L. Baker and 1. P. Gollub!, Chaotic Dynamics: An Introduction, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge,
UK., 1990.
H. Nagashlma and Y. Baba, Introduction to Chaos. English transl., Institute of Physics~ Bristol, 1999.
, .......
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CHAPTER
Lasers
~j>
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:~(
Lasers are a sOurce of intense, highly monochromatic, coherent beams of

light in the visible and infrared parts of the spectrum. "Laser" is an acronym
for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation" introduced
in 1958 by its inventors, C. H. Townes and A. L. Schawlow. The first
successful operation of a laser was achieved by Maiman in 1960 using a
ruby rod as the la.<;ing material. Fundamentally a laser consists of the lasing
medium, of means for exciting the medium either through an electrical
discharge or by an external light source, and of an optical cavity made out
.-.... of a pair of high-reflectivity mirrors. The lasing medium can be a gas, a
transparent solid, a liquid (dye), or a semiconductor. The relative simplicity
'.~.~
low cost of lasers have contributed to a wide range of applications.
Semiconductor Ia.<;ers , also refelTed to as diode lasers, can be found in
~::::
...... almost every modem piece of equipment.
:t.: . and
:~ . eU::::~;
and aOl~~~, ~~~~r~:~si::~~i~ ~rdd:~::~:~:~~:P~~i~::~
.:j. ._f...:.. . :.::. : ..:
light
of optical elements. Experiments that without a laser were tedious
........
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151
.
.
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152
4 lasers
.II
..
and reql]jred great skill can now be perforITled routinely~ We begin with af>~~~
. ..
brief discussion of the laser equations and a description of the ReNe laser~,>}
. . ......0:As the first application we show how a laser beam can be expanded witli~~~)~
...
a pair of lenses and how to measure its spatial profile. We then discuss the(}~
two most familiar types of interferometers, the Michelson and the Fabry~:!Jm.
Perot. We demonstrate how they can be used to measure the wavelength:::}~~
~
~
......
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"- =
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(4~ l1-:-::~{a
:?::;:~~~
'.' ~m
Planck s constant diVIded by 21r?@~
Ii = 1.054 x
34:-:-::~
10- J-s,
(4.2J!)~~~~m
'.......
.. ~~
-
~~%
and therefore}}~
.:>~:~
6.E = 11m.
(4.3!j}~~@
........~~:~
"~:ill
...
-'
... ~~m
--<\\~:%.
equati onsp ..
.
The transitlon from an upper state to a state of lower energy wlll occur:::t~W
spontaneously and we designate by .~ the probability pe:- unit time. for suc~/fm
~
by ~e presence of light of ~gular freq~e~cy w, satJ.~fymg Eq. (4.3!. ,:,e;)~~g

de~lgnate by B. the probabIllo/, per umt ~m~ per u~t energy denSIty 1l1)~~W
urnt frequency mterval, for stImulated enussIOn. It IS reasonable that the..<~~%.
presence of the electromagnetic (EM) field (light) at the resonant frequencY:)~$
will not only in~~ce tr~sitions from 2 .. ) 1 but also from 1 .~ 2 wiili.~!:!j!~
th~ same prob~bl~lty. I~ IS equally reasonable that the photons ansmg ~Dl<im
stnnulated enussion wIll have exactly the same frequency and same dlrec~ffi
tion as those in the incident EM wave. These arguments were first propos~~t:~:~~n
,. ',..:.:-. . .
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4.1 The Principle of Laser Operation
153
(4.4)
(4.5)
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154
4 Lasers
........
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FIGURE 4.2 Creating population inversion (a) in a 3-1evel system and (b) in a 4-1e~j)~~~:
system. The double arrow indicates the lasing tral1sition~ while the up-going arrow --1 >_:Z:~:~~~
is the pump. Level 3 must have a relatively long. lifetime, whereas levels 2 and 4 sbo~t~t:~~~:
have a fast spontaneous decay along the indicated arrows.
-;:}}~~~:
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Boltzmann distribution
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01 """
-...N
.1"....,..
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We can see from Eqs. (4.5) and (4.6) that for stimulated emission to occUi}:
........ ...
.......
in preference over absorption, we must have N2 > Nt- Usually the opposi(~;~:~::
.01 ..
""
whereas at room temperature kT = 0.025 eV, and from Eq. (4.7) N2
N~:<:~:m
are pumped from the ground stat~ 1. to the excIted state 2 ~d q1llckJ:~t~~m
decay to state 3 by spontaneous enussl0n. If N3 exceeds Nllaslog can t~~;:::;:~
..... ...
place in the 3 )r 1 transition. It is, however, easier to use a four-Iev~~~;;;:
scheme. In this case atoms are pumped from the ground state to level 2 ~~m~~&
""
m31ntalD N3. > N4 ~d a~hleve lasl~g In the ~
rr,,-)
4 t:ansl~on.
- .<~~J~~~m
assu~e that p~otons eInl~ed alo~g the cavtty axis are tr~pped ~n the caVl~:j#.l
and ~teract Wlth the lasmg medIUm, only a small fraction bemg lost. 'Y~::~
conSIder a four-Ievel1aser and can set N2 = 0 and N4 = 0 because ~:~
transitions 2 '~ 3 and 4 ~ 1 are presumed fast. The total number:::~::~
.'. ,'.'.' ....
'm:~
~
":':'...........
. .m
',', ,,':-:~~m~~
...... :'--..h
~~
' . . ~h
.:::::::::~~m*
,..... :=;::
'
01
01 ....
.',, ''~m
.;. >:-~'~":m
<::::::~~:~~~
mjo'"'-;
, ' ........ 01
"
01.
, .. 01 ....
, .. .. 01
- - - '"
4.1 The Princip le of l ase r Operetion
155
r.~~~:!i".AlasjOg malerill.! placed in an oplkal cavity wiU lase if it is pwpped to achieve
I and 3. It then holds that
n ''''"'g the alarmc density, aDd

dn3
n)
dl = Wpnl - BNy n 3 - -;dN y
(4.8)
Ny
- - = VBNyll) - - .
dt
Te
(4.9)
Wp is the probability per unit time for pumping 1 -+ 2 -+ 3 (transferatoms from state 1 to state 3) and Ii is the probability that one photon
cavity win induce a lasing transition in unit time. The lifetime due
to'p<mlan"ou.lTansitions is T and due to cavity losses Te. The (mode) volin which the photons interact inside the lasing medium is designated
V. In all cases the spontaneous transition rate liT BN y so we can
i::~::;,~'; tenn. With this assumption, the steady-state solution of the rate
(i.e., dn31dt = dNyldl = 0) is
:::.
(4. 10)
the st.e.ldy state, the cavity losses per pass equal the gain per pass; the
output depends linearly on the pump power, lasing medium density,
mode volume. Note that V B = ca where a is the cross section for the
'b,mption of photons in the lasing mectiurn.
The (logarithmic) gain per ullit length of the lasing medium is fOlLnd
Eg. (4.9) if we neglect the cavity losses. Then
_
dN y
- - = V Bn] dr
Ny
di
= V Bn] -C = an3 de
...........
.
....
.
.'. .'-m
.. ... .. ..
........... ....... ....
:::::::;~::~
........
....
......
.... . ."@
...
. .... .....
.......
.......
III! ....
....
156
4 lasers
'
.....
...
.................. ~
~ ':::;:::;:~
.... ~
<.:. .:~.'
:-:'. :.':'...
:@.'.l'JiI
. ...........
. . .... ..
-:-:-:.:.:~
-..
_A_e:::
. :>:::::::~
:-:.;<.:.:~
:::::::;::~
................
"",
"
and
III
III
.....
~,,/
"
1 dN
y =
g - N" --d-'-{,n-
U n3
.
II
':::::::::~:~
... '.W,
Thus in a finite length t. a number of incident photons Ny (0) will grow ~iH!!!!ill
....
.... _*
"'
........
. . .. . . :Z
N y (i) ::..: N y
(O)e.gf..
Often e gl. =-
G is
.
,
designated as the gain per pass througb the
.::<}~:~
A.~W.
..........
......
. .... ;'n
'
:~
lasing?)~~]
. ..
,
:.-'~
:/};2;;:;~Y"":
. '" "'"
medium.
.., ,
-:.:. ~,~~",,"
.. '" J"rJ
.~
.', ,.........
. ......'5(;
.. , ..
'" ... 01 . . . . . . .. (
oj
.......
~'5(;
oj
..
' ... .rtl....~
4.2. PROPERTIES OF LASER BEAMS
.......... :.:
. . . . oj . : ; : :
oj . .
.. ',
. ' , ... Il . . . .~~
7;:
.,~ ,: . ~ ..~~~~
.....
=""...:
.':,, ..
,:..~ ..~~~
':?A
,
oj
primarily by the optical cavity. In the cavity shown in Fig. 4.3 the radiation}!.
travels in both directions and the electric and magnetic fields of the wave}~
must satisfy boundary conditions at the two mirrors. Standing waves wi1l)j~
exist in the cavity as shown in Fig. 4.4, and only frequencies such that the :::\~~M
cavity length is an integral nUIIlber of half-wavelengths are allowed. If the <JW
1 gth.
th
,', ...~:::::
caVl ty en
IS <.-, en
,~{=:~
{j
"..A~
::::::~~
...
.
--... . .
,'..A
',
2e =
We
and
V -:.
.....
'JII
~
, ... .r.J
JII
, ..'Xt
..
..All
(4.11) ::}~:~
....
2i~
.. "" ..
.....
.......-:
"" Jill
.. ..All . . JII
__ ..AII"JI
'~
__ ..AII"JI
'~
,<.:~:.~
<.;. :..~
,
JI
-:-:
::~\:~
where q is an integer. The frequency difference between two such adjacent

longitudinal modes is
,:}~~
....
.... ".r.
, '..":.-:.r.
...... ..
... .
(4.12) {~:~
.. .
...
, ,,... J-:
.
.....
....
.
""
......
. ...
,', - ....,ll
,
.. .,{""JII
.J'
' "'J'
,
,
,
,
=- U === FSR
Vq+l - Vq
.__. .
. JII
..All"
. . . . )II
,
,
,
~.
.. ..All )II
~
--..All
'
,
, ..
,
, ,, ~ --__
,
, , __
I
I
I
....
\
\
I
\
' .....
II
,....
,
\,.
.....
\.J
/
I
. . )II
..All
..All
J/
...AII
J/
....,
, ,
,
....
''''
, ,, ..
.. Ji
01.
.01 II
. . . II
'.oIJi
.....,
...
"...
, ' , 01.,..
, 01 ~
,
,
}II
FIGURE 4.4 A laser cavity nlust support standing waves.
.....
........
...., ,,
..
...
..
...
.....
.............,
.........,,..
........
...,,
..,
..
....,
..
.....
.
,,.
,.,
'\
I....-l
..All )II
, ....
......".
, ...
~
.. ....
..
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
,,
,
,,
,
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
,,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
,
,
, ,.
,
,
,
,, ,
,
, , ,,
,
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
....
...,
..,
..,
.
,
..
..
..
.
.
~
~
~tt
L
4.2 Proper ties of Laser Beams
157
x:::,x::::
= --+------===-.... ,
Ill".:
x"'-"
%/.
~t.
',-,-
r!.}..: FIGURE 4.5
,.
:{~::
lin~
The gain curve of a typical lasing material as a functioD of frequency. Only
with gain larger than the threshold wiU lase.
?:~::
?:.:::
As an
x~:?:
.... and is referred to as the free spectral range (FSR) of the cavity.
;::::.;.
example if we take l = 0.5 m. we find that FSR = 3 x 108 Hz. This
~W:
spacing is very narrow IlS compared to (be frequeucy of optical lines, I.e.,
v = 5 X 10 14 Hz, and
~} for A = 600 run,
9.::':-
fi:i:
~1~\~;:
~~f-
~.~~..:.:;_
q = -;- v = FSR ...... t.6 x 10
Only a limited number of longitudinal modes are present in the emitted

radiation. This is so because the la~ing levels have finite energy width; this
width determines the range of possible frequencies as shown in Fig. 4.5 and
~t: is referred to as the gain curve. The width of lhe individual longitudinal
modes is detennincd by the number of round trips the light makes in lhe
cavity before being attenuated; this is referred to as the finesse F of me
cavity. The finesse depends on the losses in the cavity. U we consider

only the losses at the mirrors that have a reffectivity R < I , we find (see
Section 4.6)
FSR
C
~\J=--=-
(I - R )
:u n,/R
(4.13)
( I - R).
(4.14)
or to a good approximation
"v = 2KIc
For R = 0.99 and l = 0.5 m. we find ~ v = 106 Hz = 1 MHz. In contraSI,

the gain curve has a width of severnl gigahertz.
. . . . . . _"..JI"'
"
".JII'.
...
... ... iii

iii
III ..Ii iii
. . ..
......
..II
JI
..II . . iii
..II . . iii
JI
Ii iii
...
158
4 Lasers
.JI
Ii iii
..
..II . . iiiJ
-
.JI..Ii..li~
. . .
iii!. ...
. ._...
~
JI . . .
__
"
III
Ii iii
iii iii
.JI
.Ii iii
.....
.J
.Ii iii
.JI
JI
"
,]II.
JI ..II ..Ii....
.JI
.....
iII . . .AI
ill
.....AI
'J
.-
. ""
_ :.:.:.:.:A:.l'@
- . . ... ... .".
...... iii
'"
In the transverse ~ection the optical cav~ty is n~t bounded but is open;:i!!!!!~i~
However, the beam is confined near the axiS and lts transverse structur~?t~m
is d~termi~ed by the foc~ properties of the mirrors and the length o~ th~?t1~~
caVIty. A sImple example is the confocal resonator, where both (sPhenCaltt~;~~
1
mirrors have equal radii of curvature, R, and R equals the distance~ .e~)}~::~
between them; note that f = R /2, so that the focus is in the center of t:hei:::/~im
modes charactenzed by the mdIces m, n. The electric field at a longltudmaJ.:::::::;:~
":<.:-~'~
........
. ....
x, Y IS glven by
" . ''.i'~
'.~
=0
W (z)
~x
'
w (2)
'e
w (z)
~. ~
.:::/.:~;;~
"::::=::~~~~w.
......,..~
"
... ,. m
<:):m.
For slmplicity we have onutted the phase of the field.

Of particular interest is the lowest mode where m = n = 0, the TEMoo~<~~~~~
X;
y -
w(z) e .
\\~:~
_', '.......A.~W,0j
.........~~
:::::.-1
'"
',.,
' .... ,.,...
"
,J
,J
"'
r-~
..
The field falls to 1/e of its peak value, and the ~tensity to 1~e , at a radius!:?i~
r = w(z). We refer to w(z) as the "beam radius'~ at the dlstance z. The:,::::;:::::~~
smallest ~eam ~dius is at z = 0, where the wavefrontis plane and nonnsI>r~!~
to the cavIty axts; we speak of a beam waist and for the confocal resonatQf:}:::~~~~
2
"'. .. . :.....,;*.
,"' ...........
, , , ,.. "' "'...

,J
Wo (confocal)
~"f
..
"'
....
,' ,",..... "' "'fill"

"' ."fA
........... :z,
: '...
.........
I'
"'...OllIe..;
' ......
.fA
,'
,
....
"
(4.. 17) . . ..... ..
'."
.............
. ........
...... e..;.
.
',' ,
...
,"
21T
,,,,
.. "' .. l1li
,
,
JIll JIll
, . . . . . III
,J
,
,,
..
"'
...
..
"' .. III
, ..
"' ... lflii ..

. . . . . . . . JIll
,,......
"::1:
'" ...... ..
'" '" . . .x;:.t'
,' ..''"" ............ 'Z
, , , ...
,, .........
.
.
.... PJ
. "PJ
' .....
,
The beam radius at the distance z is given by
,J
,J
"'
..II
iii ...
'
,J
"'
..
..
,~.'"
, .....
l1li
W ( Z) ==
wo
1 + (Z/ ZO )2
(4
1
..
where zo is the confocal parameter, or Rayleigh range. It is related to

beam waist through
18"(':':':A:~
}}}::~
,,~ ..........
:::
the?!~
..
,
"
<{~~
" .... ...i
"'' , ,.....
.........
......:=3.
~
,)
2
1iWo
zo = "
............
........
, ' ..........,J
,,
;}'
, ,
}
'
:
.::::
(4 .19 )-~:' :.;.:
::::~:~~
, ' .........;;t
......;:
" ' ........,J
, "
-..
,
u,
~,
III
' ...~
... I'"
.... '" .....

.....
....
.... J
........
,...
..
,.....
,
,
,
III
01 ..
~
',
01
... .
. , ....
.,, .
.,.
"':':
. ...."
"':':
.,,.:.a:
,,
'~
'~.01
.01
01 .. .
".JI'
, ''.i'.J
1 .. - : : ;
, .. 01.01
,
..
01
oI~
...
..
"'".
" 01
.01
,
,
'~
'" '"
, ., J
'_"'_"
.,,......:.:
,.,}
I
I
I "
"
~"'".
.......
. . . ..
, , .'.i'J
~
I ........
lIt is unfortunate that the same symbol K IS lrsett Iortlfi!"fuliet:.avdJ~l~diu~.ntL}~

curvature of a spherical mirror or lens.
4.3 The HeNe Laser
1!1!!
28o---+-----l.. z
z::::'
t.~: .: .: :
159
220
- I
~:'::
W/
FIGURE 4.6 Focal properties of a TEM oo Gaussian beam propagating along z. At the
waist the amplitude falls to 1/e of its on axis value at a distance Wo from the axis. Note the
waverronts (surfaces of constant phase). The Rayleigh length zo and the di~ergence angle
~~;}
eo are ruso indicated.
~f::
~f:
Thus for the confocal resonator, where Eq. (4.17) is applicable, we find
that
~~:::>
1,..1. . In tim case the beamradiu::t: : : : ,
,.
W::
?:~~~~~:
~~~~~~
the waist.
At large distances z
:sl:~wn
by v2 ovenhe v,jue at
zo the beam divergence is given by

w(z)
WO _ _
Ll _ _ " , _
{J-
zo
JrWo
,.
(4.20)
and for the confocal cavity

() (confocal)
= J2'AjJrf,
~r:
which is typically of order 10-3 or smaller. Figure 4.6 shows the rays,
wavefronts, and beam waist in a confocal cavity. The fact that the beam
?-~{
cannot
be focused to a point but instead forms a waist is due to the wave
;.:.... -:
~::}
;.:
..... nature of the &\1 field.
Not all mirror combinations lead to stable cavities. The confocal res@> onator in particular is at the limit of the stable range and is not used in
practice. Instead, most laser cavities consist of one perfectly reflecting fiat
mirror and of a curved mirror with radius R > l. Usually the curved mirror
has a finite reflectivity, for instance 95%, and thus serves as the output cou@/pier, by transmitting some fraction, say 5%, of the beam stored in the cavity.
n::
f?
%?
@}
W<
IjC
M{4.3. THE BeNe LASER
~t:::
it"The helium-neon gas laser is the most commonly used laser for simple
m::=:laboratory work, alignment, and other low-power applications. The first
Mt
K::-
it:
I~l:l:
. -
m
"........
. . . '" ..
-0.~1',
' . ' A
JI
,..
..
A. ~
...
4 Las ers
. . . III
160
JI
AI . .
. . . '" III:
Ai
'"
..
AI . . . .
Ai ,
JI
'"
..
. '",....
.... ...
..
Ai ,
. . . . . JI.,,..,
JI
....
".Am
AI
"'.
JI
III III ,
'" '"A III
JI '" III
,J""
....... Lifl
AI
: ed..~M.~~
1
~:;:..:.:
' A
;-~
==:ILon'I'~
:::;::::::~""~
~
..,..
application of few kilovolts between the two electrodes. The electrons m<y~:i
the discharge excite the helium atoms to ~e 2S l~ve~s, which lie about))j~@
sian. Lasing takes place as indicated in Fig. 4.7. corresponding to

wavelengths
~
A = 632.8 and 543 nm
5S -+ 3P
~ 3P
4S
5S
J~
the:t~~
JJ~
3391
'
,' ,,
'"
'"
.....
:::::
...........' '::.-..:m
.'
:UI
..........
A = 1523 om
4P
......
".....
M
"......' .o:::::
'..m
.,
,1 , ,, , , , , , : : : : :
nm.\J~
... . ~I
~
"
The 3 P level de-excites quick! y to the 3 S state from where the atoms return :....
)W~~x::m~:::::
~q.r:
'
Y.JO
'~
, . i '"
.....,. m
>:-:.~
. :::i
x:'%
...
.. -*
.....
.'.x:
........
'.......
x:
%
A%
.....A.0..
;.:.;.;
&:
......X;
,
JI
..
....
. . . III
.
. .A III
'
'
2 8
w
"
Ii i
H'
55
...
>
..
3391
..
2 3S
-......
48
~
3 ....
..
4P
... x:
.....A.'X
. ,.;.;.;
"'"
.1'.1'
,.....
.....A:t:"'"
..
. .. "'""'"
,>
..""'."
:-:..:x:.
,....
..
..
. ..
' .. ..
:A:""'.l'.l'
;"'"g.
, ,<.:.
....
' ,..
.. "'"
.x
......
, :.,:-:
....
. ~X;.
"'.""'"
...
.
' .... ?
, ....
' .. .
,~*x
.... ;g.
, ..
......
, .. -.
.... .
,......
, , ..
....
.... ... ....
,....
, , ,....
......
.....AX
..
' ,..
....
.......:z. ..
, , ,
,' , ,'....
:x
..
..
....
:..:
...
..
, ..
AX
....
..
.....
:..:
:..:
, ' .....
... . .
, ......
,........ ..
I""Z
,...
.
...
.
, .....
.
,,......":X
.
,
..
.
.., ,....
'''X
.
..
,,,"... . x.
.., , '''X
...
.
.. '''X
,
III
'
III
, . . . . /II..JI'
, 4P
. . .
~~
....
633nm
Collisions
3P
.~.'X
, . . . . ..
~
,~
. . . . III
~
----
. . . .*...
20.8eV
. . . .11
: ..
. . . .II . .
' IJII
, ,
3S
...
f
,-....,17 eV
..
'
'
,
--.
,
'
Ii i
He 115
'
. . . ..
'
. . ..
..
,.
..
..".:X
.x
"".III:"
Collisions with walls
'"
......
..
'
, I .. "01. .. . . .II
'
,
, ..
, I
01 ..
: ..
01..... III
"
.., ......
, ''':::'
"... .
.
, . '" . ..
, , " .J":
'
Ii
.. : ' - :
01 ..
I ..
,
, ,. .. .III .. ..
'"
>,:}~~:~
, " .... .
Ne (1 S2 2S2 2p6)
01 .. .
.... .1'
FIGURE 4.7 Energy levels of helillin and neon. The principal lasing transitions are ,:.?~~~
indicated by double arrows. Note that the ground state is at a much lower energy.
.::}~~~~
.....
,...
........ ..
..
, , ,......
."0I:X
...... .
,
,
,
..
01 .. .
01 .. ..
01 .. ..
,,
, ' , ,..
.....
...... ...
......
."':X
..
". .
". .
,
01 .. ..
01 - ..
01 .. .
01 .. ..
' , ..
,
,
,
, ,
,,
,
,
,
...
01 : ..
01 .. .
01 .. .
"oIX
..
, ,...., ....
. ':X
'
01 .. .
...........
x
". . ;.:
..... .. x. .
' , , 01 01.. ; .
' ,
, , , ,..,
'
, '~. ~
"
AGURE 4.8
SchemQtic ofa HeNe laser showiD,g the di scharge tube and !heayilY mi.rTors.
(')
FIGURE 4.1) (a) Definition or BrewSIU'S angle Bt,. (b) 'l'ransmis.sion of II p-p<lwized ray
al Bn::wsler angle withoullllteDuarion.
re(Jcc!ivity al a given wavelength. a particular laser line. most oflen the rM

line at 632.8 nm, can be selected .
A sketch of a HeNe laser is showo in Fig. 4.8. The lube diameter is

chosen so as [0 maxi.m.iY.c the population inversion of the neon atoms, an
empirical formula relating the pressure (in Torr) to the tube diameter (in
mm) being pD - 4 Torr-mm. usua1Jy D ..... 2 rom. TIle length of I.be optical.
... cavity ranges from 20 10 50 (""W. As shown in the sketch the electrodes are
recessed. The gain in the low-pressure ga.~ is relatively low, ret.ulti ng in
;....
C,",
.; ...
amplification 11 ..... 0.10 m- I. As a resuil the power level is also low, in
the range of a few ruilliwaUS. The width of the gain curve is dominated by
F.
Doppler broadening and is of order of 1.5 GHz.

A special feature in the sketch of Fig. 4.8 is the exit windows of !.he
tube. which are set at the 'Brewster" angle 0.,. As shown in Fig. 4.9,
light polariz.ed in the plane of incidence (p-light) and incident at 6'b is
not reflected. If the refractive index of the window is lit. the Brewster
condition is
-.. .....
....
:...:
.......
. ... .
...
""'''tIIl,
....
""".
..
"Ai(.
. " ......
... " ... h,--.
........ :..:
.. ".. "::3
.
. " " .....
.......
" .......
JI"AI:":
.I.",";":
" ...
""''' .
" "....
...
...........;..:.
...........
". .
:-:
.. . .... e..
' ,......
. . ...Y.,...
... . ..
..
-:..:
" ....
,.........
...... r:.
. ' ... ............:J
162
4 Lasers
..
ni.
nt
sin vi,
.. III
"
JI
"
.. -'II . .
..
..
Ll.
"
.. -'II ,..
iii:
II . .
r--..
" 11..
"
"
"
"
JI
"
"
JI
"
..
...
'J
'"
..
...... I
'"
"
II
"
. . . . . oil
..
..
.>JlII . . : " :
,
,
.
e
SIn t =
,--III....
..
..
"
"'"
but from Snell;s law
JI
'
~
II "'"
.. " " " 11.
.. AI . .
. . . . . . III
...
.II
"
.001
..
...
. . . . . . . :...:
/I
.. .. II .. IA.
"
...
....
..
.. III
...
III II1II
..
II
III ..
.... III
, III ..
. . . . . .oil .. II
" ..
...
. IIIIIi
---
Therefore we must satisfy
, . . . . . . . .J
, .. IIII.,{"",
. .............
....... ".
'. ' ................ 'J

. . . . . . III J
n
(J
Sl l'
nt
.. - -
-_
tJ.
COS 171
n1
,
',
, , ..
. .....:.-:
...
--;.:<.:.:~:::
:<......
<-:.:. ::..;
...... ,.
J'
.,
.,
. . . . . II
..
II
II
II I11III.
-:":::::::::::-:
.. ~~:i.
.........
";j
. . . . II
.,
~ . . . . . . III
I I I . . . . . ...
.... ,r .-..
For ni
1.0 and nt = 1.5, 8i = 56.3 and the Brewster angle, which is)/~~;]
the complement of 9i, is ~ = 33.7. Light polarized nOI'Iual to the plane ot:f~@~~a
incidence (s-light) is partially reflected from the windows and the higher<:}~:~~
losses prevent a-light from lasing.
.}}~f:E;t
In Eq. (4.12) of the previous section we showed that the spacing between';\~~~~~;~~
,..... x
the longitudinal modes is FSR =, c /2. One can demonstrate the presence o't:':/~~~~~
these modes by a simple experiment using a HeNe laser. Since.e ~ 0.3 m~<)~~~j
the FSR
500 MHz, whereas the width of the gain curve is of orde(>~:~~:~
1.5 GHz. Thus we can expect that three to four longitudinal modes could-:\\~~&.
be lasing simultaneously. One way of observing these modes is to use a fast:,:<~~~&
diode to record the intensity of the laser light. Because the diode detects the{!~
intensity, i.e., the square of the amplitude of the laser field, its signal will <~~f:~~
contain frequency components at the difference between the frequencies :}~~i~~.
of the modes present in the light.
.
':<t~~~
To explain this let us consider just two modes at frequencies WI and 002 .. :>\~t
Then the amplitude (the electric field) is
- :}~?~~~a
. .....
."....
. . . ... ..
(4 21) . . ..
Ii"~
"
, . . . . . . ~IIIA
, ........... MIl
,
-'
JI
. . . . .---....
...---
~~~~..J"
',
..
. . . . . . . . III
...
.,/'"
"
.. III ..
. . . . . . III ..
, ' , JI ...............
,,
............-----,.....
"
.. III ..
"
.. III
..r~
. ....... ...
.......
....
.,{--
. . . . . . . . .III . .
and the intensity (assuming AI. A2 real)
..
...
, ....... .t--,
. . . . . . . ..
'......
I ~ IA 1
=- At
cos WI t
+ 2AIA2 COSf.Ul t cos cv2t + A2 cos

2
. . . III ..
It
..
. . . . . . . ...
~~:.r
,~~~~
aJ2t.
.. -. .
'....
. . . . . . . . . . III
~ ~
,,
(4. 22)::::::::::~
.... .
. . . . . III ...
'~
, ,
.......---.
.... II1II---
The tenns in cos WI t = (1 + cos 2wtt) andcos lJJ2t

(1 + cos 2(1J2t)}JI~~
oscillate so fast that the diode will respond only to the constant part 1A 112 /2 :ft~~
and 1A212 /2. However; the cross term can be expanded to give
. /(~~~~
2
>,
+ (1)2)t] + COS[(Wl
. --...
.1 . . .
, , , , ,r
2AIA2 cos rJlt COsw2t = AIA2{COS[(ltJ l
-_
-~
......
" . . . . . . ioII
, ~ . . . III III
* " ",---..
I
"
w2)tl}. '.)}~~
.......
,....
....
(4.23).:, ........
............ .
, ,
,
~'"
;..;.;.~.,.
'.
, ,, ,
,,,,
...... .
~..
As before the term in COS[(WI + !U2)t] will average to 0, but the diode can:"::/~~~~
respond to the terlD in the difference frequency
. <?~~
... "'.....
,
(4
......
..
, .. ......1'
24):<;:::Y:
,
. , . I i .. ..
,
"
JI ....
........
.
...
. ....
....
.
.......
.
.....
..
,......
... J...
. ...... jfA.
,, ,,
,
01 ..
,oj
oj
, , ,..
,
,,,
, ,
,
,
,,,,
..
..
......... .
.....
.... ..
........
.
, ..I"
.
.....
.
.... ..
~ ..
, ,"."
, . OIl ..
, ,. ..........
..
, , ,
'
, ,
,oj .. ..
"
........
..........
...
... .
.......
......
,, ,,
, ...
,
, ,, ,... . .
, ,
, ,
, , , ..
,
..
,, ,........
.... . ...
,
,
,oj
Ii ..
Ii...
Ii...
Ii
Ii ...
.....
Ii ...
..
, ' , ....
Ii Ii...
..
Ii ..
.. Ii . . . .
Ii ..
........
4.3 The HeN! laser
163
U here are more than two modes present we expect to see nor only the
fundamental difference frequency
-(w
2iT q+1 -wq )
-(wq+l- w q )
2n
= FSR.
= 2 FSR
and so on. Data obtained by using a fast diode connected 10 a microwave

spectrum analyzer are shown in Fig. 4.10. The central peak is at 550 MHz,
and there is a second peak at twiee that frequency. (The peak on the left is
jusl the DC level.) This indicates the presence of at least three longitudinal
modes.
...
. . ..............
.......
..
.
.
.
..
.........
..............
..........
...........
.. ...... .. ......
............
...............
.... .
.......... ........
.. .. ... .....
.....
........
. ........
. . ... .... .
..........
. ... ..
. .. . ...
A ..,._ ......._ , , / "
164
4 lasers
A .. ..... III
..lI
..
.. . .
... ... l1li
"'
.....
JI
JI
...... ..
4.4~
. . . .....
... OIl
..........
III! ...
...
..
..
...... IiIII ,
...
MEASUREM F4:NT OF THE TRANSVERSE

BEAM PROFlI/E
..
..II ... : . . :
III! ...
..... III! ...
. . . . . . ..!III . .
""
......
""
""....
.II
iii
of
...
01
........
..
:::. ~""~. m~.. .
..
01
....
. . ... .
... II .... , , / " .

. . . . II1II ... . .
.II ...
II ....
Often it is desired to expand or reduce the diameter of a laser beam while>}~~~~:;

maintaining the parallelism, the collimation, of the beam. This can be:~il?1~~d
Inven~ed
b! Gahleo and by Newton who u~e~ them to achIeve angul~rUt1~~m

magmficanon; the same arrangements are sttllln use and are named aft~~)~:~~~S
. . . r.~
~m
....
m
. ..'.."".om
. . ..::m
-.. ~m
2
... ," ....
~~:*
d2 = dl -~ .
(4.26}/t~~@
/1
.:'.....A~~~:~
*
........
,'~':':A:~~~
.... "ill-
By appropriate choice of fl. 12 we can magnify or demagnify the beam. '?iiiji!~

The Galilean telescope is shown in Fig. 4.12; a diverging (Plano-)WW
are used. To preserve collunation the distance between the lenses must be .(@~
'. . . . '-",,".1"
, .... " .. fIII.I". ..
= /2 -
' A....~
"
(4.27) <?~~~~~
,'". . .~~*x:
/1,
-'" ......
'
. . . . III
. . . II'
,,!
II
~0:
' ..... III.J".I"
.,f'
,'," .........
*~
' . . . . ,,! ,.,.,... .
,""'''0
0
' .......
.....
.
.
, ......... :--:
"X
'
. . . . ,.,. A
A..
.....
..
' ,....
..
. ...IIII
II..
..
........
,,!
...
.......
1)111
, I ,. . . . .
'1
' , .........'X
x
...
.
J'
,','' '"....,........
......
'" ...0
,J-...
",............
......*J':.I'.
-',*,
', ,,.......
........
x
..........
'"..0
.
x
. ...... .
, , ........
"~oIx
.. 01 ..
, " , .. '" .01

I
.......
, .... III ..
I
I
, , , .. .... '"f',
..
'
.
, ', . . . . .*
,
'
'
'
:" '1---i
~
FIGURE 4.11
III III
......
I
I
~-----.--1.Jh
X
, . . ".01".
.. .01..
I,
I
I
I
'
'
*.
, ,. . . . xx
'
..
..
..
........
...
II ....
, ' , .........
..
II ....
. ...... .....
........
, .
..........
......
..
X.
......
. ..... .
"
'
, , .... II ..
, , .
.01..01
, , '"
, , , .0... '
.........
..
..........
, ,,......
x
.
.. ....
......
.. .0 ... .
'
~.
A Newtonian te]escope with magnification f2/ fl-
......
..
,,,
'
""
. . . .0I.. .
'.....
.. .....
.....
.......
.
.........
.
..
...
...
, .. . ...
.
,.......
.....
.
......
.
,.......
......
.
.
, .... . ...
......
, .......
.., .....
.....
.... ......
, ...... ..
.........0 .. .
, ,,....
.
, ...... .
,, ,,...
.....
........
..... x....
",1&
, , ,
,"
"
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
"
0I ..... .
"
,
,'
'
, ,
,
,
,
. . . 01 .. .
. . . 01 .. ..
,
,
,
,
,
.......
.
......
...
......
..... .. ....
......
.....
.
, , ....
... 'X
.
,
,
"
...
oj
..
...
oj
..
..
oj
..
..
oj
..
, ,
,,
, ,... ....
.0 J'
~
"
'
,', ", .0"""''%

.0.. _.J'
, ' ,_._.o,
"x
4.4 Measurement of the Transverse Beam Profile
,
,}-----f1~
FIGURE 4. [2
165
,
I
f2~-----l
A Galilean telescope with magnification
hifl.
and the spatial magnification is given by

d2 = dl
h
it'
(4.28)
The curved surface of the lens, whether convex or concave, is spherical,

and the focal length is related to the radius of curvature, R, through the
lens-makers equation. When the second surface is plane,
n- I
Y=I?'
(4.29)
where n is the index of refraction of the lens material. For most glasses
used in lens manufacture and for visible light we can approximate n ~ 1.5,
so that f ~ 2R.
In setting up a telescope certain "alignment tricks" are useful. The beam
must pass through the center of both lenses. Thus the lenses must be set on
the optical table at the same height as the laser. In the horizontal direction
one can be helped by noting that a beam that is passing through a lens offcenter is steered. Furthermore, the surface of the lens must be perpendicular
to the beam axis; this is most easily achieved by back-reflecting the bearn.
The transmitted intensity of the beam is measured by a photodiode. (See
Appendix E.) Since the photodiode area is small, it is often necessary to
focus the beam on it, especially if it has been expanded. The diode is
backward biased, usually with a low-voltage battery as shown in Fig. 4.13.
With no incident light RD is infinite. When light is incident some carriers
are liberated and the resistance RD of the diode decreases. Therefore the
voltage across the load varies as
(4.30)
. . ..... :.-:
. . .......
...... ..
.. ....
. . . . ..
...... ... . .......
......
........
..
...........
.. .. ........
. .. ... . ..
..--........
.........
.. .... ....
. .. ......
.... ......
.. . .... ..
........... """
.
...........
ffi.t'~
.............
. .... . .
166
4 lasers
..
OIl
OIl
..
OIl
OIl
. . . . OIl
"" of
..
of
;..:
..
of
..
.. ..
....
OIl
..... of ..
. . . of of . .
""
.......
"'
OIl
....
11 . . . .
;. __
~
. . . . . OIl ...... .
. . . . . . Of . . . . ..
I "
..
OIl
VB
OIl
... OIl . .
. . . OIl
OIl
OIl
...
....
....
OIl
OIl
.:.:.:.:.:. W.
....
1
1.
..
.. OIl ..
... OIl
..
...
..
OIl ...
~......
.r~
A.
A ...
.....
..II
III ..II
........
..
w/",.
OIl ..
....
..
..
of . .
.r.
. .>}:;:
~~
..
..... ...
.. .......
.roil"oil"oil"
.. .. ...
......
. :-:.~
...:. ~....~~
~.
.......
....... ...
....... ..
.........
........
.. ... ......
~
..
...
JI
..
..
OIl . .
...
..
..
...
OIl . .
III ....
. . . . . . . ... jO..............
~
.. ..... "';-..1'"11
A.~
........ ..
-
..
..
OIl ...
JI
..
..
..
...
..
JIll! . .
_
JI
.. OIl ...
.. .. OIl! . .
'". .. ....... .. 00;
~.
JIll II
ill
..
ill
"
..
...
..
"'"
......
.... .. ....
....... ..
...
. ..
. ..
ill
..
..
"""
ill
..
...
..
ill
..
..
"""
ill
......
..
..
...
..
..
..
FIGURE 4.13
I
:.:.:.:.~
.........
........
. .:
..
..
001 ..
001 ..
::::::~:~~~'~.......
Focussing lens
Telescope
Photo dfode<:<~:~~:
. .. '" ......oI"oI"@
.J
Laser
001 .. '......
.... '" .
'.'" " ...............l".! ...........
........
." .. .... ..
" " 001 ..
.I ..
......
.
.....
.
.....
.
...
.
......
.. . .
. .
.
AA
Stage
. . . ..
....
.......
..
. . ''"" ....
.::::::~~:.
..001
...........
.. "'...
I
......
. . . .. .
.
. .. .
'
"
.........
-~
.......
......
.
.. ... ....
..
..
...
..
....... .......
. ..
001"'....
: fA
f-----l
'"
.. ... ..
.. ... ..
Controller
Detector
oil
oil
.......
.. . A:.r~
",..
... . .
oil
.. ::::::::J@
. ::::::::=:@
s~turated. and it ~s desirable to use a shunt resist~; th~ signal.can. also be/)1~~
a 50-Q impedance must be maintained throughout. When working at low
<{t:m
at the'photodiode as a sharp edge (I.e., a razor blade) 1S moved through the::)i#ili
~lth a resolution of few nu.crom~ters. The arr~gemellt ~~ sket~hed m<~j~~&i

inte~al.of the beam profile. If the beam profile in the direction of the blade:U~
:;:=;::::~~.mw..
,.........
. ... ~
:.r..:
motion IS
','
. .',,......... .. m
. .JO..
[(x) = 10 g(x)
" ,. . . . . *.
~.
'.', .'~m
. .. .... .
.~.:.:.:::~.
<:':?::~W
7:$i
.'.............. ....w.
,
,
,,
.,.... m
:.>:.:.~
.. .. ..
- .. .
~
I.
...-
4.5 The Michelsol'l I l'lte rferomBter
I')
...
,
...
0.7
..:s "
/50.&
mo.
..,
O.S
'"'
~"
~
.~ 0.4
.5
0":;
"
\,
'if 0.7
(b)
167
SOD 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
~ooo
POfIition (1Iffi)
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 0000
Posltloo (!U'1)
FlGURE 4. 15 (a) The transmitted intensity as a fUllction of the position of the obstacle
(razor blade), which is moved across the beam. (b)1be derivative of (a) giv~ the transverse
profi le of the beam inteJ1si[),. It is fitted by II. Gaussian.
with J~OQg(x)dx = 1, the transmined intensity wben the blade is at

position x' is
G(x ' ) = 10
1~ g(x)dx
(4.32)
(when the beam is fuUy unmasked. x' -+ -(0).

A typical result for the laser beam is shown Ln Fig. 4.15a where measurements were taken every 100 11m. By differentiating G(x') we r{':cover
the intensity profile
d
-- G(x)~{(x).
dx'
(4.33)
Penomling this operation on the data of Fig. 4. 15a we obtain the result
shown in Fig. 4.ISb. which can be adequately fined by a Gaussian. The
l/e 2 points of the Gaussian define the beam diameter, wb.icb in this case
is 2w = 1000
~m.
4.5. THE MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

W{': are familiar with the fact that wave phenomena exhibit interference;
namely at every point in space the amplitudes of two waves are added
linearly (they are superimposed), whereas the intensilY is detennined
.......
.. .
. . . ..
. . .....";m
. ..... .....
....
..
........
.
.
.............-.1".....
..
........
.
.
............... .. ...
. .::~
,,.....
.....
.....
.... ....
.
....
.....
.......
";q,..;
.
.
....
...
......
.....
. ... ... ..
"
. ........~..'.r.-~
168
.'
4 lasers
...
..
..
..
...
..
AI
y~
..
by the square of the resul~ant ~p1itud~. For interfere?ce t~ take p..la~~r~~~

the two waves must retaIn theIr relative phase relatlonship over tb~(~~~~m
time and spac~ of the observation: they mu~t be. coherent. Lase~ beamf}~
are coherent In the plane Donnal to the drrecnon of propagation bu~(:~;~~
also over considerable length along the direction of propagation. Fot}}~~~
instance, a simple HeNe laser has a coherence length .fc of order o(;\~~~~~~
meters. It is therefore possible to demonstrate interference with relative\{OO
,:: ,':::::::~~
,. m
ease.
The HeNe beam IS expanded (for convenIence of observation) and ls'lnCl~(:}~i

0
dent from the left on the "beam-splitter" B set at 45 with respect to th~:~~j~i
incident beam.. A beam-splitter is a half-silvered glass plate o~ similar opd;.:?~

cal element that allows half of the beam to propagate through It toward M l>d~
and reflec:s the other .half toward M2. This .techni~u~ ?f producin~ tWQ;(~
coherent light beams IS referred to as "amplitude divlsion. The mrrrors~<~~~~~
M 1 and M2. reflect the co~espondi?g beams that return to B. Half of ~e~)jffi
beam returnIng from M 1 1S transmItted through B, and the other half lS<:}~~~
reflected t?ward the screen; the same is true for the beam returning from(!~
M2. If B IS set exactly at 45 and Ml and M2 are exactly nornlal to the~l
beam direction, the two beams aniving at the screen are exactly parallel::~I~J
and their amplitudes will be superimposed.fi1~
H
.....
..
....
:-::..;
....
..
....
...
....
.......... :-:. .
,'
, , , ,.
,
, .. ,.
,
, , , ,.
",.
",.
.",.
....
.. .
.......
....
....
.
.......
.
.....
.
.......
.
....... .
......
.
...... ...
......
, . . . . . "'" J
. . . . . III
, ...... III ..
,,,
, ,
, . . . . . . . .II
,,
, ,, . . . . . JIll
M2
..
.Ii JIll
. . . . . .II
. . . . OIl
. . . . JIll
.......
,,
J
.AI
.II
..
. . . . . . . . . .II
. . . . . OIl
. . . . . .II
......
.
.....
.
....... =--:.
, ,,
.AI ..
'J
....
...
'
,,
.II
, . =--:
...... ..
, ...... ..
,.. ......
... .
.
.
.
,
.....
, , ,......
.....
...
..
..
.
.
.
, ..... .
'
,
, ,
,
. . . . . OIl
.....
. . . . .II
.II
. . . . . . .11
....
...
.... ..
. . . . ..
..... ..
.....
...
..
, , ,.....
....
.......
..
, , .... ..
.......
,,,
,,
,
,
. . . . .II
....
.
...
.
.......
........ ..
...
.....
...
..
...
.. ....
..... .. .
.......................... .""
...... .. .
.....
.... . .
. . . . .II
,,,
,
. . . . . .II
, ,,
, , ......
, ,
,
, , ,. . . .
! ....
,,
,
, ,
,,
, ,,,
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
Laser
, ,, ,..
01 ..
01 ..
,,
, ,
, ,,.
,
,
, ,
01 ..
01 ..
01 ..
..... "
......
....."
....
.II
..................
, ,
,
.II
01
01 ..
.......
.... "
..... "
, ......
.... ...
.......
,
, , ,
01
, 01 ..
,.0101"
, 01 ..
,
,
,
,
, III
01 ..
....... .
....
....
,,
, ,
Screen
,
,
, ,,
,
,
..
01 ..
01
01 ..
01 "
.. 01
, .. 01
01 ..
01
..
Outline of the Michelson interferometer. B is a beam splitter, MI and M2 <:}~:

are the mirrors in the two arms and the interference pattern is observed on the screen.
::}~~~
....
........ . ...
.......
....
...
...
......
...
.
.
.
"
......
...
........
..... ..
...
..
......
....... ... ....
...
....
...
....
......... .""
...
........
FIGURE 4.16
, ,
,
, ,, , 01
, .... III
,
, , ..I ...
, ,
,
,
, , ..I ..
,
,
,
,,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,,
,
, , ..I ...
,
, ,,
,,,
,
,
4.5 Tha Mi c helse n Interferometer
169
If the intensity on lhe beam splitter is I, the wave amplilude 2 is

AO(z, t) = Eo cos (WI - kz)
10 = IIAol') =
(4.34)
Eo'/2.
(4.35)
z=
0 at the beam splitter, and lhc amplitude of the wave is reduced

:: by .Ji each time it b"averses (or is reflected from) the beam spliuer. Thus
': the amplitudes coming from the two arms 1 and 2, when arriving at the
AI (z" t )
A2(Zs, l) =
EO
COS(Wf -
Ell
TCOS(Wl -
2kl\ - kis)
2kt2 - ki s ) ,
where 1. f2. and i$ are the distances from the beam splitter to M I , M2.
and the screen. respectively. The resultant amplitude at the screen is
A$(zl'!) =
=
Eo
T
[cos(wr - 2kl. - kts)
Eo COS[Wf
k(fl
+ cos(wr -
+ l2 + l~) l cos[k(ll
2Jc.l2 - H s) ]
- f2)}.
14.36)
:::' and the resultant intensity
I. = II A,I' ) = (E~/2)<os' lk(tl - t,) I.
:.!..!
..
14.37)
2
In Eqs. (4.35) and (4.37) we used the fact that (cos (wt) = ~. Note that
tbe light reflected toward the source also forms an interference pauern of
intensiry
(4.38)
'; :' so that
It is much more difficult to observe lb than Is.

2l.n this section we usc trigonometric ralhe:r than ex ponential notation.
. . .....
ZJ
.....
..
. ....
...
.....
..
............
.......
....
........
..... ..
. . . . ....
.....
. . ..... :";1

~~
. .....
.
.
.
.
.

.......
. . .......
II ..
.II
....
..
.II
.II
..
....
~
~
~
..
....
170
4 lasers
'"
. . . .II ~
"
,~~
.. .II
II
r"~
JI . .
JI . .
~
~
~
~
~
~
From the above analysis we conclude that the intensity at the screen will>{~~
~:~
At
= I.e 1 - e21 = n -
.'<-:-:.:.~~
n = 0, 1, 2 .. ,
the screen will be bright (bright field), and when
1 A
2
..
.'........"g
........
:::::::::::~.
.. .
........
...
..
............ .. .
. . ... .
, . , ,.
:.:.:':':~:~~@
I . I . . . . . .~~~~
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
:::::::~:~::~
.... J'm.
' . .....I'~
the screen will be partially illuminated as indicated by Eq. (4.37); Th~~~[
obtain In practice: very slight misalignment of the nnrrors and even sma]J;>}~m
the wavefront. Impedecttons or nonflatness of the murors or beam.-sPlittet}!~

at the level of a fraction of a wavelength distort the wavefront and modift<~
the interference pattern.
"})&ij
ference fnnges" at the screen. We assume that the two rrurrors are set ~<:4~
~at their nonnals ~e ~ th~ plane of incidence (~e plane of the pap~r in:{Jj~~
FIg. 4.17), but M2 IS nusaligned by an angle Ci With respect to the axIS of/:~~~m
the beam as shown. Because the rays returning from Ml are reflected by: >~~~~~m
90 at B, we can think of Ml as located at Mil, and that the reflected rays. )j~
propagate in exact parallelism with the z axis. The z axis is defined from<>~:~Ji
the screen toward M2 and the x axis is in the direction of the screen as:::~ii]
indicated in the figure. Fo~ a small misalignment an~le a. a well-collimated
beam, and for f,2, .e. s suffiCIently large we need consider only rays from M2 :::}::;:~
that propagate parallel to the z axis. Then the rays reaching the point x ori:r~ij~~
the screen have traversed path 1engths)}~~!
"iUm
..... .
.....
:', >:-:.:
...... ~
leI +.t.s
--= 2(2 + x tan a)
Z1 -
Z2
and their path difference is
"
JI
:.;;:
........
JI
'~JlJI"~
"
+ is,
...
11'JI"~
:':}:~;::::
..
.
, .........
(4 41) ,j."'
... :":
...
., , .......
.....
.
'"
.......
.....
'" , ........
......
.......
.
, .....
.
......
.
, ...... .
, ...
.......
"'.... :..:
, ,.......
.
,
, . . . . . ..",)IJ
',
,,
.... iii .. ..
01 """'..
"
"
.
........
. ......
.......
.... .....
, , "'.r
,"
' "
,,
,
, ,
, , , ..
"
-tI.
Jj . -
".l"
(4 "42) ..::=::;~::::
.........-::.:
........
......
.
.....
.
.....
......
................
,' ,'
,',', '
, ",
, , ,
,
, ,
, ,
"
Bright fringes perpendicular to the plane of incidence will appear on the:<)~~;@

screen when (Zl - Z2)
nA. Consequently, the fringes are separated on<}~~;~
......
.
......
..
.....
......
..
...
.
.....
.
.........
.
.....
.
........
.
....
....
..... ...
, ,
, ,
, ,,
, ' ,,
, , ,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
~.
"~
~.
,
,
"
, ,,
.......
..............
....
.....
...
.....
.
....
.....
.
......... ....
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
,
,
, ~
, ,
, ,, ,
~
~
~
. . ...
....
......
.
.
.......
..
....
.
.........
.
....... ...
.....
...... ...
~
,
,~ ~
,
,
,,,
'"
,
'"
, , ...
,
, , . '"
, ,
,
,
~.
'"
AI ..
4.5 The Mich elson Interlerometer
111
-r--"
;. -
Z:!
ZI
is
III
------~LCoc-----------~ ,
FIGURE 4.17 Schemlltic of the Michelsoa interferometer with ooe mirror $1ighdy mlsali gned. To calc ul ate the intcrfcn:nce pauem M I can be relocated at the dotted line
Mi'. Vertical (10 the plane of the paper) fringes ~ppear on the screen sep:ttaled by
ax _ "A/(2tan (r).
the screen by a distance

}.
t:J.X = - - ,
2 ran ex
(4.43)
For example. for tbe MeNe .\. = 633 run and if we take a = 10- 4 , we find
/:J.x ::::.- 3 mm. As the angle ex is increased the friIlges crowd together and
evenrually the interference panem is lost
In the previous discussion we have implicitly assumed that the expanded
HeNe was collimaled ; for a Iloncollimated beam the fringes form a circu lar
panem . Some residual curvature is obsenred even with a collimated beam
when the in~rferometer is not perfectly aligned or when the optics have
aberrations.
In the laboratory we set up tlie mirror M I on a tra11slation stage (the
same as used for the beam profile measurement s). The mirrors are carefully
aligned until an interference panem is achieved. When the translation stage
..
.......
........
. ...._.---
...........................
----~rII~
.... ....
....
III
....
......
:<.:-:
..........
.---..
. .. :.:::~~
.. . ...
..........
..........
.
........
..
.
....
..
............... .. ...
... .....
.............
....
III
...
-~~:~
.-
4 lasers
.... .
- ...........
. .... . .0
172
III
~~'.."'~.'~j~
III
...
. . . . ".I11III.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . JI
is moved, the intetference pattem changes: for a stage motion 6.z = 'AI4/~~~
.......... ..
bright fringes become dark and vice versa, and the original pattern reap~~~~~~~~
pears for ilz = A/2. 'When the motion is continuous the fringe patten)I~~~
. . ......
appears to "walk" across the screen and one can count how many fring~s.~~:i~~~~. ~
,
~z for rv25 fringes at a tIme; this corresponds to motion of -"8 J,1ffi, whi~~:~:~:~l.I
..... .. ~~A~
'}\~~~~*m
wavelength IS tnunediately obtaIned from
.' . ........
. . . .....ill
.......
.
...
oi ..
(4.4~:[!jtID
A = 2(fj.z/ N),
/:}~:W~:W
Passed by_
.....
.I
01
.01 . . . .
..01 ..
..
01
01
01001.
..
.. .01 ..
m
fere. ID. the .arrangement mtroduced by Fabry ~d Perot a very large (~j~~M
p~cipation of ~y waves, ~ery sh~ contrast between bright and ~~::tfJ
~ Fabry-Perot consists of two ~~, often parallel plates c~ated O~(~i~W

forlmng an assembly referred to sometunes as an etalon. This 18 Sho~}~:;M
as mfinitely.unn. A ray n:coIDmg at an angle 8 W1~ respect to the norl~:}~~~
after u:aversmg plate 1 WIll undergo repeated reflections .. We label the raY:~tf~
emergl~g from plate 2 by AB, CD, ~F, etc. The path difference betwee~::t~
two adjacent rays, say A B and CD. IS
::<:::~~
......~:~
.....
=%
fj. = BC + C K::@~~
'.' ,
.'.', '
......~~
with BK nonnal to CD. The finite thickness of the plate does not modi~U@m
I.c
11
th
.,'
........
~
th b
1
e a ove re ation. t
10
ows
. ::::::::~~~~w.
at
:.*
' , ' , .... oIo1...~.H:
III
= 2t cos B.
:. . <.~.01:
...... . ~
.',', '.'
(4.4~))~~~fi
. . ,. . ....:::::*~
BCO +U@jj
. , , ,.......
. ..
Note that CK :- BCcos28 and BCcose = t; thus, fj.f. =

2
cos 28) = 2B C cos () = 2t cos (). Therefore, constructive interference:);~1~i
. ','',, ~:""~"'h"
.....*
"
.01 . . .. .
'
"
.01
01 .. .
......
........
,', '..... .
, , ' .. " . . . . . .,JI. . . .. .
',', ,,,~, .. oIo1.o1.*'.."'~

,.~
4.~.~
'':,"' ',....
........
.
. . . .4.*
,:.:.~.~.~*~~
",,....
...............
. . . 4.*
x:
.:::;:
'
' ,. .... X
' ,
......... X
,
, ,", ,
.', ..........4.%
'
__
.. . .J J I
. II
..--
4.6 The Fabry-Perot Interferometer
173
-I
...::::>.
~::::"
[:.:-'
~F
I~i':
H/FIGURE 4.18
--
t __ 2
The Fabry-Perot interferometer. A ray incident at an angle () is shown.
fi\ For si~plicity t~e mirrors are indi~ted.as in~nitely thin. Note thal an infinite number of
Mtreflections contnbute to the transnutted InteIlSl.ty at angle ().
1111 will occu, when the path difference is a multiple of a wavelength

r~~~.
IW:
n:~~'"
2
Since 9. is a small angle, n iS : :g:.
of onle, n _ 21/),. (4.46)
The above constructive interference condition holds provided the dis~~~~~.: tance form the etalon to the point of observation is the same for all rays,
I,.: .: .~
::.:",:,:".,'
..
I
~.
namely when the observation point is at infinity. To achieve this we use a

lens to focus the rays emerging from the etaIon onto a screen. For a slightly
ruvecging incident beam : :
:b;::::t;:.
~ngs of radius
(4.47)
~::: :
;::::-, where en is determined by Eq. (4.46) and f is the focal length of the lens.
Note that the incident beam should not be perfectly collimated but should
contain enough angular divergence to support the angles en.
~\
To obtain the spacing between consecutive maxima (fringes) we first
t.? note that for e = 0, the path difference between adjacent beams,
measured in wavelengths, is
~~:::..
~:~::
n,.
I
I~i:
no = 2t/A,
(4.48)
............
. ....
...... ....
-~
.ill ..
III . . .
. . . III
.oil .. III
.oil ..
. . . . .oil III
OIl
III ..
.oil OIl
.II .. III
. . . . . . . ,._ .iIl
174
4 Lasers
.,'
.II III
. . . . . . III
.oil
.!II .. III
. . . . .oil
. . ....
...
..... ..'.~*
.... ...
which in general is not an integer. The first observable ring is fornled at~({:r
.. . . ..
angle 81 where nl is the integer closest to (smaller than) no- Thus
<:}~:~~
........
. .........
. .........
.. .... ..... .. ..
. . ... .... ...
.... ...
......
.......
..... .... ....
0<<:<1
ni = no - E
....... . .
........
. .. ....
......
.
;:::::;::::~~
........
.....
....
and
. . .. ..
,
............
......
.......
......
JI
..
.II
"
"
"
"
.III
.l1li
.. .III
...
III
....
. . . . . . oil
.. .ill ..
:%:~
4t . 2 fh
= .., (1 - cos 81) =
SIn
.
2t
A
'
.....
. . . . . .III
..
"
.... OIl
..
.ill
(4.49):'::)~~?~
.. ~~
"
01
oj
..
...
01
..01
......
.... . ... ..
."
As we move out from the center, the ptb ring corresponds to
"
"
...
Oil ..
Oil ~
.01 ~
.".Ii.oI
::::::~~:~ ~
Using Eq. (4.50) in Eq. {4.46}, recalling the definition ofEq. (4.48), di'Op..::::iM~lI
.' .'
"
"I
A
....
.. ~~~ ~
~
::::::::~~~~~
.. " ~
.' ...........fi~=
~
.. :.:.:.~
. . .... ..
..
...
Ii
Ii
Ii
t = 1 em and A = 633 nm we have A/ t :::: 6.3 x 10- and the p = 11 ring <~~t~
5
the radius IS 1 cm.

..
"
Next we calculate the mtenslty of the nngs (fringes) and the
.:>~:W
contrast~{:~w.
that both surfaces have the same transmissIon and reflection coefficlents.<;}}~W
=~
+T
,.,.
"" .....
~}~
..&y~
--,
..
--7..
...
,
1.>~~)~%
.'. . .
~@.
... ~
and
= -JR.Ui~
.'
where 10 =
~.~
:::::::~~~
t AJ. The transmitted ray B will have amplitude)~
"'........ m*
,
2 iifi
AB - Aot e
Ii ..
(4.52)@&
"::::::~~
. . . ili
:::
'::::::~~~....:
, ,
....
::-:.:.~~
'/::::~~.~
, , .. ......
.. 'J"..t'.
,
">~-:
. .'" :~~:
...
......
,
,,
':': ,:.:.~.~
, :::::
:~~m:;.rit::"':
,
, ,......
'.'J.
iJ'
Ii
4.6 The Fabry-Parot Interfero meter
~f'
175
~;::;:-
~m:: wh.ere l/J is a phase acquired in traversing both plates and the space between
~t[ them. Ray D will have amplitude
~~:;:
A
A 2 iU
~:::_:
D =
Br e ,
W
:=
~::>
[t
(4.53)
ray F
AF = Av , 2eiU,
z~:::.
&t and so
00.
(4.53')
Here the phase angle 28 is due to the path difference of adjacent
f ? rays as they travel between the plates. It follows from Eq. (4.45) thai
~.:.
U = 21r
21-.:;co::,.:.6
=
A
(4.54)
From Eqs. (4.53) we sec thai the ampIiwde ofsucccssive rays decreases
~k'
::-;;::: by ,..2 = R. but there is an infinite number of such rays. The amplitude of
~~) the transmitted light is
t.:::::
f:::
00
~U
AT
A 012e ilil
g~;i
[1 + r 1q el 'l:z.J).
(4.55)
,~:'"
;'~<
~~~::: This
geometric series can be easily summed
~?
~::: :
:::::::
~( and the Iransmhted intensity
@:::
:.:=:::
(4.56)
~:f-
Maxima occur when Ii is an integral multiple of 1C. whereas mi nima occur
)~: ::
:~:::: when 8 is a half-integral multiple of 1r At the maxima
(4.57)
(4.58)
showing that very good contrast can be achieved if R is close 10 1.
Equatioo (4. 56) is plotted in Fig. 4.19 for different values of R.
-.........
... .
- ..
......
@~~
~::::::::::~~
- ~ .... ~A
116
4 La sers
-:::::::~~~:~
.....-".
:-:.:-:.:~.N
- ........
...... . . .1'''
-.'.~
.....
~~
ill
.II
~. .
....
..... h
~
..
>:-:.:.~ rIi~
~.
-................,;J~
.II
...
.............:.JI....:
----:.;<-:.:~~~~
- . . . . .....
... ............
~
ill
- :::::::::::~
-'~::::::::;...r..~
.-
I~
1\
I \
J \
\.
I
\
I
\
I
,
I
\
I
\
I \
I ,
I
\
J
\
f
\
I
\
I
J
/
... --'
,//
"
......
...........
:.:.:..~
:- :-:":.: ~
- . . . . .... :--:
..
>:-:.:
............. .~~~
- "
....
.II
..
___
'
~:::.
..
~
" ..
..
...
~%
-. ~ ............ olIl~
......
..........
~.
. ' , ................rIIl~
.II . . . . . .~~
_.'~
.. >:. ~.;:;
-
. . . . . . .~.,.
.II
:- :-:-: ..t'~
~~
'--'~
R= 0.3
.'.~.JIIjJllj
I
\
...............~
rIIlr1
--:-:.;.:...:~%:.t'
....... ~.... . . .
- :::~::::~:~X
- . .......
....... ....
-
.. .; .:.:.~~~
. -: -: .:-:-~~~.l
~-'"
__ ..... ""
III ...
'.~
' .....
.....
...
.. ..
........ ,....
...... '.....
~".r.1
:' ...
.' ..'. :. '.;.~
.J
\.
R= 0.6 ,/'/
...
....
-,' .......t'
....
'~0
,'~
..
. . . . . ..
,/
..t'..~
...........
...
..
I,~ .....
'
"
'~
R=O.9
',~~
,ljrll"
..t'
': :
..
....... .......
.. 'r
..,.'.:<.~
...~~
, ".,rI'-.J'I
.'" >:.:.... ..r.,rI..~
..:.:.:::::~~
' ....
..
...... .,rI
'~
0.2
0.6
0.4
0.8
Fraction of an order
~~
FIGlTRE 4.19 The width of the Fabry-Perot fringes as a function of mirror refiectivitY.:i:(~~
The two peaks are separated in frequency by 1 FSR = c/2t.
<i.)~~~
.....
'..........
, ...........J'1
... -:':.~~
, , , .....
....~'"~..,.'"
:::::;~:
......- ~~
.'
. .. .
'
",.':::,~~
The bright fringe will reach half its peak intensity when
,'~*
.
," . . 0
.;.~~
.:-:,~ ~
.'
2
4R sin (ol/2) = (1 -- R)2
....' :-:.........Xx
,,
,
.....
..... .;..:
........
~
-:.
....
.:.:. .~
, . "Y..t.
: :~:;::
or when
:.:~~~:;..'
, .'.:.
~ ...y..l.
'. . . .z.
' , ....
'-J
.II.. 'J"".
'
. . .<~~
(4"59):::::~
:......
(1 - R)
/)1/2 =. v'R '
2 R
, ....r-.
,, ........
. ...t..l.
,:.:
,<-:.~ ~
where the small angle approximation was used. The full-width at half- :i)J~}'
maximum
) of the fringe is 2S1/2. The spacing between adjacent .:\~~ili
fringes corresponds to a phase angle difference of 2rr, and we define the- ::)~~~
finesse of the Fabry-Perot interferometer as the ratio between fringe spacing ':\~~:~
...
and the
of the fringe
<:~:j
,
........
, ,~ ....".1
,
2rr
F =
81/2
...
.
..
..
, , ' ......1
... .
, , ' ......1
1(~
= ---'
-.
1- R
(4.60) :):{
....
...
....
.
, . ..
,,
,
,
,
..........
~
,
,
, ,
,
For a typical reflectivity R = O~98, the finesse is F = 155.

::i)~~!
The spacing between bright fringes defines the free spectral range of:.:.::~~}.
the interferometer~ Let the wavelength At form its pth ring at angle (J~ and .: . . ~~~
wavelength A.2 fOIln its (p - 1) ring at the same angle. Since these two.?~~
, ".1
'~.~.
"::'::~:
...
.....,
..
.,,.
rings overlap.,
, ~ ....oJ
en -
, ,
1)1..2 = nAl
or
...
.t
, , ' .... .t
, ',~
,
.....
01
, ',oJ
, , ' .r
, , ' .r
...
,
..
..,,
...
.
,
...
,
...,
...,
...,
..
, , ., ,
..
Iii>
' .6
Th .
F." ..... ", ',,,d,,,m",,
In
~I However, n At ..... nA2 '" 2t, so we obtain that
~k'
~l:'
).2 -
2 2
AJ = A2/
t.
(4.61)
~\ If we express Eq. (4.61) in terms of freq uency, v = ciA we fi nd that
I; ~=~c=~:I~qPi~: ,~g~~;;~~~~f~~r :;3'~: ~ ~ah:el ~:~~
ft"
~"" '" wavelength spacing is 8)..
= ). 2j2r = 0.02 nm. However. Jines between
~%r.: ~O~~:~i!~;!~::ei~~~~ed~;~:~~~;::la~:~~: !~~:~;

...i ,..'... .
"
&
~::::
dA = - (A2 - A,) = - -.
Fb
(4.62)
~{::; For the above example and for F = 155, dArA. ....... 2 x 10- 7, showing
:.~>7,.: r, ~ :~;:~~~elY
high resolution can be achieved with a relatively simple

~:'
Fabry- Peroretalons used in conjunction with lasers are frequently made
with two focusing mirrors rather than fiat plates. This facilitates the align.
~{: ment but fixes the free spectral range. They serve as high~ resolution filters
.,.,:,.
: ,::,:.,.,:...
t( to select specific wavelengths and as opticaJ "specO'Um analyzers," which

t/ are in essence high-resolution scanning spectrometers.
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~~~~~iD
CHAPTER
Optics Experiments
5.1. INTRODUCTION
wide use of lasers in so many applications ha~ increased the need
high-quality optics and for good o ptical designs. We address some of
questions in this chapter where we discuss the diffraction of light and
( rota,tionofthe optical polarization. as well as propagation in optical fibers.
When a collimated beam of light passes through an aperture. or if it
~~~~~D::: an obstacle, it spreads out and tbe resulting pattern contains

::
and dark regions. This effect is called diffraction. and is charac' '''Jist;c of aU wave phenomena. It can be understood by considering the
r;:;;:;~~:,be~~rween different
wavefront, which
in
the aperture. The angle of diffraction is of order Aid with
parts oftbe
was altered
the wavelength and d the dimension of the aperture. Thus, for visible
apertures in therarige 1O- IOO!Lm produce easily resolved diffraction
'"
.. .. -......
:=::::
'" .
- .... ........
.....
'" ..
- .....
......... .~
... .
- - - ...... .. ....
.....................
~
...
.01
...
"~."'.01
~
-,
---180
5 Optics Experiments
. .. . ......
. ... ...
........
---.. . . . ...
. .... ..... ....--.
Very different patterns are formed near and far from the aperture.. hi~~~:
the near field we speak of Fresnel diffraction, and to observe the pattem(;~;:?--.
-.-.
....
~
..
'"
..
...
AI
..
AI
.II
...
.......
..
..
...
"
'"
.II
.II
..
......
"
...
....
AI
..
'" . .
-.I'
'"
AI
of
.of
.01 .of
A~
- -
"
AI
"J'
" J'
:.~
......
-J'
,
,
,
III ...
it is convenient to fonn an image of it on a screen. In the far field w.~~~~~~---........

..:..:.
obtain the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern, which can be observed by simpry~:~:~-......
. . ..... -
...
III
...
should be used and the pattem observed m the focal plane. In the fol1owlng:::~::
three sections we discuss Fraunhofer diffraction from a slit and a circU:Uuf::~:::
aperture. The results shown were obtained with a CeD camera.
.::<)~~
The diffraction grating was already introduced in Chapter 1. lli}~ ==:::
Section 5.5 we derive the grating equation and show a modem setup ~~(~~~~m
..
rl..rfj. ; -
we introduce the concept of "spatial frequency" components in a beam Qf;~~;
have kept the mathematics simple and emphasized the physical prlllcipl&l~~~~;
. . . . ....
instea~ In Sectio~ 5 ..7 we d~scuss the Farad~y effect, ~am~ly the ro~ti?*~~t~=
of the Imear polanzation of light when traversmg a medium nnmersed ill ~~~~~m
of "Be~'s pha~e." '!hls is the rotati~n ofpol~zation ~ue to a tOPolOgic~t~1~~

. ,......
......... ..
....
,
:: ~~:::::~:~
..... . .A-M
-m
on a vertical slit of width d. The InCIdent "rays'~ are nonnal to the screen th~~~:~:~g
The path d~erence ~tween these rays 1S B
I? =
and 2 will mterfere destructtvely. However,
~s will ~so ~ppen ~or ~YM~
el, where
- sin 01 = -.
2
2
AB sm () - (d (2) sm ~:e$.ID
-:::: }~lli
....
,......'~
~~
.(5J)i~~
'""~m~
,: ::::~~:m~*
, . .. 'l.Jl!
'
III
'::: ::::~;.:-r....
.:'.</~:**
:~:':W
"ill
":':':'~m
. '::::::~"'~i
...
111
..,j
:.:-:-~
.........,.
, ,'
111 ..
5.2 Diffraction from
Slit
181
l'
1"
2'
2"
'0
c
(a)
(b)
5.1 Finding the minima of Ii diffraction pattern (a) the slit of width d is "divided"
balf and (b) into quarters. The rays are focused Ilt infinity and the path difference is
contrast, at 8 = 0 the path length (out to a large distance) of all rays is

and the resultant amplitude is maximal.
'. To find the next zero, let us "divide" the slit into quarters as shown in
5.1h. In this case ray I will interfere destructively with ray 3 when
.', F = AE sin 8
(dj4) sin = A.j2. However, ray 2 also will interfere
'n~.<t-nI"t1vely with ray 4 and similarly for all intemlediate rays. Thus there
be no light in the direction 82, where
d.
}..
- SIn e2 =-.
4
2
(5.2)
argument can be continued by subdividing the slit into an (integral)

of smaller and smaller segments. By analogy with Eqs. (5.1) and
2) we find the generalized expression for the minima
n""nh"T
dsin8n =nA..
.l..
en = n d'
n=I,2,3, ....
= 1,2,3, ....
(5.3)
(5.4)
'.' The complete expression for the intensity distribution of the diffracted
is derived in the next section. It is
1 (0) = 10 [
sin
('r: sin e)]2
rr'
T S10 0
(5.5)
--. .
.~
~-.~~-z:
- - ........
. "''':.o:
. "';J';
_.:.:.~.~.~.~'.I'JI
.. ~ ~ ...............~~.!".
... ... ...
- .......
'~
..... OIl
182
')i@t~~m
:,:,:-z':m
:::::=~:::~ ~
....... ":.r~
where 10 is the intensity (into a small angular interval de) in the
fori;/J~j~
umt time.:-:-:-~-:~~~
.......... . m
" - ........ Q
..... rIf'.
- '.'
~~
I =
(s.6)i::m!:!m
........'. ~
lSI = IE x HI -= cEoIE\2,
where E, H are the electric and magnetic fields of the light wave,
a:n!W~!lli
:~~~~ffi
good approximation) when
J',' ,. ~ ~.:~
...........~
A,
(5~7#.t[~~rn
... ..r~::m
m = 1, 2, 3, ....
.::::~;:;::~~~~*:-r.lr.
. . .... ..
...... m
of
.:.:.:.:.:.~.~
The intensity at the secondary maxima decreases as m

Equation (5.5) is of the general form
increase$}?f;mm
'"........
.,...~oo
@i
...........
........ .
. .
.......
~
~
. "'
~ID.
.'.:.:.: .r~ ~
... "'r ~
~
....
III ..,
'.':...:::-01":
'm
sin x
f(x) =. 2"'
01
.01 .01
..,.
wi
...
......
(5.81}~;m
"....,....m,
:::::;:;:~~~~.@.'.r"~
..................~~,
. ..... .. ...... ..
.. . .
.....
......."' . ..
:::::~~~m
"
.. .
~
which is graphed in Fig. 5.2. Note that as x --* 0,
.,
(x) ~ 1.
..
.. ..
..I
..
~~
:.:.~ ~ ~
.. :::;:;:;::~~
'. ~:~::::::~.~
, ::::::::::::Y@.J'~~'
, ........
::---A
..........
-...
........
.
~
, .....
..
.. ....
..I
'. . . . *
~.
...... ..
-: ~::~~~m~
...... ..
,
1(8)
'
..
..
..J1
....
.. '.' .~.
............
.r.
-.........
~lli.ffi"
J'
,
. ', ' .............. ~
'
"'"
~
.;';.;..... ...:. .:J.-:

..
,
....
....
::;;'::::;:::~
,. "' . . . m.
.... , ~-:.; ..; ..~.~.J<'
...
.. >:-:.:~~
...............re:1.
'.r~
....
'II.
....
.. .. .. ...... .J'"J
.::::::::::~
">'~;:;::::~%.~.Q
, ........... ~...:
:: :::::::::..~r'.r/."
::--A
:,:~:;:;::::~0.
,................".rz.
...........
, ,,..........
..........
......
...
..........
.. .............
~
~
,~,
'4 ' ..............~
"
.......
....
'" . ..
, " ................. f4J

, .. .. .....
rIi"".
',
/ ~:
~
........... ....... ...

:' :~: . :.:..:. ~
, .......... "Y"':
"
"':}}@:~Y""':
r:::
'
...
AI
..
..
.........
':<..;
. :. . m
, , .........
~
....
.',
'
, ......
..~~
, .... ..t ...
, , ........r,
.
.
....... .
,
. . ..
, .. .. .....J& ,...}
"".oi"""~
,
..
,',"'.......
..........
""""""m
........" " :;)
'f.;
'
. . . ..
,,
...... ...
, ,
,',' .......... oI'pj
.o's'~
....
~ ..~..~
, ....
.o ......
, .. ..01....
.-.
, . . . . . ..t .
, ',
" ," .... ~ ....~J
x:.r.
oIi4
, . . , .o
sin9:" ~ ........
:.:::.~~~0.~"':
.o 's':..;
, .o's'''''
' , ........./11.01
"
'
-SAid
-2A1d
FIGURE 5.2
-'JJd
)..Id
21/d
3)./d
Plot of the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern sin2 x I x 2
"
'"
01 . . .
"
"
01 ""
. . . . . .01
,~'.r.A
,
-,,,.01
, ,, ,
,
,'
...... .-:..;
..........
.............-.
.}
..............."/
",
.....
' ,......
... 'U
..
.....
raJ.
, ........
' , ' , ...... .l.'x:"
.,",, ......
..... "' ......oM
. p;
,
, ,
, ,
.... ..
,,;
' . . . . oi.~
'
, , ' ," .. ".. ....::..A

,',
...........
,',. .,....
=.;.......
. :..I=-:
~:.-:
.
,
,. . . ;.=.~~
,
........
: 01
.......1'%
, ......
,
....
, , ,....
iii
..01
' , ' , .........J.~
..
.. .01
.........~:..;
, , ,....
""..01
' .. oIo1 ....~
"
,
,
...... .
,.}
, 001 ....... . . ..
..
..
..
'"
01 ..
01
.... .."':::::'J
".'.~
. ,' , ...........
, ......... ,,~.
5.2 Diffraction from a Slit
s
FIGURE 5.3
183
Schematic of a simple layout to observe Fraonhofer diffraction.
The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 5.3. The laser beam is expanded
a 4: 1 telescope T, to better approximate a plane wave and is then incident
the slit D. The diffraction pattern is observed on the screen S, which is
the focal plane of the lens L. Thus, we observe the image of the pattern
at infinity. The slit width was d = 200 ~m and the foca11ength
= 50 em, so that the first minimum appears at a distance x from the
: principal maximum
= je "-' f
sin e = f('AJd)
= 1.68 mm,
we used A = 633 nm. A picture of the diffraction pattern taken

a CCD camera is shown in Fig. 5.4. The central spot saturates the
Instead of using a slit, we can observe the same diffraction pattern by
a thin wire of width d in the path of the beam. Since it is easier to
.ln~""'''''J5
5.4
Diffraction pattern from a thin slit observed in the focal plane obtained wi th
_~
....
. . . . . . . . III
.. .. II
"';rJf'J
: .:.:.:.:.:..~~~
. . ... -
-,
..t
.III ...
..t
'" ..
.' ~';<"';":"~'
JI" 'J"I
184
.....
.III
..
..t
',J'AJ
.~..t::"ffi
..........
.... '" '" ::::
til
.III
..t
""
""
.III . .
'" .III
III
.III
...
..................
..
JJ.
..
..
.III..
'" .III
11
,II
. . . . "'...
L
.. .. '". .0
-;"JfJ
.....
obtain thin wires (or hairs) than to manufacture thin slits, the former .ar#!!@~
often used for demonstrating diffraction. That the two patterns are eq~8}~:i:j
valent (except in the forward direction) is known as Babinet's principle,. T(}~ii~
illustrate the principle we assume that the incident plane wave is ''uniform)t~
~n? infinite in extent in the x direction .. Thus, the amplitude of the ~av.~(~t~~~~
IS mdependent of x, A(x) = A. Immediately after the slit, the amplltug~~{~~~~
B is given by
t
'
:i]
.:.:.:.:.~~~~~
. .....
..
............
.... II ..
'
........
".41.J1~
B(x) = A
-dj2 < x < d(2
Ixl
B(x) = 0
i.J
~~
'
'
9
"
:,:
::
:
~
~~~~:*
....
(5
~:::::
........
::\)~~i:;:
> dj2.
.......~~~~
14 . . . . . . . .
... ~M
.III~ . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . : .
In the presence of the obstacle the amplitude
.
b
obstac1e, IS O1ven v
0'"
C of the wave, just past 'th~fi~
.
....
N~~
:::::::::=::~::*
Combining Eqs. (5.9) and (5.10) we can write
........ ~
{5.1q)~~~~~~
Ix I > d/2.
C(x) ....;. A
':::::::::~~:i
. ..........
-:.;.:~~.~
... :;:..
.. . .......
..
. ,-:-:~~~m~~'"
:<.:.;~. .:~
,.....
...... @
.'..,'..... ....--.....m
.:.:.:.:.:
@
.
@
. . .',. ...... :::::
~
...
.
'" . . m
~~
,.~
........
.ra.
.,',.....~~ill""
C(x)
:=
A - B(x)
(valid for all x).
(5 .11:~!!i~~m
..... ~.~
...........
~~
only In the e = 0 directIon. Thus for angles () =# 0, the constant amplitud~(::~ffl

does not contribute, and Eq. (5.11) b e c o m e s } i i m
. ,'
,.. .
': ,:.:.:.;~:~
..
C(x)
= -R(x)
(valid for
e :fo 0).
......~
~w.
(5.12t)i!@
...
..... ,~::~
, '.'
.', '
It follows that the diffraction pattern, which is proportional to the

of the amplirude
squai~[i~~@
, ..... wz.
:,<:~;~:~
.....~.~
'
"
,:, ::::::::
. ~~....
.......
IC(x)f --: IB(x)1
.....
~.J
~.~
": \3~~~~*
......
:..:
, ' ,....
.... .
, ...... ...
,~
~.,1
0 excluded~
:}:=~~:~
. Another case of ~terest ari~es ,:hen instead of ~ slit a ~qu~e apertui.M~
IS used~ The result IS shown in FIg. 5.5 and consIsts, pnmanly, of tW:~:i~l
single-slit diffraction patterns along the x and y directions . The intens~~~~OO
of the maxima in directions differing from the x or y axes decreases very~~~&.
.dl
.
.:-:.;.:.-:~
rapl y.::=::::~?~
" '..r....:,:.: . :
(j -
'
...........oJ:..:....
....
... .
........
~
",
, ' ,~ ...
", ~
'
~.:,:.:
~:..:
, ' , , .. .....
'J
,oj
,
,
'
J. .....:..;
,,
~"
. . . . . . . .1Il
, ' ....... ... ,J
, ... ".1Il
','" ........~
.....
, . ...
,
.
..........
..... ""
~
'.'
...
,oj
'
'.'.: . :........,.
..... .JIl)
, . , '.' ~~'.I'.
>~
<....WJ'~
,'~_ ...
5.3 CalclIlation of the Oiflraclion Pallern
.:
185
"
.:.. .:
:
.:
"
FIGURE 5.5
DiffractioD from a square aperrure.
CALCULATION OF TIlE DIFFRACTION

PATTERN
obtain an expression for the diffraction patl.ern formed by an aperture,
will make usc of the Huygcns-Frcsnel principle. The principle states
every point on the aperture D is a source of spherical wavelets with
r ::~:~I:~l~'~~:: phase detennined by the incidenr wave. Thc,~ "secondary"
propagate al all angle.<; and int.erfere at every point in the obser\'a

plane to detennine the diffract.ed wave amplitude. We take the incident
" ."vefn'nt parallel to the aperture plane, whereas tbe observation plane is
i~r.~'~,'lo;at~i:Dfinity (Frnunbofer diffraction). This is approximated in the

5.6 where we sbow both the aperture and observation planes
two
rays to the observation point P', We need be coucerned
~:::
wi th the transverse coordinates. Tn the aperture plane, the point M

!<"peciftioo by the coordinales {, 1/, whereas in the observation plane, the
P' is specified by x', y'.
:: :- Because we observe at infinity, R. the distance from a to the observation
.' . is very large (and equals OS') as compared to the dimensions of the
therefore, rays OP' and MP' are to be considered as parallel.
the path difference between the my OP' (from the coordinate origin
. P') and the ray MP' (from the source point lo P') is the length OB
"" ..""- ..-,,/"j
"'.I"
til
' . ' ,,-..,.AI. . . . . . . . . ...
,I
MIl ..
""
. . . JIll . .
11
. . . . . . lflii
"
JI
.. .. ..
.. JIll . .
, Jot JIll . .
III .til :...:
. . . . If ..
,J
,.. .til .. II1II

If . . . . ,
, , ,J,.. III III. .:....:
,
186
. ........
. . .. ..
. . .. .. ..
... . .
. . ... ..
'.
, ,
. , A . . . . . . ._ . . . . .
JIll . .
,.AI
If ..
III ..
""
III .. ..
If If ... ;.,
,.AI
. . . . . .-
,I
,..
,..
,I
,J
,..If
..
III
If ..
...
,.AI
,I
,..
,.. If ..
. . . . . If ..

"" If .. ..
,.. ,.. . . . . . }II
" . " " 1IIJIII
"" If JIll . .
..
,. III ..
. . . . . If .. }II
III . . . .
If If ..
y'
.. .... .
....... ..
. " ........ ..
. . . . ..............
'
.
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.'.
.
.
...
.
.
................
........... .
......'.......
. ..................
.... ..
.. . ...... ..
. . .... ,. .
..... ,.:...:
... ......
.. ........
...............
.. . ..
. .. . ..,.--..
......
.........
.. ............
.
. . . .. .....
........
......
.....
..... "-_.,..:~~
......
..
.
..
...................;,
rI
.. ... ........... . .
.....
,.--.
..........
...:~:;:::
.........
........
.
.
...
"-_.,.
..........
. , """" ...,.11.,.. .
..
...
""
"
""
..
""
,.AI . , . _ ~
III A
If ..
... All
If ..
If ......" "
"
III III
. . . . . . III ...
"
'
P
"" ... .;a,
III
..II
III
......
...
..
III ....
............ "'11M.......
11
. . . . . . . . .. fII.
11
.......
....
..
""
""
III ....... .
,.II
..
. . . . . . . ,-.]1.
..
..
..
III .... ..
. . . . . . . . )III
III .. ...
.....
III .. III
III ....
III ,. ..
..... III . . . .
III
.. .. ,IIf--.
. . . . . Ai ..
-_
--
. . . . . . . . . ..;~-~
~j
.. ,;c--..
. ......... . . . :;-. m
--
.'.. . ..... . .... ...*.
. ...r-...
.- >J!
;.:r.
. ... ....
,.--.
~ .
...........
.
. . . ..... ...
~
. . . . . . .-oJ
-_
--.
FIGURE 5.6
diffraction.
Coordinate systems in the aperture and observation planes for calculati~g~~~~

.. .. . .. ......
:..:
,...............
;z.
......
...
.......
.
.
.....
.......
.......
.
..
....
.
........
,.-..
.
....
.
.
........
... ...
......
.....
.. . .. ...
.. .. "ii"
......
.......
.. .....
.......
... ... ..
-
~~
.. .. "',.J"
where MB is perpendicular to OP'. If we designate by q the unit

along the ray Op' we obtain for DB
DB = OM-q =
y'
X'
- =
+11
R
R
[~x'
vec~~~~i~~.
<{:~~~~
.....
.......~'W
W
.....,. .... .
....
+ t7y']/ R.
,':'. :.:~:.: ~
:<-:-:.:. .:.....~ .
.... -':fJ.~
The direction cosines of the vector Op' are
.... ..
. . . .
"
III
.......
.....
.II . .
.II
..
..
II II ...-.
~~~.~*
.II . .
~
.II
.....
.II . .
III
........
..~
..
:.:.:.:.:
:}t~~~
~
..........
....
"'>:-:-:':~:%.
(5.f4l~~~~~~
.........~.~~
. ~.~
difference between the two rays IS
" ..................
~~~~*
.-~
2n
h
.J
....
~~~ ~
[~u
+ r]vJ.
.. :.:.:.:.: :~
.. ': ':.:.:~~~~
III:::::::
.'
....
'
.II
.II
..
to 0; .we can then wnte f~ the .contribution of the source porot M to ~!~~m
amplitude at the observation pomt pI
<!:::i@i@
. ..' . . .w
...............~~
~,
.:.:.:.~.~.~
(5 ~t$;):i~~
.'
For simplicity we dropped the time-dependence edifferential element of the aperture at the point M.
iCrJt
m
:::::
........
':. >."A:.~.....:.?*...:
...
................
...... "ii"
d~ dTJ . is i~~j~t:::I~
............
... ..
..... "'m
' ::::;::::::m
, .....m
l
~
.' .............
~
. . . iii . . . .
,
m
.".: ...... ....... *
' ,
". .. A..
':-:~
~m~~
A'"
:.--/.
"'
"
~~
:/::~~~x::m
...........
........
~
," '
~
....
... :::::
~
,"..AA
, ,
,
.". ....... . . . .*
,
'
II ....
II
,'~~ A. . . . ~
II ....
5.3 Calculation of the DiHrBc t icn Pattern
187
To obtain the amplitude at the point pi we must integrate the contribution

' ,' from all source points. tf the amplitude and phase of the incident wave are
:~ constant over the aperture. we directly integrate Eq. (5.15). For the case of
. :~ a square aperture with dimensions 2~o and 2110 the integral is elementary,
The intensity is given by the square of the amplitude
(5. 17)
. ::
::: and is proportional to the square of lhe illuminated (aperture) area. This is
typical of diffraction phenomena. as compared to incoberent illumination.
: wbich is simply proportional to the area.
, in the case of a long vuticai slit. 110 {o, the intensity vanishes very
'OI,idllv for I) '#= O. (Note that 1]1) becomes large and the exponential in
(5.15) oscillates rapidly, its average value tending to zero.) Thus we
ob,;en" a horilonraJ diffraction pattern confined to lhe x' axis. as shown
in Fig. 5.4. Exactly on the x' axis, t1 = 0 and Eq. (5.17) reduces 10
J{XI. y' = 0):;:;: 16{J7j~
sin
[
('i' {ou ) ] ' = 10
T{OU
Sin
[
("1 sin 0)]'

tr,d
sin ()
(5.18)
the last step we made use of the relarions U = X l/ R = sin 0 (valid for
where () is the angle from the z axis and {o = d /2: we also set
::1'\(~'"~ = 10 to represent the intensiy at () = O. Note that the above result
".itlythat given in Eq. (5.S).

We now consider the case where the amplitude of lhe incident wave is nOl
t;~,:~~:~ over the aperture. Such varialion can be introduced detiberately by
a suitable mask over the a.perture. or because tbe incident wave is
.,_.,
-h
....
.....
.
...
""
.,
.., .... "" .. ..
, . . . ..
, .....
.,
, ". . .
"
,
,
188
--~
III If ..
,.JI
111 . .
of . ,
.. If ..
... 1111 ..
If ..
.. III ..
, II' II'
.. JIll Ai
If .,
.. III ..
"
'"
of . . ,
.of_ ..
, '" .,
....
If ...
'-::::~::::~~"m
..... ., .. ::::
. . . . If "" ........j
'. . ".A
If "'" ..
.:
....
..
.
.
'" .
......
...... ~
:::::
. . . . ...t
~
j
001 . .
tude of the transmitted wave vamshes beyond the aperture boundary, w~n~
note that Eq. (5.19) IS very snmlar to the more familiar Founer trans.~{11
forIn between the frequency and time domains. If F(t) describes the tim~(:~::~m
m manufactunng such small apertures., but they can also be
making
purchaset;J;:::~~W
ob~atton of the pattern. correspondingly more difficul~ In. ~a:~
good co~roInlS7 for ~e HeNe wavel~ngth.

.
.))?:m
To obtaIn the chffraction ~attem, we m~grateEq. (5.15) overth~ ~cul~f~
aperture. To do so we rewnte Eq. (5.15) In telms of polar coordinates ~(:~~
,,'',,',.. ... . .*
,',';.:.;,,tIm
..
.t'~*
.7"-:
, ' , '. .... .t'
~*
' ".r' fJE~
~::
,'::';:~::~;:~~
,:-::.:*
,:::::~~:~
.. ',:.;.
:.:.:. . =::.::'*;'-:'7h~
,
....
......:-r....;
,',', ........~
,
. . . .001
','.'"MriJJ!"
~::::
~~/
5.4 Diffraction from a Circular Aperture
~:::::
189
~~(.
y'
~r~;:
If\
(J
~~:::
1;
~r(:
x'
'.
r"~
~~~}
!.jj)\.
FIGURE 5.7
Coordinate systems in polar coordinates for calculating diffraction.
r" ...
shown mFig.
5.7. In :e~o:::me :e~s: ::;OCdmares n. ~ ';5::')
~?::whereas in the observation plane we use p,
r.-...
r.-..
?:=::/
::.::~:::
~~)
~r~:
X'
=- =
;:::::::.:
;:::.:.:-:
:'{:where
ex
r:...
P cos'
= ex cos '
q;' so that
y'
psmq/
- -R-
V -
= ex sin ',
(5.22)
= pi R
is the sine of the radial diffraction angle. Expressed

the argument of the exponential in
.~<: Eq. (5.15) becomes
t/in tenns of these new coordinates.

~rr
W>
@/>
i 2](
[~u +1)v] = i
2rr aacos(t/J - t/J').

A
(5.23)
@)Since the origin of the angles is arbitrary we can set t/J' = 0 (the pattern
@{.must be rotationally symmetric about the axis). Thus the amplitude at the
k}a,ngle (), where sin a = ex, is given by
@:::::::
~1~i(
~::::::..
W
A'(ex) = to
(oJt eia{nos~ada dt/J.
10 10
(5.24)
~~:::Here ao is the radius of tbe circular aperture, and we have assumed uni form
@:::::illumination.
I'
jr
. .. ............. ,.
....... .
.........
.......... x..
..............
.... . ...
......J/I:.-:
..
...
.
...
..
. . ..... :.-:.
..........
.......
. ..... ..
...... ..!
""
"Jt
- . . . . . . .Of ........
190
:
.......... oil
.~
"
"
. . . . . .Ii-
"'"
.J/I
.Ii--
.....
. _ .... !6I
............ J
4II
..
"'"
: ~
~ .....
1.tI
. . . . . . . . . wi
......... ..
..........
..........
. . . . . . . . AI
JI
..
. . . . . . ....
..
Jill
..
JIll
"""
The integral in Eq. (5.24) cannot be perlormed in terms oftrigonometri'.f~:~:~:a

. . . .. .. . ::--:
functions but is well known. One finds that>;~}::~
..
l! ao
-:lAW
.-
.......
.............
(5 25'J~x~;=~
:;:;::=p.
r_ ;
. }~~{~~~.
2JI 2r-aoa
-' 2;' -
.JfA
. ' "J< ..............,J'
,
(
)
A a =
. . . . . . . . JII ......
.....11 ...... . .
aOlX
:-:.;.:.;
. .;..;..
.......... ..
.....
" "
....
..
JII
......
..
...........
.II
..... '" ..-..i
.......... ,
. . ..... ".:f':
where i1 is the Bessel function of order 1. The intensity is given by tbe/:~:i:~

...........
square of the amplitude
'.:~~~
... '" . .
""~
/(a)
. . . . ..III . : : : :
... ......-.
.....
"........""'..1
........
............
... ......
01 III""". . . . '
'" iii ... ~
'"
"'
..
...}
;(":--;.
.. .. .I .. ; . :
.. .. "'.,I
.111
. . . . . III .. .
.. .. III . . . . -.
.. .. 01
........... .
'
,
.)'~~':::::~:.:
.
...
(5 26
,,"
.. ..oI.J".-"
...
".J'
r_
. . . .11
.. .... 0/ ...
. '.~
. ....
. . oIo101....~
........
.......
'" ..
...
. ...." '.-..
.001".~
..
..
..
..
'
..
..
01.. ,... ...

01 . . . . .
.01 ""...~
..
We recognize that the intensity is proportional to the square of the illumi:;)~i~

nated area. Since a = sin (I is the diffraction angle, Eq. (5.26) is similai'~(r~
Eq. (5.5) with the replacement of the sine by the Jl Bessel function. "'~~~~f~
. .. .....,.,. .
Equation (5.26) is plotted as a function of its ~gument, x - (21l" / A)acj~~)~~~
in Fig. 5.8. The zeros occur at the following values of x,
. ';':}iI?J~~
........... x
Xl
3~83,
X2
7.02~
X3
= 10.17,
'" .
. . , ,'.......
"" ............
... '" ".Jij
'
"
'
H~~
etc.,
....... ..
, , , . . .. A':h:;'-':
, . . . . . . III ......
whereas the maxima fall in between. The pattern is that of an intense centriJJi~
disk surrounded by alternating dark and bright rings, as shown in Fig. 5. ~/f~i~i.
The first dark ring occurs at an angle
<f\tIi~&
,
.......
.
......
............ ...
.....
81
sin 61
3.83 A
='..
2ao
j{
A
1.22 . ., ,
D
)II
......
,
", " "
...
......
'
'"
.....
.....
.......... ..
. . . . . . . . "}II
....
III . . . . . 01
. . ........ . .."
' ', ' ' . . . .

. ....
..
.. .III "'". . 01
, ,
", . "
"
.......
".II
. . . . . . . oil
. . . . . . . . . . .II
.......... .
.......... oil
where D is the diameter of the aperture4 If the lens used has a focallengJh}~i~~
f ~ the radius of the first dark ring on the screen occurs at
,,}{?~~~
....
= 1.22
.......
01
. . .. ..
....
.......
. '" . . ..
......
........ .
..t
, "
A.
..
, "
,
, "
Pl
)II
(5 2~):::::::::~
f;", .........
.........
,
f--
)II
.All ..
)II
)II
..t
"
OIl
01
..
01
'"
.. . .
'" .AI
...
..
. . . . OIl
..
, "
(5 .28))~~~~
........
. ....... ..
, ,
, ..t
, ,,
,
........
.... . ..
.....
...
. . ....... .
, .... .
,
..t
- ,
....
.....
01
II
..
. . . . ....
Equation (5.27), first obtained by Airy gives the smallest radius that can,'~~N~~
obtained by focusing a beam of wavelength A with optics specified by .ffl~~~~~~
... '" '" .
f-number (f / D). The shorter the focal length, and the larger the apertl1t/:~:
.... '" .
the smaller the focal spot and thus the resolution of the instrument. 1$~i~~~
central disk contains 76% of the total intensity.
.:)/~i
... '" '"
The experimental setup is the same as shown in Fig. 5.3., except ~#~H~
the slit is replaced by the circular "pinhole.~' Figure 5.9 is a CCD p~~~~~~
ture obtained with a 150-J..lm diameter pinhole. Three dark rings could:'i~~I~
. .....'"
1
, ,
, ,
.. ..... ,,
....
...
,,
,.
, ,
, , ,
, , .
,
. ...
.
.
. ...
.,
,
.
.
, ,. ....
... ,
, ,.. ..
.
.
......,
, ,,. .
, , ,...
.. ,,
, . ..
. ....
...
, ,,. .
..
, ,,..
,
..
,
.
.
, , ... ,
"
, , . ..
1
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
, ,
5.4 Diffraction from a Circular Aperture
191
y
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
234
678
The intensity distribution for Fraunhofer diffraction from a circular aperture

: as a function of x = (2n"j).)ao sin 8; is the diffraction angle and ao the aperture radius.
measured at the angles

Ctl
= (5.25 1) x
Ct2
Ct3
= (14.5 2) x
10- 3 radians
(10.5 2) x 10-3 radians

10-3 radians .
lJsing the values for the zeros of 1] as given previously, we obtain the
~orreslpOnlc1ll1lg values for AI D
(AI D) = 4.3
10-3 , 4.7
10-3 , 4.5
10-3 .
results are self-consistent and predict a pinhole diameter D =

ILm, in good agreement with the "nominal" value.
'. ...~-M~~;~
'A.A.-M~
....
..
*
..
:.:.:.;.:.:~~~
~
.oil
..
':':.:A:_:":~
..... . .
.AI .. ..
I~~
A .AI . . . .
I ' : ' ; -: ':.:.::a
192
:::::::::::~~~
.....
. ...... :=::
".
... All . .
.AI OM..
...f OIl . .
:.:.:.:-..........
:..:.~~
.........
~~
.
...
'" .. ..,
. . ...... ..., .... ,,
,.
.AI
f.
... . . . . .
-.
. . . ... .. ....
"
...... ~
I
OIl
. . . . . . . 0IIII ..
OM .... .. ..
, .~~x
.........
. '.'
....... OIl........
....
OIl
..
..
~~
........... 'J
:.:.:.:.:.:~
. .~:::: =:::;:~J
jI'h
OIl
..
:::::::~:::.~
:::::::=::::*
.:::::=:~::~:~~
.....
"'.... ~
.........
.......
r-~
........ '"' . . . . w."',r,
..........
....
. . . .,.~
-II
>:Z~m
~:x:
::::::~::~:~
':::::::;:::~
::::;~;:~:~~~~
.........
. "" ...~~w.
...
........
.... "' .. :::;
.t' ffi
X
............
.. .. ... .....
.. .
....
~.~~
....... "'...x:.
....
III . . .
II ... .
II ...
. . . . . II . . ..
. . . . II : : : :
. . . II
. . . . . II .. ~
.. II
. . . . . . . II . . .~
.. II
........."'. "'. .@
...
II
....
:<-:.;.~~:~
~~
.' ...........r@.!ji"....:
.....
....
II .. .
01 ..
~
...........
~
0I,."ri
'
I;
.......
'X
. . . .. ..
' . .. .... 01 .....~
. . . . . . . . . . 01. . . .
I;
""
'
..........
.:::::::~~:~.w.
......
@
.....
.......
. .....' ...
. . . . . . . . . . ",'". . . .2;?;;.
'"
,
..
~'
01 ...
II
.. .. 01.
. . . . II . . . .~
.:.:.:.:. :. :%.
.?:::
~
'"
II
.,/
..
. II II. .
. .
....
.:::::=:=:;~:~~~
...........
... ::::
.' '.' ..........~
. .." ...'" .. ..
....
tJ
...................~
150 IJ.m.
, ..........
,;':::~m~
- ., .......... ~
, '.......
....... @
.......
- .'................
,'. .A"..,. ~
. - ... ......
. . . .,.
:::;::=:::::m
..
"
~.,.
~~
. "" A.~
5.5. THE DIFFRACTION GRATING
~ ,<:" .............
::::::~..ym...:
Z
-
'''
- ,
,
,.,.,.~.,..,.
..
. .,.
......
... :.
phYSIC:U pnnclples m Chapter 1. Here we WIll c~ out a. ~ore detailed:/~i~~@.

analysIs and demonstrate a compact spectrometer uSIng a digItal readout. /:::::=:1
If instead of a single slit, two slits are illuminated by a plane wavefront{)i~~~!
a series of intefterence"'ri1nge"S1Jar!\1\!,~t{\,tM_~li.t~_ w.ilL aO.J1",ear on a f~~\~~~~~%.
screen. This is the classical experiment of Thomas Young (1800) shown in(:\~~j~if
..,..
Fig. 5.10a. If the spacing between the slits is d, the intensity distribution<)~~~~~
on the screen is 1
::;;r~:~
.....
.... .,..
-
I(e) = 4Iocos2
,~,.
......
.
....
.,..
....
....
.,..
.....
.... .,.
...
...
,,
,,
,,,
,
,
-" , ,
Jrd .
A SInO
~,
..... I
.......:.-:
(5 29)f,::
..... .
":::::::~~~
-,
,..
.~
...........'"
....
..
.
......
, .... .
, ...... .
, , .. .",,,,.
'"
,',
',', ...........,J
"
,
",
, ", ,
,
",
The angle () is measured, as usual, with respect to the norrnal to the plane~{~~~
. ..
containing the slits. If one of the slits is blocked, the fringes disappear anqi<~~;
the transmitted intensity is 10.
~~~;
.. . . ...
'"
, ,
Ii
....
.
.........
.... ...
...
.... ....
, ....
, , . ,. .
, , . ,. .

, ...
, , ...
, ...
, , ...
, . ....
......'"
. '"
..
....
.... '"
. ....
..
....
..........'''"""
, , ," "
, , , , " " '"
,
, , " , " " " '"
"'.""'.
, , "
, , , , .. " '" '"
, , , ,.
, , , , " ",. '" '"
, ..
, , , , , , " ,. II '"
lWe take the wavefront parallel to the plane in which lie the slits.
, . . . II
" . II.
, , II
,.
II
,
,

, ,.
II
II
II
II
"
II
"
,,
,
,, ,
,
, ,
, ,,
,,,
, , ,
,
, , ,,
, ,,,
,
,
;I.
5.5 The Diffraction Grating
1d
51
193
1I
~I
~f~-
53
54
55
f
I
I
~l
(b)
(a)
(a) Young's two-slit experiment. (b) Multiple-slit interference, the diffrac-
In Eq. (5.29) we have not included the effects of diffraction due to the
width of the slits. Let the slit width bea. Then Eq. (5.29) is modulated by the
diffraction pattern ofEq. (5.5), and we obtain for the intensity distribution
l(e)
= 410cos2
( -lrd sine ) [Sin(!!QSine)]2

)..
T sme
71'/ .
(5.30)
If instead of two slits. severa1 equidistantly spaced slits are illuminated

. by the wavefront, the interrerence maxima become much sharper, and the
interrerence pattern is given by
l(e) =10 [
sin {NIr/ sine)]2

sin
(11:/
sin e)
(5.31)
d is the spacing between the slits, and N the total number of slits; we
not included the effects of diffraction because in practical applications
: the slits are so narrow that the modulation is not important. Note that
(5.31) reduces to Eq. (5.29) for N = 2. as it must.
What is of particu/arin l:erest is that the pattern contains principal maxima
: when the denominator of Eq. (5.31) becomes zero, namely when
sine
= n"A/d,
= 0, 1. 2, ....
(5.32)
:.:.;.;......
..:~:~
. . . . .A .OIl. .OIl. ...

.a%.~
.:.:.:.~.:.:~
194
II
...
..
;::::!~!~!@j
..
......, ...,~
.. :.:.:.~.:.:~
'"'' ...
~
pal maxlmulIl (rrd/l) sin e = ni! + E and therefore sm(iid/A) SIn 6] ~ E;~~:}~:~~~
so that Eq. (5.31) can be written as
. ,<{~~~~
sin[N(n:tt+f)]
I (f))roax = Lo
-,
"
'"
= IoN
2 sin(NE)
-.:::;
= LoN2
' '" ,
NE
.;.:.;.;
~ ... __.:::z%
........'..:-rA
(;6
sin x:::}:~~:a::
'"
;::::::::::~
.-:.;.;-:-:~~
...
~ ... ~
X
.
. ........ w,
............
. . ......
.........
",
""'.JJI..J/l..::;;:
. ... .....
.... .:-rI
-rJ
(533)<:;:;:;:;:;..:::
"...... .~ ........
........ ~'X%
. . '" .
.. .; .,; .%
...
.. oJ .. ~
..
II
'"
..
'
where x ::-: N = NT!(dj)..)ll.(), and MJ is the departure of () from the?W~

condition of Eq. (5.32). Since the function (sin x/x)2 - )0 1 as x . > 0., ~e:>{~~
intensity at the principal maxima [~e ':" 0] is
.. j{~Jim.
.............
2
(5 3 .:":: ::::~~:t.
.' ,
[max ~
4).:<::::~~:a
"'I' ':='::
N 10.
...
... , ~ ..t.
' ~
...
. . :\/~1~
The width -of the pnriclparnlUxmik 1~ g~(l;h~l.,~e~tir.s.t.minimum of the
function (sin x Ix), which occurs when x = ii, namely
<i~?~
.....
This pattern is shown in Fig. 5.11.
<}igj
....
..
, ,
,
~
,
, ,
,
, ,
, ~
,,,
...
......
......
, ...
...
(5.35) .::{~
....... .. .
..........
,,,
,
, ,
,
..
..
~
~
Note that (N d) is the total extent of the region covered by the slits. Thus :;~)
..
the principal maxima are as narrow as if the wavefront diffracted from a ::j{
..
slit of width Nd. By combining Eq. (5.35) with Eq. (5.32) we can express ':i)..
...
....
.
..
...
..
..
....
.
.
...
....
.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
70~--~1~--~1----~1~~1----~'-----~1--~.-----~
60r
50~
20-
,
,
,,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,,
,,
,,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,,
,
, ,
,,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
10 -
,
,
,
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.6
,
,,
,
,
,,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
{dll}sinB
FIGURE 5_11 Different orders of monochromatic light scattered from a grating. Note that,
the principal maxima are very narrow peaks, whereas the secondary maxima are suppressed.. :
Plotted for N = 5.
5.5 The Diffraction Grating
195
the resolution of the system of N slits by

~).
1
Nn
1
Nn
-=-cose~-.
).
j)
~:::' .
(5.36)
A diffraction grating is equivalent to such a system of many slits and can

be used either in transmission or in reflection. The angle of incidence 8j
can be different from the nonnal to the grating. in which case Eg. (5.32)
must be modified to read
'
.
.
A
(5.37)
n = 0,1,2.....
sm ~ - S10 er = n d'
The diffraction angie is er and is taken positive if it is opposite from 8j

with respect to the normal. These definitions are shown in Fig. 5.12. For a
;;::> reflection grating n 0 corresponds to specular reflection (sin r sin 8j).
::::: Reflection gratings are often manufactured so as to enhance reflection at
~::: particular angles. Recall that Eq. (5.37) was already used in Chapter 1 (see
~::: Eq. (LI 6)).
:.:::
The arrangement used in the laboratory is shown in Fig. 5.13. The light
source is focused on the slit and the emerging beam is made parallel by
lens Ll, which has focal length 11 = 20 cm. The parallel beam is incident
on the 4 x 4 cm2 grating, which has 1200 lines/mm. The angle of incidence
was chosen to be (h = 55.7 0 The beam diffracted in first order was focused
with lens L2, identical to Ll. onto the "reticon" where it formed an image
of the slit.
The reticon is a linear array of pixels. which can be read out on an
oscilloscope. In the present case the array contained 128 pixels; the clock
speed was 80 kHz so that a pixel is read out every ~t = 12.5 I-LS. The pixel
:::
....
e=
I
Grating
FIGURE 5.12 The convention used for labeling the incidence and reflection angles for a
reftection grating.
.... ...."'-..-... . . . ..
........
..... .
..... ..
........
..... ......
'
".
III .. ,
oil . .
oil JIll . .
.. III ..
. . . . JIll . .
oil JIll . .
. . . . . . 1111
5 Optics Ex-periments
196
..
"
,
.. of ...
III III ..
.. of . .
,I
,J
III .. II'
of JIll . .
III ..
..
'............
*.;:;:::.
... .........
.... .
,I
... .. .. ..
. . . . . . . . . ::
":I'i' """
' . . . . . If
". If .. :",; ..... ~
. ......
. ..""....""1l1li,.11";
.. ..
....
. . . . "" '" ..:::=
....
"" 0
.. .. "".....
"" ....X
.............
.. ,.
".
'J
""
,.
".
If .. ..
If If ..~
. . . . . . . . If ..
..". '"If1l1li. .
. ..~
.0.,
.
Light source
:I
...
If ..
..AI ..AI ..
III . . . .
"" JIll....
. ..
.......
. . . . . . JIll
"
Slit
:I
"
IIIlI
oil . .
III
....
"" ...1fJIll..... .
""
'"
""
If ....
JI
III ..
III ..~
III ....
...
... III .. ~
III . . . . ~
... III ....
.. . ... Xi
;:::.
......
.........
..........
... . . x:
:.'.
III .. ..
..II
..
..
. IIIIII..... .~
L1~
".;
./
/'
.,/'
Display/Scope
....
III
..
........
.....
III
..II
..
111
..
..
,.II
..
1l1li . .~
. .... ,. .. :Z
./
.. .
..........
............
..
:Z
..............
.
.
..... ... 0
............ ..
.f
2nd order
. . .. ... .... ....

~
.. ........... ..:-t.
......... ..~
..
..
...
III ...
III,. ..
'. ...'.A:=::
III ... ..
.......*,
..
.... . ~
.................. "X,.
~
.........
..~ ......
~
.
....
.
.
.
,
....
. . .~~........ :.:
......
:..:
.. ......
.............
...~
'"
..
........
..... ............
11'~I."'.I11.",.~
..........
...
~ ~ ~ ~
..
:J
-"'..
' .. J
~~
.
...
1st
...
. .....
..........
order
Grating
..... .
~ ~. ~
~ ~
..........
....... X
A
. . . . . . . . . . ..
~.~
~
..............
..
.........
~ "'~
.
.
.....
. . ... .::;j
......
.
.
..........
...
. . , ........ :..;
.A
Control ckt
0" order
.... .
.......
... .::::
........
.......
.. ......'..r'.' x.
. . . . ....,:I.x.
...
. . . .'9.
Reticon
~~.~~.:.:
A
. . . . . . . . . . ..
..
..
'''
. ....
, ~
~~
..
~."
...." ..........~
.. .

~ ~
~
.. r'I.l'
on~rm~
FIGURE 5.13 Layout of a simple grating spectrometer read out by a reticon (a

dimensional solid-state detector array).
. :}::::~~:~~
.......-"'0..
.......
,......
:::;
...
.
.
. . . , "'""X:
J
~..
..
........ , : : : :
...
,.
.......
.
... ' ' 'x:
........
..
....
~."-":I
~
.......JI ,
~.~.,I'-%
size was .6.xo = 100 ~m for a total array length of 1.28 em. Thus we hav~~:?~~i~
the conversion factor
J)t~m
.ax --; 8 },Lm/lLs,

f
!::J.(),
.........
....... .....1
(5 38l:';i}:::::~.%,:"~
. ............
.... "Xi:..;
! A ..
. ....
. ....A
.....
"
......
.. . :..;
..........
":y;
.........
.........
. . . ..... :..;
:..;
......... .,;.
.......
.. .......
.
.....
....:-t.
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
. . . . ............... .
and since .6.x =
.J':-:;/
-t'"J
..... A
= 20 em
III
... ....A
A A .. .
..
. . III
~ ..
... ......
:iof
~8 ~
0.04 mrad/lkS.
(5.39)~~:~
.......
...........
.. ..
.... .. :..:
x
.........
..".z,
..
Fig. 5.14a. The horizontal}}~~:~
......... .J'
.....
I ""
The spectrum of a Hg arc lamp is shown in

scale (sweep speed) corresponds to 200 t-Ls/cm. The spectrum was observed~)}~~~
3
3
in first order, andfromEq. (5.37) withBj = 55.7, d :.- 10- /(1.2 x 10 ) m"<{~~~
we find that for the green line of Hg (Ag = 546.1 run)
>/l~~~
...... ""
....... ..
' ...........1'
. . ..... .
. ,. . . .
A lflii
. . . . . A ""
A ...
.. ...
0lIl
. . . . . . . A ..
, . . . . . . . A ""
sin fJr = sin Oi -
d ~ 0.170,
".. A
..
0lIl
, ............ ""
......... .
..............
,.......
.........
. . . . . . III ""
. . . . . . . .... lflii
..... lflii
0lIl
. . . . . . . . . 0lIl
,.
. . . . . . . . . II
, ..... ".I
namely Or = 9.8 in the quadrant opposite to the incident beam. The secon~:,::\~~~:~
order appears in the same quadrant as the incident beam at 8r
29 aSii\)~~~
F"
5
13
.
,
.
,
.
.
.
sh own In Ig. . .
::: :::::~~~::
The green line corresponds to the peak 011 the right-hand side of the graph/~j~~~
. .-"'.
(Fig. 5. 14a)! whereas the doublet on the left corresponds to the yellow lin~~i:\~~~~~
(Al = 577.7 nm and A,2 --; 579.1 nm). Knowledge of these waveleng~$f>~::~~
........
allows us to make a more precise calibration of the spectrometer~ including!;:):~:~~
....
............ .
....
. . . ..
0
."
...
III .. ..
.,:1
, ,
,,,
,
, , .. Ii .......
,
, , , ,.... ~.1
, , , ,... .1
, ,,
, , , ... .1
,' .......",r
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
, , , ... .1
, ,
, ,
, , , .... .1
,
, ,, ,. . .'".""'01
, , ,,
, , , ,r
,, ,,
,
"---"
........ .
... .
~
.... .
.. .
... . .
.....
....
......... .
.... .
. . ....
.
...
.
..
. ...
.....
.....
~
.. .
....
.....
.. .
~ .. .
5.5 The Di flr action Grating
{a}
r.~.";'-. .
191
r-720 11$ 2(lQ1'$ JI(

U STOP
. .. , .... , . .. 1 ., , ... , ..... , .... ,. "'l
,,.....a. -+t,
'Ii ,_ . .....
,
11 _ -27>.0,,"
(b)
':;
t . ~:' ' ~ ':'
. '
,,I
.;:."
~:..:
' . .!' '.J.._.:'..! , ,-, "_'.'_":..'
12 _ '124".,.
111 . 2.000""
'
".!.!..:.~
lrlll ,, 5000Hz
',. !~.~ ... , ..... .... , ....

r:~'!"
,
, .. ~.?~.~ . . .
i
PlGURF. 'i. 14 The observed !lpecrnlm (a) of the green line antl yellnw rlnll hlr.t of lhe
Hg sp~trom obtained with the spectrometcr of Fig. 5. 13b. (b) The yellow doublet on an
ex p:mded !>CaIe.
misalignment and other instrumental effects. Differentiating Eq. (5.37)

with 9; fixed , we obtain
(5.4()
10 our case n = I. cos (}r = 0.99 and 6.A, from the first yellow line A2 to
the green line Ag. is 6.)" = 33 nm. or 6.(} = 40.0 mrad. The time interval
between these lines as measured off Fig. 5.14a is 6.1 = )030 IJ..S, and thus
the calibration
6.8 = 39 x 10- 3 mrad/lJ..s
(5.4)
in close agreement wiLh lbe direct calcu lation.

To measure the fi ne s[n.tcture of the yellow doublet the sweep speed
is increased so that the scale factor is 50 j.l.s/cm as shown in Fig. 5.14b.
:.:.:~:.:.:~
-:<-:",,:. ;..~~
:.:.;..:. ~:~
.. .. w
.. ~.
198
.i!/@~@
. . . . .~
. ~ .... ,. ".i-.
...
;. :.;.:. :.:~.::t.i:.
'~.A.".""_~
.........Yh
.. ' .'~"
~~
One can no~ re~ognize the ~esponse of individual pixels. The separatiQnU!!!!~~~
of the two lines IS 56 ILS; usmg Eq. (5.41) we find b.e = 2.18 wad and;<}~!~
A '1
1 8 nm
U.I\. - .
...
.'
of
of
'&.A.~" ~
.. ~:::::::;::~
::::::~:.::::~
:.:.:.:.~.:.~
Our result is only in modest agreement with the accepted value of b.)" ....,;(iiM~m
of our detector m this configuratron, contrIbutes an uncertamty of tS).. -i:/!~

0.42 run. Thus one must be cautious when ~sing digi~ techniques, whi~hi(ii~
often do not have the advantages of the high resolutlon of photographi{)$~
film or of visual observation.
}>~J~~~j
;oooI.y...:;
........
.. . . .......
.
.
.......
"'''..-.
,':'. ... .
III
. '".r~w.
"""
~
,
.. III III..
"" .. .. .. ''""..."'"..
J
".1'.1'
5.6. FOURIER OPTICS
:.;.;",;.:.~,;.~
..
.: .:.:.:..
'.',"
....
~/.
~~
~~~
.':::::::::~~:~~~
.
. .
. . ..~~~.J'"
. .r
. ,; ..r. I'J
' .J"...
In Eq. (5.19), we showed that the amplitude of the electric field in the focaf)iff@.
plane of a lens is ~e Fouri~r transfo~ of ~e ne~-field a?IpHtude incident:)~
on the lens. We wdl now gIve a physlcal discusslOn of thIS resukand show:~
how it can be used in practice. These considerations were first introduced<{:]:~
..........
~
"
by E. Abbe in lena, Gennany, but found much wider use as lasers became}~~~
1
hI
.'
.
~.' .~~S:::::
avm a e.
. ::::::;;:;:x
A transmission grating is arepetition of regions in space that altentatively{t@
transmit/absorb the incident wavefront; we can represent the transmission:})~~~:~
of the grating by the Usquare-waven function shown in Fig. 5.15a. We are:<)~~~~
immediately reminded of the analogous square-wave function of time that'<~~~~~~~
has period T, and thus frequency lJ :....; 1/ T. Therefore we can assign to the :\~~~f~
. ........
OM
,.
II .........
. . . II ...... .
,
II . . . . . .
,
,
.........",r...
.....
. '" ...
......
,
,
,
,
..
II ....
II . . . .
.AI ..
.
.
........ ..
II .... "'"
II . . . .
II . . . . . .
,
,
........ ..
II . . . .
....
..
. . .......
......
.... ...,...
.....
.....
Of
JIll
III
, ,
~
,
.AI ..
'" ... <IIi
.II ..
...
....
'" '"'"
,
, , , '"
..
,.
II
......
,,
. '" ..
.........
. II
. .... .AI. .
~
~
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
~
~
II . .
.....
II . .
........
..........
,
,
..
OJ
.......
II
...
..
II
..
II . .
.......
..
.........
..... .. ..
....
....
...
........ ..
...
....
.... ...
,
II
.1'''
'.
...
.....
, ,
,
'1
II
,,
, .t'
"
...
,
, ,
,,
, ,
,.., ,
~
....
..........
......
....
..... x ............
........
.....
,
,,
, ,
,
,,,
, ,
, ,
, ,
-'--------~--~--
, ,,
,
, ,
,
, ,
..
....
...... .....
(b)
(a)
...
.
...
.
...
.
........
FIGURE 5.15 (a) Representation oftbe transmission ofa grating; the spatial spectrum COD-' ,::',:~;~~
tains the fundamental frequency \is :=: lid and its higber harmonics. (b) If the transmission':,:;;:~
..
is sinusoidal, only the frequency Vs ::::: lId is present in the scattered wave.
',::;:~;
..
,,,,
,
, ,,
, ,
,
,,
,
..
II
, ,
.......,
, ,
,
, , ,,
, ,
... ,
....,
....,,,
.....,.,,,
.....,
.......
,,,.,..
..,,
,,
,
,.
,,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,, ,
, ,
,
,"
,
, ,
, ,
.
5.6 Fourier Optics
199
grating a spalial period d and a spalia/frequency l id. Spatial frequency

is measured in cycles per unit length and has dimensions of inverse leng!b .
For instance. the. grating used in the experiment described in the previous
section has a spatial frequency of 1200 lines/mm. From circuit !beory we
know that a square pulse in time contains the fundamental frequency as
well as rugher harmonics. Si.milarly the square grating contains not only
the fundame ntal spatial frequency l id, but also its harmonics nld. This is
seen when light incident on the grating is diffracted at the angtes B. with
).
smBn = n"{j"
If the grating profile was sinusoidal, as in Fig. S.lSb diffraction would

occur only for n = 0 and n = l .
We can place a lens after the grating to relocate the far field into the
(back) focal plane of the lens as shown in Fig. 5.16. We will then see the
diffraction maxima. namely the Fourier transform of the. grating: we refer
to this plane as the transform plane. U the distance St from the grating to
the lens exceeds the focal length f. an image of the grating will be fanned
in the image plane located at S2. where
I
Sl
S2
- +- ~- .
Gr!lting
- -
..
Transform
~
"
Image
plane
PlGURE 5.16 Loc.1tion of the source plane. the trans rorm plane (the back rocal plane of
the lens). and the image plane.
...... _-:.-:
...
JIll . .
JIll
III
III
III
..
-"~~."'''''''''''':::.~r-;.'
.......
. . ........~~
....
III
...
..
JIll . .
JIll
III
-'. '.."'~Jo:'.';.
200
5 0 Ptic s Ex per i men t s
...
........
III
...." ...".."
....
....
--'.~~
JIll . .
JIll
JIll . .
III
-.
.-
...
JIll JIll
JIll
III
....
JIll
..
- ' . . . . . *.
-
~ .11 IIIIII ....... .
.....
....
JII
JIll . . . .
JIll _111-,
III
III
....
..
JIll
..
. . . . . III . . . . .
. . . . . III JIll..
t2
L1
.:.:.:.:
. .... -. . :_::~
. ...... ;o~
. . . . III . .
. . . . III JIll
,,- ..... '.%
.....
JIll
..
.......... ..-..r"-a
- ............
- :<-:-:.:.;.;.~
. .. .. ......
. ...... -.
.- .- ...................
.......... ...... .
- . . . . ..... ..
. . .......
....... .....
- .......
....... . ..
- .......
...
III ....
III . .
~~
M1
Laser
-.
.-
."
. - - - "- v - ,......
, - - ,-.JJ
Expand
-
......
L t - - - -...-- - - _ . . ~ - - - - - - - . . ;
III
..
JIll
....
_:;;~~;i~~i~~~~
--..........
............ . . ..w
--- -
...
....
..
III
.............
... ... ..
.
....
.
.
...........
. .. . . ..
I
I
,...,wt-- f------.~
----
51 -~
".......-rm
...ID.
::::::~~~mID.
. . .....
I
I
':':':.:.~~
III III
. ..... r
I
I
____..... L ........ - - - ,
I
L
.,............- I
-----....J
M2
.':;;;~~~~~~~~~ID.:;:-:::::~
..........
X
...... ."W
I
I..
ceo
Masks
....... ~
L3
Mesh
.....
plane
FIGURE 5.17
Transform plane
Experinlental1ayout for demonstrating Fourier optics~
III
tw.
~mage
. . . . ... .
........
.
'
.
'~m~
-:.:.:.:
.
. .............
. . . . ..
::::~~:~~~;M~m
... .". ... .-1-.
..
III
.. :.:.:.:,~~.~
. ........". . .... . m
..
.........
..
~......
... r
J"rI
.....
.. ::::;jooo*
. . ..
.....
"
III
III ..
III . . .
III ..
. . .......
The~efore,
by altenng the pattern In the transform plane, we can
..
mOdif.V<:~:~~
as for Instance In smoothmg out Images that contaIn nOIse or m pattefij;:>~:@.

recognition.
-<:'}:::~~m
1~~JIIj."''''' X
A sim~le demonstration o~Fo~er optics can be carrie~ out in the labo~;:}iii@
ratory WIth ~e s~tup shown m F~g. 5.17. !he ~aser beam IS e~p~ded and.}}!W
allowed to lilununate a mesh WIth 270 lines/m. and tranSmISSIon facto~.!:}::~:@
~50%. Lens L3 is used to image the grating onto a CCD camera. VariOUSj)r~~m
masks are then inserted in the focal plane of the lens, the transfonn plane~:.:.(~~~~~r.
to modify the image.
: :\<~~~W
The results are shown in Fig. 5.18. In Fig. 5.18a, no obstacle is in the {iiij]
transfonn plane. and the pattern represents the image of the mesh. Next,,>m~
a vertical slit 1~5 mm wide is placed in the transform plane, and the pat-<.:::}~:~
tern in the image plane contains horizontal stripes as shown in Fig. 5.18b.::}~
The effect of the mask is to allow passage only of components of the<}~~
wavefront that were dispersed vertically in the transfonrt plane. These com~>:'::~)~~~~
ponents carry the inforlnation about the horizontal structure of the object.::}~~~~~~
(the mesh) and thus show horizonta11ines in the image plane. Figure 5 .18.c:i:~:~)~~~
was obtained with a horizontal slit as the mask in the transform plane_>.\?i~~~
-'
III
~
..
..... .
......
I
I
I
I
,
III ..,:..:
,
I
....
I
I
III .. .
III .. .
I
,
III .. .
I
I
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
I
.....
,
..
III .. .
III ... ..
III .. .
III .. .
III
III .. .
I
,
III .. .
III
....
. . . . . .
I
~
.....
,
,
I
I
,
III ... .
III .-
~
..
I
III .III . . . .
III
III .. .
I
I
I
I
,
.....
.....
I
I
~
I
.-
III .. .
III .III .. .
I
,
III .. ..
......
I
....
~
~
....
~
....
~
...
~
.....
I
I
I
III
III ...
III
I
. . . . . ..
..
III ... ..
III .. .
~_.
III .. .
111.'-.
5.7 The Faraday Eflatt
201
I"
F1GURE 5.18 Results from pl~cing Illasks in the transform plane: (a) Image of.ll !:(j llafe
mesb in !he absence nf a mask, (b) placing a vertical slit in the transform plane. (c) placing II borizontal slit in the ttansform plane, and (d) placing a pinhole in the transform
plane.
Finally Fig. 5.18d shows the result of placing a I-mm-diameter pinhole in

the transfonn plane. Now all high spatial frequencies are filtered, and the
panern in the image plane is significantly smoothed out.
Spatial filtering by using a pinhole is oflen used to "clean" laser beams
that have acquired structure due to imperfect optics, dust on components,
and other aberrations. This is analogous to using a capacitor to filter out
high-frequency noise in an electric circuit.
5.7. THE FA RADAY EFFECT

5.7.1. Discussion
As already mentioned, the Faraday effect refers to the rotation of the plane
of polarization when light propagates through certain media subject to an
axial magnetic field. It was discovered in 1845 by Faraday long before
........... .....
~~-.rm
. . . . J"':.
,l
,. "'""""
,.
,.
"'
""
..
...JI."".
.. ..""
..... "" ...............<::::::;::~~~
. ,..,..
"
".,
202
".A~
JI
...
. . . . " ' ,AI
JI
II' . . . .
,.
,AI
JI
,.
""
..
,AI
'-JiI
.l":1Il
.;.;.;.;.:",,: ~~
,I
'"
,I
JI ". . .
...
III::
"'",f'
II "" . .
JI
the nature of light or matter was understood. We now know that the eJec~~}J~~]
tric field of light is transversely polarized with respect to its direction of\}~~~~~~
propagation. z, and we can express it, in exponential notation, as
... <)~~3~&
........." ...
JI
~ ~
".,
~rz.~
"
"'""....~JiII
!.-..
~
E(z, t) = ~e{ Eoe-i(oJt-kz)e}.
"'..... . -:i!r
.
tI.
. ."'...
. . . iii_II
" .... "' ..... tI-
~~
(5 .:::::::}~x::a:
42) , ........ iii.,.
... .J'"JI
...
.....
, ,......
~
~ ~~
Here ~e means to take the real part of the expression; for simplicity of)j~
notation we will omit this designation in what follows but it is a1way~\}~
implied. As usual (J) = 21l'v and k - 21C Jl. e is the polarization vector/}~~~~W
which can be expressed in terms of two unit vectors (since e is restricted~~~~~
to the x~ y plane). We can choose linearly polarized unit vectors
. ::):}~~
............
.',
~
~
....
......
..
.
. ,........
.....
.
::::
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
A
43) ::~:::::~~~~
.......... .
......:..:
......
",~
"
,,
' ,,
(5
..
'
, , ....
III ... ~
. . . ..001 ..
' ", , ..
.. III . . . .
........
, ,
...... ...
.........
' , ' , 11.~
~ ~
.',
~
' :-:.:.:~
".. ""*
...
. ',' ..........
'
eR ." Ux + iu y,
JI!
, '," .01 .....~.-,;

~
, .. .. 01 ..
or circularly polarized unit vectors
. . . . . ..01 ..
.... iii .. .
""
eL
= Ux
iuy.
..
..
01 ..
(5444}}~~~~~~&
......
.
JJ%
~
", . 1
.. 1
.. 01.... . ._.1
"
, ' ,........J
.... 01
. If we now ~x~ne the ~lectric field at a fixed position z, in the case ofUj~
clfcular polanzation we wIll have the two components
}t~~r
.......
, ....
ER
= Eo[coswtux + sinwtuy1
01 ..~
II
.. JI '"
......
....
II III III
~
, .. JI""".,J
:.'""1
",
..
II
' , . . . . JI . . .
. .... . JI II IIIII ~
".JI"~
,
.. JI . . III
jo\
, , . II III':':
....
EL =- Eo [cos wtux - sin rotu y].
..
JI
II III
....
(5.45) <:}~
..
..
JI.
..
..
,',
III III.JJ
".,r-.
...........
',,/
, ..... -J
II
, , ... .".r".
,', ........ .I
These were obtained by introducing Eqs. (5.44) into Eq. (5.42). The fields. <~~~~~a
rotate in the transverse plane~ in the first case according to the right-hand :>~~~~~
rule (with the thumb along the direction of propagation), in the second \t~~~
case according to the left hand. This is shown in Fig. 5.19 where we use a ,,}~~~~~
,',~.JI
...... ',,/
, ..........JIIIj,,/
',~
,,/
, ,~
,,/
..........
.......
, ...... ..
. . . III
..
III"
, ......
~
II
.......-"
.II "
, ~,
, "
~
.....
.... .
,'~
, ,
, ,, ,
.II "
.a,,/
"
III
. . . III
,
, .oil
~
. . . III
, .oil
, ~ . . . III
, . . . III
, ~ III
~
.......
.....
....
.....
... ...
. '" .
,
,..
,,
,
,
, ,
,
III
Ii
.iii ..oi
Ii ..
. . . . 01
....
....... ..
,
,
,,
, ,
, ,,
, ',
,
, ,
,',
,,
, ,
, ,
,
, ...
"
, ,,
, , "" ""
, ,
, , ... ""
,, ,
""
,
,
,
eY
.... ..
.....
.
.........
.
.....
..
.
.......
.
..
.......
.
..
.
......
...
...... .....
.....
........ ......
.....
............ .... .
......
.',' ,'....
,
III
,', ........!
! .... .
, ,
"..t ...
III
01
01
,,
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
,~
, ,
,
,~
...
....
......
'.1
.... ..
FIGURE 5.19 The right-handed coordinate system used to define right- and left-circular<i:~:~~~
....
.............
. . ..
polarization.
......
..... ......
,
,,
,,
,
,
,,,
, ,
,
,,
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
~
~
.
......
..... ......
..... ...
.......
... ..
, .. ....
.... .
...
.
.... .
,.... .....
...
, , ......
,,
,
,
,
,
,
.......... ..
.........
.....
, ....
, .....
, .....
, , ......
....
,,
, ,, , .. 001 ..
,
, ... 001
, ..... ..
, .. 001
, ,
, , ......
,
,
,
,
001
001
..
001
001
5.7 The Faraday Effect

right~banded
203
coordinate system. Note that we can write Eqs. (5.45) as

EL
== Ex - i Ey
(5.46)
and by solving
(5.47)
The Faraday effect arises because in certain materials the application
of a magnetic field resuhs in different refractive indices for the right and
len circularly polarized light propagating along the direction of the field.
Materials that have a different refractive index; for fWO given polarization
orientations are called birefringent. The birefringence is natural in certain
crystals or can be induced by the application of an electric field (Pockels
effect),
The physical interpretation of the Faraday effect is related 10 the shift of
the atomic energy levels when an external magnetic field is applied. This
is tbe Zeeman effecI, which is discussed in some detail in the roUowing
chapter. Wllen the light propagates along the axis of the field [he right
polarized light can excite only a particular sel of sublevels (6.m == +1,
where m is the magnetic quantum number) and conversely for the left
polarized light (8m = - I) , These levels have different ex;cilation energy
and this results in different ref.ractive indices, nR and nL. For more details
the reader should consull the references cited at the end of the chapter.
We know that the velocity of propagation of the wave, the phase velocity,
is given by c' = C/lI;!bUS the phase advance in a length L of material is
e ==kL =
21r
2Jrv
2"11
- L = - L = -nL,
A
c'
(5.48)
where the frequency \.! of the light is fixed and n is the refractive index of the
material. Thus the right and left polarized light will acquire different phases.
lfthe incident light was linearly polarized when entering the material, say
along x, ER and EL wouJd have the same phase (see Eq. (S.47)). However,
upon exiting the materiaJ their relative phase would be shifted and the light,
while slilllinearly polarized, would also contain a small Ey component.
Namely it will have rOlated by an angle
-2 (e. -Bd =
~v
L(nR - nL)
(5.49)
..
.....
...........
...... ....
- .................
..
....
..........
..~~
........
.
.
.....
..
-
- . . ...... ..
.........~~~~~
..
......
- ............
........... ..
--':':':':~:'m'
. .......
. ...... ...
.........
..
- ......
.
. . ...
........
. ..... . ...
- '.~
~-.~~-~~~
'.r~
III
......
III
..
III
. . . .-
~~:/..~
I11III
r ...
~.
5 0 ptics Exp e rim ents
204
'
...
.. .AI
III
....
. . . . . . .AI
...
. . . . ,. . . . . . .~
III
. . .. ..
...
- .:.:.:.:~:.,~
:::::::fil
.. . .. ..
.. ......... .
JI
.. --
~--
...
...
..
..........
...... . . ..
............
..
..
-->::::::::.~
>}:=~~cx::
~:::::;;:;;:~~~
...........
--':':'~':~:".r~
. .. ......... ..
~ .. ~
- . .. ........
- ............ .
~
""-...........
. m
.......
'":m
- ' ........ "ma:.t.
... '.'
>'.:.::. ..:~~~;~M
.. :-:
....
........ ' ..
.. '" ..
.. '"
..
ER and EL rotate by different amounts, the plane of linear polanzation for E = ER + EL}::::~~~..
rotates away from the x axis by an angle = (Ba - f1L)/2.
. .::>:~~~~~m
............
.........
........~....~
;
TABLE 5.1
Verdet Constant for Distilled Water
lis
ii;
Sa
11=
It
590
3481
600
800
3,,66
2.04
1.28
0.84
1000
1250
II
.;.=-:.:~.. .~'rI'
..........
.::::::::~~
.. ........~
i'S:
(Na D-lines)
...
::::)~~*i
.... ~~
' '
..... .
:'::::::;;:"w.
........
--'~: ,::::::::"m~
...........~
-.
I .
" i
.....
m.
.o
...::::=:;~~~~m~~
.......%
m.
...........
i!
Cv (radfI'..m)
l(nm)
II i
i i
...... .
::::?~~:.:~;~m
m
:: :~:::::;~%~
,. . .-m, . . . . . .if :---...-.::
-" ., .....~'''':
-: :~:::::=:0
to the external magnetic field, B, so that we can write
. }>~:i
:.~.:.:~:.~
c/>=Cv BL ,
:
:'~::::::~:aa
(5 . 50) ::;:::;:;::x
~
I I . . . . . . ........
where Cv is called the Verdet constant. We expect Cv to be a function of :)t~~~

wavelength, as well as of the medium. Values for distilled water at various ::\~}~~
.............:--:
2
1
d'
~ hI 5 1
'.~""~~:=::
1
th
wave eng s are lste In La e . .
. }f~~~t
,
"
5.7.2. Procedure and Analysis
! ....
'
,,
.A
..........:~~
~/.
,'':,...::.....
...t'X
"'
.
..:::,.
..........
.. -,r
,',,....
X
.. .... .
.."".ax
",
........
,..,.
,':':.~.:
....
.:
..........
,........
"
01.1.
,,
,
' , ,. . .
.... ""
Ii.
It is difficult to generate axial magnetic fields in the kilogauss range~ :::')?~

Instead, a small but oscillating magnetic field will be used. The size of ,,:' \~~~~@
....%
..,
,,~
II ..
' ....
....---
Jt
:.:
<.:. :.,tI.:::
-:
2Dala from E. U. Condon and H. Odisbaw (Eds.), Handbook of Physics, second ed..}~
: :}~~:::
.....'" ..
..
.......
.
'" .....
.',',.. ...
...
X;.
.... . ...
McGraw-HilL New York., 1967.
",.~
, ',
,
, ,
, ,
, ,,
' , ......Jl'M....
~
:,<-:"':~.~
.
'
"
,j.-.
....
.
, .... :.:
, ......
'"
.
, . , ..---:.:
, ...
....
.
.....
.
','.'
' , .....
'" . "':.:
",:.:~~xx
.. .
....
"
'
. . . . ,;oj
'
"
'
~:
. . . . .Ii
, ,
"
, ,
~:.
..... . .
~
,~
5.7 The Faraday Effect
205
Unearty
polarized
HeNe laser
Solenoid
Analyzer
+-_ ~
Pholodlode
r-l-------;;;;;--F8~s=-:.:::.:ampl-=----e
~~ser
beam
t:
Output voltage on
f:
#.
Solenoid
coaxial cable to
driving circuit
~ ~~~
:~:>
~~[:r.
L kI
FIGURE 5.21
Experimental setup used for the Faraday
effec~ :e-;holodiOde output
~ ~:~~~~~~~~~:::~o::::::~::::::::i~ : ~ :
..,;.!.:..:...
f:::::-
:t::
:~r
of the noise, by using lock-in detection.

The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 5.2]. The source of polarized
light is a HeNe laser. The magnetic field is supplied by a 1026-tum solenoid
driven by the amplified signal of a waveform generator, in series with a
monitor resistor. After passing through the sample and polarization analyzing filter, the light is detected in a photodiode. The signal is measured
I ilie
i{
by
ou~ut
voltage of the ;;::o:::~;::, given
hy
(5.51 )
where is the angle of the linear polarization with respect to the analyzer
axis. We are interested in d / dt and in this case the sensitivity is maximized
':.1:::.:.....
by "bi;;;;; the
:;l:~er at :o 4~O. where d: o ~ (t). Note that

=0
-dt- = -dt -d = --10S102::::::

- - losm20.
dt
dt
(5.52)
We can calibrate the polarization analyzer by recording the photodiode

voltage as a function of the analyzer angle. The result is shown in Fig. 5.22
and exhibits the cos 2 dependence ofEq. (5.51). The maximum sensitivity
dVD/d is found near = 180 0 and as predicted by Eq. (5.52) equals
V~, namely dVD/dt/J :::::: O.4V/rad.
The magnetic field is provided by the 1026-turn solenoid coil around
the sample, driven by a sinusoidally varying ClllTent. The current is provided by an HP3311A waveform generator (sine wave, 600 Q output)
amplified by a Bogen MU10 monaural audio amplifier. The driver setup
-.....
~.-~-.-!X~
......
...... -. . ..
-
JI
III . .
.....
JI
...
5 Optics Expedments
"
..
III
400~~------~.--------~.--------~.----~
CD
ar
f-
g
m
200 '"'
."0
0
150
....
....
100 i50 f-
-
-
..
..
.. ........
'.oil
....
.. III .... .. III
~
...
..
'III.
..
...
lilt
....
....
JII
...
..
. . . . . . ......-..J
~
. . . . . . . . . . . l1li
-."
...
......
' ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . jill
..
..
..
..
.JII . .
........ .III
...
.lI
..
..
........
.............
. . .... . .
- ......... ..
- - . . ...... ..
- .. .. .....
...... ..
...
- ...,.........
.....
..
................
. . ... . ....
- ..... '111..11"
..
.lI
'III.
..
..
..
'III.
..
II
..
..
.lI
..
....
'III.
..
.... ....
. . . . . . 1111
..
. . . . . . . . Jill
. . . . . . III
...
..
......
III
..
........
......
.......
.II
...
. ........
.... . ...
. .....
. . . . ....
. .... . . ...
-
"
II
..
III
..
....... II1II
" ...............1
,~
.....
.....
.... ,
.II
II
- ' 01.
"'.0101.
"'~.0I ..
. . . . . . . oi
01 ..
'~.0I0101
01
, "01
01 ..
' .tol ..
.....
"
,
"
01 ..
01 "" '
.. 01.
, .t ... '
01 ..
, . . . 01,
, 01
,
"
.........
.....
,,
...
"".
.....
..
.
..... ..
. . , ,
,
.. . .. .
....
.......
....
....
. . "" . .
..
. ""...
. .. .
....
,, "
..
.I
01 ...
..
01
",
. . . 01
.I
01.
..
01 ..
,
,, "
,
, " 01 ..
, ... J
, ,
, "
, 01 ""
' . . . 0101
,
..
JoI
01 ..
01 ..
...
...
01 ..
, '
' .I""
'"
, , " 01 ...
, ," . "" .
,
300
.I
...
, ",
,
,
01 ..
.I ""
.....
, , ,.....
, "
".0101
...
' . J 01
, .. .I ""
..
01 ..
01
01 ..
...
..
J
.I ..
. ...r...
, , , '" .I ..,
FIGURE 5.22
angles.
..
......
III
.......... ;..:
..........
-...
....... ....
- . . ........ ..
. ........ ...
- - - ...........
. ....... .... .
- ..........
........... ..
200
250
Analyzer angle (degrees)
....
.... ~
....
'III. . . J
..
.lI
'III. . . . . . .
..
...
'III. . . ,
..
..
'III. .... 'III
..
.lI
'III. . .
150
".
........
'0
.r:::
0..
"0
0
JI
'J,.
~ ~
.. . .
-- 250
..
. JI
...
.. .. .JIII.......
..
.JI
300 '"'
..~
-: ::::=~:::~~~~
....... ..
....
..... !X
.... .. . . ....
..........
. ... ... .
:>
.....
350 ,..
J"".J
III . .
..
III..
206
~
. . . . . III.. 1.01
..
.I
Sample polarization calibration data. The plot shows the full range of .::}~~
....""
.......
,
, , ,
, ,
,,,,
',
, ..
,
........
,
,
.I ..
.....
, ...
...
,
.I
..
.I
..
, , , . . .I..
,
, , . . ..
, ..... ..
.... .
...
..
:Ii ..

A
, ,
......

, ,
...
is shown in Fig. 5.23. The wave generator provides the input to the audio :}~
. .....
amplifier, and the output loops through the solenoid coil \vith a high-power .):~
resistor Rcoil in series. The current and thus the magnetic field are deter- ';')..
mined by measuring the voltage drop across this resistor. Do not grozmd :i:~:'.
either side ofthe arnplifie r output signal. Using clip leads on a coaxial cable :)'.
measure the voltage Veol} across Rcoil on an oscilloscope. The shape should : ';
be a good sine wave with no DC offset and amplitude on the order of 10 V,::
peak to peak. This is achieved by adjusting the amplitude of the HP3311 A :
and the amplification (i.e., "volume") of the audio amplifier appropriately. :
It may be necessary to adjust the distortion on the amplifier so that the '
shape is alright.
The photodiode output is now connected to the other channel of the
oscilloscope. The scope trigger is set to fire on coil voltage, and both channels are viewed simultaneously. If the channel on which Vn is measured
is DC-coupled, one sees a large DC level, corresponding to the mean light
intensity on the photodiode. (This DC level should agree with what was
measured with the DMM,,) The Faraday effect, on the other hand~ shows
up as a small oscillation on top of this DC level, in time with the Vcou. One
is just able to see this small oscillation if the channel sensitivity is set to
, ,
, ,
,,
5,7 The Faraday Effect

To oscll109C:ope
(should be lOV slna WElIIS)
~::--
wj:~::
illlllllllllllll(
I
VR:1V-
l L
Sine wave
600 Ohm oul
~~l: '
Solenoid
I WFGen
HP3311A
C"'"
Output
Bogen MU10
audio amplifier
Inpul
(connections at
>
rear panel)
L Tee 011 to 1ocIc-ln reference
;t:::.
;:::::::- FIGURE S.23 The driver circuit

measW"t;rneat of the Faraday effect.
tll;;
u~d to
generate the oscillating magnetic field
rOT
i\::: its lowest scale and AC-coupled to the input so that the large DC level is
~:::- removed. Confirm thai the amplitude of these small oscillations move up
~.] .f or down with the amplitude of VcoiJ, wtrich is best adjusted by changing
the amplifier gain. Confirm also that the oscillations disappear if the pho.-' - lodiode is blocked from the laser. In fact, the amplitude of the oscillations
~-
should change (and the phase reverse) as the analyzer is rotated .
.:...~~~:}~~~7;;1~>:=~1~~a~:,~;j~~~~~{~;~:l~
.
angle 61 are related to the change.<i in magnetic field
t::. B through
fTom the calibraoo::~c~: c~:ertL~:::'a cbange;n PhotO::~

.;:.:-. and
volcagc
through
t::.. VD
B = Il-OicoiJN / L solenoid
(5.55)
...
--0........
......
..
. ...... ..
...........
........... ..,
..............
. ,. ....... ..
208
III
III .. ..
........ .
III .. ..
III ..
III
III
..
. .}:::;;~::::~
5 0 pt i c s Exp e ri men ts
......... ..""'......
, .......................t
,,/'
"
.............
......
. . ..
. ....... ..
,.,O "/" "''''......
,
,
..II
..
..II
..
",~
..
..
when a current icoil passes through the coiL By combining Eqs. (5.53.',~<~~~~~:?:
(5.55), one obtains an expression for the Verdet constant Cv in terms "S.~~~~~~~~
VD, Vcoib and other quantities that you know or can measure separately/<~~~~~~~
Consistent definitions should be used for Vcoil and for Vo. That is, if V~&~1L
is the amplitude of the sine wave, we make sure to do the same for VD- .)t~~~~?
.,
........,.. .....
. ....... .,
.::::::~:::::::
..................
......
......... .
,
,t
,l
..II
II'
..
......
_ _: ; . - :
III ..
If ..
,..
.I'
, JI '" fill. / '
If ..
..................
5.7.3. Results Using the Lock-In
1J
~~
III
.....
.. II .. ..
II iii
II . . .
.. II ..
II .. : .
than with the oscilloscope. Furthermore, the lock--in will remove any noi~:~:~~~.:_.
an explanation of lock-in detection.

. >~~~~~~~
The lock-in is a PARC Model 120 with a fixed reference frequency of~~~~~~
~ 100 Hz. It is best used by defining the reference wave extemally~ but.lf~~~~~:m.::..:
needs to be close to 100 Hz so that the internal circuit responds correctl~{i~~~~f"": ;-.
The lock-in mode dial is set to "SEL.EXT.'" and the HP3311A to a frequenlf~~~~~
near 100 Hz; using a BNC Tee connector the reference input is applied to tfj~~~~~~
. . . ..
lock-in, while the signal is on the way to the audio amplifier~ This assur~:~r~~
us that we are using a reference signal with precisely the same frequency"~}~~
.. .
the Faraday effect signal in VD- The photodiode output should be corulecte&/~~
. . ..... . .
to the lock-in input.
-:~}?~:
. . ......
One still needs to tune the phase of the lock-in amplifier so as to hav:e>~:
. . . ..
maximum sensitivity to the oscillating Vn signal. There are a few ways t~~~}
.. . .
do this, but the most instructive is to use the oscilloscope~
. >~<:i
......... .
...
....
....
....
II
'"
.............. . ..
. . .....
'"
1. With the oscilloscope still triggered on the Vcoil signal, use the oth~~\~~
. . ....
channel to view the "monitor out" port of the lock-in, with the switch S~(~{;
~~~
will do)~/}--w
constant is set to a value much smaller than (100 Hz)-l (1 ms

. .
then you should just get the sine wave folded with the reference signalt.~.:~ .:~.:~~:~
oscillating between 1. That is, it should look pretty much like Fig. 3.3'1\:/'
.
'"
'"
2. Adjust the phase knob so that it looks like Fig. 3.37, that is, symmetri~~~)
trace should look like Fig. 3.38. On the other band, it should change si~:}rm
0
if you flip by 180
:-<)~:::$
.. ~
'::@~
:' :.:.: :::~
"" . m
...
)):.:~.~.~
..
m
........
.....
. , ......
,
.... .01_
, ,, , .
...... .....
'"
. ' ,',.111
','
'l"J'
~
I.,.i.:. :. . .
~:
::::::::
DMM.
muse mews on ili.lock It is

-UL
ilie
: o~: yF~ ~:::i:::: blO:
~~~::V:il:: :::::::d:.~:ili:::i:~.:~~:o:os::::o:Ot::::
. the waveform generator settings anymore. since it is now serving a dual
iC role as both amplifier input and lock-in reference.) Make a table of VD as

~measured
with the lock-in and Veoi!. Realize that the value OfVD provided
~.r. ~.:~. : .: by the lock-in is the RMS value,

~
i.e., 1/../2 rimes the amplitude. Plot VD

versus Vcoil and make sure you get a straight line through O. Either fit to
find the slope or average your values of VD/ VeoH to determine the Verdet
constant with an uncertainty estimate.
I
~?
~~>
Th:~:~~~::~.:ioa::c!n;~.;~~~::ig. 5.24 for awarer srunpl..
~F
L solenoid
~r
= 0.265 m
L sample = 0.265 m.
~~~~~:
~)\
.:.-:.:-
0.8 , - - - - . . - - - - - , - - - - r - - - - - , - - - - - - , - - - - - ,
;::::
0.7
~~~>
.:-:.:<
11'(
:~:::
~
CIl
~ 0.5
~:::: :
~~~:~::
~::::"
~~?
.,~
:~:>
..9
~::::'
~~~( .
:'::::."
:.:::::>
~~V
~::::
~~~~.
0.6
"'"
0.4
0.3
<l
0.2
0.1
o~----~----~----~----~----~----~
~~:::-
468
10
12
Voltage across resistor (V)
~~~~~~. FIGURE 5.24 Results on the Faraday rotation angle as a function of magnetic field,
W obtained by a student.
~::::
r?
~::
~jj.:
.,." .....
. ....
Z
.
....."...
.. ......
....
.... ..
" .... =-r.
"
,.
".
,.
If ...
,.
"
:-
III
Ill
...
III
...
....
210
5 Opt;cs Experiments
,J
",.
,. . ...
,.
,.,.
, -' .... "111
...
..
Z
.........
.........
. .... ..X
.., .......
.........
. . ..t"
..............
.......
. .. . .
..........
... . . . .Ill:;::
:-:
:...:
......
.. ...... ..
.. . . ..
........
.
.
......
. . ........'",..
.. .. ...... ..
........ . . .. ...
.. .........
..II ... : : ; .
III ,J . .
III. . .II. .
....
,J
......
..II
..
........ ,"".14
'
. . . .~. .
.j
. . . . III
We first calculate the magnetic field as a function of Vcoil
..
..
'l
"-
,J
........
..
. . . . . . III
..... 1Ii-
......
:...:
.- .
. . . III II1II
, I . "" .... ..
B = /LO'
....
Vcoil
~
r-'.J
,...
s.
Rcoil L solenoid
= Veoil X
-4
.. ..... oil ,
. . . . III ..
(9.18 x 10 ) T.
..
. .............." =-'.:..:
~ .. Ill . . . . . .J
.'.
' ..................... -
.t
' . II .. .....
...... .
It..JIIl. .' "
. . . . .AI ..
Next we use the relation of the optical rotation to VD, which in this case wa~)l~j~~
.'' '..A..' '
' . ' , ......411,,/
</J
.J
= VD/ (0.098) rads.
. , ' JIi. .
.,<{:~~
..... .
'.' ," ......
,
The measured values (see Fig. 5.24) are
......"" ....
, .. '" .
, . '" .
..
."".
, , ,..
.... "'''""......
.. "" .
...
B L sample
-'
L sample
--: 2.80 0.2 radJT-m.
Vcoil
.01 "" 111

, .01 '" . -
. . . . 101
oJ.
,
,
.01 ""
.01 .. II
.01 "" II1II
........'"
.........
.....
, , ... .
,....
..... .. .
,
....
, , ... .
, .. ""
' ........ .
,
,',.~
.~
','
' , ,
"
,
_ r_ _ _
' __
-
1
:-=---_ _
__
__
(9.8 x 10--2)(9.18 x 10-4)
Cv == -"
'" . . .01
,' ,
5
(647 0.52) x 10- .
VD. ..
II
'. ,'. .oJ... rJI
Thus we find for the Verdet constant

1
01 "'" . .
...
' , ' . . . . .,JA
1>
,.
, .I
', ...........rI/
VD/ VeoH
. . . . III
'
iOI "" .01
, .01 ......
'II
.01 "" ..
,' ..... oJ...,J.
,,
, ," ... oJ...",
, ' .oIoJ...""
",:'i:)~~~
,
,
,
,
,
, .01 "" ..
oJ. ..
....
.
....
. .."".'".
.......
,
,
....
... ..
..
iOI
oJ.
iOI
, ' ,. oJ. oJ. ....
,,
,
, ', ... .oIoJ.rJI
,
, ,,
oJ.
, .. ""Ji
, ..wi
From Table 5.1, extrapolating to A = 633 nm~ we would expect .ev '~)f~fi~
3.2 radIT-m. The difference could be accounted for in part by the short :>~;~
."" .
length of the solenoid~ which results in a weaker field than what we}}~
, ,
calculate.
.01 ..
:<::~:
, ..
..,
.....
...
,
, , , ...
....
, ...
~
........ ..
..
.......
, , ,....
.
, , ...
.
, ,...
.
, , ...
.
, ,...
...
, , ..
,, ..
..
, ,,..
, ,..
..
, , ..
~
,
, ,,
~
~
5.8. BERRY'S PHASE
..
':'\~
, ..
~
We will demonstrate this effect by the rotation of the polarization vector

of a beam of light, as in the Faraday effect, but in the present case the light :,:'.)
propagates in a vacuum. The reason for the rotation of the polarization, :{'
is that the propagation vector of the light, the k vector, perfonns a closed .}
circuit around its direction of propagation. This is shown in Fig . 5.25 where :,:':
light propagates from point A to point B. In part (a) of the figure the k vector )
describes a helix on its way, namely a closed loop in the transverse plane~, :i
therefore the polarization rotates. In examples (b) and (c) the initial and. ,;
final values of k are the same as in example (a) but there is no looping :;
around the direction of propagation; therefore the polarization does not ,:
rotate. We speak of a "topological" change in phase because the effect :
depends on the path followed while the initial and final points (in phase, "
space) are the same.
This effect was first predicted by M. V. Berry in his 1984 paper (see
Section 5.9). He analyzed the behavior of a quantum mechanical wave,
,
IF,'
W:~
5.8 Barry's Phase
:::;::::
'"
,f;:
.
~:::
~];:,
~
'
~t
~:.,
J?
~ir
...
'
,0,
k..
---
'.,.
'.,.
,<,
f1GURE 5.25
,_
Topology of !he optical fiber between A and B with k6DaI
kinitiaJ :
I:: ' (a) belical windmg, (b) direct (suaigblline path). and (c) ci!cular path 011 a flat surface.
:::;:::"
r.~).r.:. function when 3 parameter on which the wave function depends is slowly
varied over a closed circuit. He showed that the wave function can acquire
~t :'
~:: :.: ao extra pha~e factor even thougb the final stace ;$ identical to the initial
~H state. It was soon realized that the same results should al so hold for the
~? electric field (the wave function) of a beam of lighl Thus. the extr.t phase
?"): appears in classical as well as quantum-mechanical systems. In fact the
c.
1\1:;
t :.
~. '.
~:':
i\
~r:~~t~~ ~~ ~~~:t~~~!::~~~~~ ~~a~~hm-Aharonov effect can be
When the k veClOr of light is transponed through a closed circuit sub

lending a solid angle An at tbe origin. the right polarized ligbt acquires a
phase factor
(5.56)
..,
;::~::-. whereas thc left polaJized light acquirc.s a phase faclor

ELf = e- iAOEu
(5.57)
( where i and / refer to the initial and final stale. This is a consequence
\f of MaxweU's equations. which require that the k vector and the two
~" polarization vectors always form an orthogonal triad .
.:'
To become convinced about this statement we show in Fig. 5.26 the unit
sphere on which we can indicate the djrecrions of k , el, and ~. Suppose
;:-: we start from point A on the sphere and parallel b'ansport the triad to point
:.:. B along
equator. We then parallel transport it to point C along a great
\):: circle and return to powt A by the corresponding great circle. AI each point
'.i::,:. ,:
me
/.
:.'.
. ............
"'-
'"
til AI
oil MIl
. . . . . til ..
" '" ,.. MIl ..
........
........
. . ,.. .. ..
"
"
oil
MIl ..
III
JIll . .
III JIll wi
. . . . . JIll . .
,I
""
oil . . . .
.. JIll . .
oil JIll
212
,I
11
..
,..
..
JIll . .
'"
... .. A ..
,..
,I
'" JIll . .
If
,..
III "'"
III . .
...
....... ..
. . . "" '" ...
. . . '" ...
,I
JIll III
If ..
,.
III . . . .
,.
III "'"
,.
III
If . . . .
Ai
' ' ' ' If . . . .
III
II ..
'"
II II:
...
,t
""
,t
11
II II:
'"
..
""
...
..
... JII II:
""
Jt
...
..
... JII III

,JIIf"
III II
III "'"
...
..
III A
III JIll
,..
"
11
. . ........ ..
.:.:.:",,:.~. ~
11
11
11
11
III
.....
11
11
11
8,
.. ..
III . . .
If ..
,..
,I
,/
,..
,..
,.. '"
;I'
,I
,.. JIll ,..

oil AI
,.. If ..
III '" ..
III ..
oil AI ..
. . . .. ..
...
,..
oil Jill ,
"" JIll . .
oil AI
,I
,..
11
III JIll . .
If ..
III .. ..
JIll . .
oil
,J
,..
til ..
,..
,..
,I
til
..
II III
III .. II
III
II
.... . .
...
...
II
..
. . . . ..
'"
II ...
. . . . ..
...
II
..
.....",.
I
. . ..
~i
'::::::::~~~
....
...." "
.........
.....
....
--
.... ,
~
,/
: }~{~~~m
.
...
.-:-:.:.:.:.:@.
>:::~fi~
....
.. '" .---
.'.......
:::{:am::~m
' .."...
. . . ...
::::::.r....:
. . ~A . . .--.
~.
. . . . . . . . . . . .: . - . . . :
. ,t'.~
'~it)1
FIGURE 5.26 Parallel transport of the triad of orthogonal vectors k, el, tl2, along'
equator and two great ciTcles. Note that k returns to its initial position but el and tl2, are})~
0
rotated by 90 The solid angle enclosed by the path is 90 .
:~:~~.
:<.;-:.;"~
..
:=~
. , ......:.-~
. . . . .ell
~..,I.
..........
. .......:--...:
.
we have shown the orientation of the triad, and it is evident that upon retuni)!:!~
::. :~::~.:~:.:.r-"'
,
.
,
.,' ".. ,~~
to A. the k vector has not change~ but the e1 and e2 polarization vectors)W~ii~
have been rotated by 90. The solid angle subtended by the patb that we/~ii~
fonowed is 1/8 of 411" or TC /2 90,D equ~ to t?e ~bserved ro~tion of el. ez. )i~
Let us now assume that the IncIdent light IS hnearly polanzed along the <{:~!
F
E
(5
47)
t
'
....
~~~*X axIS. rom q.
.
we can wn e
\}~
=.
,I.. ......
I
I
Ein
= Ex =
1
-2
(ER
+ EL).
~:--.:
. . . . ..
I
...
..
: \j~]
"x'.J"
~~
......
I~."'''
I
....
:--.:
...
...
..
After completing the circuit, we will have according to Eqs. (5.56) and :)(~~?:
..........:.-,:.
(5 57)
': ::~:~:;:a:
....
,.
....
,.
....
.
....
. ....... .
,
I
I
I
I
~~
,
,
,
,
....
..
..
...
..
..
1IIIi ..
......
.......
..
.....
....... ...
, ,
,
I
.....
.....
..
......
..
....
..
..
. . . III! ..
, . . . . . oil
, . . . . iii
'
,
However, this corresponds to linearly polarized light at an angle
......
...... ....
,...
..
.
........
, .... .
I
.....
..
.....
..
.....
..
~x
~
....
..
.....
..
....
..... ..
~
,..,
,,
I
(5.58)
..
I11III
....
.>
..
.... ..
......
I
..
.... ..
. . . . . ..
.>
. . . ..
~
.....
...
,
,
..
....
.... ...
...
..
II II
.
". .
' ,M." ... ...
............. .
....... . .. .
.. ....
........
....................... ...
...." . ...
1M"
..
..
. . .. .
with respect to the x axis. The argument is exactly the same as that used in
Fig. 5.20.
To carry out the experiment we must find a way to adiabatically change ..........." . ......
...
.......
the orientation of the k vector. This can be done most conveniently by ........". ......
injecting the light into an optical fiber and then laying out the fiber on the ':J@
desired path. One must use a single-mode fiber in order to preserve the ,,\~~~~
polarization of the light and the path must be continuous (i.e., no kinks in ,,;i~~~~
.....
,
,'
~
, .... J"".
,
,
,
, .. Ill ... .
,
, .. Ill .. .
, ,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, , ,,
,
, ,
,
,
, ,
.I ..
............
......,.
". .
,
,,
, ,
,
,
,
,
, ,,
,.....
.
."
"
.......
...
.....,.
,
,
..
~.
II'V~'-"",4---'-"('
[lk 1=
5.B Berry's Phase
..,tzL
<:>::r
213
-L-
~-:':" FIGURE 5.27 Layout of the fiber winding on a cylinder. Here the fiber length is s and the
radius of the cylinder r.
~~l:'
0".".'.
:::::::'.
W< the fiber). For instance we can wind the fiber on a cardboard tube as shown
~~> in Fig. 5.27a. If the radius of the tube is r and the length for one revolution
(the pitch) is .e, the winding angle 8 is given by
t:
cosO
= ljs
= .../2 + (2;rrr)2.
(5.59)
The solid angle described by the fiber is then

il.Q
f:::
= 2]((1 -
cos 0)
= 2rr(1 -
ejs).
(5.60)
The experimental setup is relati vely simple. A HeNe laser beam is po[arized and injected through a fiber coupler into the (single-mode) fiber. At the
!~
: ~. :"" ~~
400
350 .
.s'>
aoo
200
150
100
50
l;

....
....
D
0
qp
CD
[J
~.
50
IJ
c
c
~ 250
.!!I
c
<5
>
100
HiO
200
250
RolaUon (Degrees)
300
350
400
FIGURE 5.28 Results from a measurement of Beny's phase, The transmitted intensity is
shown as It function of the angle of the analyzing polarizer. Open squares are for the flat
..
topology, ruJed squares for helical winding. The po1arization has rotated by 245 between
the two measmements.
...
...
..II
JIll . .
JIll . .
JIll . . . . . .
III
.-~
. .III
. . . IIIJIll..._
......
JIll
...
III
III
......
A
.t:...
JIll
III
III
JIll
....
214
..II JIll _ _ ...
. . . . III JIll _ . .
-- ....
........
JIll
JIll
III
....
III . .
. . . . . . . JIll . .
. . . . . . JIll . . .
. . . . . . III . . . . . _,.I
. . . . . . III ... _. . -",~
..II JIll . .
. . . . . III JIll . .:~J
~ AI III _ III. . .
~
"0
'"
JIll . .
- ..
III JIll . .
. . . . . . III . _
. . . . . JIll .... ,..
...........
-......... ........
-- ........ 1'
~~
.'
......
III
:~
... . .
r.-.'1
end of the fiber the light exits through another fiber coupler and is anal~ii~
by a rotatable polarizer and a photodiode. We use two configurations;9~~!1k
in which the fiber is wound along the cylinder and the other when the.:6:6et~.:~..:"."./,
is laid out flat on the table. The detected intensity as a function of the mi~!i~f~.
of the analyzing polarizer is shown in Fig. 5.28. The open squares w~i~i~
obtained with the fiat fiber, the solid squares with the helical winding~:iW~;~:;:~..':"':Sl"'"
0
0
see that the polarization has rotated bye ;:.-.. 245 (or it could be 115 m'~~t~~t~
:}}~:~::@
opposite direction!).
In this case the radius of the cylinder was r = 14 em and the p*~l~
e -. 28 em, for one complete tum. Thus s = 92 em and/?i!~~
-....A.~~
L\O
= 21f(1 -
lis) = 4.37 sr.
.::::;;:::;:~~=~~~..:~
. ,.
:;.-~
~
.......
..;.;.:..:..:::;
tl
~JJ
....
...........
. ,:,~.:.:.~ ~.:~
~
with observation. One should repeat the measurement by making more than;::~;f.
one turn on the cylinder (using a longer fiber) to fully confirm Eq. (5.53#t~
More details on the first demonstration of Berry's phase with an optic~lf~:~:~~
fiber are given by Tomita and Chiao (1986),
.))r~
.....
.......
."
..............:,.
~
.......
.-.
:.~.:.~
',',." ... "'"" '.-:.
,',., .... - ...'"
','......"':r.
:=::
,
.-.
....,. ..:..;
, ..
, , ..... :..;
.... :..;
.. . .,..
:. .w.
..
, ,
~'
'
5.9 .. REFERENCES
"
. . . . II'
",
,
,
.... A
...
. . . . II' ..
, . . . . A .. _
, , " ..
.....II'III_
..
.............:
.............
, ....... ..
, ,, , ,
II' ""'_
, ........ iii
, . . . . . . . iii
M. V. Berryt Proe. R. Soc. London Sera A 392, 45 (1984).

M. V. Berry, Phys. Today 36 (Dec. 1990).
A. Tomita and R. Y. Chiao, Phys. Rev. Lett. 57, 927 (1986).
....
.
.........
....
.....
...
......
....
.
....
......... ""
...
. ""
...
...
.
....
""
....
..
....
.
.. . ..
......
.. . .
.....
.........
.... .. .""
...
...
.
.........
, "
, . . . . . II' ""
, "
A ..
,,
A ..
,,,
""
,
..... A
..
, ,, ,. . . . . . . A
...,:""
,,
, . . . A ..
,
.....
,,
,
, ,,
,
~
~
...... A
A ..
,,,
, A
,
, ,,
, , A
, A
, ,, ,
.... A
~
.... ..
, , ....
, ......
, .... ..
,
.... A
.... . .
........ .
......
..
, , .....
, , A
""
,,
,,,
,
, .... A
,
, .... A
, ,,
, :..I
~
....
..
..
..
......
..
...................
........
..........
..
......
...
,,,
,
,,,
,,
,
, ,
, ,,
, ,
,
, ,,
, ,,
,,,
,,
,,
.....
........,
.
,
,
,
, ,
,
Ii

,,,
,,
,
, ,
,,
,
,
,,,
, ,
,,
, ,,
,
...
.
.
...
..
, ,..
.
.
.
,..
..
.
,,.
.
,
, .

,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
. , ,
,
. ,..
..,
. ,,
,
,
,
,
,
JlW
CHAPTER
'I
~~~\
~:::..
"I
High-Resolution
Spectroscopy
tlr:.:::::..
~i
?:=:::"
1'
~lj:
;::::::-
6.1. INTRODUCTION
i-:':':
;::::::
In 1896, P. Zeeman observed that when a sodium source was placed in

:=::::: a strong magnetic field, the yellow D lines were split into several com~:::: : ponents. Faraday had performed the same experiment some thirty years
earlier but had failed to observe an effect because of the low resolution of
his spectrograph. We also know from Chapter 1 that even in the absence of
a magnetic field the atomic spectral lines have a fine structure that was easily observed with the small grating spectrometer; with a high-resolution
instrument, however, it becomes possible to observe that each of these
fine structure lines may again be resolved into closely spaced components.
which form the so-called hyperfine structure (hfs) of atomic lines. l
..
"."
I
I
.z::
:--::
I To set the reader at ease, no further splitting beyond the hyperfine structure has been
observed, nor can it be expected for free atoms; in the hyperfine structure we include both
the splitting due to fIlIcI~ar spin and that due to the isotope shift.
215
......
, . ,. ..""--.
.
........
,
'," ......
.
.
.....'"'". '"""....
.
.
.
.
. 'if."",,,
- ........ .
.
......
........."""".."....
.... ..
.. ................................""""""""......""......
..."""".......
.....................................
........... ........
...........
""....
.........
if
...
""
..
216
'"
-- - - - ......
- - ~ ~
6 High-Resolution Spectroscopy
of
.. . .
'" ....
~~
....
..... "p;.
if
if
.....
..
OIIII-
.......
. . . . . . . ..
if
The splitting of a spectral line is a consequence of a splitting of We~~~~~~:~

energy of the initial state, of the final state, or of both states betwe~~i~~~~~wm
.:.:.:.~':.=~~
eli
. -::::::~:~:~::~
.......
::
.. ............
.......
.. .
...
~'
II ..
...
where p. is the magnetic moment of the state (see Section 2 of this cbaPtert.@~
11
The constant /-LB ':' e~/2m = 5.79 x 10- ~vrr is called the BO~ii1l
Av
AE
::-
he
e
'.- B = 46.69 B
4]( me C
AI
.. II
//:=:=t:m
m -1
or
. . . .... .
' >:-:,:,:"~~m
"
': ::::;:;~;::~~. ~
............
.........
'" '"
...
,*
.-.
:;:::;:;::::~~:.--'rn~
.'4* 4*." .....~m
.. ......
. '" ,.
. ............
"
'"J'
" ... III ..01 ,.
" "
' ~~m
~
" " .. 01 . . . .
6.v = 14.01B
__ .
. . . . . ." . m.
GHz
" "
""""
"
. . . ..01
dIpole, ~lectric-quadrupole, etc., moment of the nucleus, WIth ~e elect;r?fit~!~

magnetic field produc~d ~Y the e1ecn:ons at the nucleus. The mteractio~}~~~~~~
.''
. '.....~~~~~X:~~
..
1
r3 '
7L~
.;.:
':.:.:.:~:~:
..... ' ......
.,...... *
(6.3)H@@
... .......
~~~~
~~~~
*
.', .... . . .
'
',' :'~.:.;..:..~:;r;r.
~
.::, :::::::::::~~~
~ ........y~
where /LN is the nuclear magneton
. . . . II
'~
....... :.-:
. . . . . . . . III ~
, . . . . . . II
.. ,........
.........
.,~
'
. . . . . . II ..
, , , . ......
..
. .. .IIIII..JIll
~
eli
J-t N =
riB
,:,:,:,:.:.:~::.z.
}~{:~:~~
- - r::
2mN - 1837'
..:-<:::::~:*
.........._-,...."".
...........
.............
,'"''''
'
,, ,,
~.."
aMWM
,
. . . . . III
and {Bi (O)} is the expectation value for the magnetic field of the electrons
the origin; it is equal to JL B ( 1/ r3) (except for configurations withe = O)~:'/~~~~~
Instead of evaluating {1/r3} we recall that the fine structure splitting is(j~~W.
,due to an L S coupling of the electrons, and therefore is of the order 6{.(~~~~~
3
JL2B (I jr ) so that we expect
',:::,:i,\~~m
......
.
..... .
" . , ..... .1'
, ,
j
A. E (hfs)
I""V
ll.E (fs)
1837
-...
,',
j . . . . . . " ..
, , . ....
..
01 .--
01%'.1'...
0I..
.. 01
' , , , ....
i"X
,
.... <IIi
tIC-~
(6 4). ~:.,':~)~~
..........
JA:.-:
. " .....
.. " ..... ..
" , ,........ r' ..
, ,
,,......
x
. oIoIX
........x.
'
..
.. 01
AI
...
:.
", ,,. 0 1 ... .

" I ' . ........
'
.... 01..
, .... 01
J , . . . . ., ...
','..... ...."'.....xx..
,,
, , ....... WCJ'-.
' , ..
".....
..............
. . ..x..
' , .... 01
'
,
, ,
,
','
,
.. 01..
, .. 01
: ..
..
.... 01 """:":
, ::, .,.oI.,r;t'
':::::..x
.....
..
.: ::::~..... ..~.:..:
, ,,............. :<
'
~::::
' ,
,
' , '" .. . 01..
...
~I
~ .-
S.l Int rod uction
~]::
~:: '
~:
217
Let ussubstitutereasonablenumbers in Eqs. (6.2) and (6.4); forexarople,

if B '" IT
8v {Zeeman) ..... 46.0 m- 1,
tiF: and since
6.v (fine struct~.IIe) '"-' IQ4 m- I , we find that

6.v(hfs) '"-' 5.0 m- 1 = 1.5 GHz.
~(
~:.
f:~::
Thus the splitting of the lines is very smaUand can be observed only with
a highresolution instrument. Assuming). ~ 500 DID and.6.v ~ 5.0 m- 1
we find that the required resolving power is
Such a resolution may be achieved in two ways:

(a) With a large grating used in a high order, the resolving power of a
?:::
~:: : grating is given by
>::-.
-=Nn,
,,)..
where 71, the diffraction order, can be as large as 20, and for a lOin. grating
with 7000 rulings to the inch, the number of rulings i~ N = 7 X 104 , so
th,t
:( Such gratings, are, bowever, very difficult to construct, but can now be
:{ obtained commercially.
V
(b) With a "multiple beam" interferometer, the most common one today
and easiest to use being the Fabry-Perot. which was discussed in Section
,;." 4.6. One can directly observe the ''rings'' of the interference pattern for
:~::
~j.::. a dlverging beam. An optical filter or a dlspersive element is needed to
;'._, select the line of interest. Alternately one can use the Fabry-Perot in the
...:'
::;:: "scanning mode" by moving one of the eod-mirrors, through half a wave. :.' length, and observing the transmission of a collimated beam. For instancc a
(: Fabry-Perot with 5 cm spacing has an FSR (free spectral range) of3 GHz;
:;:':
:r
t
2See S~tion \.6.3 and recall mat jj "" IIle = I/A.
.........
. ...... .""-......
.. . "h ..........
..'b.
.
.
...
.
.
.....
.
. . ......
.. . --x
.
.
.
. ...
...
. . ...... ..:....
: .:::::}::::_::.
~
.III ..
. . . . III ..

"" III ..
III ..
218
I"
-~
II ..
......
III ..

III ..

. . . . III ..

III
III III ..

"" III
III
. . . . ...--.
--:..fi
even with modest finesse F ~ 100, the resolution (see Eq. (4.62):;.l~~~~~~-
....
..II
III
II
III ..
III
-----...
.'......
,". '. . . ." . ._-. .g
......
....
-8" - -;;...: 2 x 10 .
V
. . III
III ..
III III
,./II
....
,./II
';}}::::::~%~
..
.. If ..
. :::::::::::__ :::::
and p~esent data on the s!lift between the spectral lines of hy~r~gen ~~}a.I
deutenum. We then descnbe a measurement of the Zeeman splitting of th~r~
devoted to a measurement of the byperfine structure of rubIdium USlJlg;);~{im

Doppler-free saturation spectroscopy4
}~~jl
The bibliography o~ atomi~ sectroscopy is vast an~ because of th~fi~
"reach" of laser expenments It IS kept up-to-date. A lIst of suggeste4)~
references is given at the end of the chapter.
">}~~
. .......
IS
.. .. ...........,:..;-,.-::
:.: .:.:.~:~~~~
.......
. . "'.... :-:
............
~.~~
'
., .,
.,
., tI . . . .
~~-
'
'.: .:.:.~~.@~~
....
Ii .....
............~~~
6.2. THE ZEEMAN EFFECT
<:<~~~i
~
...
............ ~~
"
' , . . . . JIII. . .
"
'
',.: . .:.:~.:::;::
, .......rh
, , .. .. /..t',
~
6.2.1. The Normal Zeeman Effect:/J~~
.. ': -:.:.~-~
As already discussed in Section 1.4, the solution of the Schrodinger equa;.::\i!~im

3
tion yields "stationary states'" labeled by tlrree integer indices, n, I, andl:':'::~:~;~~
m, where I < n and m
-I, -1 + 1, ~ ~. , 1 - 1, 1. For the screened:'ii~}~~
Coulomb potential, the energy of these states depends on n and I but not:,))i~~
on m; we therefore say that the (21 + 1) states with the same n and 1 index/i~~&.
are "degenerate" in the m quantum number~ Classically we can attribute<}i~~
this degeneracy to the fact that the plane of the "orbit" of the electron may }/~:~
be oriented in any direction without affecting the energy of the state, since }\~~
the potential is spherically symmetric.
t~~~
If a magnetic field B is switched on in the region of the atom, we should ,;)~~
..:,r
4
expect that the electrons (and the nucleus ) will interact with it. We need)}J$
only consider the electrons outside closed shells, and assume there is one<~~#
such electron; indeed the interaction oftbe magnetic field with this electron :/~#
.....
... ",,,
...
.
.
..
. . ..
..
'A~
"
'"
.. A~"
01 ..
"UL'
"
"
.01 ..
01
' . "~"
, ,,""". . ...
3"Quanmm Mechanics" A. Das and A. Melissinos, Gordon and Breach (1986). )~~:
New York. Or any other text on quantum mechanics.
. . \~
4For OUI present discussion this interaction of the nucleus with the external field is so
small that we wil1 neglect it.
):~
/&
'.'II~

, ,";M

6.2 The Zeeman Effect
219
./
./
./
FIGURE 6.1
Magnetic moment due to a current circulating in a closed loop.
yields for each state an additional energy t.E, given by
...
....
/.'
::::
.-,'
(6.S)
,-,.
:::: Thus, the total energy of a state depends now on n, 1, and m, and the
.... degeneracy has been removed.
~:
alddiThtionalb~~ergyl arises
we co~sidl er the classical

e or long e cctron IS eqmva cnt to a current
alTO see howp. thiS6

s
an ogy. ee 19. ..
:::: density5
:::>.
J (x) =
-ev8 (x - r),
where r is the equation of the orbit and x gives the position ofthe electron;
the negative sign arises from the negative charge of the electron. Such a
current density gives rise to a magnetic-ilipoJe moment
p.
I!
=-
x J{x) d 3 x
= -- e(r
2
x v).
5Por a circular oroit, the electron is equivalent to a current f = t,. Q/ t,. T = e/ T =

= 1)/a: a is the radius of the orbil However. a
plane closed loop of current gives rise to a magnetic moment Jl = fA, where A is the area
enclosed by the loop; in our case A
rra 2 , hence
e(J) /2rr, where (J) is the angular frequency (J)
...
.;.'
~~. . :.~'.
et!
~~~~ . The angular momentum for the circular orbit is L =
:~F
e
2m e
J.I.=-L
::~: ,
k
z::
....
'.
F
::::::
~~~ :
elJa
Jl = -2rr-a Ira = -2-'
as in Eq. (6.1).
meva, hencc
....... .
..............
-.
.......
..
. ........
.......
...... - - :h
.oil .. .
. . . . . .oil .. ..
.'
6 High-Resolut;on Spectroscopy
220
III
III III
. . . . . . . . . - . . .",-ij
. . . JIll ..
III ..
.oil III ..
III .. III
. . . III JIll
.. III ..
. . . . . . .til ._
. . . . . 111)11
...
JIll""
III III III
. . . . . . JIll
. . . JIll ..
. . . . .II JIII._
. . . . . . . III .. }II
. . . . JIll .....-rtJ
'
'~
However~
....... .
........... ..
..........
. r'.,'.JI.
. ............
...
...._.....
............
. . .. ...
...............
".""."-,
.. . . . . . . . . .oi
.oi ..
the angular momentum. of the orbit is given by
......:0
p .;...- me(r
V),
.iI
.. til
...
... Ii .. ._
.. OIl .-
...:
..
..
..
..
.II . . . .
.. JIll JII
.. Ii JII
..
.II
.II . .
JIll . .
.II . .
.. ..a
....
..
.II . . . .
..01 .II . .
so that
..
JIll til
. . . . . . . . . . till
.. .oil . . . .-~
... Ii JII ..
Ii . . . .
..... ..
........ ..
....... ..
......
.
.
..
..
..
........
.
....... ..
....
.II
.II . .
.....
.II . .
. . . . . Ii . . . .
..
. . . . JIll
..
.. ..a .. ..
. . . . . JIll . .
.II . . . . .
. . . . . .II . .
.. .II . .
.II . . . . .
..
.. ... .II . . . .
IL = - 2~e
eli
-c -
2~e lu[,
.II . .
Ii .. ..
.. .. JII ..
(6~;!J!i!~~~
quantized value L - I (hj2rr:)'!L ~d u~ is a unit vector along ~e directi.~*~~i~~k
~
2me
aXIS
...
'
:.:.:.:.:,.~~
" .....
:;:;:::;::;::iii
(which we can take to cOincIde WIth the direction of B since no otbelt:~:~:~:m
1 - I, 1: Thus th~ ener~ of a ~articular state n, 1, m m the presence of.~~)jl

magnetIc field WIll be given by
.::/:~~~~mm1.m
..........~.~
En ,1m
" = -En 1 + mBJLB~
........~
(6.81\~~~mm~
... .
.
~~
.........
~-~
:: :~:::::~:-~
.:::~:~:~:~:~~~
.:.: '~.:.:~:.~
eli
tL B
- 2me
'~
JII ..........
::::)~::::~
.:::: :::::~:;:@
>}:}:~
.:. :.:.:.:~:.~
n and 1 . ,~ 2, before and after the application of a magnetic field B. We not:e(t~m

that all the levels are equidistantly spaced. the energy difference betweeri;~t~~@
:':' i/:~~~:
them being
,,~<.:.:~*x:
I
..I
JI
....
..I
JI
....
1"""'wI"..
':.:.:.:-:-~
, . .II....
, ... . . y....-:
-*
'.:. :....rz.
'
With
n f ' If, m f. As an example we choose Ii
....... ..
' , . . . . . .lI . . . .
.II
......
..
= 2 and If = 1. so that the)!@i

...... ...*x
,
'
"
...
oi
~
".II.""."
,
.01..
6This was first clearly shown in the Stem-Gerlach experiment. W. Gerlach and O. Ste~~:>~~~
. ,',,r.~
Z. Physik 9, 349 (192).

:'::::~~~;i
7The energy in the field is positive because the electron charge is taken as negative. ..i:\~i~i
8me in this expression is the mass of the electron, not to be confused with the magnetic: ::}~.
quantum number m.
:,::)~~~
. ,'.
.. r~~
. , ..
..
,
.. '.'.
. . . ..01
"'.I'
......
....
.......... ..
01
' ,,
,,
, , ,. . .
.....
.
............ ""
.II.
'" ...,Jj"'.r.
......
,',, ..., ...
,'
,,'
, ,
., ..... or
, ,
.........
...:......
.....
.
or
...
'
"
.
., '" '" .....
,
.... ..01
, '" ........
"."'''.
, ....... ..--. , .........
. . .,
01 .. .
,'.01
,
...
01 .. ..
I
I
.01 01 .... .
,'.01
..
..
M
01 .. .
.01 .01 ... .

_,
. . .
~\li:
6. 2 The Zeeman Effect
Ill:::
221
~:: ::
, ..
No Ileld
~r~:- AGURE 6.2

~t
With field
SpLining of 8Jl energy level under the influcnce of an ex ternal magnetic field.
The le ... el is assumed to have I = 2 and therefore is split into five equidistant sublevels.
k.
~;:::
:Sf
(.)
(0)
(b)
~~: :.
f~:
~~:: ;
~:::
~ ::.
~:
;::::<
~: .
.~r
..
:
~:: :. :
(:::::
%
.;.:..
'"
+2
::;:e::.
N.
<
j
t'~'_-;-"""E=---
_____
+1
0
-2
f
f
L-
m,
<
+1
(,.:.c'- '--<E::---- - --
0
- 1
f
10
FIGURE 6.3 Splitting of a spectral line under !he influence of an external magnetic field.
(a) The initial level (I = 2) and the fuJa11evel (I = I) with no magnetic fi~ld are shown.
;:::: A transition between these levels gives rise 10 the spectral lines. (b) The two levels after
;:::: lbc magnetic field has been applied. (c) The nine allowed trftllsitions between the eight
sublevels of the initi lll aD d I1nlll stales.
Ii::
t:..:-
.;.;
~::::
;:::."
K: energylevel diagram is as shown in Fig. 6.3: without a magnetic fie ld in

(::::.
;;:."
~r
Fig. 6.3a. and when the magnetic field is present in Fig. 6.3b.
However. for an electric-dipole uansition to take place between two
levels, certain selection rules must be ful fi lled: in particular,
~}
~:::
I
I
~):.
z;:.
f:
t,1 = 1.
(6.9)
Thus, when the field is turned on, we cannot expect transitions between the
m sublevels with the same I. since they do not satisfy Eq. (6.9). Further,
Ihe transitions between the sublevels with Ii = 2 to the sublevels with
.......
~~~-.-.--~
. . . . . . III . . . . ."'"
. . . . . .JI III . .
. . . . . . . III . . . .- "
..........-..............
I
..........
.....
)111
III
Jill . .
JIll . .
- ........... I11III*
-
.....
222.
III III . . . .
..... III JIll fill
...... III . .
..
. . . . III . .
..... III . .
..... III JIll . .

. . . . . . . . . . . III JIll .~
. . . . . III . . . .~
III III .II1II ..

. . . . III . . . . . . .~
. . ............. ..
............ ..
..
... III ... . .

. . . . III III . . . .
..
III ... ....
..
. . . . III JIll . .
....... III . .
If = 1 that do satisfy Eq.

selection rule9
(6~9)
are now governed by the
additio~~:~m!mf~
.>:::::~~:~:f r-.
-<-:<. . :. .:.:. ;.*~.
. . . . ... .
'
.~::~::::::
(6 10~:::
:~:::::..
.........
. . .. ... .....
- .........
........
'
..01 .. . .
.JI . . . . ..
. . . . ..01 ...... . .
. . . . . . .JI ... . .
8m=O, 1,
....
....
... .. .. ..
,JI
... III ... ..
II_-
Let the energy splitting in the initial level be a, and in the finallev~r~~~t~~:~-:::-;
be b, and let A be the energy difference between the two levels when ~9{~~~~~~:ill
~~netic field is applied. Then the energy released in a transition i "~~fiW~
........ '.~~
'.' ........'.I':~
are ~lven
Table 6.1; x mdicates that the transltion ,~~(!~

forbl(id~n an~ Wlll not take place.
:\<8~
At this pOlDt the reader must be concerned about the use of a and b.r:~~
1D
ma~x form
In
ject to the same magnetic field B, their splitting must also be the same, anQi:~~~~~~ar.~m'
.........
"'. . ~=.,
.........
"
"
..... oM
-~
.. .. .0: 01 , .
. . . ..I . . . . . ,
...... ",.tA
'::::::::~~
Thus, we see from Eq. (6.11) (or Table 6.1) that only three
differences are possible
energ~H?l@~~~
;
J/. " .
+ a(mf
- mi) = A
II AI III
. . . III
..
..
..
III
:::::
AI . .
........~~.
Ei - Ef = A
. .. .....
+ aiim,
::::::::;;:~:
.. :(J~~:g~
....
~-~~
+ 1, 0, -1. Consequently. in the presence of a magnetic field B, the singler:@iWi
.. .. .. ''.. .. .~A:~_
~%-
'"
hi
E..
.ii
..
III
Iw!.:.:_:~_
iii i
.. ::::::::~:m.:
...
m of initial state
m of
final state
'-+2
_._ _._Ii_ _ _ _-
+1
"
0'
-~
"
'''-2::::::)&
-i'
___
: , -_ _ _ _ _ _......_ _ _ _...._.;_ _ _ _ _~:;::~:::::::%:
'..J:.,:':::::::::~/...:
. . .....n::.....:
..
... ....
..
.
......
.
..,'...........
.
"'..,.*."'
.
....
A -a
x
o
....
.
X
A
A+a
..
.,'..,....
.. . ....
. . . 111
A - 2a + b:: ,::::::~:x:~
-1
x
x
A-a+b
A+b
- -. x..
..... .. ....
;:.....
,......."..; :X".
------------------------------!'.,:".,','.............
., .. '..'.... .*.
.-..
"'y
A+a-b
A+2a-b
+1
A-b
'.iII.~ ~ ""
.'. '.'.'.
~ ~.
, ......
it
. . . ~..
..
'
,'
,
I.
..
...
~.'"
.-~
iii
Ii
Ii
ill'l
'222
"~I
' . . . .
, ,,
, ,
.. . . . .
III
..
III
. ,....
9The selection rules of atomic spectroscopy are a consequence of the addition of angulat; i}~~W~
n:omenta. "In. this specific case the selection roles indicate that we consider only electric<,}~~~~~~
II
. , ' . . . . . . . . . .~~
III
dIpole radiation.
":::::::::~::?::
, , .....
,,' ....
. ... Ii.r.":X.
:.1".
:...~""
.
, ......
...........
X,
.....
..
.. ..
........
. ..... .
,',...........re:..
.........
:""..
::::::~~
""
"" ', .....Ii~
""
,
, ....
,,,
I
.....
...--- , ...
,,... Ii.
".Ii.X,.
,
Ii",.,. ...
, ... lir ""
.','.',
.~.
, ,, , Ii .. ;II."'" ""
, ,.Ii.,.""
'.".Ii"'~
"'.,~~
Ii...
I
....
..
,',, ,.
. Ii,,/'
.....Ii.r""';:;:;'"
""-fA..
__ ..
J&r
223
FIGURE 6.4 The polarization and separation of the components of a normal Zeeman
multiplet when viewed in a direction normal (0, and in a direction parallel to, the magnetic
field.
spectral line of frequency v

frequencies
v_
= (A
- /LBB)lh,
= AI h
vo
is split into three components with
= Alh,
and
v+
= (A + J.LBB)/h
irrespective of the values of 1/ and If. Furthermore, these spectral lines

are polarized, as shown in Fig. 6.4. When the Zeeman effect is viewed
in a direction nonnal to the axis of the magnetic field, the central component is polarized parallel to the axis, whereas the two outer ones are
polarized normal to the axis of the field. When the Zeeman effect is
observed along the axis of the field (by making a hole in the pole face,
or using a mirror), only the two outer components appear, circularly polarized. The lines from !::..m = + I transitions appear with right-hand circular
polarization, and from .6.m = -1 transitions with left-hand circular polarization. The central line does not appear, since the electromagnetic field
must always have the field vectors (E and B) normal to the direction of
propagation.
The splitting of a spectral line into a triplet under the influence of a
magnetic field is called the "normal" Zeeman ejJecI, and is occasionally
observed experimentally, as, for example, in the 579.O-nm line of mercury
arising in a transition I 0 from I D2 to 1 Pl. However, in most cases the lines
are split into more components, and even where a triplet appears it does
not always show the spacing predicted by Eq. (6.8). This is due to the
IONote that both the initial and final states have S
= o.
-~~~-~--X
... III III . .
JIll
III
....
... III JIll

III III . .
. . . . . . III III . .
..
JIll . .
JIll . .
III JIll . .
-.~-
III
JIll
III
..... III . .
..... III JIll . .
III
III
JIll . .
JIll
JIll . .
III
-.~
-
JIll
.....
224
...
. . ..............
-. . :..:
III III . .
. . . . . III . . . .
....
JIll JIll
JIll . .
JIll
.......... ..
III
.......
.....
JIll
....
III
.......
..
JIll
. . . . . III JIll ... ____
III JIll . . ,..

. . . . . . III . . . .
III JIll . .
intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron (associated with its spin) ari&~~~~t
will be discussed in the following sections.
- >}~:~:~:~
.~
..x
----~~
. . . . . . III JIll
......
- . . .~.
..
JIll
JIll
. . . . . . III JIll . ., __ . . . . . . . . .,~
~
III JIll JIll
~:::0~
. . . III - IIIJIllJIll. .. .
..
III III
..... III JIll
.............
~
iX9'"/A
.....
JIll
-- ... -~~:~@~
6.2.2~
III JIll . .
. . . . III . .
. . . . III JIll
III III . .
.... III . . . .
-::::::::;:::::~
....~~~
y/...:
The Influence of the Magnetic Moment

of the Electron
:......~:
.....
III
...
:.:.:.~-~ ..
... III JIll
..... III
III III III
...
- -:.:.:.~ ...
JIll
:..:..: ~
. . . . . III . . .
... III . .
... III JIll
III III
..... III . . . .
. . . . . III JIll . .
In Section 1.6 it was discussed how the intrinsic angular momentum (spi~f@!f.:
. . ~:-:~
trons L to gIVe a resultant J; this coupling gave nse to the "fine structure'~>;:::~:mi
11
of the spectra. The projections of J on the z axis are given by mJ, ~.4lnili~~m~f'~.r.
:::::::~:~~~~~OOm~
... -.. ..
:/:~~~~~~~
.~
fL B
..-.rJl
.. ::::;..
. .--"m
. .
. . ........
..
.......
. . . .. ..
.......
analogy to Eq. (6.8).
.:. ...... . .
.'.-Jb/.
.<M~:~
.......-... ~~
......
..... ::X::::::
::::::::::~M~~~~
-.. .
!bese conclusions, howev~r, are not corre~t b~ca~se the intrinsic mag~{Ut~II~~II
JIll
III
I11III
JIll
..
~~X=3~
III JIll
....
III
..
..
net1c moment of the e~ectron IS related to the lntrtnslC angular momentum:~>~~~~~m~~

of the electron (the spIn) through
-::::::;::::~~:;~-"""'".
_ _ ~ ~~~J'" ~
............
..............
-.............
z ..
....... ... .."x,
ILs = 2
e
2me
S= 2
en
'sus
2me
III
~""
....
. . ....,....,.
-~
- -
. . ... .... ..
..
<::::~:;::~::~~
.
.
..
(6 14),- . . .... .z.
-.
.
.
.
.
.......
--.......... .....
~
:.~
~ ~
~~
~~
'~"~I"'~""
IIIIIIIIIII~.
I11III
....
....
...
I11III
~ ~ ~
~. ~z~
~ ....
~~
.~~
~~Z""
and not according 12 to Eq. (6.6). Consequently. the total magnetic moment\!ii!&@
.. .
-
of the electron is given by the operator
.......
...
IIIIII~
....
<\~~*~~
......
............. . z .....
.... .
....
,--:Z~~'-:~~
'
.......
. .. ............
(6.15) ......
.~~.~~
~ ~
fL
(/hB/h)[L
+ 2S].
~~
~~
... ..... ....

-...................x ..
....
. . . ....
- "
........
...
..
I11III
..
..
I11III
~~
~ ~
~.
II II ..
~ ~
11 We will use the following notation:
L~ S~ J represent angular momentum vectors that ;i\Jt~}
have magnitude IiJl(f+ 1), n.,fs(i + l)~ li.Ji(j-+ IJ- The symbols I, j, etc. (s is always>}i~~:~
s =
are the quantum numbers that label a one-electron state and appear in the abov~\J~~f.~~~
square root expressions. The sYITLbols L, S, J , etc" are quantum numbers that label a state.::::::::~~:~~
....
....
with more than one electron and are then used instead of 1, s, j.
:.)~~~:~
12The result of Eq. (6.14) is obtained in a natural way from the solution of the~~:;:
......,..
Dirac equation; it also emerges from the classical relativistic calculation of the "Thomas- :::,}~~:~~~
....
I."
-:::::::~~~~~~
..... .
Precession_~'
i),
. . . .. -
...
~.,
......
,
I
I
I
.....
...
...... ~
I
.. .
. . . . . ..
I
"
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
..... . .
. . . . . . .. . . .
~~
..
.
. . . . . ..
....
..
.......
,
......
.. . . .
.. . . .
..
I..
......
~
~.
,
I
~
~
~
~
~
. -
....... .
....
~.
..
.. . .
.. . . . .
...
'~.
...
....
225
I We can think of /L as a vector oriented along J but of magnitude

{L
= {LBg 1.
(6.16)
The numerical factor g is called the Lande g factor and a correct quantummechanical calculation gives 13
g =1+
j(j
+ 1) +s(s + 1) -/(l + 1)
2j(j
+ 1)
(6.17)
The interesting consequence of Eqs. (6.16) and (6.17) is that now the
splitting of a level due to an external field B is
(6.18)
and in contrast to Eq. (6.8) is not the same for all levels; it depends on
the values of j and I of the level (s = ~ always when one electron is
considered). The sublevels are still equidistantly spaced but by an amount
Consider then again the transitions between sublevels belonging to two

states with different I (in order to satisfy Eq. (6.9)). However, since we are
taking into accoWlt the electron spin, I is not a good quantum number, and
instead the j values of the initial and final levels must be specified. If we
]3This result can also be obtained from the vector model for the atomic electron. In
Fig. 6.5 the three vectors J, L, and S are shown, and Land S couple inlo the resultant J, so
that
J=L+S.
By t.aking the sqoares of the vectors, we obtain the following values for the cosines
cos (L, J) =
p +z2 _8 2
2lj
COS
(S, J) =
P +8 2 _[2
2'
SJ
From Eq. (6.15) we see that

/tIILB
= I cos (L,
J)
+ 2.s cos (S, J).
Thus
IL
= -MB)
P + /2 2)2
s2
2/ + 28 2 - 2[2
2)2
)2
+ 82 _
(2
= I + "-----,---.,.----2j2
Fmally we must. replace j2. s2, and [2 by their quanrnm-mecbanical expectation values
j (j + I), elc., and we obtain Eq. (6.17).
::::::::::::~~,.~~
.......~~........ ~
..
..iI
..
..
III
II1II
.. ..
III .. ..
.JIll ..
~ .. .. .. ..oil IIIJIll.III..... :....

~
.. .. ..oil JIll . . . . .
226
High-Reso~ution
Spectroscopy
....
III
.~ , ~ ........
.......-~"""A
.. ..
f..-..,
...
..
..
III
III JIll
...........111 .III.... ...
, ~ . .... . III III III III......

..
. . . . . . . III _~~
. ::::::~:::;~:~crr~....c~
........... "Yh
...................
.. .... ............
. ... ..::::;
................
.. .. .. .. ... ..
............
..................
@I'~
~.
. . . . . .~
. . . . ..oil
.......................
'r
J..J'"
..
..
III
..
..
..
III
.....
III ... . .
'J
III ......
. ........ . . c..:
.................
. .. .. .. .. .. ......%
..
..
c...:
.
..
.....
..
, ............
...............
. . .:;;J.
..c...:
.
..
......
....
....... .
.............
.........
... .. . ..........
.. .... .
-..........
.-.
. . .....
....
.........
:-:
.
.
. . . :-:
- .......
..... ..c..:
...... .
. . . . . . . . .~
..II
...... ,
.... --
..
..
.. ....
'-l
~:.-:
.~.1
~.~
- .~~
"
.~~
~.:.-:
~
- ......
.~.1
.....
...
FIGURE 6.5 Ad~tion of the orbital angular momentum L and of the spin angula?:J(IJI~
n
momentum S into the total angular momentum J, according to the Uvector modeL
':::::}:~::a
~::::.tt
J
c::;
.
. ...J1. :=:;
,......
......
.. .. .......... .Y . .......
_ .II .. .II .......
-~.J1""'~.t
~
'~
. . . . . II
. . . . . . . . Jill'
{ .............JI'M..-,A
choose for this example ii = 1 and I f

O~ we have the choice of ji = ~()~~~
or ii -= whereas j f - ~. Transitions may occur only if they satisfy, i~j~It~~@
addition to Eq. (6~9), also the selection rules for j
.-:>~:)~;~~
............ .
.............
-.
. .. .......
.....
.
.
(6 .9 a).-: :::::::~:~
not
f1j = 0, 1
j = 0 )0 j = O.
1,
........ wi"
.......... !
~~
:.>:.~~ ~
,.
. . . . . . . . . ....
.,
... "JI'M
....... :.;.~
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
Furthennore the selection rules for m j must also be satisfied; they are th~,:{III~t
.......
same as given by Eq. (6.10)
, -::~:$.
~
.,
:~~~
:~;~
..
.......
:::
........::-;
~i~7
.........
>:::~~~:::
....... : : :
........
,~
!~~
. . . . .~
.~
, .......... I11III..1
,...,r..l
:~:~
....
,~
~.r
...........
..1
......
".. :.-:.
~
,J'
II ........
.~
~,.
.... l1li ..
...~".1
....~....I
,
.
... ..
.
..
'.II" .4./
~
....~..J
........1
,
,
,,,
,
, ,
,
,
~
In Fig. 6.6 the energy-level diagram is given without and with a magnetic/}.
field for the doublet initial state with I ~ 1 and the singlet final state, I 0'. :/
Six possible transitions between the initial states with j = ~ to the final}!.
state with j = are shown (as well as the four possible transitions from'ii;:'r
j -= to j =
By using Eq. (6.17) we obtain the following g factors i?
, ,
i).
..
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
........1
, ..
,. .
,..

~
1=1
,.II ....., , /
..
..
.
'
J=2
-1
8 2
,
,
,
,
,
~
~

,
,
~

~

~
~

~
~
, ..
. .
,..,
,.,
..
.,
,,
, .
'
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
S=2
- 1
)" --2
l= 1
..
.
....
....
..
' , ,
..J"..)III
..... .)11.
'....:=:::.o;
,.....,,1
..
(6.',
lOa) :-: -: . ...:.
n -_ =J::L_-
'
I..
"
1.. . ., /
:.
"..
..... r ..,}
l~oI
g ~ 2.
The sublevels in Fig. 6.6 have been spaced accordingly.

In Table 6.2 are listed the six transitions from j = ~ to j -= in anal. .,
ogy with Table 6.1. However~ since now a #- b, the spectral line is split
into a six-component (symmetric) pattern. This structure of the spectral
line is indicated in the lower part of Fig~ 6.6; following adopted convention, the components with polarization parallel to the field are indicated
above the base line., and with polarization normal to the field, below. 14 As
before the parallel components have llm = 0, the nonnal ones /j"m 1.
.,
'Iii _
14It is also conventional to label the parallel components with 1t, and the nonnal ones
by (J' (from the Gennan "Senlcrecht").
1:->
~L
~t

TABLE 6.2
Energies
Allowed Transitions from jl
=~
to
'J2.7
1] = ~ and the Corresponding
m j of initial state
mj of
~:.:-
+-2
final state
I
+-2
+-2
b
30
A+--2
2
A+--2 2
A+-+2 2
A----
A-2:+2
----,
,/
,/
,,
(:::-
" "-
-2
3
-2
.::=.::
mJ=+~
1
-2
',~-~~-~--~~
:::::::
iliC
:;::::::::=:>
~-'.'.
~-'.'
~:~:::'
~{.
~~~{
~:::>
x:>,
g=~
~ _-'-f--!.-+-'-I----'--'---++_ mF + ~
28 112
------------~
~~~~~:
b
2
,~
\ 2P ll2
30
2
A--+-
mF+~
+22
,/
,/
2P312
g=2
r- C------1
Am=O
Llm=:t1
1t
III
I I I
III
I I
FIGURE 6.6 Energy levels of a single valence electron atom showing a P state and an S
state. Due to the fine structure, the P state is split into a doublet with j = ~ and j =
Further, under the influence of an external magnetic field each of the three levels is split
into sublevels as shown in the figure where accollllt has been taken of the magnetic moment
of the electron. The magnetic quantum number m j for each sublevel is also shown as is the
g factor for each level. The arrows indicate the allowed transitions between tbe initial and
final states, and the structure of the line is shown in the lower pan of the figure.
i,
~~::>,
~~~~': :
I
.......
~1/:
~:::.
W
~::::-:
[f
The horizontal spacing between the components is proportional to the

differences in the energy of the transition, and the vertical height is proportional to the intensity of the components; the relative intensity can be
predicted exactly since it involves only the comparison of matrix elements
between the angular parts of the wave function.
:':':':':.:A:~*
.... "yo
.. " ..... '" . . 'iI'~
-:.:.:.:.:.:.:~
228
........*
..
..
J(
...
...
_:::::=~::;:;:~'l*~
." ..... "~h
..
"
......... ..
...
OJ
JII
..
............
......................
. . ...........".
..
..
II
....
"
....
II
.. ..
..
....
II
......
..........................
-
ri
As ~e magne~c field i~ raise~, the sep~ation of th~ components c~il~#'f~f~~9}.

ues to Increase linearly With the field until the separation between Zeem:an:::::::'
co~p~nents becom~s on ,the order of the fine-structure separati~n (spaci#fj~j~j~
C m ,FIg, 6,6). At thIS, ~omt th~ Zeeman components from the J .-= ~ --~<~~~~~~~j
and J = ~ "7 ~ tranSItion begin to overlap; clearly the perturbation cau~~~{~~
by the external magnetic field is on the order of the L S energy and aff~ts.~~~~~~~
the coupling ofL and S into J; J ceases to be a "good quantum numbe#M111ii
For very strong fields, L and S become completely uncoupled; so th$t:i~~:~1
the orbital and intrinsic magnetic moments of the electron interact with .~~~~~~~@
- - - ............. II./"..IM...;-7,
<:/)~
field independently, giving rise to an energy shift

8.E = -
I-iB
J..tB
. ....n.:::
.::~~~;~
:.:.:.:':'~A~~
...
L
B-2
S
B
aL
S
Ii
,~
.' '~..__-4~
. . ..... . .
' A4~
.... ,
.. '::::~~~~
1::rt]
.~;
'" "".
"" .......
..... '" "" .
(6.
'II
... .
.~
.. .. A .~
. .. .... J-rI
<II '" .. . . ..1
In this region one speaks of the Pashen-Back effect. The reader can ij6~~~~~~1
more details in the references, in particular in the classic text by Cond~
.,
....
and Sh0 rtley.
.<:::::::::;~;..3
...........
So far we have discussed the case where the atom has only a' singl~~~~~~~~
valence electron. In Section 1.6 we considered also atoms with two valen:~~~~~~~~
~
electrons and saw that for Hg the total angular momentum J = L+S, whemii~
L results from the coupling of 11 and l2 and S from the coupling of 91 a#4~J~~~
S2. In this case the g factor is still given by Eq~ (6.17), but by using L~.~~~{f~
and J, the quantum numbers for the coupled angular momenta.

. . :<}~~~~~
An interesting case arises in the 579.07-nm yellow line of Hg whichl~f~;~;~:~
due to the transition from the 6 1D2 state to the 6 1PI state. (See Fig. 1.241t~~
for tlle energy level diagram of Hg.) As the reader should verify, by usiIlg(~J&
Eq. (6~ 17), the g factors of the initial and final state are both equal to ~~~}~~~~~
Thus we have exactly the situation shown in Fig. 6.3; and the line split$~~~~~~~
............ :.into three components (normal Zeeman effect)..:)}~~~:~
7
.,
_
6.3. HYPERFINE STRUCTURE
..
. . .....
........
........
.............
....
"
01
.... ..
, . . . . . . II1II.
, , , ,,
........ iIi
""
......... ..
....... ..
, ,..........
............
.
,. ..... ....
, .......... ....
"
...
...............,j
, ........ II1II
, ,
,
"
- , ," , ,
'
, , , , . . . . 01 ... iii .
, ,, ,.. ......... ....... iiiII1II
. . . . . . . . . .~
. . . . . . . lflii
,
, ,
, ,
,
.......
....... ...
, ............ lflii
I . . . . . . . . II1II
"
.......... ...
........
........ ..
........
......
Spectral lines, when examined under high resolution, do show structui~(~i~~~~

ooI."
even in the absence of an external magnetic field. As already mentiorie,4~~~~~~~
this hyperfine structure arises from the interaction of the atomic electrortsi)~~~
with the nucleus. The largest effect arises from the magnetic-dipole mome*~)~~~~
of the nucleus, but the effect of higher order moments are also observed~t~~~~
A related effect is the isotope shift, which shifts the spectral lines betwee9i~~~~~;~
isotopes, i.e., atoms of the same element but with nuclei of different mas.$:<~~~~~;
... .... ..
"~
. . . . . . . 0001 ..
, ,
,
,
,
'" 01
., ,,, ...
. . '''""" ..
,
.....
,
,
..
'"
.oil ..
.. . .
........
.. .
I
Ii
...
....
...
..
.oil
"'
, ',
, . . . 01 ..
, ,
'"
, ,
, ,
,
'" '"
, ,
,
'"
, ,
,
'
"
, , <II '"
, ,
'
"
, ,
'" '"
,,,
, ,
'" '"
, ,
, ,
'"
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
'"
, , <II '" ..
,
'"
, ,
, ,
'"
, ,
,
, ' __ ,A".
,
....
.
......
..... . ...
........... .
...
...
.
......
..
...
.
...
...... .. .
..
.
...... .
....
..
.....
.
..
.
........... ..
..
...... .
- .. .
6.3 Hyperfina Structure
229
6.3.1. The Effects of Nuclear Spin

Nuclei can have an intrinsic angular momentum (spin) different from O.
We use I to designate the nuclear spin which can take the values (i.e., the
quantum number) 0, 1, ~, ... that can reach very high values for excited
nuclear states. When I ::: ~ we can expect that the "spinning" charge of
the nucleus will give rise to a magnetic moment (see Eq. (6.6)) oriented
along the spin axis
1,
IL
=-
2M I,
where M is the mass of the nucleus. In addition, nuclei exhibit an intrinsic

magnetization,15 so that in general we have
IL
= -gl
e
- 2 1= gI/LNIu/,
mp
where UI is a unit vector along the spin direction, and
en
/LN = - 2mp
is the nuclear magneton; mp is the proton mass. The numerical factor 81

includes all the effects of intrinsic and orbital magnetization of the nucleus
.. and can be obtained only from a theory of nuclear structure.
The magnetic moment of the nucleus, IL, will interact with the magnetic
field Be(O) produced by the atomic electrons (at the nucleus; Fig. 6.7). This
interaction then results in a shift of the energy levels of the atom by the
t..E =
-IL . BeCO).
(6.20)
The direction of Be (0) is that given by the total angular momentum of the
. atomic electrons, namely,16 J, so that
t..E
= Till
(.!:!-.) (BeCO))
I J.
111
C6.21)
15This gives rise to the so-called "anomalous" magnetic moment of the nucleon; for
.. ~."~-,.- the neutron (an uncharged particle) has a magnetic moment of -1.91 /LN.
16The direction of B. (0) is really opposite to J because the electron has negative charge.
.~
. . ---:=::
JIll'" -.
.......
....-.~.~:.~
-
..II
..II
-.~.
...
..
..II
..
..
_~.-: : : : :
.... II
.II
II
II _
_ . . . . . . . . . . . .- ........J
~
..II
II JIll
II II . .
II . . . .
~ ..... II . .-.r~~
_ .............
-r_
_
II .... -,.J
"
-
"'~~
.......
-.~
-.
~ ..II II . . ... . . .
.II
..II
..
.....
..II
JIll
..
..
..II
..II
: . ..;
- ,. . . .
JIll
JII
..
~ ........._
..II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
..............
..II
..
?.r.-.-~
...... ..
..II
. . . . _-
.'.
. . liliiii
.......
-.
....
..II
. . .... . .
..II
. . . . ...
....~~
..........
---
II
..II
........ ..
_230
". II . . . .
II . . . . . - ..
II .. I11III
.... .
. -... .
-.~
II
..II
J"
.....
.......
.
.
.
.
. ............
....... . ...
.. ...........
.-. -..~..~~
- ............
...............
- ........
. - . . . ........ . ....
.... ......
. ........
- .. ....... .
.................
.....
... ... . ..... . . ..
-.9.::
. . .........
r- '.' ...........- ........-.
-- -
~~
~
-. . . . . . @
....
....
J~_
-<::::::~::~::~~
::::::~:::::::~::**
........ ----~~~~~~
. .-....
.......
..
.- .......
--.~~
V B (0)
I
. . . . . . I11III
.II
..
..
:<:>:::::::~~~@
by the electrons at the nucleus.
...
....
, ::;::
.........
:::::
',.
III ...
III III
III ..
III..
.........,.~*X
........
.... ~ ..........~~
III ...
... ... .~
... .~
III ... .
. . . III
the possible values of (I . J), which, as we know, are quantized. TIi~i<?~~m

situation is analogous to that of the fine structure, where the interac{:/iiW.
tion was proportio~al to the (L. S) tenn. In that insta~ce the two angulaJ;":::m~
momenta coupled mto a resultant J = (L + S) accordmg to the quantum<>~;@
mechanical laws .of addition of angular momentum. In the present si~ation,rHij~
J and I couple llltO a total angular momentum of the atom deslgnate4:~.:.\~;~~m
.
:-::.>:'~~~:.:
....
.... x~~
by F
. .. "
.
"'' :::::
' .' J
-:"':::::~:'~~~
(6 22)
F - ! (I+J).
:x
-"I~~ """'''~
~
.'II~
""~
.......
.....
. . . . .. .
I~' "
"
'
,JJrI
.......
. . . . . . .~
.II
--........."x:x
..
,:.
1 I ..........
.II
...
..
......
...
,~
...
......
.II
.II
..J-
......
An energy level of given J is then split into sublevels having all possible/1M
values of F, namely, the integers (or half-integers)
_.>/~~~~:~
.. -.. . .
I J - II ::s F ::s I J + ll~
. . J.:
1
.II
.II
.II
.II
!,
I11III
.. ~
...
...
.II
I",
...
.II
.....
.......
..
.....
....
.II
...
. . . . ..
.II . . . . . . ...
. . . . ...
......
. . . . ..
.II
.II
. . . . ..
.II . . . . . . ...
. . . . ...
.II
f ...
...
....
...
. . . . I11III
.II . . . . ...
. . . . . . . ...
Thus if I =
the level is split into two components, with Fl - J + ::ii:i)~*
and F2 = J - ~ (provided J ::: !); if I = 1., the level is split into three ::\i~~~~
.......
components with Fl = J - 1, F2 = J, and F3 = J + 1 (provided J 2: 1); :.\~:~:~
etc. This situation is shown in Fig. 6.8, and we see that if J is known, the .:i:}~;~:
......
number of hypemne structure components of a spectral line provides direct .:':')~~~~~
infonnation on the spin of the nucleus~
. :.:.:<:~:;
If either I = 0 or J = 0, no splitting of the energy levels can ::ii)~~~
occur since the interaction energy specified by Eq. (6.21) vanishes. This :.::\~~~~~
is to be expected because if I = 0, the nucleus cannot have a dipole ii)~~
moment~ and if J = 0, then by symmetry, the magnetic field at the origin ::\)~~
.......-..
Be (0) ..........
0
..
Using Eq. (6.22), we can now obtain the expectation value of the ::i;}~
operator (I ~ J) that appears in Eq. (6.21); referring to the vector model . ::.(~~
~
.II
.....
___
.II
,
'I
...
..
. . ..
~'<.;..:
~
.....
1
,
.....
1
1
..
....
1
, .. ,.,
..,,
.. ,.,

.....
,
.....
,
..,,
.....
,
. ..
.,
......
,1
1
J
6.3 Hyperfine Structure
A/2
(1
(b)
F=2
231
./
'P,
F=~
~:::::,
F=~
180
F=~
1S~
:I
I
I
I I
I
---v
-v
FIGURE 6.8 Hyperfine strucrure splitting of a 3 PI atomic energy level, and the allowed
transitions belWeen the hyperfine structure componenl5 of this level and a I So final stale
when the spin of the nucleus is (a) I = and (b) I = ~.
we write "classically"
F2 _ 12 _ J2
cos (I, J) = - - - -
2/J
~~~~~. and replacing F2, etc., by the quantum-mechanical expectation values

~r~ F(F + 1) we obtain
I
?:~ ~ ~ :
~~.:
11E
= '2
[F(F
+ 1) -
I (l
+ 1) -
J (J
+ 1)1,
(6.23)
wbere the constant A is given by
A=m
f.L
(Be (0
IJI .
(6.24)
:::::::'
~::::
K:
r
r
Note that the energy splitting between sublevels, as given by Eq. (6.23)
(and shown in Fig. 6.8), is not symmetric. Further, if we succeed in extracting from the experimental data the constant A. we can obtain the nuclear
magnetic moment if (Be(O)} is known.
The calculation of the average value of the magnetic field of the electrons
at the nucleus {Be eO)}. however, is not easy to perfonn, and depends on the
orbital angular momentum of the valence electron or electrons. Expressions
- .......
. . . ---0
..
JI
....
III JIIi .. ..
_
...
..
iii ... ..
III III . .
JI ..._ iiiJIll.......
.............
..
.............
- - - .......
. . ...-.......
..
- ............
--.... ...
. . . .... ... ...
_
232
JI
JI
JI
iii ...
....
JI
.....
III . . ...
JI
.....
III . . ...
.......
,
,
III . .
....
iii .... ..
III
III . . . .
III .. .. ..
III
III . . . . .
...
III
JIll
....... .
III III ... . .

. . . . . . III . . till
.. ... ... III JIll
-"
for the "constant" A in tenns of the atomic wave function can be found:ikJ!j!lf
. ; : ..................... OIl
......~~~
- -.'
.......
.......... ..
............
-.' ......
.... -"" ..
- - .......~~~
....
III
....
....
III ..
.... III ..
~~ ~
..
....
III . . . .
III
-............~j~
mercury when examined under high resolution. When the lines are correctlW@!ii:a
identified we note that the different isotopes have different energies. Inde~~}~~~~~it
quadru~ole mome~t ar~ also mdlcated.
.:>::::}:~
n~cle~s: The nuc~eus ~ much heaVler than th~ el~on. but we c~ ~~tI;~jl
of the nucleus: The nuclear radius
IS
much smaller than the orblt of the::::~:~~~~=
approXImation. For lIght elements the Isotope shift 1S maInly due to th~<~~~~~~~ill
the fimte sIze effect. It should also be eVIdent that we cannot measure th%t~2
shift between two or more Isotopes. This IS shown In FIg. 6. lOa..
---)~:~:~:~:W~
---....
_....
....."'~~~ID~'
. .. E'..
.. ...
..
.' ....... ............. :..
-. . . . . lli
.. ..
~
~~%
..
..
...
.. . ..
.. .. . .. ....%.~~.
. . . . . . . ..;II . .
....
..
..
-1J
. . ~~. .
....
-II ..OIl . . . .
... ....
. . ..
.
_-:':':':':~:~~J".
..........
.. .. .. . .. ..
..
.
.
..... ....
'" . .
..
.
.
.
.. .. . ...
.
---' .......
'.....'.. .."'~~~%X:~'
.............
...
'" "., '". .. 3'
..
....
...........
. . ... ....
.
~~.
..........
...-..:"'. .1".
-_
... .... ... ..... ..... .
,~-~~~.
.......
..
..
..
... ........
'" '" ..
.....
. ,' ..... .... .. . . . %
.......
-....
.. . .... .
............
.
. .........
, .. . . . %:'
.
... ....
.......
.
.. .. . . .. . ....
.. .....
-'.' .......
.. ..
..
......
..
. .. .. . .. .. .......
....
...
.. . ...
....
.. ......
.. .. . .. .....
.....-:.
.. .........
.. .........
........
. . . ...%.
..
.
.
.
.
..
..
.
....
.
,.... . .m
. ....
.........
.-:~..
. . ....
.,......."'
.... x;.....
.........
......
x
.. '
. ...
. ..x;.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
, .. rIl".
.......
.. h ..
.... ,,....
.. ..'".. :'
" .......
h'.
.
.
. .. ....
.
.
.
.......
y
......
........ :?:'
1=253.7 nm
~ ~m'
............
....
....
:~
.... 'A%
.. .. .. ..~..
4l"'...
%~
5
2
F=-
201
F=~2
201
...HI
I.
-O.51~\~O.339
)0
.A
..
II
.... .
..
.. ..;II . .
..
.III
....
-0.507 -0.491 -0.022 0.230

.... 0.156
~~~%.
....
~~~%
....
~~:
,
, ..
.oil
cm- 1
....
...
.01 ....
,. . .
.... ~
,'"
..
. . . . ..II
..
~%..
..
...
199
0.'230
: . - .:.'
....~:'
I11III,.
..........
II . 2
)
..
F=-
i... II
..........
204 ( 202 200 ') 198
.~~.
....
F=l2
..
:--:~
-'"
"
....
....
201
..
199
1
F-=-
..
.01 . . .
.01 ....
..
... "'*.
,
,,
....
FIGURE 6.9 High..resolution spectrogram of the 253.7-nm line of natural mercury. In thg;l~~~x~:
lower part of the figure the various components are identified and their separation from the>\~~~~@~
~ition of the 198Hg component ~ also indicated. tNote that the 198Hg component apP
m the spectrogram as the longer line.)
::::::>}~:
.......
.
.
.
.
.
,....
. . ..X;'.
earS))11@:
.',,.....
. . . . . .*.x:
*
.
"""'ill
. .
" ..... :?
,,
,
, , , .. 01
'
"
..
0I.~
, ,', .....
01......
01....
..
, , , .. 01
. .....
, ,
.
,, ,, ......
Z
.
..
,
. . ...
.
. '''......
.
.
x
. ..
. .. ..."
"""'%.'
,<.:-:.~.%.,.
': ....
'~.:'~
.. .....
.. ...... ~.*=.
,
.'''.01 . . . .
'
, 01 ..
,,,0101
,', '. . . .*.

,
',
,
,
6.3 Hvper/ioe Structllle

TABLE 6.3
233
Properties oflhc Isotopes of Natural Hg (2 = 80)

I
Isotope
198
199
200
201
202
204
Abundance
(percent)
N
(neutrons)
(nuclear
spin)
(units of iJ.-N)
10.!
118
17.0
23.2.
13.2
29.6
6.1
II'
,,
,,
-0.723
120
121
i22
124
"
(cm 2 x 10-:24)
0.876
,
0.38
In terms of the solutions of lhe SchrOdioger equation we must consider

both the electron and nucleus ag revolving about the center of mass of the
electron-nucleus system. This leads back to the Schrodinger equatioD for a

stationary artracLive center (nucleus) if the mass of the electron is replaced
by its reduced mass
M
m' = m,. .,.,.:-'.M+m e'
(6.25)
wbere M is the mass of the nucleus. Then lhe energy of a hydrogen-like

level is given by
En = _ hcRooZ2
2
n
M
)
M+me
~ _ hcRooZ2
/1
(1 _ m e )
M
(6.26)
where Z is the nuclear charge. For instance. the value of the Rydberg as
obtained from the spectra of hydrogen and deuterium will differ by
RH '" (1 _ m, )
Ro
(6.27)
nld '"
2mp. This will shift the
2mp
where we set the mass of the deuteron
spectral lines by 3 x 10- 4 , which we can observe in the laboratory.

For the heavier elements the isotope shift due to finite mass becomes
very smalL lostead it is the finite size of the nucleus that is the dominant
reason for a shift of the energy levels. Consider Fig. 6.1Gb where curve (a)
represents the Coulomb potential of a point charge. If it is assumed that the
electric charge of the nucleus is distributed on a spherical surface of radius
' 0. then the potential will not diverge at, = 0, but will be constant for all
r ~ '0. Thus the potencial seen by an electron will be of the form shown
.. ...
- -: -:.: -: ..:.::~.
~
'
......
- j
i"'--
.II
...
. . - ...
III . . III . .
JIll JIll
JIll JIll
... III JIll

III JIll . .
...
JIll
:~
. . III IIIJIllJIll
- ..
.......
. . . . III JIll . .
III JIll . .
- .......
....
~_
III : : .
-- ....... ..
- -......................
... -......-. - ...
-
....
JIll
JIll
...
III
III
..
......
JIll
..
-~
. . . . . . . . III . .-~
. . . . III JIll . . .
III III JIll . .
.........
JIll
JIll
. . . . III JIll
III III . .
-, " ~
......
....
I
I
I
- -
JIll JIll
JIll
III
III . .
III JIll . .
....... JIll JIll
...
II JIll . .
~
II JIll . .
~
. . . . II JIll . .
III
,)}~:~:~:-~
.... ~:
::.."'.;:;:..."';:;......
~:::::m;..M:
.
.
.
.......
.........
.
......
.
....
.............. ..
. .
""
~.i'.W@
::::::::~~~~~:.~~
. .
,""',
,,,..... .i'rm
.i'. 00...
.......... .......
.. :,>::~:~~~~~
.; .,;..;..: . ..
hv+[AEj (2)-AEt (2)]
I.....
JIll
III
JIll
L
1
-: 1
...
."
JIll JIll
JIll _
III
i'o----=::::::::::--:;-."-'r:~::.........'r.';::~::::
I
hv+[AE1(1)-AEt {1)]
VN
....... .
(A+1)
....
.-
-iE,(2)1--
hv
......
JIll
- . . . .
.- - III JIllJIll
~ ... ...
III JIll
--~.
~
... .... III JIll . .
........ --~
JIll
III JIll . .
III JIll JIll
JIll
.... -....
. . .... -...:~
~
~ potnt nucleus
JIll
JIll
......
... - - . . . 1-
JIll
. . . . III JIll
III .... JIll . .
~
III . .
III JIll
III III . .
~
. . . . . . . . JIll . . . .
Levels for
JIII-:.
-.~
aEj(2)
...
JIll . .
JIll . .
......
(b)
JIll
-
(a)
.II
. . . . III . . .
....... III . .
. . . . III . . . .
AEj(1}
JII
...
....
..
... III
III . .
. . . . . III . . . .
III
III III . .
III . . .
III
... - IIIJIllJIllJIll_
234
~-~-.-~~
.."~~.xM"..
..:
/::::::~~::Ww::
:::i . . . .. . . .
.,' . ,'. . .
......
. . . . . . . . ...........
.i'~.
FIGURE 6.10 The isotope shift of atomic spectral lines. (a) The energy levels of the_ in~_#.#t~~ili~iW~
and final states of two different isotopes with mass nUITlbers A and A + 1 are shown .. Th-~:~~~~rd;
dashed lines show the position the levels would have if the nucleus was an infinitely ~YY.~;~~:~
point; the solid lines show the actual position of the levels which are shifted by a diffe~*~~~~~~it~j
amount for each isotope, and for each level. (b) Modification of the Coulolnb potentiru::.~t~;~~::W;~~
1
........
...,','',,.',,''..,"...rm
m
.. . ill:
..
','.'. . ..i'.... ....'
. . . .."~"WJ:
..~.
. . ..
~
-. '. '. ~ .......... .........~.... ..J
ro -, A
l/3
12
x.
10.- 13
........ "rh~ oJ
: <::::;;:~;:~~::~
-'-::~:}~:~~~w.~;?
~~ . . . . ~~ . . . ~. . ..l
- -. ....
......... ......
. " . ". "
em,
'.~
~"
where A is the number of nucleons. (protons ~d ~eutrons) in the nucleus'MI@Mf

we see that tJ.ro / ro -==- tJ. A /3 A, which can be s I g m f i c a n t . : :}~~:&:~::
-
_",."
......~~~.:*JiJ:z.~~,
~ ~~ . ~
. .........
.....
. . . .. ...
....-.
.....
.
%
. ...
..... .
......
.. ....
-
"
~~
.;-
-....
x
........
.
....
.....
.... ....
- , . , . . *.1".
z,
........
.. .. .........
.. .,
....
....
.. . ....... .
~ ~
'
~~
-.~
6.3.3, Measurement of the H-D Isotope Shift
'- ~ ~~ . . . . . . "~~J
- -
.;-~
. . . . . II1II
~ ~ ~
~~ II1II...
--
~'
....
.;-~
ar{i)!M@
The hydrogen-deuterium shift is quite large and can be measured with

instrument of modest resolution. The results presented here were obtained,::::::::::?:::::
........ ... . .
with a Jarrell-Ash grating spectrometer. A schematic of the spectrometer i~f(~~~~~~~~
shown in Fig. 6.11 and COnfOl111S with the generic spectrometer design intrt1~(~~j~r.*~~
duced in Fig. 5 ~ 13. Instead of lenses~ focusing mirrors are used to image th~i>~i~~~~~
entrance slit onto the photomultiplier tube (PMT). The advantage of usiti~;:H@f
a PMT is that very low levels of light can be detected so that the entranG-(}~~t~~
and detector slits can be set to very narrow width. The grating had 63Q<~Ji~~~;~
rulings per millimeter, and the focal length of the lens was f = O~5 m~ Th~f~~~~~~@
spectrum was viewed in second order with a resolution ~A /}... 2 x 1O,-;~.<{~m~:
The angle of the grating was computer controlled so that the speed at which(}j~~~~~~
-
"
"'J
~~ . .
...
....
....... ~
I
~ . . ..
I
I
......
I
I
,
I
I
~
I
~
... ~
....... .
',~
. . . . ~_
.....
..
.....
. . . .~
........x;..~
....
..
.......... _
~
. . . . . . . ..
,
I
....... .
. .... ..
...... ~
I
....... .
. . . . ~. . . _
I
...
~
........ _
........
... ~
....
--.........
x.
I
... ~
....
.........
..... _.
........
.
'
~~
6.3 HY ller/ine Structufe
Top Vlew
f.;~:"':::::::::::::::-_:_: J
\ .. :::::::::::::~~1~~~~~~1~~~~'___ '_ -
215
O ~:,.
Pm
Vlcwpon
Scbematic layout of the high-resolutioo Jarrell~Ash grating specrrometer.
FIGURE 6. 11
'r-~--~----~----,
i>
"
Oelliarlum: ~ "' 655.77 nm
2.5
Hydrogen: .\'- 650.94 om
~ 1.5
"
g,~,~,~-,~~~.~:--";;,;,".,""-:"~,~.,,;;=~~,,,"",:-----;,~,,;:.,o,,---'''',:-!,,
Calibrated wavelength (om)
FlGURE 6.12 The red Jine of th e Balmer series for a source oo nlaimng hydrogen and
deu terium oblicrvetl in high resolution. Th ~ absolute wavelength calibrntion is nOI exact bUI
Ihis bas insignificant effect on tile wHvelcngtfl difference between the two lines.
the spectrum was swept could be adjusted; slow speed for high resolution
and vice versa. Furthcnnore, the grating angle was calibraled to indicate
wavelength in nanometers.
For this experiment the source was a discharge tube containing
deu~
terium and an admixture of hydrogen. The entrance slit wa<; closed to a

few hundred 11m, and the fi rst (red) line of the Balmer series (n; = 3,
n f = 2), A= 656.28 nm, was examined. The resulting spectrum is shown
in Fig. 6.12 where the hydrogen line (longer wavelength) is well sepa~
Taled from the de uterium line. Note that the absolute calibration of the
wavelength scale is off by almost 0.3 nm; this is not important iu the
present case where we are imerested in the wavelength difference.
......... .
...........
..
.....
.
.
.
.
...
.
............
:1:61
..
....... ....
. . ...................
.
. . ..........
.
.
..........
.........
. . . .... ....
........
. ..
........
........
.
........
.
.....
.
........
. . . .. ... ....
........
.........
........
....
..
.......
..
........
........
.. ....
......-..-..... ...
...........
.....
. ..
.
.
.
......
..
. . . . ..... ..
..........
.. ......
. ...
........
....... ....
. .............
.
.. . .....
.......
................
.....
.
.
... ......
.
.
.......
.
............
.. .. .... .. ....
..
.. ......
..... :,.
.........
.....
.,.. ...
........ .............. ........-...
......... .
.
.
.. .. .........
.
.
.
.. . ..
........
. . . .. .... . . ...... " . . . ......
. . ... .-.1":-=100000:
6 High-ResQ,lutian Spectroscopy
238
OIl
OIl
OIl
.......
..
..
OIl ..
....
-OIl ..
OIl
..
~~
"
"" ..
.of . .
"
.......
.of . .
. . . . . . . of . .
"
. . . . . . of . .
"
In terms of the calibration we find that
AH
= 655.94 run
AD
655.77 nm.
'Convert the wavelength difference into frequency difference
............
.II
.....
VH --llD :-'
ADAH
= -11.85 GHz,
namely, a fractional frequency change
.II
.II
... . .
..
...
....
.II
A",
.......
.II
.II
.. ..
..
...
.II
.....
...
..
M...
...
.
...
.II
...
Wj...
...
--',,.
.
,
=
--2.59 x 10
VI)
A
..
.....
."............. . . ..
. . .. .. .
::::::;~:~::=
.........
. .. . ......
.... .. ... .....
.........
........... ..
.. "..... ...
.................
.......
.........
.. .....
...... .....
.... ...
...........
...........
............
I
-4
.II
A
.. .. ..
. . . . . A ... _
a'A
..
...
..........
A
..... ..
A
.... ..
~VH-D
... _
......... j
...
.II
.. ..
A ... _
A
. . ...
.AI
AD-AH
"II .... .
.aI
....
.-rIIi J
.. .. ..
.:: ::::=;~::~:~""""ii~~'
From Eq. (6.27) we expect that
..... ',,!'l~
..
:::~:;:::~:~:m~..:
:::::::::::~~~:
....
~
:--:
.... .Wh
. . . . ,.-.
~.....
.. . . .... ....001
WJ]~
. . . . W'".
..........
.:::::. . .:;::~:.. .~~..
. . . .. .
.
.. . .
.
~
in close agreement (within 5%) with the measured value.
JI
...
:.:.:.:.~.~..
...... ...
.. .. ...
..
.. ..
. . . . OIl
. . . . OIl ...
..
OIl
OIl ...
y ...
~4
...
r......
...
:::::~~~~~~:Wj.~
. . . .. ...
'. --'............ 'W.,.

.o . . . . ~ .."'.....
.,J
:::::::::~~~ ~ft.~:~
6.4. THE LINE WI. ITH
~w
must be narrower than the separation between them. Before the advent of.:::/~;~~;~
to a remarkably narrow Width, and used for spectroscopic studles.~~~~@~~
Spectral lines have a natural width given by::<{~~~~~
......
.,,:.
...
"' .. .".,.
.
-'.' .....-....."'' '...
~."'''''''''
'"
............ ..
"' ........ l1li ..- ..
hV
L.l.
/),. E
= -h- -". . . . -2-rr-8--r-'
.............
..
"' .. "J"J""'"
".
(6 28)--:::::::::~::x.::~
';:::::=::::;:::X:;;:
...
............ :-:~z.. ..
. . . .. .. -
lifetimes are on the order of r > 10

f"..J
s. Thus
. . "' . *. .
'"
",
::::::::::~::~
..............*.)1
..
...
.....
ill
.............
. . . . ... m.....
...
......
..
.........
..
. . . .. :,.:.A,
.........
.........
... . ...... 0....
...'. .,. . . . . .ili'......
.:~:.:.~..X;.:. . .
. .....
I
.. .. : - : : ..
......
tlv<
'
"" 27f X 10-8
...A,
..
.. .. ..... ".JII
l1li
..I".
"'J
15 MHz.
.. ...
..I ..
.
. . . . . . . . . . ..I"
~
..I...
"
. . ..
..I ....1
In wave numbers we find 8.V < 0.05 m-l. However, external int1uences)}~~~~t:~~~
do broaden spectral lines considerably; the main causes are as follows;::::)~~~j
.............~-.~
the source move in random directions with a velocity given by the<:::)~~;~~~~
."' ''.. ....... ..m'X. . .......

~*
, . . . . . . .~ ..I
',........
... ....... . xx;........... ..
,,
,
'.' ,
,
..
..I ..
.'
'
.
.
.
m.
.
.....
'..... . ..
~
. .....
..... ..... .
..I .....
...
:: :::::~~m~:~
.......
....
' ............
. ..................*.
.. . .....
. ' , ' ....... ::::;....A
" ' .... ~.A
'.
......
... ~.
.. ~ ..
,', .
,,
..I ..
'_ ........" .JII"-...
6.4 The Line' Width
'1J7
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. Consequently, the wavelength emitted

in a transition of the atom is Doppler-shifted; this results in a broadening
of the line, whicb can be sbown to have a half-width
~v = 10-6
If,
(6.29)
where T is the absolute temperature in Kelvins, and A is the atomic number

of the element. Doppler broadening is most serious for the light elements
and in sources that operate at high temperatures. For example, in an arc
discharge operating at T = 3600 K, a hydrogen line of A = 500 run will
have a Doppler width of 36 GHz, which will mask any hyperfine structure.
For heavy elements, as in Hg (A "" 200), /}" v = 3 GHz, which is still quite
broad.
(b) Pressure (or Collision) Broadening. When the pressure in the source
vapor is too higb, the atoms are subject to frequent collisions, which in a way
can be thOUght of as reducing the time interval /}" r entering into Eq. (6.28).
(c) External Fields. Magnetic or electric fields produce Zeeman or Stark
splitting of the components, resulting in effective broadening of the line.
Electric fields of 1000 V/cm can cause a broadening of tens of gigahertz.
Cd) Self-Absorption and Reversal. TIlls phenomenon is most pronounced with resonance lines. As the radiation emitted from the atoms in the
.. middle of the source travels through the vapor, it has a probability of
being absorbed that is proportional to the path length it traverses and to
the absorption cross section; this will be strongest in the center of the line
and weaker in the wings. The result shown in Fig. 6.13a is that the line
becomes "squashed" in the center; that is, it is broadened.
(a)
(b)
flGURE 6.13 Broadening of 1I spectral line due to self-absorption in the source. The
solid cUlVe is the emiUed line. the dashed cnlVe represents the part of the radiation that
is absorbed. and the dash-dot cUlVe shows the transmitted line, which is the difference of
the two former curves. (a) Normal absorption. and (b) strong absorption especially in the
cenlral region leading to self-reversal.
.....
....
-.,-z
...--""....
....
.........
..
, ......
, . .. .."""".. .-.
.....
.
.
.. ....
"".
.
",,_
.
..
, , ..... '""""..:~
....... .... .. .......
""
,
........
""...
, ... .... ...""'""""'""..~
, .. .. .. .. ,..
......
"" """"..
. ....
....
, ........
............""""""..E~
, , , , ...
'""'""~:...
..
..
..
,. .... ........
. .. ..... . ...""
::~
"
,
,
,f
..
..
""
""
.JI '"" . .
"
..
..
.JI '"" . .
"
"" " '
238
,f
.JI
..
.. "" . .
"
..
..
..
..
.JI
.JI '""
.JI ..
....
.JI
.. '""
...oJ
CJJ
If the outer layers of the source are much cooler than the middle ones~tht~:~::
...."'.'
...
'J",
..
. . . III
width of the particular energy level (due to the Doppler effect) is smalt~~~I~I:::~
in the outer layers and absorption takes place only at the central frequeri~~~~~I::~
-:~
m Flg. 6.13b. This effect
IS
very pronounced m the sodIum D lines, rujd::~~:::~j
double~ struC~ ~at 1S frequently nns~en f~r h~erfine structure. O~~~~~~~@@

can venfy the ongm of the effect because it vanes With the voltage usedl(j::~:::~
........;:::::: '
excite the source..
'<}:::::.i'w.:~
...... .
...
..
..........
~wmm"
~."j
of ..
....
. . . . of ..
. . . . of ..
".J,.
.......
.. .. .
...
.'
..
6.5. THE ZEEMAN EFli'ECT OF THE GREEN

LINE OF 198Hg
....
.. I
...
~'"
.
. . . of
.. ... of ..
...
..
..
.~
.. of ..
.. of ..
... of ..
. . . . . . of
.. ...
..... m..
::::A
. . .. ....
. . ... . .
.. .........
.J-;
.t'..
-:::.:::~~:~.~m.~~.J
............... ~...
'"...."....
....... @.~.~
....
......
6.5.1. Equipment and Alignment
. . . of
'.
. . . . .. m.r
~.~
. . . . . of
.. .. of ..
c..
::~: m~
.. .. .... .........
...........
... ....
"
We now discuss the observation of the Zeeman effect on the A. =
.~
..
..~~.
:::::~;::~~
.. '.,;.;.t/.
546.1-mnWi@?
the mercury sp~trum, a~d, the e~s~ Wlth, which 11 can be obse~ed. In ~:t~
external magnettc field, It IS split Into nIne components, as discussed In(}:~~:::
detail in Section 6.2.2, In the present observations, a polarizer parallel toi?~~~~:~I~
the magnetic field was used, so that only three of the nine components (the{~~~~~~~~~
rr light) appeared. Furthermore, natural mercury exhibits in the green line a(}~r~~~~
=-:.. ,.
large number ofhyperfine structure components, and each of them forms ai{J~t~~~
Zeeman pattern. To avoid a multiplicity of components in one spectralline,,>~:~:~~:~;
a separated isotope of mercury was used as the source. 198Hg is well suitedi~y~~~t~~~
for this purpose since I =- O~ and therefore it exhibits no hyperfine structure./)I~~~I~I
The optical system used for this investigation is shown in Fig. 6.14/:'~}~~~~~~~~
........ ,..
The Fabry-Perot was crossed in the parallel-beam method with a smalt:'\J~~~~~~;
constant-deviation spectrograph (see Chapter 1). The etalon and lenses',\~~~~f~~~~
are all mounted on an optical bench to which the spectrograph is rigidly ::'<~~~~~i
attached. The pair of lenses L1 fonns the light from the source into a:'i:/~~~I~
parallel beam, while the pair L2 focuses the Fabry-Perot ring pattern onto . :')~~~i~
the spectrograph slit; the effective focal length of L2 is 8 em, and a further..::)~~~i~i
magnification of 2 takes place in the spectrograph.
.:;:)j~~~i~
.... ......
The discharge tube is mounted vertically, as is the spectrograph slit; the))tf:~
slit width was 1 mm~ It is clear that in this arrangement not only is the ring}~~~~~~
pattern focused onto the spectrometer slit but also the image of the source'::~)iE~~
A sheet of Polaroid film that could be rotated at will was used as a polarizet. ,:)I*~~I
,
..
.11 . .
..... . .
, ..... .
... ...
, .... .
... .-.
,
'
.01 . . . .
..
, III .....
'"
........
..... .
III wi ...
""
, .oI...--.. .
.01 .. ...
,.. ."-01 ..
,
,
wi .. ..
"--"
III .. ...
,,
.. 4Ii..--... ..
...
01 or...
, , . . . III
, ~ 01 .. ..
,
,
'
,
I
..
..
01 ..--...
. . . 00111
01 ..--..
.01 . . . . .
.. 01 ..--...
. . . . . . . . ...
, 01 .. ..
. ..
........
...
,..
, , 01 01"--"
.. ..
, ,
. . ......
I
.....
..
..
-'
6,5 The Zeeman Effect of the Green Line of 198Hg
~L1 ~
Spectrograph slitln
focal plane of eta Ion
projection system
Etalon
""'"
Polarizer "~ __
---Q __ j
O:~~; t-{]-~~~~ +:;PP.:

T
de:vialion
,prism
, :
: :
'TII?
II
.------L- Position of
:i
~'jJ;j
Doublets
dislortion<1 %
239
Source
--+5 -'1;'_+__----,
/
sm to admit only
light produced in
uniform field
Fleld-current
conlrol
El(citation coli
(to Lt. oscilla/or)
photoplate
FIGURE 6.14 Experimental arrangement used for observing the Zeeman effect with a
. Fabry-Perot etalon, crossed by a constant-deviation prism spectrograph.
FIGURE 6.15 Optical arrangement for aligning II. Fabry-Perot etalon. Rough adjustment
is made by viewing the image formed by L2. Final adjustment is made by viewing the
etalon from the point F (or F').
The spacing of the Fabry-Perot etalon is t = 0.5002 em; namely, the

free spectral range is FSR = 30 GHz. It is important to adjust the plates
carefully for parallelism. This can be done either by viewing through the
spectrograph with a frosted glass in the focal plane, and adjusting for the
best quality of the pattern, or by a much more sensitive arrangement as
shown in Fig. 6.15. A very small aperture Oess than 1 mm in diameter)
is placed at the position of the source and illuminated with an intense
sodium lamp. The Fabry-Perot plates are adjusted to be normal to the
optical axis by bringing the image of A reflected by the etalon back onto
A. Next, L3 is adjusted until a series of multiple images of A appears when
the observer is located at I; the plates of the etalon can then be roughly
adjusted for parallelism by bringing all the images into coincidence. The
final adjustment is made by removing L3 so that the observer locates his
eye at F (or a mirror can be used); then fringes of equal width do appear
, '.:':':':.:.:.:.m.--.r.r~
~..r~
-
. . . . . III III
. . . . . III . . . .
:::::::~:::::~~
240
'.:::}:;:;::~~~
:.:.:.~.:.;.:~~
III
~ ~
.........
"
'
,.
:::::::::;:;;;o~~
A.' .... ..
......
_ . . . . .AA ...........~
. . . . . . . .II . .
:':':':';';';0w.~
-.. . . :x'.i'
...........
.............
.'.' ...0
om.'
. . . . . . . .II ....
. . . . . . III . . . .~
..
III . . . .
1.6
...............
. . ... ..
., ....
....0 %
-:<.:-:.:
. .:. .:.a:~
- ............. ..
r' ' , ' A ...........

~. . .~'
.... ....
"
~~
I, a
..................
.... ::::
..............
.........rz
- - .............~
.......
1.6
III ... ...

. . . . . . . .II . . . .
"
: ....
..~
o ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .j
~
III ...... , . ,.~
,J",~.
-. \ ......................
. . ... ......
- ........................" OIl.. .
..,.,,.~
..............
.
.............. ..
. . . . ........
..
.
.....
- ...................
-...........
I11III:2
............
..
...
....
. . . ... .........r.
-
1.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . lIJ
- ................- ......~.J'
-E 1.2
-- 1
E
8 0.8
...
.II
..-~.
......
",.
",.
..............
...........
...... ........... ... ..
...........
" ::>;::;:::::;oo
..~~
....
.............
'.-....s:;::
.
...
....
.- ... ::::
.
.
..........
. . ..........
.- .-...
::;::
....
. ..,"'.
...
.
.....
X
, ....
..
.
.
.
.- .- . .
.. ' . '.I'. ....
,
..............
'
f
t.*
.r
.
.
.......
'
....
.....""" .
......
D-
...
...
....... II1II ...... ..
......... III ......
~
. ~. ....
.
.
.
.
.
JfIII~
....... J
~
...... m
."'m
"
~ .-~.
~
. . .. ~
'
~
~~
'
',
0.6
.::::::;~:::~~~~
.... .=:::::
~
..
............
. . . ...
:::::;;;~::::~m~~
.... ""
0.4
.', '
~~
~
......... .
. "'....
.......
........
. . ... .%
.... ' ...
.' '::::;;::;~:~::w.
.."......'". ......... ,- ......... "' ~~
0.2
.":":.;.:.;.:111~@~
" '"
~...:.
,',"'''' ~
. " '-4
~.=--....:
00
6
a
10
Magnetic fie~d B (kG)
12
. )}f~~~~m
14
.. ::};;;~~;~~
Jr,.r',
....
~
"'~. ~
FIGURE 6.16
Calibration of the electromagnet used in
the Zeeman effect expeI'i:meri(J}II~~~~
The magnetic field is plotted against current; note the saturation at high fields.
~~
".......
.........
..........
....'''''''%
,........;..... ...*x:~.,...
'"
'" ~
'.' ..........@
.......
...
............
". ..........
0.
.
. ......
parallel.to the base ~fthe wed~e fonned by the two plates~ As the plates at~)I~i~~~i
'.J
".
"
,;/
'
moved into parallelism, the fringes become broader and finally the whol~~\~~~~~
image of the aperrure A seems to have a unifonn illumination (bright 9~j:}~;~:~~
dark depending on the exact value of no = 2t fA). It is equally importail~((f~~~~
that the ring pattern be in sharp focus at the plane of the photographic plate~;{:j:~:~{:
For this experiment Kodak Royal-Pan film was used.
';:'ii\f~~~~t
The electrodeless discharge tube was placed in a magnetic field. A smalJ~{:~:~:~~
. . .. .. .
iron core electromagnet powered by a 220-V DC supply was used to prQ:~~}~:j:~:~:
duce the field. The diameter of the pole faces was only 1~ in., and a smaq?{~~~~~
gap
in.) was used. By tapering the pole faces, higher magnetic field~\)I~i~~~
can be achieved but this reduces the effective area of the field as well a$:'::}:::~
... .....
the homogeneity. The magnetic field was measured with a "flip coil" and}\~~~~
the calibration of field against current is given in Fig. 64169 It is seen th~t(~I~i~a
field strengths of 1.2 T could be reached. .
<~~~~
- .....
..... ..
" .... ".J"
, ,
I
.........
...
(!
,.
, "
.........
. "' ...
.....
, , , , .,
,
, ,, ,
,
"
, ,
, ,
,
,,,
.......
.
......
.
.......
.
........
..
........
....
"'
....
..
.. ..
....
... .
"
6.5 . 2. Data on the Zeeman Effect
.. 01 ..
,1rol.
, ' " 0'"1 .

"."
, " , ,
""
, ,
, ,
I
. . . . . . . . . ..
"
,
,
. . . 0101.
I
..
I
II
I
I
'"
.. .
. . . . . . ..
. . . . . . OIl
. . . . . ..
....... .
. . . ~.
...
..
'"
.
..
..
The data presented below were obtained by students. Figure 6.17 shows th<J~~
546.1-nm Hg line photographed at various magnet settings. As explaine~)t~~
I
..
I
I
..
III
.....
" , .. 01.
I
I
.....
I 01
I
'"
......
..
..
I
..... .
,
I
....
.I
...... .
I
.
.....
....
.....
.. ...
......
.
I
..... ...
"'.
"."
,
, , .. '" .-
,,
,
, ,
'"
til
til
, ,
, ,
'"
, ,
, ,
'"
,
, ,
, , '"'" ....
,
J
J
J
J
..
'"
...
.
....
'".
til ....
.....
, , '" '"
, , , til
, , , ..
.......
r:
:.~j.: ::
(.
r..
6_5 The Zee man Effect of the Gr een Line of t98Hg
241
(.)
(b)
(oj
(d)
(.)
RGURE 6. 17 Fabl)'-Perot patterns showing the Zeeman effect of the green lille of rnerCUI:)'. (See I.h~ Iext for odditional details.) (a) No magnetic field applied. (b-e) A magnetic
field of prog;reMivcly greater strength is applied. Note Ihe splitting of the original line into
II.
triplet of increasing separation.
;;
~r
;;::. earlier, the source contains a single isotope, and the polarizer allows only
.:.. the observation of IT light. We note that the fringes are rather broad, but
r~::- it can clearly be seen that when tbe field is applied the single-line pattern
breaks up into a triplet, the separation between the components of the triplet
(;:: becoming larger with increasing field.
i)
The initial step in the redu(;lion of the data is the measurement of the
,::..
V diameters (or radii) of the rings. To this effect a traveling microscope was
used, and readings were taken directly off the plate: care must be taken
~:: to ensure that the travel of the microscope is indeed along the diameter of
@: the rings and that the crosshairs are properly oriented, When the fringes
~:: in the pattern are as broad as those in Fig. 6.17, it is much more accurate
~:: . to measure the two edges and take the average rather than try to set the
crosshaini in the center of the fringe. The ring radii squared in the absence
of the field provide the calibration of the data.
I.
~: .
~::.
~::
~:-
. . --z
-~
.....
III JIll . .
... III JIll
III JIll . .
..... III . .
....
-.~.
... JIll JIll
III JIll
~
..... III . . . .
~
...... JIll . .
... JIll JIll

III JIll . . .
242
6 High-ResoluHon Spectroscopy
...
JIll JIll
JIll
JIll . . .
III
III
...
JIll
JIll . .
....
. . . . III . .
III . .
III JIll
~
..... III . .
~ ... III JIll . .
~
. . . . III III
III JIll
~
..... III JIll
.......
JIll
......
. . . . III JIll
III III . .
-.~.
~ ...... JIll . .
JIll JIll
III JIll . .
.,......... -........
.....
III
..
~
III III . .
. . . . . III JIll . .
-. -:::::::::::::wm
... -.
. . ...... . .
0.3
III JIll
..... III . .
--.~
. . . . JIll JIll
JIll JIll
-- -
III
..
~sa
JIll JIll
III JIll
JIll . .
. . . . JIll JIll
III JIll
III . .
... III JIll
. . . . III JIll
III JIll . .
~
. . . . III JIll
III
... III III

-
0.2
......
.....
..
~
-~~ma
0.1
...
JIll
..
III JIll III

..... III . .
~:::::~:::::: ~:::::
~
..
_0,..
..
.....
0.4
..
JIll
.. ........ ..
III
....
. . . . III JIll
....... III . .
III . . . .
....
~
. . . . III ....
III JIll . .
.
.
.....
.. .
...............
.......
......-..-..
.... ..
-
II ..~
.,jI
.. ::::::~;~;::~~
.:::::~;:~;;:@~
-0.2
::::::
::~:~
..mam:
..
.
.
.
:.-:.
.........
.'..................
.... III...:=::;:..
FIGURE 6.18
..
III
..
III
III
...
......
.. :.:.~.. :.....~'Y......~:
.. _.. Z .......:..:
---0.3
-0.4
-.:.: -;. ;.;~:-~>.-:

:-:
-:
.:"~""//":::'
.:.:.:.~.;.~.........~
. .' ...........:.:.r. . ...:.:
.
}}~~~x::::::
I . . . . . - _ - - ' - - " _ - - ' I - -________--..l"---_......L...-_----'_ _- - ' - _ - . . .
6
8
10
Magnetic field B (kG)
12
14
16
:::::: ::~~$}
.-:.;-:.~.~~~~.:
...............-~.::::..
Results obtained on the Zeeman effect of the green line of mercury.
(se~i;i!!!w!j
smgle line) IS plotted agamst the magnetic field.}il~:~j
-:.:.:,~~~~.
. ,;.-y.....:
-~::::;:~~::~
were analyzed, and it was found that the central line is not shifted4 However;~>~:~:~:~j
the following shifts are observed for the outer rings for the 1.0-A data: ~~i{~~lli~~~
*
..
-.
...
.. %:
-
~v+
= 6.81 GHz
6. v_ = 6.60 GHz~
. ..... .
....
1~.JIIj
......
....
~.
..
....
.II
....
- I ~"~
JIIj
.II
...
.II
....
....
....
I ........
..
..
....
.;..:.~
...
J.II....
....
..
..
.._
......
J.II
..
.~'
I
_
...
~.
......
"*""'
z '..'.
--........x. -...
I
...
.. ....
... . . _
I11III . . . _
...~ I11III .. ....
.II
The complete set of data is plotted in Fig. 6418, and we see that as predicted\~~~~~~~~i
the spacing varies linearly with the field, y i e l d i n g \ @ J
I
.........
~v
= (7.2 GHz)
x B(T).
. . . . . .~
.II
..
"~. ."
..
JII
':<:;:~:::
(6 30}, II......X.. ........,

4
.>:.:.~.-:~:.
~~ ~
~~
-.'
.....
...
..
..
~_
I I .......
I
.......
.....
...
.. ..
_
~
The green line of Hg (546.1 run) connects the 3 S1 state to the 3 p2.:i}~~~:
Its Zeeman splitting is shown in Fig. 6.19 where the g factors have beenHfW
calculated according to Eq. (6.17). Since the polarizer was set to select: . ?@i
only components arising in transitions with 6.m = 0, we expect to observe:.}~~~.:
only the three central components, which will be separated b y ) @ i j
I
.r
......
,"'......
. ...,. . . '
.......
..
, ,
, I.
~.
I.
~lJ
tLB
-. (gi - gf)B
h
1 J.LB
--,
B.
2 h
..
~.
..
I
.....
..,
III
....
(6.31) ::}*~:'
,
........
I
I
I
I
III . . ...
.... . .
.......
.......
.....
III . . ...
I, .......
~
,
I.
III
..
...
....
.... ..
..
....
.
....
. "...........
...
.
..
.
.
I
II ..
....
.......
....
...
.....
..
I.
...
''''~.
,'~~.i.~..... ,
I
I~
III
.....
...
III
~.
...
.,
,.~
'~
.......
"::~;x
., ,......:~
,
~. . . . ,
.r....
.r....
6.6 Saturation Absorption Spectroscopy of Rubidium
mF+1
."
3S, _ _ _....,(_
"
g=2
-1
mF+2
+1
//
//
3P2
243
o g=~
----<~~-
",,"-
-1
\.
-2
Ilm=O
Llm=1
FIGURE 6.19
(j
The Zeeman multiplet splitting of the 546.1-nm green line of Hg. It arises
from a 3 Sl to 3 PI transition.
By comparing with the experimental result ofEq. (6.30), we obtain
J-LB
= 5.95
x 10- 11 MeV IT
in good agreement with the accepted value of

J-LB
= 5.79 X 10- 11
MeV IT.
From these data we conclude that indeed spectral lines are split into components when the source is placed in a magnetic field. Further, the splitting
observed was in excellent agreement with the theory of the anomalous
Zeeman effect; the normal Zeeman effect can be excluded. since the energy
. difference between the components of the line was not J-LBB but !J.LBB;
compare to Eq. (6.1).
6.6. SATURATION ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY

OFRUBIDIUM
. 6.6.1. Introduction
. We mentioned in Section 6.4 that if an intense spectrailine is passed through
a region of dense atomic vapor of the same element it may become absorbed
.'"..if.,..,,,,,
...........
"" .. .. .
......
. .........,-. ."'"....
.....
..... .
. .. .. """"... ... .
, .........
, ....... . ...
......
. "" ... ....
, ., ...........
, , .... -. ..
"" . '".
, , ......
.......
, ., .... ...........
.. -"" .
.. -"" ""
.
..
..... ""'". ..
, .......
.
.. -"" .. ..
, ., . .. ........
.. "" "" ....
---~
"
'"
'"
, , f ...... ..
"
244
6 High-Resolut;on Spectroscopy
ill
. . . . . . . . ..
,J
..
,J
,J
..
..
..
,J
,J
,J
,J
..
""
..
..
..
..
,.
..
'"
..
,.
""
..
.........
'"
l'
......
""
..
at the center of the Doppler pattern and develop self-reversal (see Fig. 6 .. 11,)~~~~~~~.
We can take advantage of this effect to make measurements that are ftee~~:~:~:
..... ..
from the Doppler effect
. <{~~~~~~
:.
,.t' .... "'."""
"" "" ~
frequency_ This is easily achieved with many lasers and in particular wiih~t~~~a~
diode lasers as discussed in the following section. The light (the pu:rlitk~~~~~~~ :
beam) is incident on a vapor cell and tuned in the region of a strong liij~~~~~~:-..!W~
from the ground to an excited state. If one monitors the transmitted light':~~~~~WI.
as shown schema~ca11y m F1g. 6~20a, will be obse:ved. .

:\)~~~:.m:~
. Next we ~e ~ght.from the sa~e source and ?IT~ct It through.th~ c~~~~~~;Wj:
probe. beam, the e~perim~~tal arrangement being as. shown in Fig. 6.2~,~jm~
The Slgnal at Dz wIll exhibIt the same general behav10r as DI except th~~:;:~~
there will be a sharp spike at the center of the profile: see Fig. 6.20b. )8~~W?J
.' .:-~. :::~"7~""""'/."

7......
II
...
::::::-:-:.~.:.:.o:
::~=::==x~~~x:
.........ffj'
.......... .
(b)
(a)
E~..:
:.:.:.;.:::~
'.
II
.. .. ".J" ..
. . . . . . . Wj.
~
:: :::::~::.::.. ~~
.........;
................
_ _ _ _ _ _+--_ _ _
~--:
<:::;::::~
.VI". . ... . ..~.
00:..
'.~
~..
A
::::::;;::;;.~:
.. . . . .
..
. . ...
... .
.... .. .......
...
. .. .. . . .. ..
.
. .. .. ... ..
.....
""...
..

. . .. ........ ~:. ...
.. >;.:.:.;
, . -..
, , ......
. .. . ~...
.;.;.;.:.;.:~~....
':::::;:::;~:oo:
...... ....
.
.....
.. .... ~..
III .... ..
"
..
..It
III ..
III
....
..II
..
..
..
..
II
..II
..
....
III
~ ""
..
.. "" A
. . . . III
....
.... . . . .
. . . . III
.../
..
.. .... . .
....
..
..
....
..II
"It
... -
. ....
..
..
./
..II
..
..
....
.i
.. ..
V-
FIGURE 6.20
probe beam.
..'". . . .....
.. ..
.....
W
. .
_
~.
::::::::::;:."" ~':
....
... .. ... .
' ...... .....J" .J"
.......... ....
..
...
..
..
. ....
.......
..
..
'.
.
.
.
.
, ..........
-r-....
...
...
........
....
... ........""joj. ..... .
.
.... ..... .
,
......
....
........
""''''' ...
, ......
.
.
.
.
...
.........
.............
..
, .......
...
....
"" ..
..
....
...
-. ...
*-- .....
....
.......
.........
....
.. ' ....... .......
... ....
... "'" .
~.~.
~~
'
~.
"
~~~
'
~'.-
.~ ""'rx~III
,
Laser
~.
"
~.
'''''~
~.
...:
~.
'
~~
'
'
ceo
Input
~~
~'-Ji~~
.. ..
J"'"..
~~otI,
....
.....1'.%
': ::}::~:..row.m,lf'
~.
PeriSCtJpel--~------+--~~
"
camera
Glass slide
.
,
~
~
'"
Grating
spectrometer
mirror
..
:-.:
.::;:;;;,::::w
. . . ..
D2 .... ..
Rb
Doppler broadened
absorption
II
..........---.. .
......
~.
. . .. ..---.
. . . .. ..
........ .
. . . . . ..
.
.. . m
. . . . . . m;
"
.M
FIGURE 6.21
Schematic layout of the saturation absorption experiment.
::::::;:::.::~
:-:..':.......;.... ..m
m
..---
~~
:::::~
.:~.':;:~:i~~~~oo~
, . . w
. ....~.....
. .',', ....
~~
&.6
Satur~tion
AbsorptiDn Spectroscopy of Rubidium
245
Let us examine what bappens when the pump beam of frequency 1.1+
(refer to Fig. 6.20a) is incident on the cell: it excites atoms with a particular
velocity v+ moving toward the wave vector of the laser beam. When thc
pump has frequency 1.1_ it excites atoms that move in the same direction
as the wave vector kp with velocity L . At IIQ the excited atoms have no
velocity component along kp. The probe beam haC) the same frequency
as the pump at all times but its k vector is opposite to kp. Thus when
v/. = v+. the atoms excited by the pump cannot absorb pbot on~ from the
probe since. they are moving in the v+ direction. namely along the probe
wave vector; similarly when VL = 1.1 _ . However, when VL = VO the atoms
that could absorb the probe beam are already in the ext.."i tcd state due to the
presence ofthc pump beam. As a result there is less absorpuon and a spike
appears in the profile when v sweeps through va. The spike is very narrow
as compan~d to the Doppler profile.
The situation becomes more complicated when there are several lines
(that is, hyperfine structure) under the Doppler profile. For a single line of
frequency va we found that the spike appears at "0. Por two lines present
at VI and 1.12. one will see spikes not only when the laser frequency reaches
l7
VL = Vt , V2 bur also when
(6.32)
Such spikes are "crossover" lines and are often stronger than tlle direct
li[lt:-S .
Saturation spectroscopy can be easily observed in rubidium, cesium,

and sodium and is used to lock lasers to a narrow frequency. For a practical
17Note [bat ifforthe laser frt!Juency VL the Doppler shift (for !he pump beam) by II. ChL~S
of alOms with velocity vir is v" , then the slate thOl is eJ(ciled has frequeucy VI wbere
VL
+ V(>
VI .
For the probe beam the effective frequency (for this same class of sloms) i.l.
If this frequency happens to correspond to another atomie transition. say at frequency Ill.
then the sbsruprion will again be saturated Therefore the eondiLion is
VL-Va
as given by Eq. (6.32).
=U:2
.............. . .
..........
.,...
.
. , ... " ....
. .. .. .
.' ,...........
..,..,..
. .. ... .
.......... .
. .. ...
.... ... ..
. .. .

. ....

~
.. '
246
6 Hi gh -Res Q 'u t ion Spee tr 0 S cop Y
apparatus that can be used in a teaching laboratory; Thorlabs Illar~<~~:~~

complete setup to demonstrate the effect. An excellent description '6'\~~~~
experimental details can be found in a classic paper by K. B. MacA :,;", l<I'~
A~ Steinbach, and C. Wieman, Am. 1. Phys. 60, 1098 (1992).
'/{:.
,.~. .
.
,,'.'. -'
..
...
"
"..t'
, ,.. .. .......

,
, ,
.. ..... .
.oj
r;t
..,

...
I"
. ..
.... .............
..
., ... .'.
...
........
......
.
,
.' :.; .
O~,~~~!gt
6.6.2. The Rubidium hfs Spectrum
.....'
'
.~.
'
.~
'.'
Rubidium is an alkali (Z
37) with a single 58 valence electron
2
the closed shell of krypton (n = 1, 2, and 3 fully filled, 4s 4p 6). N~., . ~
rubidium has two isotopes
.}~-:..:::,
'. .
.
.
'. ..'.. .
.............
... '.. .
...
'. .
.... ..."'.' , .... . . .;.:;
......... . ..-:.
I~~
1 -1
-
with nuclear spin
2~
..
... ;
I';
,-~.
I ... ,
'.~
In the absence of nuclear spin the ground state is a 1Sl/2 state and th~<~::"~~
excited states are 2 Pl/2 and 2 P3/2. When the nuclear spin is inc 11{1P.~~~.'~~::-:'~:
:-:
energy level diagram is as shown in Fig. 6.22..
)j~:.:.:._,
We will work with a single isotope, 85Rb, and consider the trnns ~. "~~
from the ground state to the P3/2 excited state. In this case the ground ~:.~~::~~;

..........
..
.. .
' . : ..
.......
....
.... - .... -
.. i.......
-.. . ...
.
.
.. ... .._.
... .
,
~
"F-4
121 MHz
,,.
.. I
5P 312 63 MHz
'
F=3
..sa:
5P312
2
')iF
29 MHz
. .
............
....... ....
.........
..
..'..
. .....
.
.. .
.
............
. .. ...
. .. .
. . ...
... .
......
,..
..
.....

... " .....
..
.
.
..
. . -.'
.i...
i .........
~
157 MHz
.. - -
- .... -

, .. ...
, .. -
' , .. .. ...
..
....
~.' ,
267 MHz
r-..
'r.
-:/
.......
72 MHz
...
.....
. - ' ..
....
~,.
.':->:-:'
.II
..
.>~/ ~~

.11
02=780.23 om
D2=1BO.2.3llm
--._. F=3
5P112
...
,..
F.;;:: 2 ...----,
~18 MHz 1 5P112
r':.
-:.>:.:
..
...
,.I
.. -.-..
_.
:~:
..II
- .II -
..
-:.
-.II '
";,t-
.II . . .
..
r":.
D1 :0:.:794.76 om
'~
.. . ...
. .. .
!"
oJ
.
. . ..
"
. .
01 ==794.76 nm
~~
,-
,II
.fill.... *
...
. , '. "".,
........ -..
. . .-..
'.
r-----.
58112
.- 1-:"
'. '.
...
.
.
.....
..
...' ,
'. '
-,
.. ,

s,
F ==3
3.036 GH;z
"
- - " . '--F=2
58112 S.BSS GHz
Ioo...-..-.-Ao - - - -
,..
I ...... 0I .. ~
a7Rb (28%)
,~.I"'-

, -
85Rb (721%)
.'.~
'.' .~
I"
....
...
...
o " . ' ;.:.::
FIGURE 6.22 Energy level diagram of the low-lying atomic states of rubidium: (a)
and (b) 87Rb4
'~p .
.'.,.7.7..
..... ,~,~
....
,~~~
;;"
'.',
=~;-,.
,'......
, ......
,
".
, ,.
. ..
';';':',"".
. . ,.
..~
'.
, ,
........
.. .
.---~
"".~
.... . . .
, ... , ~~....~,".!'."
,,'
,
, , .. . -: ,"-"
..
::~:.::.,;:,~z~~
,,'
... :...:
:.:'-::-:<.. ': ,-:.,:~., '~.

,~.
:-:-.'
,~~:~
, ..
, ...
-
, " '"
,
"
01
"-.IIi"
6.B Saturation Absorption Spectroscopy of Rubidium
247
~::::::.
~~)laS two F levels

~::::
~r
=3
and
F=2,
~~FWhereas the excited state has four F levels

~:>
~~~>
= 4,
3, 2, and 1.
~::::>
~;)As
can be seen from Fig. 6.22 the hfs in the ground state is quite large. of
~~?the order of 3 GHz, so that one can tune the laser to select transitions from
r:either the F = 2 or F = 3 state. Obviously the Ptj2 state is too far away
Lto cause confusion. However, the Doppler profile, which is of the order
r::of 1.0 GHz. covers all four hfs levels of the excited state. Recall that only
~~)transitions with A F = 0, I are allowed for electric dipole.
The laser frequency must be at 780.23 nm, which is in the infrared. It
~t'is conveniently obtainable from a diode laser. The diode laser is mounted
f:in an external cavity, which is used to select the desired wavelength and
deliver up to 10 mW of power. Usually it suffices to send 3 mW to the
~\pump beam and only a tentb of that to the probe beam.
W.
f:tan
~<"
1~."3. Satu..uon Absorption Experiment

:~>/:the overall schematic of the experiment is shown in Fig. 6.21. The diode
I>~ser is mounted in the heat sink on a thermoelectric cooler to adjust its
fJt:mperature. The cavity is completed by a grating that returns the first-order

:~>\iiffraction peak into the laser. Thus, the frequency is tuned by adjusting
Ijhe grating angle with piezo controls.
{:: ... The diode laser output is a very strong function of laser temperature.
:(Figure 6.23 shows such a calibration curve, and one selects the appropriate
{:temperature with the help of a medium resolution spectrometer. Then the
piezo is set to sweep the frequency, and one adjusts the laser current to
>:shift the central frequency while the pump beam is going through the cell.
rAt some point one will observe fluorescence, with an IR viewer or a CCD
f camera, or by monitoring the transmitted beam.
At tltis point one can reduce the sweep and setup for saturation absorpC.tion measurements. It is convenient to display the probe beam on a scope
:~)with the sweep on the horizontal axis. A picture of the observed fluoreskcence and of the saturated absorption of the probe beam are shown in
kFig. 6.24. It is always possible to run a second low-intensity beam through
:n
f:
..............
- . .. .

- .. .
- ... . ...
.. .
- - .......- - .......
. -
.... ...
- .. .

- .. ... ... ...
- ..... .........
- . ..
- .. ..
- ... ..
. .

- - .......
. ........
. ',.r-.'".
. .'.'.
- . . ,. .
- .........
,. .
.
.
...,. .
- .. .

- - .- .......
. ...... .....
- .. .
.. .
- . . .
- . .
-.
. .....
- ....
- .... ... .. .
.. ..
- ... ..
. . .
. ..
- - ..
.
.
.

- . . .
- .. . ..
- .. .

..
, ,
... ..
... .

. .
....
. . .

. .
...
. .
.
.
.
...
.
. ..
. . .

.....
.
. .

...
....
--
....
JI
....
248
6 High-Resotution Spectroscopy
....
~
~
40
r------z------r-~-..__-___r-~_..,._--...,........_-_.
..
...
---
....
...
....
,.
35
,.
,.
0-
30
;:5
1a 25
"....
(J)
JI
...
Q)
r-
....
20
15
10
L
-
experiment
(a)
. .,'.
-'".
..,. ..
. ... ......... .
......
. . ...
:-::::::::~~>;~;"~~{i~~
001
792
FIGURE 6.23
---r..._ _--.l-_ _..J--_ _- - - '_ _.-...I.-_ _-&....-._ _- - - l
_______
793
794
795
796
1 (nm)
797
798
799
.....
Wavelength as a function of temperature for the diode laser use~
~.
".+'1
: '.<'f
'." .
.

.
(b)
FIGURE 6.24 (a) Fluorescence emitted by the pump beam when properly tuned onto.. ...
Rb resonance line. (b) The probe beam signal when the frequency is swept over the '"
.
Doppler peak. The displaced curves are due to hysteresis in the piezo electric driver.
/{
. . ,.
..
"
, ...
"
" .
,.
".
, , ,.
- , ...
, :: -: -:jot
the nonsaturated part of the cell to obtain the Doppler absorption . . .

and subtract it from the saturated absorption.
.,':'::
Data obtained by students on 85Rb pumping from the F '_ 3 _yor..1"1'n
state are shown in Fig. 6.25. The two prominent lines are the eros
1
lines [v(F' = 2) + v(F' == 4)]/2, and [v ,..:. (F = 3) + v(P' = 4)]/2, an(k~~:Z
the v(F' = 4) line can also be distinguished_ On the assumption that U1~:~~~~
....
sweep is linear, the position of the other expected lines is indicated~
..
. ,-...-.
.L
,,
,
,
,,
, ,
"
-~---~
,.,-",-_-~
..
-.:,:.:.
,'.-.
, , - ,---~
,,
"
.'.-.. ,
,".-,-.r~
,-.-~
6.6 Saturation Atlscnplion SpllctrCl5Copy 01 Rub id ium
... 3 -
l49
6.25 Sliturntion absorption spcctrwn obtained by s.tude nts for &5 Rb

F'). The position or;ill Upec:led lines is indicated.
II,
K Fl'JURE 6.26
11'2
"::!: 1/13
"n
"3
Suhlnlcted sah.lrnioo absorption spectrum obtained by studen ts for 81Rb
= 2 -., P). The position of aU expected lines is indicated.
...... - Z~
250
6 High-Raso'lution Spectroscopy
III
.JI
,.
. . ... .. '"..-.......
...........
............
..........
.. .....
'" ......
.. ........
... ... ... .. . .
............. ..
.. .. ... .. .. ..]~
- .......
...
III
'"
.. - .;.0;"
. . . . . '" >III
. . . . . . . JIll
III JIll . .
. . . . . . . . . . -...I
. . . . . . . III JIll . ...
...
..
oil JIll
.. III >III _ .
.AI_
. . . . . . . . . . .!III . .
'"
.....
III! . . . . OIl ,
..........
. . . . . . III!
oil . .
OIl! .III
.. .. ... oil ... . .
.. ... .. JIll . . lioii

. . . . . . . oil . . . . . . .
..
..
..
...
A
...
III ..
III ..
=~
..
..
..
..
. . OIl!OIl!. .. .
..
.II ... ... JIll! ..
Finally Fig. 6.26 gives the subtracted saturated absorption spectrumi.ot~;k

87 Rb starting from the F ~ 2 ground state. Again the prominent lines ar~ ffi~~I:?- ~
crossoverlines [v(F' ~ l)+v(F' -:- 3)]/2 and [v(F' = 2)+v(P' = 3)]i~~I~Ik~:::::m
the v(F' = 3) line is also evident The location of the other expected liii~$~~~~~
is indicated.
<{{{:::2
..... . ..
.............
As is evident from the data the saturated absorption lines are very sh~~p~~~~~:::
Thus instead of sweeping the laser frequency one can use a servo cir&i~~i~::
to keep the laser frequency fixed on one of the lines (actually on its Slop}t~if.j
reaching a stability of few megahertz, in absolute terms.
ri!!&~~
. . . .. .
............
. . .. -. .
.......
.
.......... .
...........
......--. . ...
.....
, ........
..
................
. . .... .
. ....
"".
......
...
.........
. . .. .. .
4%
.
.
... -...
.........
..
. . .... ..
of . . .
.. .. ... of ..
. . . . . of III .. ;
..
'. '
6.7. REFERENCES
.... of of .. .
" .. .. - .of
;
. . . . . of .. .
.......
of . . . .
..
....
of ..
~.
---
B. U. Condon and G. H. ShortJeY1t The Theory of Atomic SpeclTa~ Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambri4~~~~~a
~ 1951. This is one of the most complete theoretical treatments on atomic spectroscopy~ b~(~~~;~
an advanced level.
.<::::::;~;'"
.... ~3.:
H. E. White .. Introduction to Atomic Spectra~ McGraw-Hill, New York, 1934. This book c01;ltalti~~:~
. . ........
extensive data on atomic spectra.. and the treatment of the theory is based on the Semiclas$.\~=~~ :-:
approach oftbe vector modeL
'-::::::::~::~.
H. Kuhn, Atomic Spectra.. Longman's, London~ 1962. Agood book on a slightly more advanced l~Y.~~~:;
than White"s book referred to above.
:::::}=~
S. Thlansky, High Resolution Spectroscopy" Methuen, London, 1947. A very comprehensive and:~i~~~{~
treatise on the instruments and techniques of high-resolution spectroscopy.
.
H. KopfernuUl, Nuclear Moments" Academic Press New York, 1958. This book contains a ~~~~:~~~ ~
complete discussion of atomic hyperfine structure, of analysis methods, and of the conclusio_~n.~.::~~~~
.
...~-~:?~.I''''':
obtained from it
II
of . . . . .
. :.:
1m
\}::=::;... .
:::::::;:=:;::Wd
W. Demtriieder, Laser Spectroscopy, 2nd cd., Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 1996. A very comprebe~~~itl
and up-todate coverage of the field.
i:rii!i~~~~~
............
.......
................
.........
.
....
.
......
..... ..
........
- ....... . .
......
- _.
.
.
... .. ..
-.....
- ..........
.......
.. ..
~
"
"
....
IIfII ..
...... A
..
....... A
~
~
~~
:.:::::;:::;:.::~~
::::::;:;::::~~~~
-::~:~:~:~:~~~.:r.~~
. .. -
.. .........
. .
....
. ...
....
. .. .
.......
~
"
..
01
.. 01
01
" 01 ...
01
" 01
01
01
'}}:'f.:i
-: ::::::::::~~.~
,'-::::::::::~M
:<:;::~~~~~
,; ... "----"YN
.::::::::~~:~
..... ~
'"
.....
............
, ..
,
, ..
,
01
01
,,,
, ,,
,,,
.'"':-:":~"::=l
..
...
'::::::;:~~~
,
,
,
,
,,
01
' ,:-:.; .r7f.:-:

"::'Y.I.
,
,
...... . .
' ., . .
01
01 ...-
-'
1
:>:-:
.0::::::
CHAPTER
~~~(
~~j.:::
[(:"
Magnetic Resonance
Experiments
::
::::~ ~
k::
'iIf
7.1. INTRODUCTION
We saw in the previous chapler that when an atom (or a nucleus), with
angular momentum L (or
different from 0, is placed in a magnetic field
B the states that correspond to different values of the quantum number m
acquire an additional energy
n,
!:.I.E =
Il
L
Bm.
(7.1)
Here JL is the "magnetic moment" of the atom or nucleus. When electrons

are involved, /L is on the order of the Bohr magneton JLB while for nuclei
Il is on the order of the nuclear magneton, JLN. In convenient units
f.LN/h
/LB/ h = 14.01
= (f.LB/h)/1836 = 7.62
GHzjT
MHz/T.
(7.2)
251
... .,.,., .. ----:::::

"" -. .
......
- ... .,.,
., ........ ..
.. .,., ..........
.- , ............
..... .... -:.-:
_
~.
252
~
., .. III . . . .
., .. .JI ... . .
., .. III . . . . ...
.,., II
.JI............
.JI
.,
.,
. . . . .- .
. - ............
"' ............ -:;;;;
_.,
,
7 Mag neti eRe sonanc e Expe ri ments
. . . . . .JI ..
r~
... _
.JI . . . . .-
II
II
...
.JI
.JI
II
...
.JI
. . . . . . . .~
II
II
....
........
_,
"' ... JIll "" . . . .

" ' . . . . . . . . . JIIII . .
. -',. ,.
- .. ""=--:
"' "' ......
'
"'
II
......
""
................
........_-,..J'"... ..
II
...
..
..
..
-~~
-,
"'
II
. . . . . ._ . .
JIll . .
'. ,-....
..
. . "'11.-..........
"" . .
,
...
"
II
II
II
t=1
...
II
II
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
JIll . . . .~
..
. . . . . . . . . ._ . .
......... -. .
- .. ., .........
"'
II
...
. . . . .~
.011
II
.....
II
.. .. ..
JIll
.... ..
......
.......
..
. . . . . . . . JIII . .
,
"' . . . . . . . . . JIll . .
....
---;.----.,...-me=O
...
..
'.'r- ...................-.
,
II
II
_.JlllJIII . .
II
...
II
II
-
"'
II
II
-"
.... "" .... .
II
..
JIll . . ...
JIll . . II1II
....
JllllJIIII,, __
...
.011 .. .. . .
.,
.JI
., .. JIll . . . . . ...
...........
-:'::;~;~;~:~:~:~oooo
........
. . . .... . .
....
..... "" .
:.-:." ......
- _~111:~~
-
.-~
...
'
' II ...................
II
.JI . . . . . . _.
II
II
....
~~_
~~x
~
~
~ ~
..I.
III
~
. " _.. 1111II1I
III
..
~
. . . III~ . .
. . . . . . . ~ III
" . . . . . . . . . . .~IIIIIIIIIIII....: .
FIGURE 7.1 Splitting of an energy level with l

in a magnetic field
.,
= 1 into three components when .p~~i:~
:::::::~::::::~:
....JII"~':tJ.
..........
.. ......
. ..
.........
. .......
..... . ..
. . .......
.
".L"
'~~ ....".....::~.
J
~
...
. . . . ..r ..
. . . . . . . .r ......

... .r
. . . ..r ..-,4"".;
'.-,If.
' . . _ ..r ..
i .... .
~ ...
.r . . .,::..
In Fig. 7.1 is shown the splitting of an energy state with I = 1.;mi~~

its three sublevels. As discussed in Chapter 6., in optical spectros~~i~~
we do not observe the spontaneous transitions (labeled a in the figw~l~;a
between sublevels with different~: because they d? not satisfy. the sele?:~~~~~
rule Al
1. Instead the splittlng of a level1s observed through;::,.,.~~;:?
small difference in the frequency of the radiation emitted in the transiti()~~?
~
..........
between widely distant levels (with ~l = 1). It is clear that if we c~ijj~~~~
directly measure the frequency corresponding to a transition between th~i.~~:~
~~
. . . .. '" "" .
. . . . . III . . .
?~~~;m
spllttmg would be obtru.ned.
h~wever. ~sll1~ns ~th fl.l
= 0,
fl.m
= ~~ do occur when ~g~rrenl
reduced by a factor (v / c) from the case of an e1ect:rtc dIpole tranSltiOll. W~~~~i~

therefore conclude that spontaneous transitions WIth 6.1 ","7 O~ llm = *~~~~~~~~~
will be very rare, especially if the system can preferentially return to::j~~;~:~:~~
ground state (lowest energy state) by a fl.l = 1 transition. On the o'-~,fi;i~
hand, in ~e presence o.f an. electromagnetic field, indu~ed transitions
a probability of occumng If the frequency of the field 1S equal (or at lei~t::::~m.
fairly close) to the energy difference between the two levels; induced tr~~}i:~~
l
haiJm
"
'.~
A . ."~~
sitions toward higher or lower energy states are equally probable. Furth~#~}~~~~~
.... .r-=the transition probability is proportional to the square of the strength of th~t~~~~
electromagnetic field (that is, the total number of quanta) so that if a suffi;+{~;~
ciently strong radiofrequency magnetic field (of frequency vo) is availabl~'{~~~i
magnetic-dipole transitions should take place.
.<>}~~~
This fact is, of course, central to the operation of the laser discussed il(:~~:~
Section 4.1. In that case the atomic state has an electric-dipole moment
",~
~"
, , ...
.J
anMW
........... .
, , ,
I
1For atomic
10
-6
systems v is on the order of the velocity in a Bohr orbit, namely~ (v / c)2
01 .. ..
oj
.,1 . . . .
......
.....
.1
"--"
~~
..
~fi~~~~;
..'
,...
.......
..--. . .
. ,,.. ....
.
'" . ....
......
,...
......'" . ...
, , . "' . . .
, ......
..
'" . .
.......
, , ..... .
..
,.....
.
'" '""'"... .
,
, , ,......
.....
.
..
,
...
"'
"
.
, .... .
,','."'~
I
......
01 ... ..
I ' I". .......

,
I
..
01 .. .
.....
..
"..01.0111
,
01 .. ..
'"
..
..
,
,
,
,
.. .01 "' ..
,
,
.. .01 ... ..
...... ..
, , ... .
, ,,
.01 .. .
....
.
...
.
.....
.
...
.
..... ..
. . . . . 01
01 .. .
.. 01 .. .
,,,,
,
"""
, .... 01 "'" ..
,
, , . . . . Ji
7. 1 Introduction
2S3
",trio-di.pole transitions arc induced by the external electric field (at the
frequency) of the laser beam.
referring to Eq. (7.2) we see that for a 1-T magnetic field the energy
of either nuclei or electrons falls in the range of frequencies that
be easily generated. It is also of interest to estimate the magnimde
radiofrequency (or microwave) magnetizing field. which we wiU
esill"'te by H, to distinguisb it from the static magnetic (induction) field
vacuum B = p.oH. An H field of magnitude ItP/4rr Alm~(equivalent
B field of 10- 4 T = I G) corresponds to an energy flow of
411" X
10-7 (10')'
x
4Jf
R:2.35
&.85
10-12 X
102 cm2'
(7.3)
can be easily generated. Calculation shows that this field strength is
liI,,,!",,te for inducing [J8nsitions. Finally we must be able to detect the fact
types
a tranSition took place; this may be done i.n several ways and is one of
~~::~:~hh,g factors between the various
of magnetic resonance
:-:
example. in the first magnetic resonance experiment. performed by
:: . I. Rabi and coUaborators in J 939. a beam of atoms having J = was
:passed in successian thr'Jugh twa very inhomogeneous magnets A and B
::' shown in Fig. 7.2. A homogeneous magnetic field existed in tbe intermedi ~
::: ate region C where a radiofrequency (RF) field was applied. If a transition
:~; took place in region C from a state m =
[0 m = -~, that particular
':= atom was deflected in an opposite direetian in field B and thus missed
: the detector. Hence. resonance was detected by a decrease in beam current
.:: when the frequency afthe RF field was tbe appropriate one far the magnetic
field strength in C.
+4
m~+ l
Wf~i
-- ~ ~
O-- ~ f --~~-q~.,o
0,00
~)
Slit
~: :
FIGURE 7.2 The atomic beam aaangement of I. I. Rabi and collaborators llSed to detect
magnetic resonance lransitions Ln atomic energy ,levels.
.....
...
"
..
..............
..........
..
......
. ....,.......
............
.........
.
.......
...........,. .....
~ . . . OIl . . . .~
" "~.A
... .oil OIl ..

~
"
. . . . . of .of . .
"
"
"
"
254
7 Magnetic Resonance
Experiments.:::::::::::::::: ........... .
"
"
....
All . .
"
......
.oil . .
.............
. ... ... .. . . .
..........
. .. . .. ... .
"
.II>
...
...
II . . II . .
II II . . . .
II
II
..
II
OIl . .
..~
. . . . ~,
Another method for detecting t1)e occurrence of resonance is to ob.s~~::?

~
the absorption of energy from the radiofrequency field when transi~:~~n~~~:
toward higher energy levels take place. This technique is used in mtist~~
nuclear magnetic resonance
) experiments and in electron magrieilit~~:
resonance (called "electron spin resonance," ESR) experiments . fu ext?~~~~:
iments with atonuc vapors or transparent materials it is possible to det~i:~:;
the magnetic resonance effect by changes in the polarization of th~J atoi~it~~~~~.
radiation (llm = 0) or by selective absorption effects.
<{~~~~~:. ~..
=-=
Apart from i t8 intrinsic interest as a way of inducing transi tiolls betW~~~~ :-:
the energy sublevels of atoms or nuclei, magnetic resonance has becQili~~~~~
an important tool of physics. The atomic beam experiments of Rabi.~~~~~~
his coworkers led to very precise measurements of the hyperfine Structqf~~~~~~:
of atomic systems and thus to accurate values of the nuclear moments. "in{a~~~~~:
nuclear magnetic resonance experiment transitions are induced -betW~~;:~~
. . . . ... ....
the sublevels of a nucleus placed in an external magnetic field. HowY~f.;~~~
the atom to which the nucleus belongs must have J .:.,.! 0 (diamagrl~:~q#~~~-:r.r
.'
......
.oil
.. .. .. ..
II1II .........
. . . . . . . AI ..
. . . . . . . . . of ..
",..
f e '
large electronic magnetic moment would mask the effect. By mearis:.:~~~:~~~:
a high accuracy.><)~i~~m
The NMR signal depends not only on the nucleus under study but also:&.Jjj~
the environment in which the nucleus finds itself. In fact the observatior{~:t~i~mJ.3
nuclear magnetic resonance in solids and liquids depends on the rela:xati~iiJ~~~
of the nuclear spins through their interaction with the lattice. Thus~ nucle~:~:~:~:~~
. }}~~~~~~ffi~~
on the properties of many matenals m the solId or liqwd state.

1t was realized that the Width of the observed resonance line for
pro~~~;}~~~l
SplIt the energy sublevels~ When a very homogeneous field was applled ili:~t):~i~:~
proton resonance line was shown to exhlbit a fine structure on the order
6
0.01 G (10- T). This structure depends.on the organic compound to whic~::tw.j
the hydrogens of the sample belong. Wlth even more homogeneous fie14~}~~i.1::
l
of;U!i@t
a hyperfine structure on the order of O~OOl G

T) is observed. Iti~(~~~~~
this fine structure that has made NMR such an important tool for analytic~~~~~~~W~
.
tty
.
:-:.:::)W
.
.
.'. -:.:.:.:. . . . . . '. "':
Chetrus
The term electron spin (or paramagnetic) resonance is used for tr~H?~
siti~ns bet,,:ee~ the Zeeman levels of quasi-free electrons in li~uids a~~{~
solids. In pnnclple, we should always measure a g factor of 2.00 (If we de~/:::~~::::~
. '.........
'"~'X'''
......
.
.
.
...........
. ",.......
.........
:$.. ..
....... .
7
(10-
ottiI."", . . ..
. . . 01 II1II . ,
...
,,,
,'"
'
tI otti/...
..
Ii . . . . ....
.... Ii . . . .....
'
.........
.
' , ..... x
,....
,
, ,
Ii . . . . . ...
........ .
Ii.. .......
...
, ' , ..
. Ii..
, , . . . . . . . II....
'
....... .
,,........
. '. *.
. .'. '"
.......
..,
..............
,... Ii... .
"
,
,
. . . Ii . . . . . ...
... J
, .. Ii . . . . . ...
,,
II . . . . . ...
. . . 0001 . . . . . .
",'
......... ..I':~
, , Ii
. ...
,
"
"'"
~.,.;
,,','."
.. x'
.......... .J"..
IIII!;
~, ,:.~i
.. .,:,::
.. :.,.. .,.:
~.
7.2 Th, Rot, IN
M.""',D'",,
T,,",I<I,",
""
wim free electrons); instead a great variety of g factors and stnrcrure appears
in the resonance lines due [0 the different effective coupling of the electron
with the crystalline field. These effects depeod on the relative orientation
;::.:. of the magnetic field Bo and the crystal axis. Thus, electron spin resonance
~\j.: is a very important tool in the study of crystalline structures as well as in
~:::: ,
.. . Lbe identification of free radicals in chemistry, medicine. and biophysics.

This chapter is organized as follows. In Section 7.2 tbe coq.ditions for
f inducing magnetic-dipole transitions are discussed from both the quantum
~~::: :
~.-_ "and classical point of view_ In Section 7.3 we introduce the mechanisms
~:: .... . essential for the observation of eoergy absorption in nuclear magnetic
ili.-:. .:: resonance and electron spin resonance experiments, namely relaxation
. and saturation. We also discuss the idea of free induction decay and
~~: >pulsed NMR. The techniques and results of nuclear magnetic resonance
.'. :..experiments with protons are presented in Section 7.4. We conclude with
( ' a discus.<iion of an electron spin re.<ionance experiment that operates at
@:- microwave frequencies.
:.?",:.'.:
As was the case in the previous chapter the discussion is limited, and
the reader may wish to refer to some of the many exeeUeot monographs
,
V and texts on this subject. A list of suggested references is given at the end
of the chapter.
~:-
7.2. THE RATE FOR MAGNETIC-DIPOLE

TRANSITIONS
7.2.1. Quantum Calculation
Thc experimental signals in NMR involve the participation of many nuclei.
In this sectioo, however, we will consider the effects associated wilh a
single nucleus: we use the lenn Q single spin. We will return to an ensemble
of nuclei in Section 7.3.
Let us consider, for example, a nucleus with angular momentum I (magnitude Ii.j I (l + 1)) and magnetic moment p- orienred along the spin ax is.
For nuclei il is customary to express the proportionality between the .<ipin I
and magnetic moment p- by
p-
= ylit
(7.4)
wnere y is called the gyromagnetic ratio; as can be seen from Eq. (7 .6)
below. y has dimensions of mdians per second-teslu. The gyromagnctic
. ...... ..-.
.........
.. .
... .. .. ......
.. . .
. .. .. .... . . ..
........ ..........
..
. . ..
.....
.,.. .. ,.. .. ..
.... .. .. ..
- .... , ..
.
--............
, .
--...... .... .......
.... .. .. .. .... ,.
- . . . .. .
r-...
.................
....
-...........
... ...-.-.-.."..........
.....
....
. . .. ..
........... .......
... -.-' .. -,
..
. ....
- -- .. .. ... .. .......oil
.. .. ......
-..
-
..
..
oil .. ..
"
.............AI....
256
7 Magnetic Reson anee Experime nts
-
-
..
- "111 ,III
"
II JI
""
..
.. ...
I.AI
- -
"
,
"
.... -
" . . ... . . . . w
.......
....... .. .... ..-.....--"--.
- ......
.
.. .-........
.....
.... .. - .-.......
.....

- -
..
oil
:,.-
"
~ ,~.
..
..
fill ~
'.. .. .. ...
_Ii
---.-~
- -
--_a_Ii.-.. ~ (~ikBo)
.... -- a
. .. .. ..............
..... . .........
... .
.':
.
.
.. ... :::
'
..
.. "..if-
"
.....
-~"
.. .. ~~
'.' , ........... . .
.
..
~,
r ~ .....
............
.
.
- - , , - ' - "_ _
iii
o .. .. .... .......
-~ (~ tJ.So)
JI
JI
:;-
,...
.
. ... .. ......
. . .. .. -............
........ .:.:....-
;:-
-:,.t,
..~.
"
.. :.....
' -
,III
,~-
,01
FIGURE 7.3 The energy of the four sublevels of a nucleus with spin I = ~ whel(~~#..
in a magnetic field Ro. Note that the energy depends on the Id.orientation" of the 8P.W.~jf;'" .~
respect to 80; the magnitude of the spin vector is 111 = I~ (~+l j.
\/} ~-~
...............
.............
.._..
_.
..
,.
-.,. .....,
....-.
........
'-.t_....
...
....
:". .:::';"-:-"';::=':~
ratio y cannot be calculated from a simple expression such as .,:,~~.~=~~9J-:::

the g factor of atomic electrons in Eq. (6.17). (For instance, for the .'j:r~~~~~'
-:. ,"~.":.' :..;:-.;r(...
y = 5~586 JLN, where J-tN is the nuclear magneton.)
"<::::)-'.
In the presence of an external magnetic field Bo. the nucleus
::?any 'of the (21 + 1) sublevels labeled by m I as shown also in Fig>::-,
:-, ._.
. .:.:":
We can then write for the energy2 of these sublevels (see Eq. (7 .1)) :>}:~ .~
t'.
emil#:;
'.'
1 /L
ii - -n, I
:::
=:
. .:::
- .-. .
'. .'. .-.
Bom = -yBom,
..
..::
'.}
'-'
...
so that the energy difference between any adjacent sublevels (Am

is simply
.
= ..;~:~_~
:.::::::
ilE
. n = Y Bo =
-.....: : : : ,'*"....
:.
:
. ..
'.''::
:.
'
,-_
'.'
(~t~,~'~~
(J)O~
.':: <:-.: :::;

'.:.:::: ~~ ..
......
-:.
'. ...
'. '. '. -_.-' .....-",-..
:':::::
~
...
..-::"<':::~'.~
....~.:.:.:-; ..
' ... ::.:':'~::~;~~
-<::
~:::.: .:~:. .:
..... " . :... ",...
. =.
Thus for protons in a field of 1 T the resonance frequency will be
= 42.581 MHz
(Bo = 1 T).
.. .J'
--
'.
~-
Vo - 5. 586J.tN Bo
---
Consider then the simplest case, namely, I = ~; for which only two ~.~.::./.~~-. ~
levels exist, m = - ~ and m = + In addition to Bo, let a weak field...~. )i~~~;~~~
rotating in a plane norlnal to Bo with an angular frequency (i) be intI u( ll1;q~~ c~~~a.
::~./<::
Taking the z axis along Bo we write the two components of Hl as .':::~::::::~:~~
. . . . ,,-. .-
i.
'. . . .
-:.:.;.:... . '::'~':a"~.,.
,
.;
'::'-::::'~':'::
.... :~'~~i"
, ,
',
, -'
....... ;., .. ~
.,'.',.,-,":::'.<:',:
,., , ,,, ..
-... .:.,
2Instead of energy, we use for convenience angular frequency; the transition TIl
is llv = (AEjn)/(27r) = UJo/2rc.
..
I'P_~i!1J
J~,70'~
, ,
.. ..
.,, -:.: .
,, ,,
,
,..
'. III
7.2 The Rate for Magnetic-Dipole Transitions
257
we assume that
additional energy of the nucleus, due to the field HI, is

I
= IL' HI = yli (Hx1x + Hyly) = y~Hl
(l+e- 1wt
+ Le+iwt )
~
(7.7)
(7.8)
and
h=lx+ily
the energy specified by Eq. (7.7) is very small as compared to that

by Eq. (7.5), it can be treated as a time-dependent perturbation 4 ;
to first order, the transition probability is proportional to the absolute
of the matrix element
(7.9)
i and f stand for the initial and final state. As usual the matrix
:,"""oU",..,~L is evaluated by peIforming the integral
.M
1/Ij'J{t 1/1i d3x dt,
(7.10)
where Jet is the perturbing energy of Eq. (7.7). We must include the time
:aeipenlaelilce of the wave functions
1/11
= u(l, m') exp (-i ~ t)
1/Ii =u(l,m)exp(-ii t ).
(7.11)
Here primes refer to the final state, and u(l, m) stands for the time,
part of the wave function. Evaluating Eq. (7.9) with the help
3We expand the exponentials and obtain
(Ix coswt
+ ily(-i)sinlLlt) + (Ix COSlLlt -
ily(+i) sinlLlt)
= 2(Jx COSlLlt + ly sin wt).

4See, for example, E. Fermi, Notes on QuaJllwn Mechanics, Lecture 23, Univ. of
:Chicago Press, Chicago. 1961.
...-_
'mJ"~
. . . . . . l1li l1li ...

.. ... III III .. ...

III III .. ..
.. . . . . l1li JIll! lOll
... .. JIIII .. ..

l1li l1li .. ..
..
...
. ..
..
..
. .IIIIII. .
... .~

.. III .. ..

III l1li ..
. . . .....
7 Magnetic Res 0 n anee Experiments
258
..~~
. . . . . III ..
..
..
l1li III
.AI ..
JIIII ..
III JIIII .. ..

.. III JIll! ..
.. ... ... JIll! ..
-
III .. ..
.. JIll! ..
oil ..
.. ... III III .. ..

... III JOIII . .
...
... JIll . .
.. ... ... III! III! ..

. . . . . III! lOll . .
..
...
...
l1li
l1li .. ..
.. .. If ..
.......
..
- -.-.-. . . . . .
III
..
....
oil
.. ..
...........
.........
.
.
..
..
..
............. ....
-- .....................
.... ... . . . . . .. . . .
of Eqs. (7.10) and (7.11) we find that
...
..
..
...
...
...
of . . . .
~~J'
l1li .. .. ..
III
..
l1li . . . . . ...
oil oil . . . . -
.... *
w.~
..
.. . . . ....
. . III oil. .... .III
..
... III . . . .
...................
..
.AI . . . . oil ~~
M=
_-r:.n~.H_l
exp
E --,. '. + ,.,
-l
'-'V
Ii
.........
+ (I, mill-II, m)
exp
-l
~~
- "
..
. . . . . . All . . . .
. . . . l1li l1li . . . . .~~.

. . . . . . . . . .of . . . . .
.......
"
l1li
..
.. .. ..
~ ~
....
A .. ..
IW
....
A M M . . . . ....
A M . . . . . . . . .~~
"
Of
. . . . . . . OIl
.......
..
AM
..
.....
...
A
A . . . . '.J'A~.
A
M ~ ..
..
Of
' . . . . . . . . AI . .
---OJ
Of .oil . . ...
Of . . oil .
.........
.AI
......
~~
-'
..
............
................
...........
- ................
......... ..
t dt
- .............. ""m;
........ ,. . . -"'-fO.l'.
...................* ,........
.........
. . ....... .. .
_.....A-""'~
t dt .. ' ......... 0.:
..
..........
(7 :1.':2:)":::::::~r'''''''''
.......
..~:::3
..' . ..........
...
............ '-r.......
.:..:;:"'~"""':"':m
. . . .. .. .. :;:;:
.........................
. . .. .. .. .
.......................
..
;:::::::;~~;:~~i:~
-
.oil
..
.
..
.......
...
A
.... ..
'"
A
.. . . . .
.AA .....
"'-"'.
: ....
.......
'" ......... ....J"......!
The matrix elements of the operators 1+ and I_ares
...
'" .... :m
'" .....................i1i~~
.... .
....
.... ..
'.'. ..r'.....~
....... . .... .
'. . . .00
..
. . . . . . .,. . . .;1
for elther 1+ or L. The mtegrals over tune m Eq. (7.12) are essenttaU$::::::i$.
~ functions (but see below) expressing the conservation of energy aDwm~
showing that the transition probability is different from zero only if
<:}?~
........
m.w.
........
.
.
.
''/:%
. . . . . . a::::
. :::;~=:::::;:m'1d
for m' = 111 + 1
' - E =-= 1itll
. ...............
... .
~
.'. I ...............
.. ... ,J-"IJ
'"
,', '
~~
..........
.:':.:':':A:m~~
.... .............. V~
-:. :.:.:~w.
W
.', '. .....

..... .. .. .m
and
'~
" '.'
E - ' =-= IU:.u
for m' --: m - 1t
(7.13\J.,. /))~l1fi
..........
. A~'.l":
..
, "'
, ,. .......
~.J
"~.""'J'"'",
that is, when the angular frequency of the rotating field is equal to the en;:rgy;{!!!;ii]
difference between adjacent m sublevels. Using Eq. (7.6), the condition~}~~~~~~
.....
of Eqs. (7.13) become simply
>}~:;~
~
- ,
.... . .
.......
.....
...... .
..............'"
..!
fiw = fiy Bo
......
Ii
= wo.
.......
. . . . . . !III
!III ..
, . . . . . . . .,..!III
. . . . . . . '"
-II . . . . . . . .
, '"
",
Ii
. . . . !III
"'
"' . . . . Ii
. . . . ...
.......
Ii
.......
. . . . . !III
I
I
.....
..
To complete the calculation of the transition rate we must integrate (the.<\~~@

absolute square of Eq~ (7.12)) over the density of final states. This leads to~:/~~~~?
Penni's golden rule6
":}~~~i~
.....
......
27t
2
RiJ = ""Ii IMI p(E),
(7 .14)
.....
.
....
.
......
.
..... ..
......
, ,,
, ,
,,,
,
,
,
,
...
.
......
...
.
....... ..
::::~;~~:
.......,.
. ...
. .. .".
, ...
,
....
..
. . , , ..
.
.
"' . "''''
,, ,...
'".,.
, ... .
. ....
'" ....
, "' ...
, .... ..
,
'" ....
,"' ...
,
........ ..
...
, . '"
5See E. Fenni (1961), Lecrure 28.

:)~~
6See E. Fenni (1961), or L. Shiff, Quantullt Mechanics, Chapter 8. McGraw-Hill, }~}
'.
..:~:=;:
..
New York, 1968.
-,
'
..
.r
..
..
..
, ,..,,,
, .
, ,...,,
, ,.,
, ,..
,
, .
, ,..
,...
, ,..
, .
,.
,
I ....
..
7.2 The Rate for Magnetic-Dipole Transitions
259
.~
where RiJ is the transition probability per unit time (or transition rate) from
the initial state i to the final state f. In Eg. (7.14), M is the time-independent
part of the matrix element given by Eq. (7.12) (that is, without the integrals).
peE) is the "density of final states" and gives the number of states f per
unit energy interval that have energy close to '. For example, if the final
state f has an extremely well-defined energy Eo, then peE) -* 8(E - Eo);
if the final state has a certain width due for instance to a finite lifetime or
other broadening effects, then peE) expresses this fact mathematically.
We require the function peE) to be normalized and can also express it in
teITIlS of frequency
peE)
= p(hv) = h gel!)
with
~:::::
peE) dE
~~:::'
He
g(v) dv
= l.
(7.15)
Combining Eqs. (7.12), (7.14), and (7.15) we obtain for the transition rate
in the case I = the elegant result
=::::::
~:?'
~::::
y2H2
~r:
::::>',
R-I/2-HI/2
= R+I/2-+-1/2 = ~ g(l!).
(7.16)
~~~> In the above equation v is the frequency of the perturbing field (RF or
~~{:
~::::'
~~/ .
::=::
::=::
;..:-:.
J'.','
~}:'
::=::',
~~~~:
~:::'
Ii
~",'.
~:::'-:
........
;;:::::'
~~::::
~?"
J'.",
II!!
~~::-:
~:>.
~:::::
~~:~ :
........
i~:
microwave), and g(v) gives the shape of the resonance line; note that g(v)
will be significantly different from zero only for v ~ I!o. Note also that
in Eq. (7.16) and in the equations leading up to it, HI must be expressed
in tesla, namely its value in amperes per meter must be multiplied by
the permeability of free space fJ-O. We have deliberately not included this
factor in the equations to avoid confusion with the symbol for magnetic
moments.
There are two important comments we want to make at this point. First
as can be seen from Eq. (7.12) or (7.16) the rotating field HI will induce
to m f =
with exactly the same probabitransitions from mJ =
lity as from m f =
to mi =
As a result, in the presence of the
field HI both levels will, on average, be equally populated. This argument
remains valid for any value of the nuclear spin. Secondly, while we used a
perturbative calculation the two-level system can be solved exactly in terms
of simple functions as described, for instance. in the Feynman Lectures,
+1
-!
-!.
+1
............
...",.""
,"'
...
,."" ...
, ." " " "..'"'"'"......... .

.......
.....
.. "........
"" .....
,."" ...
:))~:~:~:.
...
. .. "" ",."..,.""""""""......"" ....
..." " ",.,.""""""""""......
......",...""'"""""......
._ ,
"
"
-~-
. . . . . . . . .-JIA
"
-,,,
"
260
7 Magnetic Resonance Experiments
"
"
"
III
III ..
"
"
,.
.... ' " JIll
"
,.
..
,
:.~
of . .
"
Vol. ill, Lecture 30.7 We will make use of the exact solution inSectionjjiii~i'rI'ri"
when we discuss pulsed NMR and free induction decay.
;;::::::}::::~:&'~-:.I
~:~::::::~::::::A~.:::::j'
. . " - ... ~~~
-',
"
"
III
III ..II _
~
- .. - .- ..........
,. " """"""..""..II
~~
""..........
. . . . "" "" "" . .

"
-:~~~~~~~~~:~:
m
.'..........
,......." .".." ....... .
7.2.2. Classical Interpretation
~ ~-x:7.
- ' " ' ' ..... __
""f~
" "
"..Il ......... ':..;
..
"
"
"" ..II . .
_ . " ... ..Il . . . . . . . III
.......... :...-;:
.a .:II ..... ..
"
Below we show how the effect of a rotating radiofrequency field .c.~l1iJ.~:

understood also on the basis of a classical modeL Consider again a n1f~leiji:::~
with spin I and magnetic moment IL = YIiI. Let J be the magnitude -(j(~;
8
angular momentum, which clas sic ally will be just J = Til, and let it ri)~~::,:.~
an angle ewith the z axis as shown in Fig. 7.4a. If a constant magnetic:.~
Bo is applied along the z axis~ the field will exert a torque on the mag~.~jJM;
..........:.:.
moment, given by
.>:::::::~~::~:~.
........
........-.--.-..-.
A ...
... ..
........
.........., ..'J'..... . .
. ... .......'1'1'
.. QI
:~~~
= JLxBo
~.t".
= y(JxBo).
(l;~t?~~::%~.;~
dJ
La
dt
<II
......
.. ..
.oi
,-"r.......,
, .~""J'I,
....'. ,,'J'-m
,",,m
,(7.~:f,~~~:~;~~a::::a::::
' . .. .J'. ... a::::
.' .......
= y (J X Bo).
~m
":'~':':':".~~
-::::::::::;::~
.... A. W.
Wo Independent of () !I
wo
ath
- , x", n ~ I n z =
J "' th
dir
-y Bonz'
(7~~)}~~m
'.' ......
c~
.~
. ....
. 'AA.
. . -::--.It.
.:~>~{;~:~w.
w her~ D z 18 e unIt v~ctor In e z

eCfion..
. ;:::j/(~~~~~
This phenomenon IS called the Larmor precesslon and the angular:ft~:::::~
quency given by Eq. (7.19) is the "Larmor" frequency- It is fascinati#S~i~~@.

even though not surprising that the Larmor frequency has the same vaIij~)~@
as given by Eq. (7.6) for the transition frequency between any adjacci(~~~~~~
.........::-:
levels (tl.m = 1). Further, since the angle () is preserved, the energy:~9~~~~~~~
the nucleus in the magnetic field remains a constant
<H)~i~~~
,
, , ,.
I
= -IL Bo = -y't:.IBo cos 86
....
. ....
.I . . . .
..
:::.-:
(7 2(\).'
':::~:::x
,\:I.:
.
:-~..:...:...1.
.
.
. .........
.............
........'"
We now introduce an additional weak magnetic field HI oriented::~~:(~~~~~
.......
the x-y plane and rotating about the z axis (in the same direction as:. tli~:~:~~~:~
..........
..
.....
...
.
.........
.
........
.
:x
.... .
fl,
--."
,J
,
,',
,
",
./
,... .. .. .... . .... ....

. ,
.,
, ,
"
' ,. . . . .
01
01
" ...... '.t
7 See also A. Das and A. C. Melissinos'l Quantum Mechanics, Section 5.1; Gordon 'shd~~i~~~~
, ....... .
Breach, New York, 1986+
: ::::}}:~~:::
8Instead of its quantumOLmechanical (QM) value I =
n.J i(! + f).
:::,:<~~)]~~~~
....... .
,
,
,
.....
.....
.....
.
......
"
.....
..
......
......
..
.....
.
.......
....
.
......
".
.....
..
......
....
.
.....
".
.....
..
.......
...... ..."
.....
......
...
.
......
....
..... ."
II
"
......
.
.........
..... . ".
. . . . . II
,,,
,
, , ,
, ,,,,
, ,
, , . . . . . II
, ,
, , . . . . . . II
, ,
, , . . . . II
, ,
,,,
, ,
, ,,,
, ,
,
,,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, . , . ..
, ,,,
, ,
,
,
, ,,,
, .. _._ ...J'
....
.......
.... .. "
7. 2 The Rate fo r Magneti c-D ipole Transitiorls
261
(b)
(.)
, ,,,
",
.,
)(:--+', -~-y
;.
"
,'
--------y
./
x
Precession of a magnetic moment 14 when placed in a magnetic field Bo.
, (a) The spi n precesses with angulu frequency wo = y Bo: thc angle () is a constant of the
molion. (bjln addition to 8 0 a weak magnetic field III is now also applied. HI is rotaulIg
about the z ax is with angular flUJ.ueney Ctl() and therefore p. precesses about H I with angular
, treqnene), wI "" Y HI: 8 is no longer conserved.
> FIGURE 7.4
"Larmor precessing" spin I) with an allgular frequency w. If the frequency

w is different from ~. the angle between the field H I and the magnetic
moment JL will continuously change so that their interaction will average
out [0 O. If, however. W :;::,; WOo the angle between I.L and HJ is maintained
'- . and a net interaction is effective (Fig. 7.4b). If we look at the system in
a reference frame 1'Oluting ubout the ;z: mis wilh the Wl15ufur vdudty wo.
then the spin will appear to make an angle 1/1 = 90 with H I and
according to the previous argument will stan to precess (in the rotating
frame) about HI. This corresponds to a "nutation" and aconscquentchange
of the angle (). whicb implies a chaoge in the potential energy of the nucleus
in the magnetic field (Eq. (7.20. The change in () is the classical analogy
to a transition between sublevels with different til. We see that (a) such
transitions may take place only if the rotating field has an angular frequency
',~,: ' (V = W() = Y Bo. and (b) that the angle () wilt continuously chaoge with
an angular frequency WI = yHI. The effect of the radiofre<jllency is to
:l: populate, on the average. all values of e.lbat is, allieve/s, equally.
However, ithe field HI is applied only for a short time I. such that
(Vjt = it , then a spin that was originally at an angle fJ (w.r.t the z axis) will
find itself at an angle :rr - () (or at an angle 8 from the -z axis). This is
the equivalent of the QM transition from m = - ~ to m = + U the field
l,:. is applied for a lime t such Ibat Wj t = 2)1 . then the spin will end up at
, the same angle w.r.t the z axis (in the same state) and so on. By applying
4.
.........
...... -jIII-"
"
"
. . . . . . . OIl OIl
~ . . . . . . . . . . JIll
........... ..
. . . . . . . . . ;iii
. . . . . . . . . . JIII
. . . . . . ;iii
. . . . . "XX
:.)}~:~:~:::~
.."'..............
... ..... . . ......
.. :..:
Jo:...
........ ......-r
. . . . . . OIl
~
. . . . . OIl . .
OIl ... . .
~
. . . . . . . OIl
262
---~
JI
..
OIl
..
III...
..
........
,:..
. .. . .
RF pulses of selected duration we can thus manipulate the spin state}WJ~~jr

' . 1.... .................. ..
will make use of this idea in Section 7.3.4.
-::;::::::::::::
..... -.... ..
;.:.:.:.:.:.;.;.~~. ~
. . . . . . . . III AlII III
III III OIl
OIl
OIl
...
..
.. . . OIl
. . ... OIl
. . . . III . . .JII
..... III III ...
........
.........
..........
. . ..... ......
.. ......
....... ....
.............
......
...............
.............
.................
. . . ... . . ..
- ... ........ . . . ..
- .. . .. .... .......
. . ..
111''''111.''
... ...........
.......
.. ... .
.
.
............-..-...-.....
......... .
..........
. ... .. .
.......
. .. .. .. .
.. ........
. . .-.... ..-. . .
..........
OIl
II III ... . .
. . . . . . . OIl . . .JII
..
" ..
"
OIl
....
..
OIl
......
..
..
..
...
.. OIl
OIl . . . . . -
. . . . . _ _OIlIIIIIi;
..
... .. .. .. IIIIIi
... .. .. ..
lflii
lflii
.... .. ..
....
7.3.1. Relaxation and Saturation
..
.:~
,
....
..
"
...
7.3. ABSORPTION OF ENERGY BY THE

NUCLEAR MOMENTS
..
..
III III .III

..II III AlII III
III .II
..
..
..tJIII
...
...
...
'"
. . . . . . . . . . . . . lflii
....
'"
~ ~
--..
........
..
...
...
...
.....
'" "
'" '"
...
...
We saw in the previous section that a radiofrequency magnetic field rij~~~~~~a=

or atom. In the case of atomic-beam experiments the atoms are free, wIUltt.~~~~t:
u:e l~ter~ctJ.on Wlth the t~ermal bath that tends t~ restore the BOltzm??%~
distributlO~, wh~re .the s~m can relax by tr~s.femng en~gy to ~e latti.'o/:M~
observation of energ~ absorption from the radiofrequency field when thNi@jiJ.

resonance frequency IS reached.
::"<:~:}~:~m
To understand this last statement, consider again the simple caseoqf}~~~
nucleus with spin I =
In the presence of a magnetic field Bo it is SPUfti~jm
into the two energy sublevels with m =
and m ~
As remarke:~:):~:~:~
. . . . ...~
before, the rate (Eq. (7.16)) for transitions:./it~~~~~:~
!.
+4
-!.
1
m=+-2
-,)
1
m= ...... 2
- ..........
~ ......... ~
.. .z
A.:g.
. . ............
.. .. .... .,r:
........ :g..
";rJ'
(7 .. 21 OJ.),. ........
........
.... ..
. . ... ... ,
..................
........
............ .
.........
......
. ... ...
. ...........
..
............
......... . ...... . ....
......
.......
......
...
. ...""'. '%"'".
..... .. .... ... . .
. .... ..
)';:::::::::~::~
(7 21b ...........
- ........ .
.......
..............
. . . . .... .. i".
-
. . . . . . . . . . . lflii
..
.. ....
Q.~ .:.:.:.:..~..
rOIl
-..
~
- ,
. . ..
~
-- J
..
,~ ~
- - ,
- -
....
....
"
m=+- .
2
..
...
- ,
..
.. .. ..
-.,~
r011
1
m "-2
is equal to the rate for transitions
. . . . . . . . . . . lflii till!
..
~,
-'~
I
"~Jo:
~
......
~ . . . . . .~:x..
..
...... ~
..
....
..
..
~ ~~
j- .............~..
........ ~
_
..
........
I
I
.........
.......
..
..
..
.
.
.. ..
........
..
.......
"
. .. .
. . .....
_:.-:
- . . . .. ..
The number of transitions per unit time is given in either case by
:.
.........
......... .
I
......... .
.....
..
.........
........... .
........
..
..
...
......
..
.........
:)"
.:;:::;::;~~:::
...
...
(7 22 . . .......
...... ..
I
..
.......
- ,
;', ' ................

-'
,
,
....... .
.........
.. . . . . ..
, ,,
. . . . II II .. II
...
where Ni is the number of nuclei in the initial state. Further~ transitions of!(~~~~~~~~
the type in Eq. (7.21a) absorb energy from the radiofrequency field, where~;~:)~~~~~~
.....
.
......
.
.......
.
........
..
......
.
.......
......
...... ..
,
II . . . .
, ",
,
, ,
,,
, ,
, ,
,
......
. . . . . . ..
. . . . . . ..
. . . . . . ..
I
. . . . . . ..
. . . . . ..
I
...... .
I
. . . ..
I
..... .
,
. . . ..
I
. . . . ..
. . . . . . . ..
I
...... .
. . . . . ..
I
. . . . . . ..
I
,
,
I
,
I
,
I
,
....
.
......
.
.....
.
.......
.
..... .
I
I
,,,
,
, ,
, ,
,
. . . . . ..
...... .
I
. . . . . ..
I
I
.... .
,
I
_
.. ..
I
. . . . '"
. . . . . ..
.... .
,
I
..... .
,
I
.... .
I
._ . . .
*.~
7.3 Absorption of Energy by the Nuclear Moments
263
of the type in Eq. (7 .21 b) give energy to the radiofrequency field

(recall Eq. (7.5)). Thus the net power absorbed from the radio frequency
field is (we also mUltiply by the energy necessary for one transition)
.lIaU","UUi."
p = [N+l/2
R(
R ( -~
- [N-l/2 x
= (N+l/2 -
+~ -+ -~)] nmo
N_ 1/2)
-+
+~) ] mvo
Rmvo.
(7.23)
Thus if N-l/2 = N+l/2, no net power can be absorbed from the field.
However, if we consider a system consisting of a large number of spins in
equilibrium with its surroundings, it is known from a very general theorem
of statistical mechanics that every state of energy E will be populated
according to the Boltzmann distribution
N(E)
= Noe- E / kT
(7.24)
with k the Boltzmann constant and T the absolute temperature in Kelvins.
It follows that for a system of N particles with spins I in the presence of a

magnetic field Bo, each m sublevel will be populated according to
N (m)
2I
+ 1 exp (mYfiBo)
+ kT .
(7.25)
The normalizing factor wa~ approximated by N /(21 + 1), which holds 9

for y liBo k T; -my liBo is the energy of the m sublevel. Note that T
in Eq. (7.25) is the temperature of the spin system and equals the lattice
temperature, if no external perturbations (such as the radiofrequency field)
are present.
It follows from Eq. (7.25) that the populations N + 1/2 and N -1/2 entering
Eq. (7.23) of our previous discussion (l =
will not be equal. There will
be a number of excess nuclei N s , in the lower energy state given by
i)
Ns
= N+I/2 -
N-I/2
= N2
[exp
(+ hmo) _
2kT
exp (_
9Expand the exponential through first order, to obtain correctly

m=+/
m=-/
N(m) =N.
hmo)].
2kT
..,.
.......... r.
.A
. . . . . _ _ """
...................
. ........... ,.
...........
.............
.....
......... -..........
...........
.........
..............
. . .. . ....
.........
...............
... .. ...... ... .....-. ,.
. ..
............ ...................
.. . ..
...........
..............
. .............
.. .. . ....'"..
.. ....
..., ... ... .. ... ......
.
..
.................... .
"
OIl
........
.....
-OIl
......
.. ",.II
.oil . .
OIl . .
OIl
.. . .
"
7 Magnet;c Resonance Experiments
2.64
'~
....
. . . . . . . . . of ..... __
'
.-
"
--
....
...............,:.......
.....
.II
. . . . . . ""
and since limo is a1 ways much smaller than k T, we may write for the abd#J.~~~~~~~~:'''.I"'''''',1
"
..
.AI
......
'.1""'......
N fl::~o
f.,Cl.J
N s ~ 2 'k T .
..
..
III
. . . . ...
>}~:~~m
,.,' ''''~'''M~
:::::::::~::~:'--~"":~h.
.':-:.: . . .:..t:::
N (limo)
P = Ns x R x limo =
.
. x (1ioJo) x R.
2 kT
protons y = 2.673 x
obtain
(7 .2~J~1~~Jj:m
........~..~~
energy. and the power absorbed from the RF field IS glven by
8
10 radls- T~
. . . . . . . . . . Wj
. "" "AA~"'"""""""W
<::::;:::;===;::"w...t
.. ... m
iO
""..I'
....
.:.~
~.-:;
(7 ~27l(~~~~;~
'.:}}:~~;
so that for Bo == 1 T and T = 300 K W.(:::~~~~
"""".:ii'~'
,," . . . . . . III ....
-:<:-:<~,,~m
...............
. . .. . . .....z"itj
:-:
. . . . . . . . . . . . tool
. . . . . . . . . . ""'....
won
16
8
10 ) x
Ns
(2.67 x
- 'N' - 2kT' -- '
s,
(6.6 x 10- ) eV
-6
"'-' 4 x 1a
2(1/-40) eV
=.
'""
~
oj
.:\n)~~~~m
..........'X
::~:~:~:*
.r'.. ..1''''''''
.... -... :-"""....
..
oj..
oj
..'"
furtherttfffi
....
which justifies the approximation used to obtain Eq. (7.26). If we

3
consider a sample of 1 cm of water, the nwnber of protons contained irii4@E
. It IS
.. .~..-:
">:-~-:.~:.~"~
r-.J~.I'
.. .. ...... ..........
.
........ .
. . ........
........ .
.. .. ........
.... .... ....
. . .. ..........
.........
. ., . .
..
.....
. . '" III III.....
.I"~
~%
z~
~.I".I"
.I"~~
~~.I"
~
:-:.....1"
,~.I"
,
,
,~.I"
~
,~
,~
~ ~
~
~ ~
~
~ ~
.I"~
.I"~
~
~~
~
.~
~
~
~
.,
= No x (2/18) :- 6 X 10
~
~
~
~
,~
~
,~
~
,~
...
....
,
,
,J
.II
...
..
....... ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . III
...
.. .. .II ...
,
. . . . . . . . III
, .... III"
... ...
, , , , .. .. '" III
... III
..
, '~-II"
,
. . ."
. III IIIIII
, "
, "
~
.. III ....
,~
.. III ....
, , , .. .. ....
p -; (limo) x
lUvo
N x
2kTs
=
"
..
..
10
R :::: 5 x 10
eV /s = 8 X 10- w.
III
..
,.
....
III
", "
"III ....
.. ,.
"
::::}~~~
....
,
.. ,. ....
, , , ,.. .. .. .. ....
,
.
. .
....
, ,
III
(7.28) ,,<{
.. ....
..
, ,
,,
,
, ,
"""
oj
~
~
~
...... iii... ..
,
,
(2/18) = (2j3) x 10
oj
~
.1'
,
If we use for R = lis (as can be seen from Eq. (7.16), this is a conservative {}~~~
value; R, however, can be as large as 103/s as discussed below), we obtain '~~<~~~~
.......
from Eq. (7 .27)
:}}~
23
.. oj..
23
..
.... ..
'"
This is a very small amount of power, especially since the applied radiofre-' ':,<=
quency field may be on the order of milliwatts. Therefore., a sensitive null <{
..
method greatly facilitates the observation of nuclear resonance absorption. ",:,::~:~.
In writing Eq. (7.27), we assumed that the power absorbed is propor- ':':'.;'/.
tional to the number of excess nuclei which we now designate by ns; >~:. .
however, as transitions are induced to the upper state, the number ns will ,:{.
continuously decrease. The decrease will be exponential at the rate R
<:~
.

, ,
, ,
ns
= lYse
AT
-Rt
, ,,,
, , ,
, , ,
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
..
, ..,
,,,
,
, ,
,
, ,
...
,
, ,
,
Soon the populations of the two levels will be practically equalized, ,<:
N+l/2 ~ N ~1/2, and no more absorption will be observed.
,: ',:
, ,,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
;::::::
? .....
1"
r..,
~~~~:
r_',',
265
~~/
1','.'.
~::>.
~::::
,-:
::::>
.~:. :~.: : .
However, while the radiofrequency field tends to equalize the populations, the "spin-lattice" interaction tends to restore the Boltzmann
distribution
at a rate
characterized
by 1Ithe
T\.lattice,
We say
nuclei are
"relaxing" through
their
interaction with
andthat
thethe
charactelistic
time TJ for this process is called the spin-lattice relaxation time. Therefore,
in the presence of a radiofrequency field tuned to the resonance frequency,
the number of excess nuclei at equilibrium ns depends on TJ and on R; if
R IITJ, then ns ~ N s . while if R IITJ, ns --4- O. Theovalue ofns
can be easily obtained 10
Ns
1 + 2RTl'
(7.29)
n ----s -
where Ns (Eq. (7.27)) is the equilibrium excess of population in the absence

of the radiofrequency field.
By using Eq. (7.16) for R, we obtain
Ns
(7.30)
ns=-~--~--
+! y2H?Tlg(V)'
From the above result we see that when too much radiofrequency power is
used, the number of excess nuclei ns decreases, and so does the resonance
signal. We say that the sample has been saturated, and the ratio nsl Ns is
frequently referred to as the saturation factor Z:
ns
Ns
(7.31)
= 1 +! y2H?TJg(v) == Z.
IOLet n = II + I/2 - n-1/2 be the instantaneous excess of nuclei in the presence of both
radiofrequency and relaxation. The effect of the radiofreqoency is to make n -~ 0
( dn)
dl
RF
= -2Rn.
(The factor of2 arises because each trllJlsition up decreases n+l/2 by 1, and also increases
11-1/2 by I.) The effect of relaxation is to return n ~ Ns
deNs - n)
dt
= -(Ns _
n)
= _ (dn)
TI
dt
.
relax
Equilibrium is reached when the sum of the two rates is zero; that is,
Ns -n
-2Rn+--=O
TJ
which yields Eq. (7.29).
.. . .. . ..
..........
. ........
........
............
. ... .. . .. ..
A~A -_-~~
..II ..II . . . .
..II III .. iii
III
..... ..
..II
...
......... . .
..II
..II
III
III
..II
. . . . ..
. . . ...
..II
...
. . . ..
. . . ...
..II
..II
.'
............
266
."
.A
..
_ ...
III..
..
...
....
.
......
""
.
.
..
.........
.. .. .. '" ... ...
....... --'" ... "" ~~~~.
...........
........
....
.. .. . ... ., '"
..II
..II
.......
III ..
....
..
..
..
....
....
..
.. ..
iii '
,
..
... .. .. iii
The maximum use~l ~alue of the ra?i0freq~ency po.wer theret~~i~~t ~~

~epends on th~ relaxatio~ time Tl. For s?hds, TI l~ .lar~e (It ~ a l~~~ft@t:a
therefore only weak radiofrequency fields may be applIed. For examp._~~~:~:~~m:~

contanung paramagneuc IOns, the relaxation time for protons may
-4 S
short as T1 10
-
be};~~~~~~~~I~~J
........
',',.~~.~ :.rl:'*.~~~~.
..................
"X,.:...........
...........
................
... .... ... .
. .. ....
......
..
. .. .. . ..::::
....
.. .A...........
7.3
2 L IDe
I t
an T2
II
.
...... . . m ..,
W-d h
1,,/".1"111. ....
.'.A.A'.......
::::~:::::::::%:~:H:Pm:::
"
IfII .....""..
III . . . . . . .
.........
..
..
....
....
~
~
rz.
.
'
m
..
.................*. . . ,
..
.. ..
. . . . . . . . of ..
A
... " " " " .
41 A . .
.of of of...
..
.
...
.*......
'.... ..... ... . . .....w.
............
.:::::::~~:::~~::.**:::::
. . . .. .. ..
.. .
.......................
........................~~
Just as optical spectral liIles can be broadened by external (actors (~;~~W~~~~&~~~~~

Section 6.4) the NMR signal is not perfectly sharp but has a certain wi~}'J~~ll
Excluding inhomogeneities of the magnetic field Bo over the size of ~#.~~~~~~~w.~~~~
s~le, ~e pri~cipal cause for. the line width is th~ interaction betwe~I~~l:
nelghbonng spIns. In the classIcal analogy of Section 7.2.2 we say ~ijt::::~~~:~*~~::

the spin-spin interaction is destroying the phase coherence between .tlj~{~~i~~~1~~~~~
precessing spins and the rotating radiofrequency field~ Another way' ~~)~~~~~~:~~~~~~
thinking of the spin-spin interaction is that one nuclear spin produces::~~}~~~~~~j~~~~~
local magnetic field Blocal at the position of another spin, which then fin4:~~~}~~~~~~~~~~~~~
....................
itself in a field
":::::::::::::::::::::::
....................
...................
. . . . .... . .. .. ..
B
+
B
.
-.:.:.:.:..:..:.:.:..:
'
0
local
.
BO
. . ... .. .. .. ..
A
A A _
..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .JI
..
.. ..
.. ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
:<~:~:.:.:.:,,:,,:,,:,,~,
, ,
and consequently has a resonance frequency
(.00 =
.. A
......... ,
........ ,
.............
.,
.... """,,"
~.AA
....... '
...........
..
YB~ slightly differentj<}~~~~~~~~~~;
from (.00- To estimate this effect, we calculate the magnetic field produced~~~~~~~~~~;
. . . . . . . ..
by a magnetic dipole one nuclear magneton strong, at a typical distance of\<~~~~~~~~~~~~
. . . .. . . . ..
"
O 1 nm
.............
.............
.............
'
. . . . . . . . . . . ..
............. '
" "
" ..
Rlocal ~
fLO
- -,3
4
4.7r
,,"
41i
en.,,,..... x
2Mp
1
r3'
. . . . . . . ..
.. ..........
.
.. .. .. .. ...
..........
... ..........
......... .....
.........
.
...............
..........
.
.............
.
............
..
........ ..
...........
...........
.
...
..........
.
..........
.
............ ...
.............
.........
"
......... .
..... A
"
"
"
" "
....... A
~
. . . ..
.......... .
.....
~
~
~
........ .
.......... .
~
where J-LN is the nuclear magneton eli/2Mp and J.Lo ,,1141 X 10- V-s/A-m\(t~~~~~~~:
.......... .
is the penneability of free space. Numerically we find that
. >~{;~;~:};;
... ..............
,. ....... . .
7
..,. ............
... . .... . .. ..
..............
, . ........ ..
..........
,...
,, '",..............
..........
..
, ,..............
,. ............ ,..
.'
.......
.
,, ,..............
.............
....
..............
. ..........
............ . ...
,, ,,.............
...............
..
~
~
Blocal
~ 5 x 10- T,
4
.......... .
~
~
which is a significant broadening of the line. In liquids and gases, however, ~>~~~~~~~~~~~~~
the reorientation of the molecules is so fast that the average local field is:"~<~~~~~~~~~~~~
......... .
very close to zero, and therefore very narrow lines can be obtained.
:::\}~~~~~~~~~
In Eqs. (7.15) and (7.16) we introduced the function 8 (v) to describe.:: (J~~~~?~
......... ,. .
4eblcnWi\lbl~l+\:at?"'lllffi,-l ir.ac .'Vf\;;;'"ti.\Y~~sa;f\\'lt.."i-l~i'6~n*itAll~ 'i~~ltWJ.\YJ r\!Nt""t'i\.,:::::. }:~:~~i~;~
......
. ..
.....
. .. .......
..
........ .
.....
......
. ........
........ .. ....
,
, ,,
,
..... ...
, '" ~
,
,
, ,, ,
, .
,
, ,
,. .
,
, ,
,,,
, , .......... . .
,
, ,
~
~
,~.o
......
.......
....
......
........
. ..
......
.....
..
........ . .
......
~
~
~
.....
..... ....
......
.....
.
........
..
.........
.
,. ..... . .
~
~
~
.........
,. .......
.......
........ ....
......
.,...
,. .....
.......... . .
, ,.
,.
.......
...........
,. ..... . .
, .......
..
,,,
, ,
, .
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
,,,
,. .... . .
~
..
.II
27
the spin-spin interaction. Since g (v) has dimensions of inverse frequency,

namely, of time, we define one-half of its maximum value by T2
1
2 g(vo) =
(7.32)
T2.
where Vo is the resonance frequency in the absence of any broadening effects. T2 is called the transverse relaxation time. In view of the
normalization condition (Eq. (7.15,
/ g(v) dv
1,
(which also fixes the dimensions of g(I)), we see that a short T2 implies
broad lines, whereas when T2 is long, the line is narrow.
Using the definition of Eq. (7.32), we can then write for the saturation
factor Z (Eq. (7.31 at resonance
Zo
= Z(vo) = [1 + Y 2 HI2 TJT2 ].
(7.33)
It is of interest to estimate T2 for protons when Biocal = 5 x 10- 4 T as

found previously. From the uncertainty principle i:l.E i:l.t ~ Ii and the line
width i:l. E = Y Blocsl so that
T2 '" i:l.t ....., - -
Blocal (5.58fJ-N Iii)
"" 7 x 10- 6 s,
where we used YP = 5.58 and fJ-N Iii = 2Jr x 7.62 MHzfT (see Eq. (7.2.
Finally, as already mentioned, inhomogeneities in the magnetic field
introduce spurious broadening effects that not only mask the fine structure
of the line but also decrease the signal amplitude: hence the use of very
homogeneous magnets and of the "spinning sample" technique.
7.3.3. The Blocb'Magnetic Susceptibilities ll

F. Bloch, who shared with E. M. Purcell the Nobel prize for the discovery
of NMR. gave a macroscopic description of nuclear magnetic resonance,
llTItis section may be omitted without a loss of continuity and the reader can proceed
directly to the discllssion of the experimental technique and results in Section 7.4. However,
the discussion should be quite helpful for understanding the meaning of the "dispersion"
curve as well as the observed line shapes far bath absorption and dispersion.
x;
-..............]ffi.:::::
. . . . . . . . . . III . . . . -...
...... III JIll . .
III III . .
..... III JIll . .
JIll
JIll
. . . . III III
. . . . III III . . . .
. . . . III JIll . .
....
JIll
JIll
... III JIll III

III III . . . . .
..... III JIll . .
~
.... III JIll
268
....
..
"-:</f~~~~~ ~~r'"
........~
7 Mag n eti c Res 0 na nee Expe ri ments
~~~
-- :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
III III
. . . . .. .
~
- -
~ ... -
. .~
.II III IIIJIllJIll. .
nuc~ear sp~ns .. We kn?W that ~h~n an electnc (or ma~etlZlng) field e. (OMf1f~1~j
. <>~f~~%!~~~
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:~%~~%.:.~
~
- ..~~~.J'
(or magnetIzed). We wnte
P -= Xe E
M = XttH1
.
. .....
lion IS due prunanly to the alignment of the permanent electnc
III
JIll
..
..
(7 .34~i3~~~~~~%W::~~
.-.'. ~.m~.~:.o::.0:
. ... . . .. . . . :.0:
...
...
III
JIll JIll
JIll . .
III
....
...
III
III
III
JIll
..
III
III
..
..
1 1 . " " .. 11
II
(magnetic):>l~~~~~
have such dipole moments and exhibIt large polar~CI~~?M~~;~

ization should be called paraeleetric (or for large magnetization,.they ar(:::::dt:::~
. d d all d )
.
':::::::::~~~::x?:~~
m ee c e paramagneuc.
"-:<:::.:}~~;~:" . . .~~;~
field. Matenals that
"
..
.
.
0
~
-::<::::::~~:::;:m::x;:;.~
bli
.
susceptl I tIes, Slnce
.
....
.
.
.
."-:':':'~.~~.:.0.:.~~
, .'... .. .-. ....-..
. ............
:::::~~:m--:-:
.........
...
..
~...
= (1
+ Xe) EO
J.1.
= (1
+ XJ1.) J-Lo
%~~
"<:}~~;:;;:f}:;;;:=
..... or.. -;;-h- .. JJ:
........
. x:.. ...
..
. . . .. ...
..
........
"
.
.
m
_.
-....
.
.
m. .......
. . . . .... ..**x--......
.. ...... ...........
... ...
.
. ..
-~
.. .r.~
...
. ....
...
:.:.:.:~:.~.:.%~
- - ......
.......... ... ...
.. ...
... .
-......... .. . .
- . . ..
- ...... ... - :-:....
-....... . -. ....
. . ...."X. . ............ .-::.c
................
. . .... . ......
.. ... :-. ............c.
~
and
.
..
.- .......
- ....... ... ..
~
n=
c'
1/ (.J~OJ.LO )
1/( ElL)
JC
1+
,.
Xe)(l + X/-L)
~ ~ ~ ~~ ~
~~~
~-~-~~~%~-~~
~~
-~~~~~~.9.
...
......
I ......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I11III .. _
-,.
-~
-~
~"
The refractive index and therefore also the susceptibilities are a function ofDJ!@!m
.. ......... the frequency, as is evident from the familiar phenomenon of the dispersion "~<~~~~~~~~~~~~
of light Thus the susceptibility at optical frequencies differs from tIle static:i~<~~~~~~~~~~~
one and is a function of the frequency.12 Frequently the transmission of~~~~~~~~~~~~@
light through matter is accompanied by absorption that may be strongest</~~~~~~~~~~~~
-_ ..............:J'
at a particular resonant frequency. We may account for the absorption by->}~~~~~~~~~~~~
attributing an imaginary part to the susceptibility.
: <r~~~f~~~~~~
The same formalism can be used as well for the description of nuclear" :))J~~~~~~~
magnetic resonance phenomena. The static susceptibility arising from- <~~~~~~~~~~~~~
... the nuclear moments in an otherwise diamagnetic material differs from :<}~~;;;~~~~;~
zero, but is very small and difficult to measure. For the radiofrequency "/U~~~~~~i~~
susceptibility, we write
"}}~;~;~~~~;
. .
. .....
...........
. ..... ..
..
.
....
-.
.
.
- . ...... .. ....-.
................_..
...........
.....
.. ....J'''...
.
.
x(w) = X/(w) -- iX"(w),
........... .
~
....~
- -
~~ ~ ~ ~
III . . . . . . . . _
~ .. III
... ..
...
..~..
~
~.
.
.
...
.
..
..
.....................
.-...
. . .. . .....
..
~
- . ..~.... ..
..
..
.1
..
~.
"~II
12Por optical frequenCies and for alnlost all materials, X/L is 0 and the vadation in n arises '<{:~~r~~~~:
. 1 f
.. I....
entrre y rom Xe.
.-.:.:-:.:-:~:-~.:
. . . ...
~."II':'.~
:-:
X;.
.XII ...-.
..
..
*_. .-.
~.X
..
~.
1
1
. ,."~"
. ..
..._
...
........ _
....
..... _
..
..
...
1
1
:-:
1
1
1 1
.....
...
~.
1
... ~
....
~.
.....
...
...
..
... ...... ..
...
..
:-:
.....
- 1 I. ...~m.
I~~ ....~~~-
. , ..... y;.
I_.~"_.
~_.
269
where both XI(W) and x"(w) exhibit a resonant behavior when w reaches
wo = y Bo The real part XI(W) is given by
I
X (w)
= 2 XOWOT2
(wo - w) T2
1 + (wo _ w)2Tl
+ y2H?TIT2'
(7.35)
] .
(7.36)
while the imaginary part x"(W) is given by

X II (w)
Here
= -1 XOWOT2 [
2
I
1 + (wo - fJJ)2Tl
+ y2 H?TJ T2
xo is the static magnetic susceptibility defined as in Eq. (7.34)

Mo = XoHo.
and Tl and T2 are the familiar relaxation times introduced before; the term
y2 H?Tl T2 appearing in the denominator is a measure of the saturation as
defined in Eq. (7.31).
Equations (7.35) and (7.36) are shown in Fig. 7.5 under the assumption
1; they have the typical behavior of a dispersion and
that y2 H?Tl T2
a power resonance curve. We also note that Eq. (7.35) is proportional to
the derivative, with respect to w, ofEq. (7.36). By adjusting the detection
equipment, we may observe experimentally either of those curves, or a
combination of both, as a function of Wo - w. Experimentally we can vary
(b)
(a)
{i
-I'"
'5
O.B
{i
O.B
'0
0.6
:-
0.2
_'N
0.6
'~~0.4
1c
.5:
>.:
>.:
-4
-3
-2
-1
234
-0.6
FIGURE 7.5 The radiofrequency magnetic susceptibilities near resonance. (a) The real
part of the susceptibility exhibits a typical dispersion shape CEq. (7.35. (h) The imaginary
part of the susceptibility exhibits a typical absorption shape (Eq. (7.36.
--
...
~
~ III JIll . . -~~
...
III III .III ..
~
. . . . III JIll JIll ...
..... JIll JIll . .

~
.... JIll . .
.....
III
....
JIll . .
. . . . . . . . JIll III . .
.......... JIll . .
. . . . III JIll . .
~
......... JIll JIll
~
...... JIll III
7 Mag net i eRe son a nee Ex per i men t s
270
JIll
III III III

III III
JIll
..
.. -.........
... III JIll III
III JIll . .
..... III JIll . .
III JIll . .
III III
.....
JIll
..
... ... III III

. . . . . III JIll . .
III III III
III
-.~
..
JIll
III
III
.........
III
...
III
. . . . III III
. . . . III III . .
..... III III . .
....
III III . .
...... JIll JIll
UJo .- w either by sweeping the magnetic field (changes UJo = Y Bo) at:~~~
RF frequency, or by sweeping the RF frequency (.0, while keeping the;:-:~ta~:
Bo fixed.
'
7.3.4. Free Induction Decay and Pulsed NMR 13
JIll
III
..
III
..
........... ..
..
.......
JIll
JIll
III JIll . .
..... III JIll . .
..... III JIll . .
..
JIll
JIll
III
...
........
....
JIll
JIll
III JIll . .
..... III JIll . .
~
. . . . III JIll JIll
. . . . . . . . . III JIll
~
....... JIll . .
III JIll III
~
. . . . . . III JIll JIll
. . . . III JIll III
.... ................. .....
~~~~~
It is convenient to consider again the classical interpretation of NMR::-di:~~~~:

cussed in Section 7.2.2. Refer to Fig. 7 ~4b and assume that the RF fiet(tlS~~~
applied along tile X' axis in the rotating frame, for a short time t, such;Mt~~~:.: :-:
WI t = YHI t = 7t /2. 'Then the net magnetization vector M will be rot:ated~~;
...........
into the x' -y' plane; in fact it will be along the y' axis. In the labor~~~ij~~;;
frame this si~ation corresponds to a magnetization vector rota~ng in::~i~~~
x-y plane WIth angular frequency wo = y Bo around the z axIS. A .9~l:t~~~ID.~~. .
is fixed in the laboratory frame with its axis in the x-y plane'. 1ben ;,th~~~~:~~
rotating magnetization will induce an RF signal in the coil at frequencY:4r~~~~~:-~
......~. . ~__
ffiI
ill
.... - - "Y~
Figs. 7.6a and 7.6b.

. . /~~)~~~@X,
~ow long will the sign~ persist aft~r time t? First of all because the S{)i#.~~WI
ar~ In contac.t with the l~attIce there will be aa tendency for M t~ return ~_~q~~::
alIgnment WIth the z runs (recall that there IS no RF field after time t)~ Tffi$::~::~
10
:.;:~
i':~
...
i':~
...~~
r~~
~
,~
r~~
~
,~
,~
r~~
~
,~
,~
r~~
~
,~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
...
~
~
~
~~
~
~~
~
~
,
,
,
,
,.
..
~
......
......
...
......
.........
......
......
......
,.........
,...
,......
,...
, ...
,... ...
.........
......
...
...
..........
..........
.......
...
...
...
...
...
,
~
of,held mhomogenelUes 01' DeCa~1>c;tJt'me-sp111~p11nt~t.'l~Q\)u~~t".n.\~\mt

spm~ are,com~letely dephased (1.e., when they are pOI~tmg ~mfonnly
all dlrec~ons m th~ x-y pl~e) dMfdt through t~e cOlI vamshes a~d ~?:)~m
does the mduced slgnal. ThIS effect occurs on a ume scale T2, WhICh ~~<~~~
usually shorter than T1 Thus we observe a decaying exponential as show<:~~
in Fig. 7. 6c. In general the decay constant is designated by T2* and contains(Ji~
the effects of the spin-spin illteraction~ magnetic field inhomogeneity, an<t\J~i
spin-lattice relaxation
<~~~~r~
....... .
lwmm
"
..... .
. . . . . . . ..
"
. . . . . .. .
' . . . . . . . . . . .. .
"" ~ .....,Ii'~. ...
(7 .37);':::~~:~:::
.', ....
. .... X.
I
.....
"
I
..... .
.....
........ .
..... .x
, ..... .
I
.......
...... .
'
.....
.....
I~""X
'
iii
......
~ ..... .
.... .
.....
.... .
......
I', .............
'LL
"
, . .
13This section, too, can be omitted on a first reading without loss of continuity. HOW7:(~~~~~~
ever, it provides insight on the interpretation of transient effects and of the modem'}~~~
NMR techniques that are based on pulsed excitation rather than continuous wave (CWf~/i~~
.....
measurements.
,: :::::~~~~
,
.... .
... .
... .
.... .
I
... .
.... .
I
,
I
,
I
I
... .
... .
....
.... .
....
I
I
~
I
I
,
I
,
I
I
..
I
I
II
, .. x
I
'
...
.... .
....
I
.... .
.... .
I
... .
,
,
.... .
I
....
.
.... .
I
.... .
..... .
....
...
... .
~
...
I
.... .
....
I
... .
~
...
I
... .
I
I
.
, .. x
I
,
,
,
'
. .. .
....
...
_ ......
mu
II
~H~}.
~{::-:
Bo~
(b)
271
(c)
v
M
?:::::::::
?:~?> .
y'
f.i~:::r
ili~~{."."
t=O
Pick-up coil t=1!...!...

2 yH,
~::::>
:::::::: .... :t::/mGURE 7.6 Free induction decay following a Jr /2 RF pulse. (a) The magnetization vector
~>M in the rotating fnune of reference before the application of the RF (t = 0). (b) After
(:?ilie 1r /2 pulse, the M vector will precess in the stationary fnune with angular velocity WO.
::~{(c) The induced signal in a stationary coil in the x-y plane will have period T = 2:Ir/wo
t:lIfid will decay exponentially with time constant
Ti.
::::::",
'~.'.
~\\:Therefore
the free induction decay (FID) signal contains information on

rJmth the resonant frequency wo (namely on y) and on T2 for the sample
being investigated.
(: .. Note that if one performs a Fourier transform on theFID signal, which
>is acquired in the time domain. we obtain the spectrum of all the resonant
. . frequencies of the sample. This is much more convenient and efficient than
... searching for each resonant line separate! y.
We now briefly return to the quantum-mechanical description of these
phenomena. It was mentioned in Section 7.2.1 that the response of a twolevel system to a resonant perturbation can be solved exactly in quantum
the probability of
mechanics. 14 If at t = 0 the spin is in state m =
finding it at time t in state m =
is
1/
+!
P+I/2
with WI
= sin 2(wlt/2),
-!
(7.38a)
= Y HI. The probability for the spin to remain in state m = -~ is

(7.38b)
as it must be since for a two-level system it must hold that P-1/2

P+I/2 = 1.
14See footnote 7 of this chapter.
. . . -.
. . . ... .. ..
- . . . .. ... ..;t-.
-_ .. __ ....... .
. . . . ... ..
. . . . . . ... .. .
........
.
...........
..
_._
..
- . . . . ..... ..
- - . . . .. ......
-"
...
- . . . . ..... ..
-
-
JI
7 Mag neti eRe sonan c e Exp e rim ents
272
.......
-~
,
III III . . !Ill

. . . . . . III ... . .
...
JI
....
JI
....
....
III ... . .
III
...
.....
..
III ... . .
....
III .... . .
....
JI
......
__
JI
...........
..
....................
....
....
.....
III ...........
...I ... . . ...

. . . . . . . . ..II . . ...
..
..
III
...
III ...... . .
III ...... """
...I
. . . . I11III .
-."
~-?
III
. . . ..
First we reconcile the result of Eq. (7.38a) with our perturbative cal{iriB~:~:~:;
lation for the transition rate obtained in Eq. (7.16). The transition ratej~jf~~~~ ............ ..
of course, the time derivative of the probability and we have::>{~~~:':~

~
.......-................
......
........
.........
........
. . .. ....
.......
. . .... .
. . .... .
- -::::::::::::m
- -::::~:~:m
.........
- - .. ......
. .....
-
dP-1/2 ;,.+1/2
dt ., ' - -
wI.
Y HI .
Stll (VI t
. . . . . . . . . . OIl
....
8m W1 t
.II
...
..
.II
...
.......
.II . . OIl
. . . . . OIl
.II
. . . OIl
.II
.. OIl OIl
. . . . . . . OIl
.II
..
...
. . OIl
The pe~bative calculation is valid when lUlt
_.
....... ..:r...........
1, and therefore we ~:W~~m~~m
......
dP-l/2 >+1/2
y 2 H ? ..""m!
- d't
=
2 """'" t.
:::::-::::~~~~ml
...............
.'...
. ~
or
l'
. . . ...
.....
.".
til . . . . ..
are valid as long as the imtial and final states are not otherwtse dtsturb~J~
:::::::::~
(see Eq. (7.32). Thus

2
.-:.:-:-:.~~w.
.'..............
:-:-:-:.~. ~~
dt
::::::::~~~~~~
assumed that w = mo. Note also t h a t } } : j f f i
__..',,.....
~~~::.'~~.H:
~ .....
:-:'h
-.
"II
dt
. . ..
.,
Ii i
_.<>~~~:~
,' . . . .:x:
dt
,..
~x::
clear that applYing a Jt-pulse (WI t = n) to a SpIn In the state<:}~:~:~

m=
will make P+l/2 = 1 and P-l/2 = 0; namely the spin will flip)~~~~
states, as we also concluded from the classical analogy in Section 7 .2.2~'<j~~i
However" what is the result of a n/2-pulse (WIt = rr/2)? Then we find::(:~~~
,.........
that
,': ':-:":"x
It
IS
-!
,,:.:.:~:-z~
,
If
..
. . .... .
,<::::::::~.:::
, ........
,,,. x
'
P+l/2 = - 2
\t~~
,',....., . . ~:%
":.r/.
P-Ij2-
:-:-:;%x
'" ..
, , , .. ...
~
Namely the spin is in a coherent superposition of the m
= +i andm = -4 ::1~~~~~~l
, ::~~:~~~~~
, '.',,".i".
,',, ',....
.,......
....."'. ..-x.....
" '.........
states . It is described by a wave function
'
1/1 = .J2
1
m = +z
2
ml. =--
,
:
,
:
:
:
.
40) ,:
,
"
(7
~.Y-
........~....:
~x
, ,:::::~~.J'-::
.,
zx":
......
..
....
, .. :.-:
........ ,.
~
,. '''x
. .. .
:.......
. ~*.
. ....-x..
,"'...,..."' .x.i"
......
.........
".....
..
.. . ::x
x
....
,',,'',,,
:.J'/.
, .....
I.
,::::::~~*
, . .. .....
F"
,
..
, ".i"
, , ,'" '-JII.
..
'"
,'
,
,,,
~.
"'
~.J'
'
':::::~*
::' ~:...
:::.t'...::-:
.l'rl'
,_ ............
7.4 Experimental Observation of the NMA of Protons
21J
This represents a spin oriented in the x -y plane, and in the presence of

a magnetic field Bo along the z axis it will precess l5 in this plane with
angular frequency wo = y Bo The quantum and classical descriptions lead
to precisely the same conclusions.
We conclude with the remark that the same formalism is used for atoms
when two states of energy E I and E2 are connected by an electric-dipole
moment d. If such an atom is subject to ao oscillatory elecflic field I at the
resonant frequency between the states, wo = (E f - Ej}/h, transitions will
occur. Of course wo is now an optical frequency rather than RF frequency.
If the atom is initial ly in the state Ii) and the optical ficld is switched on at
1 = O. the probability 16 for finding the atom in the Slate If> at time 1 is
2(~1: t),
(7.41
2(~1: I).
(?Alb)
Pf(O = sin
and for finding it in the slale Ii)
PI(t) = cos
a)
These are of course the exact analogues to Eq. (7.38).

The precession frequency for the atomic case (21 = [,d/2h is cal led
the Rabi frequency. With the availability of lasers one can achieve strong
' . ,: enough electric fields to generate rr/2, rr, etc., optical pulses. In this way
:. .
atoms can be placed in specificquanlumsfates . Such manipulation of single
atoms has recently found applications in quantum cryptography, and it
could eventually lead to quantum computing.
L:
7.4. EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATION OF THE

NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE
OFPROfONS
7.4.1. General Consideradons

To observe nuclear magnetic resonance we need a sample, a magnet, a
source of electromagnc1ic radiation of the appropriate frequency, and a
detection system.
ISSce Das and Me1is~ino~ (1986) citcd in Foolnote 7 of this chaptcr.
16Hcrt we gloss over the fact that d is really the matrix elelllCnl of Ibe electric-dipole
operator between the initial and finAl SUItes.
. . ..... -. . ..
............
"~
.III
.. 01""
. . . . . . . . III ..
.. III
--'~."'''''''''''jIII
.. .oil OIl OIl .
214
7 Mag n eti c Resonan c e Exp e ri m ents
~
..... II .III . .
~
.... .oil .oil
. . . . . . II .oil III
...
...
....
.... II OIl OIl

.... OIl
.... .... lOIII
....
II
....
...
....
JIll OIl
JIll OIl
II
....
........
....
II
....
II
OIl
III
....
OIl
OIl
III .... OIl
II ... .
. . . . . . II OIl oil
- - ............................~
-
.......
.JI
III . . ....
...........
The magnetic field should be fairly homogeneous, and therefore:::it~~iil~~~~~

advisable to choose a good magnet with polefaces at least 4 to 6 in{m.~~~~
diameter. As discussed in Section 7.3.2 inhomogeneities in the magti~a~~~~~;
field broaden the line and reduce the peak amplitude; to obtain reasortabt~~~~~~
results, the inhomogeneities over the volume of the sample should be t$~~~~~~:.
than 1/1000. The choice of the field strength is arbitrary, provided-:th:e~~~~~:
resulting frequency lies in a convenient radiofrequency band. How~v~i~~~~~~:
:
since the signal-to-noise ratio inc~eases (improves) as v~/2, high fie,~jj*~ ~
are preferable; commonly, magnetIc fields of 0.5 to 1 T are used: and:(9t;~;~%.
protons this corresponds to frequencies of 20 to 40 MHz.
::>:~I~~
-
...
...
""
JIll
paraffin, water~ mineral oil, or any organic substance containing 'hydrog~ri~~~~~;

will, in general, give a proton nuclear magnetic resonance signal. Stinie~~~~wm
care must be exercised to avoid materials with long spin-lattice relaxati9~~~;~~:e
times Tl, since they will saturate at very low levels of radiofrequency po~~~~~~rm
.I"~.I':.r""''''''b
T2 ar~ chosen. L1~U1ds WIll meet ~s cond1tion, and
10
the Width of the hne will be detenruned by the magnet
~ost lDstanC,~M~~:WJ
Inhomogenel~);?~:;~~:~
rutrate ~(N03h or coppe~ s~lf~te.

.::<J~:~~~
The S1ze of the sample 1S liDllted by the area over whIch the magn~:}~:~~
is homogeneous~ but also by practical considerations of the coil used' t~~:}~:r~~
3
couple the radiofrequency to the sample. In usual practice a I-em sample:'i~(t~fJ~
adequate; it is ~ontained in a ~ma11 tubula: g~ss container, around which Wi~j~i~
wrapped a radlofrequency COlI as shown In Flg. 7.7a. The whole assem"I~::}:~~%:
. -.'.....11 . .
is then inserted into the magnet gap and should be secured firmly, sinc(~{:}~=*:~
vibration is picked up by the coil and appears as noise in the detector. .
In deriving the probability for a transition between the m sublevels, an~,<~~~~~%
in all our previous discussion, we have assumed the existence of a rotating:I.\~~~~~*~
field at the angular frequency w close to wo. In practice, a magnetic field;:gi~~
oscillating. lin~ly as A s~n wt is estab~ished ~ the interior ~f the .radiofre~/%@
quency COlI (FIg. 7.7a)" Linear harmoDlc monon, however, IS eqUIvalent t9:,\~~~~ffi
~o rotations in opposite direction of amplitude A /2 as shown in Fig. 7
or"/",,t'..
\(Jrm
'~
"111111"~"
:W)iji@1
since
.'-::~::;~~~:~:
I~...~.~..
<:=::~;~ili
A
A
A cos wtnx :::::" (cos wtnx + sin wtn y ) + (cos( -wt)nx + sin ( -wt)ny)Ufji~
2
2
' . ',w
..:.x.
'"''
oI.~"'"
)-:<.;.~
(7 .42 ,-',:.:~:~~:X:
.. %;..
~x.l'
.... .
'I ........
, ,
, ..... ..t: ..
......
,': ..'::~m
.... .. ..
.......
.....
. .... ...
.....
. .. .. :.:
I,
I . . . . . . ., ; .. . . . . . . .
~.
','."'
, ,
"
-: '.:..~. ...~%x
.",...................*re::-:
:<-:.~.~~
, , '"
,
.,'
'
.....
...
..
III..
7.4 Experimental Observation of the NMR
E:>
(a)
Polefaces
ot
Protons
275
(b)
ililC
2A
~:~:~:,
:::::::.
I
~j~,:,
Helmholtz Cilils
:~::: FIGURE 7,7 (a) Schematic arrangement of a nuclear magnetic resonance apparatus. The
:,~"_:~,,::. :.: :. .: means
sample is placed in a homogene(lu8 magnetic field and radiofrequency is coupled to it by
of the coil. The Helmholtz coils ace used to modulate the constant magnetic field .
,~:
(b) A linearly oscillating field of frequency

:t:directions with the same frequency w.
III
is equivalent to two fields rotating in opposite
~>.
:~< where Ox and ny are unit vectors in the x and y directions. The component
:~{
rotating in the same direction as the precessing spins will be in resonance
f: .and may cause transitions; the other component is completely out of phase
i:
..::::..: :.: :::i ::::
...
..
..
','
....
:=::~~~:~~:~[.;;t~~dth~:e;a~~~cs:~~~,;eh~:~;;:::.
Because of the low signaJJevels involved and the difficulty of maintaining

a very stable level of radiofrequency power it is advantageous to traverse
the whole resonance curve in a relatively short time. This can be achieved
either by "sweeping" the frequency of the radiofrequency oscillator whlle
maintaining the magnetic field constant, or by "sweeping" the magnetic
field while the frequency remains fixed. In early NMR experiments as
well as in this laboratory the choice is to sweep the field with a pair of
Helmholtz coils, 17 as indicated in Fig. 7.7a., because it is easy and does not
require fancy frequency generators. The sweep coils are fed with a slowly
varying current, 18 which results in a modulation of the magnetic field B.
If this sweep covers the value of Ro, which is in resonance with the fixed
frequency of the oscillator, a resonance signal modulated at the frequency of
17A pair of coils of diameter d, spaced a distance d/2 apart and traversed by current
in the same direction. produce a very homogeneous field at the geometrical center of the
\{.
CO~:~:~~ence
of a sweep generator and audio amplifier the 6O-Hz line voltage can be
used through a variac and an isolation transformer.
. - .- Zh;';
.. . ......
.... -. .
- - - ....... ..............
........... ......
- - ....JI
- ...........
. . ...
- .... ... -. .
. .. .. .-............ .... .
- ......
. . .... -. . ..
_.~*
- ...............
.
.
...
.............. ...... .
..
.... ...--::'III
- . .. ...... ..
.JI
.... ..
- . . .". . . . . . __.. -J!"
r.Jl
. . . of . . _
""
.
. .
..
. .of
. .. .
.of. .~._
- -
_ ..
""
. . . . . . . of of
of of . . . . ..
276
.... OIl . .
. . . . . . .oil . .
. . . . OIl . . . .
. . . . OIl OIl . .
~~
- - ..
..
..
..
. ... OIl OIl ... .
....
....
OIl
..
..
I, ........................
"
.JI
". . . . . . . . .
"
"
16
....
.II
..
. . . . . . lOll
. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
""
' . " I ..... ..
......",,""
.. "" .II
- . . . . . . . . . . . . .JIIII...........-
rf
Generator
.......
Attenuator
Bridge
Recelver
...
...
... . . JIll! . .
III . . . .- ..
-. oscmoscom{ ~;::~:~~
.....
. . . .*-............
-.
-.....
......
.
................~:-c~
-.J"
.....
.. JIll! JIll! ..
- -
4.
,~
,-
...
"
'"
... .. III ..
... III ..
.. III .....
:.:.... .. .. .. .. ..
:-:.:~~
:-:.:.:.:. . . .
~ :A~ ~
- ............. ..'J',.....
..............................1IIi.:.r:.r.....
- .............
.......-AAA........
_' .................
..-!
-.
. ..............
r-----~
.'... ' ...........
............... -AA.:
.. . :~I11.
:=:::::,
, ~,.-,~
. . . .
... - ...... .-.-..

....
... ...
.......... "'::..:.":?:
Phase'.::': :;:;:::::.~
shifter::: :~~~;~:~:m
'
:
::
;{:::;::@
....
-.
............ ..-.c.
Sample
A.~".f.
and
...
rf coU
.......... A
.;:' ~;::~:~~:~2;
::::::~::~~mm.@.
:........ .
...... . .
.--,---....;.....;.,;,.'.' ::=::
- - - - - . . . . . . . . - - .-...1::
:.:.=.;.:.:.~~
"'"
~:::::~
....
: .1
.'-:
~.~.~.:~~::w.
.'. r: :.~ .:.-:..:=:1:..-'....:.
transformer
...,..............@
.......
~:I: ::~: ~~~::w.
,.
01 ... .
I...~J'@
~...;.-.....:
'----..,......-----.. i
:.:.:.:.;.....:.~
ac
......
..
. . ....
. .. .
.: .: . =.=.~.:..:.~
"
"
...
:J
:.:.:.:
":. >=.:... :.~
.:.;.~
. : ~~
......
:-:.:. .~.w.~
"."
-. . . "-.J
. .,.....",. . . .*
~~
~x:~
''''.A .. ~~
-.~.~
III . .
~ . . . . . . III ~.l
the sweep will appear at the detector. A modulated signal has the advantag~Ej!!!~
of easier amplification and improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio by!}Jn
using a narrow bandwidth detector.
",
(~~~~
The radiofrequency oscillator and detection circuit can be of several'>~~~~~~
........ .designs" Today, commercial frequency generators -art:-4Ilseu+t\,~i~L/):~2
the RF drive and low-noise amplifiers for the detector. A single coil is??}
used as both a transmitter and receiver~ A block diagram of a CW N1vlR:~:~
.......
apparatus as used in this laboratory is shown in Fig" 7 .8~ The signat<~}
was detected by a bridge circuit; this arrangement has great sensitivitY<~{~
but can be used without retuning only over a fairly narrow frequency<~~~;..
range.
){:;..
"
, ,
, ,
Commercial magnetometers often use a "marginal oscillator" circuit,\).

where the oscillator and detector are combined in one unit. In this design :i{.
the RF power is kept low so as to allow the direct observation of the':,<~.
absorption, as well as to avoid saturation of the sample. To cover a wide:):
. .
frequency range the coil containing the sample is changed since it is part':/
of the resonant circuit that sets the oscillator frequency~ A unit suitable for':\
l~!lotato.'Olflemollstrations is available from Klinger Educational
Products,.':i:~
.
.
as well as from other sources.
',:,
, , ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
,,
~{:
~~r...
7.4 Experimental Observation of the NMR of Protons
Detection of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

with a Bridge Circuit
The coil in which the sample is located is part of a resonant circuit with
high Q. The Q value, or qUality factor, of a device is defined as 211: times
the ratio of the time-averaged energy stored to energy dissipated, in one
cycle. For a coil of inductance L and resistance R.
211:wL
Q=--.
R
(7.43)
When resonance is reached, the real part of the magnetic susceptibility

(Eq. (7.35) changes, and thus the inductance of the coil also changes.
Alternatively, an increase in the imaginary part of the susceptibility (Eq.
(7.36)) corresponds to the absorption of power from the field and thus to
increased dissipation and therefore increased resistivity of the coil. This
small change in the Q value can be detected with a bridge circuit, as shown
in Fig. 7.9.
The radiofrequency voltage is applied between points a and g (see
Fig.7.9a), and therefore radiofrequency CWTent flows through the load
L and the dummy branch D; if the bridge is balanced, no voltage should
appear at the point d (smce band c were in phase and of the same amplitude, and the signal from c and d is shifted by 'A/2). Any slight unbalance
of the bridge produces a small voltage at d. The actual bridge circuit is
shown in (b) of the figure. The RiC' elements are effectively generating
.ro',
:::::::
~~/
~:~::
~:::.
~~~~
~:~;.
~:
m:
~.-.'
~::::.
~~:>
~\
~~('
~(
~~~:;:
"'~'.
"'~'.' ,
~?:'
~::::.
~::>
FIGURE 7.9 A radiofrequency bridge circuit that can be used for the detection of nuclear
magnetic resonance. (a) Schematic arrangement; nOle that L is the radiofrequen<:y coil.
The >..J2line ascertains cancellation at the output of the signals from band c. (b) A practical
radiofrequency bridge circuit. For resonance conditions see Eqs. (7.44) of the text
. . .....
- . .. .

_...

- .. .

--
218

-

-
. ..
.. .
- - ....... ..
- .. .

- .. .

the A/2 phase shift and L is the sample coil. The conditions for balan~~(
.
-
. .
....

- ...
. . ....

- ..
- - .
--
+ c' jet') R'Rp 1

2
C + Cl + C2 (1 + CItel') = 1/ Lw ,
Resistive balance:
(t)2Cl C2
Reactive balance:
(1
..
- ...
. ..

- -
where Rp is the parallel resistance of the coil. The bridge is balanced ~(

in the resistive mode, when the change in the Q of the coil will a __ ,-:'.:an absorption curve as in Fig. 7.5b, or the bridge may be balanced iti:
.. . .
reacti ve mode~ when the signal appears as a dispersion curve as in Fig. 1~.$.
.. . ..
The experimental results obtajned with this arrangement by a studen{
3
shown in Fig. 7.10. The sample was 1 em of water doped withmang .:-:.~-:.~
.. .
nitrate [Mn(N03)2]. In Fig. 7.10a the bridge was balanced in the re~'
.
. . . -mode whereas in Fig. 7.1 Db it was balanced resistively. The sweep, d~rf:'~'~'
from the 60-Hz line voltage, corresponds to approxinlately 10- 4 T/di .....
. .. ......
at the center of the oscilloscope trace~
_ . :-}~~)
The exact frequency at resonance can be measured quite precisely ~~ijir
(crystal-controlled) ''wave meter" to better than 1 part in 106 The m -.-:.:-.
field is measured either with a Hall probe magnetometer or with a
..
. ..
coil flux-meter.
.>::::~~~
... .
.. .
From the experimental curves of Fig~ 7.10 it is found that the freq _ .-' :..
.
...... .
at resonance IS
_-.::::::~~~
......
_...

--
.- ....-.......
.
- - . .. . . . . ...
- - ........

- - .. ......
- - ..... .- .. .. ....
.............
- .-..
- - . .. .

0.63 kHz.
Vo = 28,141.48
III
....
III _
III
....
~..I.
.. II II
' ~'
(a)
t .... "..
(b)
..
4
I.. . "'....~ Ii . .11-..

'.rfl-.--.
. .
...........
...
.....
.....
......
... ..
......
...
.....
....
.... ' . ' . ........
.
.... ' ..
.
..
~.-... ..........

ito
-"~.-.~'
~...
...
II
~.'.'.'."
~
~~
.....
~~
---~-.
.~~.c
t - -....
Sweep=5x10- cm/sec:=z: 1 gauss/em (at the center)

. . ......
...
...
..
...
...
....
- . .
..
.
. ... .....
FIGURE 7.10 Results obtained from the nuclear magnetic resonance of protons usiijg;:
, ..
bridge circuit: (a) Dispersion curve and (b) absorption curve. The oscilloscope sweep-:W'
linear at 0.5 ms/cm, which corresponds to approximately 10.--4 T/cm at the center of:::
.
..............
.. ..
sweep.
........
..
. .. ..
....
. . .. .
...
..
.........
.
.........
........
.....
..
.... .
. . ...
......... ..
........
...
.........
......... ..
.....
...

:::::":
~j:-.
1.4 Experimental Ol)se r vation of ttle NMA of Prot ons
v,:
~f:
~~(
~::.:.
Using a rotating coil Hux-meter at the field position previously occupied

by the sample, the magnetic field at resonance is found to be
t.
Bo = 0.6642 0 .0020 T.
{ ,:
~}:
f:
and h ence
y = 2rrIJQ = (26.618 0.08) x 107 rOO / s-1'
~:::
:::::.
:::::
Do
(7.45)
~.::: in good agreement with the accepted value
Y = 26,73 x 107 rad/s-T ,
~t:
Clearly. it is much casier to measure ratios of nuclear moments 10 higb

-.', accuracy than to establish their absolute value [0 the same accuracy.
~;., ":.~.:._~:.': magnetic

To obtain the g fact or of the proton-that is , the connection between
moment and the nuclear magneton-we cecall thaI
?::;:
/.l=g I IJ.N.
~:::~ Thus from Eq. (7.4)

~:::
;{
y
1
= -y~ = -2
-h = 5.56 0 .02.
/.LN
rt
1C J.LN /
where we used the derived value ofy CEq. (7.45and I-LNI h from Eq . (7.2).
~.'.f: .:' We have m easured (he proton magnetic morocnt of the proton to an accuracy
;>;.
of 0.4%.
l~]:: 7.4.3. Measurement of 12f
In this laboratory no pu lsed NMR experime nts were carried out. However,
under cenain conditions one can observe the free induction and ics decay
{ . with a CW apparaws. Thi s happens if the fi eld is swept rapidly enough
~~u;::;. resonance, in whicb case wiggles sucb as those shown in Fig.
t,
F
;::;'
rr
The interprelation foUows the discussion of Section 7.3.4. Far from

resonance the field seen in tbe rOlating frame is Bo, i.e., along the z aus.
As resonance is approached the Bo field is canceled in the rotating fram e
{ , and o nl y Ht is present. This resulrs in rotating the M vector into the ."(I_y'
f plane. After tbe resonance is traversed the effect of H I is again minimal,
~::: but the magnetization remains in the x'-y' plane, and it induces a signal al
.'.'
~:
~:
,,, ,,...., ... ..

, , , , ..
, ..
.,., .
.
, . . .
, , .
. . , .,.
, , .
, ..
, .. .
, , .

280

'"
11

. ,'"
,,
...
.
, , ,
,,,,
Gauss
4.5
2.25
, ,
0 .<;:;:.'
, ,.
-J' .,'
>:~

, ,
,, .
O , ,, ,.
11--.1..-'.p.L-.l.....t-l.'_'I......I-L.=,-'.......
' .--L.
I
sec
10~3
2X10- 3
t..
O.2X 10- 3 sec/em
111(-
, ,
,.,, ,..,...
,.
, , .
.,..,.....
(a) L,near sweep
(b)
FIGURE 7~ 11 Nuclear magnetic resonance signals of protons obtained with a

,
oscillator circuit. (a) The sample is water-saturated with LiF. (b) TIle sample is water- ,'.
with manganese nitrate. A linear sweep of the same speed is used in both cases.
:;:;:;::
__
....
. . .. ...
, ..
.
.. .
.
.
..
., , ., ,... .
, , .

.
..
, ,

, ,,,
, ,
a frequency w(t) =- y Bo(t), which differs from WOol The two freq
'.~'
Q) (t) and (00 beat against each other, and this gives rise to the wiggles..
,. .
can clearly see that the frequency difference increases (the beating
....
shortens) as the field is further away from resonance. The effect th."t,::~.
relevant for our measurement is the exponential decay of the envelope\,...:. . .
the beat oscillations.
We still must explain the wiggles that appear in Fig. 7.11 a before
resonance is crossed. These are present because the spins have not dep .' :
by the time the sweep is restarted and continue to rotate in the x-y p ','
Indeed they are absent from the trace of Fig. 7.11h where the water
was doped with manganese nitrate as compared to water-doped with
in the sample used for Fig. 7 . 11 a. The shorter T2 in part (b) of the . . . _ . . . . .
.
.
.
leads to more rapid dephasing.
. . :;:::3~:::2
...
.
.....
If a linear sweep is assumed, the beat signal has the fqrm
. .
,
-.'.If
,,
, ,
.....r..... ,
, , , ,
'7'*
e - t1.L2
COS
dB 2
- Y
t
,
2
dt
1
"j
.... .
, ,,
'.~
(7. ' ':}~~m
where t - ~ 0 when the resonance is traversed. Note also that the

frequency increases with time since
1 dH
%;:--y
t.
2
dt
,,...:::=~*
, ', ,
, ,
, ,
, ,,
, ,, ,
' , , , ';:~~~;5'5
....
, ..
,
:::~~~*
From a measurement of the wiggle envelope, infOI'lnation about Ti can b:;:~:';55
obtained. This is shown in Fig. 7.12 where the data are well fitted by
~~::~:iJ~:=.::!;.
,
, ,
, , ;.z..;.
.
, , .
, .,
, .
. ,, ,.,
..-..
, ., ,,, ol-.-.., . , . ,, .,
.,
~-~
~-~
,-..r~
7.4 Experimental Observation of the NMR of Protons
2B1
Z:::::,'
~. . . t,~
I
101L---~--~L---~--~----~--~----~~~
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
o.a
Time t (ms)
FIGURE 7.12 Semilog plot of the amplitude of the "wiggles" of the resonance signal
shown in Fig. 7.11a plotted against time. It yields an exponential decay of the amplitude
with a time constant
= 2.4 x 10-4 s.
Ti
exponential yielding
T2*
r.~.J
= 2.4 X
10- 4 s.
. '.: :,:", ' When we convert the measured value of T2* into a magnetic field (see Eq.
c.
Ill:!
(7.37)), we find that

2t.Bo
~~~~~.
{:::::".
f::::.:.::::::':,:':
:
>:::>
2
= -*= 3.2 x
T2 Y
10
-5
T.
namely. that an inhomogeneity of the magnetic field, over the size of the
sample, of 0.32 G is sufficient to cause the wiggles observed in Fig. 7.11a.
We also conclude that T2 for this sample is longer than 2.4 x 1O- 4 s.
~~~\
.. .... ..
~"'~
~j/ 7.4.4. The Effect of Tl
I:::.;.::.:::::.:':,.:"
~~
I
~::\:
~~/
In Fig. 7.13 we show a very simple marginal oscillator circuit 19 that is adequate for demonstrating NMR signals. The first transistor supplies constant
19 I. R. Singer and S. D. Johnson. Rev. Sci. lnstrum . 30. 92 (1959).
.........
. ......... ..--;s,
. . ......... ..
.......... . .
...... .... .
. . ......... ..
.......... ..
..........
. . . ... .. . ... ............ . . . ......
... . .. ........
. ... . ......
. . . . . . of .of . .
OIl
OIl .. ..
. . . . OIl ..
OIl OIl ..
~
. . . . OIl .. ..
282
"
. . . . of . . . .
. . . . . . JIll ..
... OIl OIl . .
. . . . . of .. . .
. . . . . . . . .of .of . .
OIl . . . .
.....
OIl
.... '
...f MIl .. ..
... MIl ..
"
...
..Ii .. . .
. .. .. .. ..... ..
......
OIl
.. ..
....
OIl
..
...
OIl
.. ..
II
II .. ..
............
..
-9 Vi' . . . . . . . . . .
.'
..
...
..
Coil
pF :::::::
..
10 K
10K
...
OIl .. . . . .
OIl
..
..
...... MIl MIl
..
..
. . . . II MIl
... ... OIl .. ..
.. .AI II MIl ..
..
. . . . . . . . MIl II . . . .
.. .. .. ... OIl .. ..
..
..
..
..
..
..
T2 {2N247)
--;:001
.....,
.
--
1K
III
..
..
.....
..
..
..
III
III .. ..
III .....
........
III
III ..
..
.oil . .
......
..
of . .
. . . . . . . . ..
....
JI
..
..
..
..1----1 ..............~.
JI
...
....
..
..
..
OIl . . . . . .
.........
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., .
'"
." . . . . . JIll! .. ..
.
:::::::
.....
- ...... .
.......
.. ............
.
.
. . . . .. .. .. ..
d~~,t!
.~
~
... A .. .. ..
......
... ........
... . .. ... ..
. . .... ... .... ...... ....
:::::::~;::::::
...........
. . .. ...
. . ..........
.. .. .... ... ..... . .
.... ........."'". ...
...
........."". .
.
...................
.
.
"'
"
.
........
.............. ......"'"""...... ...
.....
. . .."". ...
......
. . . .."" ... .
. . . ... .. "" .. .
"
A ..
~
~
...
. . . ..
.. III JIll! ..
ill
...
ill
ill
"""
..
"'"
..
..
..
...
...
"'"
...
"""
"""
..
...
--
~O.01
...
"""
...
10 K
..
..
.
.
10-100
50
...
..
10 pF::;:;:
..
. . . . . . . . . . of
D1
B (1 NS6)
..
.. r- ..........................
-
. .. .. .. ... .. . .
. . . .. .. .. ... . .
..
50 K <-:"':":":
..... ..... .. .. .........
.
.
...... ..
= ......
O 1 .......... ..
'1 (2N502)
..........
'
5pF
4.7 K
..
..
.01
.01
.0001
..
. . . . . .01
.. ... ... "" .01
... .01
.. .. .01
... ... .01
ill
.. ..01
....
""
. . . . . . . . ..01
........
.~~
.... "".01
"" 001
"".oI.
. . . . . . . . ..01
.~
. . . . . ..01
"
""
J ..... "'" ..
--
...
...
ill
TO. 01
"""
...... "" ..
"
.01
.0001
.
. . .... ...
. . .. ...
.... .
.....
..........
........ . /........
+9V
...
.......
ill
ill
--
..
"""""
"'"
""""""'" ~m
""
'
.' . . . . . . . . m
......
001
.. "" ..01 ..
...... .. "" ....
..... .01 ..
. . . . "" 001
. . . . . 001 ..
. . . "'00
Bo
= 0.8 T
IS
(V()
controlled by the 10-kQ potentiometer
001 ..
......
001 . . .
.....
001 ..
. . . . .01 ..
.. "" .01 .01

.. .01 .01
.....
""
001
. >}~:~:~~~~
depending on the resonance set by the call LC CIrCUit.
The amplitude
........
ill
the
oscll~%i~~~
= 33.83 MHz}. The RF level as measured across ~?~~i~~!1
the NMR signal inc~es with increasing ~ po,:",er unti~ the RF amp!t@j~
because the sample IS saturated. From a knowledge of the Q of~~{tm
coil one can convert the RF amplitude to the corresponding value of
tli,%:dl
time Tl.
. .
.{::::@l
~ote als.o that once the sample .IS satu~ted there IS sufficl~nt magnetf:t~$
zatton left ill the x-y plane to begm showmg a beat signal (wlggles) aft~t:~~~
on the oscilloscope trace In Fig . 7.14 was set to cover a full cycle of ~~:}~~~i
60-Hz sinusoidal sweep..
:::::::}~~ili$
. , , "'.i"~~
,'. . .W
%
. " "x
...
x
. ..
..,'.,,,''.........
.
.
.
.
.
%
.""x
, . ..... X
:: :~::~::~:~x~
......
.......
"'. . . .m
.
:"t-..
, ".001..
o. , 001 . . .
001 . I .
'
'
, ,
. . . . . . .I ..
'
. . . . . . .I ..
, ,..... ...JA..
,
','
.-~
................
, ,' ..........
~lj.
:'~:::~m
..~
": :~:;:::~~:*:
....
. . ..
...'
"."
.. '.
...
7.5 EIQctron Spill Resonance
2BJ
20 mVlcm
(II) rf le\I6l 0.125 V
02V/cm
(b) rf O.2V
O.2V/cm
(c) rf 0.3 V
02V/cm
(d) rf 0.4 V
0.2V/cm
(e) rf 0.65 V
Sample Is salurating
10
l~
FIGURE 7.14 Nuclear magnetic resonance signals from protons obtained with the circuit shown in Fig. 7.13 ali a function
tbe llIlIplitude of the radiofrequency. Note thai
initially the outpUi signal increases with increasiog radiofrequency amplirude but at a Icvel
of appro:o:.imate ly 0.5 V me sample is saturated and the signal begins to decrease. The signal
of 0.5 V is shown in Fig. 7. 11 b.
or
7.5. ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE

7.5.1. General Considerations
: '::
:;:
So far we have discussed transitions between the energy levels of a proton or

a nucleus in tbe presence of an external magnetic field. Transitions between
the energy levels of a quasi-free electron in an externaJ magnetic field can
also be observed. We refer to this case as eiecfron spin resonance (ESR)
..........
. ......... -..
............
.............
........
. . . .......
..
,. .... . .
.....
OIl
OIl
.. ..
A ...... OIl .. ..
. . . . OIl OIl ..
..... OIl .. ..
...
OIl
"
of .of . .
OIl .. ...
"
"
284
of .of . . . . . ..
......
OIl . . . .
:::::::}:~::::.
............
......... ....
"
. . . . . . OIl . . . . ...
1>
. . . . OIl OIl . . . . .
. . . . . . ,.. OIl . .
OIl
OIl
..
. . . . . . OIl . . . .
OIl . . . .
. . . . . . OIl . . . .
-
for ESR to be approximately fLB/J-lN ~ 2000 times bigher than th~t:f9t~

NMR. Namely for similar laboratory fields the resonance frequencY::lg:tfi~::
the microwave region.<~~I~~~~~~;
Atoms or molecules that have J :/= 0 in the ground state will exhibitW.i~~~
effects. Such atoms or molecules are paramagnetic (the atomic spins c~bJ~~:.
oriented by an external magnetic field), hence the use of the term ele~fiDlt~:
paramagnetic resonance.. In solids, however, it is much more diffic-ult~ii~
find electronic states with J # 0: this is due to the fact that in the chetrilei~t
binding of atoms into molecules. the valence electrons get paired off~ sQ-ih~t:9
. . . . .. .. ......
each atom appears to have a completely closed shell. For example, in N:~P~~t
the sodium has a 2S1/ 2 electron (n
3~ 1 == 0) outside closed shells/&,i6:.
the chlorine has a 2 P3/2 electron hole (n = 3, 1 1) inside ,closed shetf~i~
III!
... .. ... ..
.. III .....
......... ..l'.
. . . . . . AI
However, in the NaCl molecule~ the sodium appears as a Na+ ion,\~i::

hence presents a closed shell configuration, whereas the chlorine app'~:
as a CI- ion again with completely closed shells. Consequently, the ~~@~~
molecule is completely diamagnetic~
:.~~~~~::::.::
Nevertheless, it is known from the work on static magnetic susS~p.~f
tibilities especially at low temperatures that certain salts show s~~~g~:
p aramegneti sm. Namely they contain ions with permanent magrit(~~~;
moments on the order of J.LB. In particular, compounds containing':ihU~~~;
of the "transition elements" of the periodic table are frequently found t~f(ti~~~~r
oil
.. ... . .
which the double valence results in a Cu + ion. For copper the n = t~;<~j~:~~~~
2
~ Cu + has
2
a hole
ill
the 3d shell; thus the ground
s~te of the 9~~&i~1
magnetic-dipole moment. In an external magnetic field, the ground.~~~~~~:~:::m
strong and narrow r~s~nance line, Wlth a g factor very close to 2.00 (thef~idi
ture of the molec~le is shown in Fig. : .15, and the '~ee-electron" beba;,y}:~J.
comes fr~ the SIngle elec~n bond ill ~ne of the mtrog.ens. Electron~~
resonance 1S also observed ill other matenals where unpatred electrons ~~
........."..~~fj~
""a ......
" ....oi..~~
':::::::::;:~::m~~
*
"'1
. ....... .*
.*
..................
..........
.........
.
.
...
.
.........; ....
....
..
...... II
. . . II ....
. . . . . II..
....
.... ''m
II....
. ., ...........
.
. . . . . II.
.... ...
. . "I II......
....
............
.. .. . 01....
....................
.
,
,
_.
. . . . . . II.
01
.;
7.5 Elec t rorl Spin Aesorlance
285
NO,
. AGURE 7.15 Chemical structure of DPPH (diphenyl-plcl)'l-hydrazil), (C6H~hN

: NC6 H2-(NChh
.
sucb as crystals with lauice defects. in ferromagnetic materials, and
:: in metals and semiconductors.
The much higher frequency of the ESR transitions is advantageous
be,,,,use the energy absorbed from the microwave field for every transiis much higher than that in the NMR case, thus leading to a much
;rn"w,ed signal-to-noise ratio. Furtbennore thc separation between the
levels is much larger, so that they re main resolved despite their
" Iarge '
width.
Tbc resonance coudition is detected, as in the case of nuclear magnetic
resonance, by the absorption of energy, and for th.is reason souds and liquids
are milch easier to srudy than gases with their very low densities. Much of
previous discussion on transition probabilities and relaxation mechaDisms is equally applicable to electron paramagnetic resonance. However.
the population difference between the energy levels (see Eq. (7.26 is
mucb larger because of their greater energy spacing. A difficulty with ESR
is that the width of the resonance line may be prohibitively large, since both
the spin-lattice and spin-spin intera.ctions are stronger than in the nuclear
.:" :. magnetic resonancc case. In order to reduce the Line width, the sample may
. . be cooled to low temperarures (lengthens the spin-lattice relaxation time)
andlor the paramagnetic ions are diluted in adiamagnetic salt (lengthens the
spin- spin interaction time by effectively increasing the distance between
the spins).
When measuring electron paramagnetic resonance \jnes in solids, a great
variety of factors are obtained. This is due to the differences in the
couIPiu1g "ftheuni,aired ei',,"coD." spin with the orbital angular momentum;
the strength of this coupling depends very much on the position (in energy)
:: of the adjacent levels of the jon as they are modified by the crystalline field .
.: Further, the electron paramagnetic resonance lines show hyperfine structure
....
. . --
-.~.'~
~.-~-~-~-~~
III III . . ..-~
~
....
-
III
~ ~
....
III
JIll . . . .
JIll JIll
III
-
JIll
JIll
JIll JIll
JIll
JIll III
... III JIll JIll
JIll III III
... ... III JIll III
286
..... ...
. . . . . . . III III . . ....
III III . . . .
.... JIll III
.~~.-
...
...
...
III
III
III
.... III III III

.... III JIll
JIll JIll III III
III JIll JIll III
... III JIll . .
...
........ x:::s
...
...
JIll JIll
JIll . . . .
- .......
.......
III
...
JIll JIll I11III ...

JIll III III
III
III
III
...
III
III
III III
III
JIll
characteristic of the interaction of the nucleus with the ionic energy l6k~lWt
this structure in tum can be used to positively identify small traces Qt:roi:~~:
element contained in some unknown sample. Similarly, the organici~_ff~~~~:
radicals show characteristic lines (g factors) that can be used to i<k#~:W:~J~~:
them and show hyperfine structure as well. bl fact, a radical that ha~:;n~:~::.on
.. w
structure (like DPPH) may exhibit such effects when the sample1is prep~~a~~~~.r.r.in a liquid solution.
-<>t~~~~~~:.
III
...
III
III
JIll
III
III
. . . . ........
.........
. . . -..... ....
.............
..............
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
..
........ ",r .........
III
....
JII
..
.. .. ..
-I
. . . . . . . . . *.
. \~~~~~~~OO~X
...... . m
'(~~
... ..
-~...
7.5.2. The Electron Spin Resonance Spectrometer
X-band
refe~s to the frequency. of the rmcrowave source,
.................~~
which
~s m:~~~f:i~~@
lO-GHz reglOn (A.f ~ 3 cm). MIcrowave components and ''plumbmg''4~f:i;&]

readily available. A schematic of the spectrometeris shown in Fig. 7 .16i#i:(,t~~~jl
m blocks separated by the dotted ltnes can be easIly understood. ~:~:~;;m

co~nec~ons between compone~ts are, m~de wi~ an ~-band wave~:t~~lW~~~@
WhICh IS re~tangular copper tubmg Wlth mner dimenslOns a ' O.900%f~~~~.
........
'
...
.r...x::'l~
b - 0 400 m
......... :.r...,;
The microwave source (block A) consists of a Varian X-13 klystron po~j!iii~~
ered by a Hewlett-Packard 716B power supply. ,The klystr.on frequency C~W~~iii~
be controlled by the KLSP modulator, and thIS feature IS used to "loc~~~\~:~:~@
the klystron frequency onto that of the external reference cavity shbwn::W~~~~~~~&.
block B. Instructions for tuning the klystron to an appropriate mode a#~)~~W
locking the frequency are provided with the instruments, and after a whlJij}~~~?E
one becomes familiar with the procedure. The sample cavity is shown'Jtt~~~i~~W
.. ,~ .......~-~~~
block C together with a phase shifter and tuner. There are also provisio~'~~~~~~~~
for measuring the wavelength. Detection is accomplished in block D~ ~y{:~;~~
the equivalent of a nlicrowave bridge, which uses a "magic tee" to co~f~)~~~~~
pare the sample signal with the reference frequency. Block E indicates~:::::::~
the magnet power supply and a set of Helmholtz sweep coils, which ar~(:~:~;:
..
driven by an audio amplifier at a ramp generated by a function generat~~U~~~)
Finally in block F is shown the audio part of the detector where a lock-m.~~~i~~
detector can be used when the field is modulated4 Otherwise the main field(}~~
can be ramped under computer control, which also records the signal \t~1{~f:
'
.
:.
:.:.:.:
.
.
.
:.
.................
.
field
...
-
III
III.
.II
.....
~~
.II
oJ'
1 , . . . . . . . . '../
...........J'
.,~
"~~
""~
,. I
.1
.....
III ....
. . . . . .~
......
III .... .
,'~~
I
.....
.....
....
.1
.
III ....
III
. . . . . . .~
20A very simple ESR demonstration apparatus operating in the RF range, and thus '~i~\~~~
very weak field, is available from Klinger Educational Products~
.: :\)i~:
I
. . . .. .
...
I
,
,
,
....
......
I
I
I
I
III ..
III .....
III
I
I
III ... .
I
I
..,,"..
....
',',~
','~
. . ..
...... .
III ..
III ..
"'~
III
I,~.ri~
"
" I~."ri~
I
oJ
~~
.......
......
','~.ri~
~ . . . . .~
, ....
oJ
,',~ .I.~
I
,
.......
...
...
I
I
III
.
L..I-_--,,..-_-L..J;/ /
1
I"
I
1
1- ______________ _
FIGURE 7.16
Schematic nf the X-band ESR spectrometer.
.,:.:.:.~~:~:~:.~.
~
...........
. . . ..... ...
.
...........
.
.
..
.
..
...........
.. .. ..........
.. '" . .
.........
"" ..
.
... ... .. ..
.......
"' ...
..........
..........
....
..........
..........
..........
............
.
. .. .. .. .. .... .
..........
............
..............
..
. . . . .. . .
. . ..... . ......... . . .
............ . :.
,...Jj.........
....,..., ............
..
288
7 Magnet;c Resonance Experiments
. . . . . OIl . .
..
OIl . . . .
.......
~
a:.
lOll
. . . . . . . lOll . . .
...........
...
OIl
.. . . . .
........
JF
..
.-
""
..
OIl
~-~
OIl
..
.III . .
..
~-~
We now elaborate on some of these components:
. .
..
OIl .. .. ..
'
JIll ... JIll . . . . . .
.. OIl .. .. ..
(a) Propagation in the Waveguide. Only certain modes will prop.~~i!r

without attenuation and the wavelength Ag in the guide is given by ...............
~}I~~~~~~~:~~
.
..
. ......... ............ ..
.. ..... ..................
........... "
_. . _ - _c .-. _
Ai A~
1 = _1
~_',_
_
_
_
,
_
A2
Ii
+ (n/b)2
(m/a)2
... .. III . . . .
. . . . . . . . III JIll . . . .
.-
. . . . . . . . III
"_ii_ __
'
.-
JIll
.. .
JIll JIll
JIll
III
(r~;4tJ}::~:~
"
'
......
JIII_.-"
JIll ...
a _ .. III
a III III _
III
III III
III III ...
..
... -
JIll
JIll
III ...
III III JIll
.........
...
JIll : . - : - :
JIll
III
.... III
JIll
where Af is the free space wavelength and a and b are the inner dj.menSl9.~~;~~
of the guide; m and n are
..........
...
.....
..
............
.
...
....
..
.
.........
........
.
.........
.
..
....
.
............
. ..
a ;.;. . .: 2.29 em,
and
b = 1.02 em,
Af ~ 3.2 em .............
............
- - .. .. .. . .
::::: ::::~:::::~~~ ~.
....-.-........-. .........
.. . "'0:rr~~~~
.
.
we find that only the m = 1, n = 0 mode can propagate, and
:':':.:.:":":":;~~::3~
.....
....
.
.
...........
.
.
.
.
......... ...
integers. Since./rf:jij;x
~
~.
. . . . . . . oM
...
...
"
............
.". :-:.;
..:-;..;",~...-.)t("
. ...... .- -.......
..
.
............
.. ....
....
..
.....
.
.
_. .
--""~m
. . . ... .. .. .. .2
. . ........ ......
......
~
Ag = 4.5 em.
...
"
",
... ..
........
I _ .. .
~
In this mode, the electric field is completely transverse to the axis of:th~~~~~%
guide~ this is called the TE10 mode. The field lines for the traveling 'I:if~i~~~~~fm
wave are shown in Fig. 7.17 where the density of field lines is proportiQ~~@~~~
to the field strength.
"':~::~:~~m
'.' ::::::::~:~j:~
...........
:~~~~~~~~~~~;~m~
........2W:.-:
.
'. :~~~~~~~~~~~;~WW~*~
.....
z...J
{"
.~
'.' ......
:-:.x;~~:fm:::::::::0-:
~~
..... . . .,r
."::::::::::~::~W...... ~
.......
..
.~
::::::::~:::W~
....... .
..........
Top
~~
:.:.:.:.:.:.:~. ~..:
view
":':':':':'~~J"~
.....~~~J"~J"
.':':. :.:M:.:.....~
y
I
Side
view
-......~ "" -
--
-;"--Ir
r-
Ii
,
_
....
I'
,. -- - , ... ,- . ...
~.
I~
~. ~
z...J
-I
........
...........
AI . .
.'...M.~
.. _::;:;
..t."' .... ;:.:
.......
,. , - . .'". .....
. . . . rX"'"
..
"
. . . . . JIll
"'''
r.
.... ,.
...... ........
,.M"'
" . . . . ...
. ...,Jill ._
.
, ' "..........~~
'J"'..
JIll
, "
~
I"
!""
..t
"
..t
..
.......
.... ""'"r'. "'"..-.

., , ".......
... "'" ,..
*..1"_
.: '~.:.:.:~:~
, "
, "
...
..
" ...... ...,
~"
!I.
" .... .oil .. ..- _
' " :. " .. OM........
"
',~fu
:: ::~::::~.~*jJ"~~
Cross section
:":.:.:~~::::::rr.rc
..... .-"'" .
.....
, ......... :.-=.r.
.',
atA-8
III
, ,... OIl..
, ,
II
:.:
'" . .
, . . . . . . . r*JIl
<'>=-:~~m
:::::::~:~
:::::::::~*
', . .
.".....t'.*
Pf.
'.01
' " .....'.. *:rr..-.;
' .. .....J'
'
~~*
. . . . .1 .
.'>:-:.:~~~~~
',.........
... "'" ~:-r....:
,
..
l1li
l1li .
t".;Il
,
...
!III"
.,.,
,
Perspective
..... "'"'....."X
::::
"' ,.....
,
.. oM
"
'
.
.
x
X
,', . . . .*
','"a" ""'
.......- ..._.- Electric fie~d

.. - .....--.. Magnetic fIeld
Z
X
...
.......
.
.
....
. ': ,:-: .....~.~
" a ...
'
, " ".rI~/.
.:,::::::~=:$
' -:.:-:.t':r:}
"
, .. .t'x:.
,rA"
, , ... -...... JII'
""'. . ..r...
.~oM,r.
FIGURE 7 . 17 Configuration of electric and magnetic field lines for a traveling wave in a\~f:~~
rectangular waveguide. Ag is the wavelength in the guide.
.\};~
"
,
......
.
.....
....
.
..........
::.:
', ......
....t'.....
... .
"
..;11
, ,
,', ~... JII
,
,,
,,
,
,
,
,
II .. ..
II .. .
.............
I
.1"'.
AI ..
II
..
......
.....
.
...... .
II
.......
II
II .. .
, - <II .. .
, _ .. oM
1
_
01 . . . .
....
-"'''
.
,',a .....
, ,.
~.
,, '-X
_..... :.
.......
,
, ' , ..,
j1A
7.5 EleCtron Spin Resona nce
289
(b) The Microwave Cavity and Sample. The cavity can be made from
part of the waveguide ending with a shorting stub. to set up a standing
,.",",0 . The sample is placed so as to be located in the middle of the magnet
palefaces, and then the (shorting) sliding stub is adjusted so that maximum
B field exists at the sample. From the configuration of the sIanding wave
pattern. maximum B field ~urs at a distance x from the short, where
with p an integer. Since the microwave field must be normal to Bo it is

. 'preferable to place the guide in the magnet with its wide side parnlleJ to
the polefaces.
(c) The Magic Tee. This is the heart of the bridge circuit. and is used to
compare (interfere) microwave signals. It can be DSed in different configurations but in the spectrometer used here it is set up as shown in Fig. 7. t8.
Let E I be the reference field and E2 the signa! field. The power at DR
and DL arc
I'R = lEI + E21' = lEI I' + IE,I' + 2Re (EI E;)

11. = lEI - E2 1' = lEd' + IE,I' - 2Re (EIE;).
':: :
Signal
H,
Reference
I
E,
,. :
... p~
PR
...
r-o"
(E 1 +Ezl
AGURE 7.18 The magic lee used in the ESR spectrometer, Arcference frdd and signal
field are mixed withio the tee to provide II sum or difference in !he OUtpUl1IITllS of the lee.
.......... ..... ....""""""""""""........

... .. .... .,....""""""""..""""....
.. ..................
.. .... ....""""""""""....
.
.
.
..... ........""""""........
.
.
..
- - . . .. .. "" "" ..
.. ... "" "" ....
.... .. ... ..........
..
...""......
"" ..
........
... ... .. .....""""""""""......
. .. .... .... ...... """" """" ..
................ ..
290
..
_~
.........
..
,J
..
.,
""
'"
""
..........
..
.-
"
....
..,
""
..
..
""
""
""
..
11
..
""
""
..
.,.
,,J "",,""',
..
..
..
..
...~
..
of A
...
'>'''.''.''''''
If these two power levels can be subtracte~ we have a signal, S., equal~td\~~~~~~
'1.. ...."'' '."''.......
s=
, . ., . .". .... .... . of"". . . . .

. " .. .. .. .. ...........""""""A ..
...
4Re (E1 E2*)
...
..
<:}}~:~:~r
. .. .. ..... .. .........."""" .......
. . . .. .. ... "" .. .. ""
...................
. ... .... .... .... .. ..... ..
. . . . --..
l'."rI'.I'
............... ",..II ....
i'rI'.I'
" .. .. .. .. "" "" .. "'" i
.,
. .,. . . . . of "". . . . . . .~~
, , "
""
,J
..
..
..
...
..
",.
Let
. . . . . . . . JIll ...
"" ""
. . . . . . . """" " .."'"oIiJ"'"
. . . . . . . . . III .. ...
. . . . . .
'.. -~~m
......... "'"
.
.
.
... ...~-~m
... .
...
,
..
. ..... .... "'"
.........
. . . . ... .- "'"
ER is real.
~ ~
Eo(1
+ x)-:
-~
A~
= X'(w) -
,
,
.I"
}::::}:;::~
..... . .
Eo is reaL
~Mmm
iX"(ro)
,, we .......
.
.
::::::::~~~~:aD
'".J'a~
. . ...........
.................
:.:.:.:.~.~.~ ~
........ 'W
. .>}~:~~~:m
curve. For () - 0 we obtatn
S = (4ER E O)[1
~ ~
.........
Then recalling from Section 7.3.3 that X (Q))

.
that
....
. . . . . . . . . . . . oil
~
2'
... .
. .........
.
.....
....
........ m
..................
. ...... ..
.
. ....... .
+ X'(w)].
..
'
curve (Eq. (7.35) or FIg. 7.5a). ForO - .rr/2 we obtam
/I
.......................
<i1
-:-:-:-:-~I
........
-:;:::::::::m
Eq. (7.48).
These are deVIces where the reSIstance changes as a function of mClden1;n:t~~m

powe: and are q~ite se~si~ve. It is, however, simpler ~o use in the magic:/t~jOO
<:~:t~m
for diagnostic purposes.
Bo field and sends the difference of the slgnals from the two
mIllS
of the'<{:~~m
magic tee to the lock-in detector. When the modulation width is much.JI~~~
less than the line width the detected signal represents the derivative of))~~~m
the absorption (or dispersion) curve. This can be seen from the sketch of:,>~:~~~~g
Flg 7 . 19
:::::::::~~:a:::
::: ::::::~:*:
.........
:.-:~
......
::::
.. ........
.
.. . ,...,..
",....
. .......
. . .... ..
.. %:r..
........
.', ,
, ,
' ',
, ,
, ,,
7.5 ..3. Experimental Results
..............
.. .........:::::,,...-_..
. . ....:::::"
.
.......
,.....
.
. ,, ,,,......
. .. .... .
...
,, ,,....
., ......
........ x:...
........
, ,.. x'"
'
,',
,
"' ," " ..
,
,
'
~.
Results obtained by students are shown below. The magnetic field was. ::/j~~~~~
...........:.;...
nlodulated at 1 kHz and the lock-in detector was used. The modulation '<~J&.
',
.............
........
....... ..
, ,'
,, ,,,
.....
.
.......
.....
......
.....
. . . ...:.-:..
.....
.
.......
.....
,.,.,,.
..
,,',,.........
......
..
....
.
..........
.
.
.....
.............
.
, , '.....
:.":.
=:;:.
...
.
. .".:.:"'
',' .........J..... .
' , ' , .......J. . . . .. .
, . . . .J .~.
, , .......J. .
,,,
,',
"' ,
, ,
, ,,
,
...
~.
.......
;'..)1
, ,
, ,'"
, "
','
, "
, ,
"
,.~
~.
~
J
7.5 El ectron Sp in Resonance
291
8. B"
FIGURE 7.19 Effect of srnall-a.mplirude field modulation. The OUtpLlt is proportional to
the derivlltlve of the absorptiou curve and is m~ximu m aI the points of infloctioo.
,
,
-,
c
It;
-,
-, ,
FIGURE 7.20
)l
iv
60
'"
'"
"
"
Resonance signaJ for DPPH as a function of the magnetic field. A small
modulation was applied to allow lock-in detection, and therefore the signal
derivative uf the absorption curve.
.;.
give.~
the
amplitude was kepi low so that the derivative of the absorblion tine wa.."
observed. The field was swept lbrough the resonance by slowly ramping
the magnet current The frequency was measured by using the wavemerer,
and the magnetic fie ld by using a Hall probe.
Figure 7.20 shows the results for DPPH. The Geld measured at the
two ends of the sweep21 was B(O) = 0.3370 T and 8(100) = 0.3480 T.
21The number in pan:nthe.ses refers to the marlcings on the x axis of the CDIDputer plOL
. .. . .-
-.
Jo
~ ~ .-~~
......
. . . . . . III JIll . . . . - .
III . . rllllJo_~
~
III _ JIll . . . . OIl
~x~
JIll..
JIll
,........
.............
~
. . . . III JIll . .
III
III
III
..
... ~,.-~
JIll
..:..:....~.
-
JIll
".J-~.
JIll
JIll
- -:.:.~.:.;
292
Jo
r ...
...... III JIll . .
.... III . .
~ . . . . III . . JIll .,~~
-'. ,,'.'...........
.....
"'W
. . . . . .. . .
- .........:-~
....
ili~
III
JIll
" -. .
III
..
- - III IIIJIllJIll..
.. ..
The field on resonance is
......
....
:::::
III
JIll . .
JIll JIll
::::::::::~~::::::r::a~j:::~~
~
~
-.. . . . . . ru
......
III
..
..... :-~lli
.......
f~
....
JIll
III
..
JIll
....
..
- . . . . ..
--:-:.;".:. :
- :.:~:.:.: ...:. :. :.....~
- - ........ -~
- ...........
..
.... ... III . .
...
Bo = 0.3402 0.005 T,
r?
III ..
....
........
II
.~~~
III
....
III
.-~
....
- ........~
The}mi!i~
where the error arises from the error in the Hall probe calibration.
Vo = 9.578
<::::~~::~::m
0.010 GHz,
.'/!Mfi
:.:.:.:.:,:~~~
the enur reflecting an estimate of the accuracy of the wavemeter calibration.)W@!ig
..
... . .........
. .; Ji/.
. . . . . . . *.
........ '
~~~
:.:->:.~ Yx.~
Thus
.......
.
.
.... . .*'
' ..............~~y.y
h Vo
III
.</:~~~:%
9.578 GHz
. ..... . .
~m~*
.. ..... ::..--h
::::::::::~~~~fa
~~~~~
;--/.,
........
........, ~~~
:'-~m~n.
... ~ ........
~ :
.......
in good agreement with the accepted value
..
...
:-: -: -:.
....
.. //.
:.:~:.:.:..~ :
,
.....
x
~~
.
.
...
.."."
,, ..... ......... ..X......
.,... .... x.
. , ....... ::.-:'
...
. . . .-x
...
I.
II
~~~
,~
gDPPH
== 2.0036.
...
4
The width of the line is fairly narrow, of order AB = 8 x 10- T at f~ll . ))~~t.i
........
..... ::.-: ...
:: :~::::~~~:
............
Width .
.........
~
. ,,
' ~
,
Figure 7.21 shows data for a CUS04 sample under the same conditions. <)!Ml
The frequency is the same as before but the sweep of the field is much wider. -.: .<:~;~~:.
It extends from B(O) = 0.2690 T to B(100) ~ 0.3750 T. The central field ii{~~~~~
is found to be
":::::::~:::
...... .
~~
......
........
-......
, ' ,
,,
,
....
.
......
.......
......
........
..........
,
,
ill
.11
Bo = 0.3146 0.005 T,
.II
.II
.....
.II
. . . . . I11III
.....
~
.II . . . . . . . .
...... .
........
.....
.........
........
.........
....... ...
,,,
,
,
,
.II
......
..... -.
......
........ .
......
........
..... . .
......
.....
.........
....
... -.. .
......
....
.... ..
....
........ .
....
...... ...
....
......-.. .
.....
.II
.II
,
, ,~
,
,
,
, ,
,
.II
......
.II
..
.II
....
..
.II
....
..
1~------------------------~------------~
.II
.II
I11III
. . . ..
.... .
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,,
..
I11III
..... .
. . . . ..
EPR
.II
....
.II
....
.II
....
.II
....
.II
....
.II
....
~
~
.......
..... ...
. . . I11III
.II
..
..
.....
..
.
.
....
.......
..... ...
....
..... ....
....
, , ... .
, ..... .
, .......
~
,
,,,
,
,
,
ill
.II
..
....
..
.II
....
..
.II
..
..
,~
. . . . . .~
......
.......
.......
......................
..... .... . ....
...................
~
',
,
,~
,
,
,
,
,
,,,
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
',
,
................... .......
..... ..
....
..... ......
....
..,. ...
. ,.. ...
~
-1~--~--~--~--~~~--~~~--~--~--~
20
40
60
80
100
, .
,
, .
....
, ,.
....
, ,
,
' ..
~
...
...
...
...
....
...
....
HGVRE 7.21 As described in legend to Fig. 7.20 but for a Cu{S04).7H20 sample.
Note the large width of the line.
~~
_ ~
. . . . I11III
,
,
, ....
..
....
' ,
....

..
...

..
.,,.
, ,
....,

..

..
..

.',..
'.
,
7.6 Rete ren c es
293
so that
gCuS04
hIJo
JLBBO
1
9.578GHz=2.170.05
14.01 GHz/T 0.3146 T
'
where the increased error is from locating the center of the line. This result
lies between the known values of the two g factors of the Cu2+ ion. 22
What is strikingly different from the DPPH sample is the width of the line,
which is t..Bo = 290 x 10-4 T. This is a clear indication of the effects of
the crystalline fields in broadening the energy levels of the Cu2+ ion.
7.6. REFERENCES
A. Abragam, The Principles QfNlIcIeDT Magnetism, Oxford Unlv. Press., Oxford, 1961. An outstanding
work on nuclear magnetic resonance, where the treaUUent is theoretical and advanced. but very
complete and clear.
E. R. Andrew, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, Cambridge Oniv. Press, Cambridge, UK, 1956. A shorter
text conLaining experimental details as well; it is very useful to students in this coun;e.
C. H. Townes and A. L. Shawlow, Microwave Spect/'O,fCOpy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1955. An
extensive and comprehensive work on the subject, mainly treating the molecular spectra obLained
in gases.
G. E. Pake, Paramagnetic Resonance, Benjamin, Elmsford, NY, 1962.
D. J. E.lngram, Spectroscopy at Radio and Microwave Frequrncy. Bullerworth. Stoneham, MA. 1955.
Very helpful for the study of paramagnetic resonance in solids and crystalline materials.
E. Fukushima and S. B. W. RoMer, ExperimeJItal Pulse NMR, Addison-Wesley. Reading, MA, 1981.
22For a crystal the g factor depends on tbe orientation of the crystal axis with respect
to the magnetic field. The sample used nere was crystalline (powder), and therefore one
cannot observe the two g factors, gil and g.L.
..
1
. .......
. . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ... .. . . .....
~
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
....
_
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L
k k k
. .............. ...
~
~
k k k k k k
k k ~ ~ k I k k k I
k k k ~ ~ k k k k k k ~ k ~ ~ I ~ I ~ I I I ~
k k k ~ k k k ~ ~ k k I ~ I ~ ~ I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I
~~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~~~:~~~~~~~:~~~~~~~~~:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:~::~:::~:::~:~:::~::~:~:::~::~:~:~~::~:::::~::~~~~~:~~.:..:~~.:~~~~'!~-::'"!=.......~-::'~-::'~~~~~~~~-:a.~~~-:a.~-::.-::."!=.-:a.-::.~-::."!=.-:a.-::.-::."!=.-:a.-::'-::.~~~-::'-::'-::'"!=.-::.-::.-::.-::'~~~
CHAPTER
Particle Detectors and

Radioactive Decay
8.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The terms radiation and particle used in this chapter require clarification.
The tenn radiation here designates electromagnetic energy propagating in
space (crossing a given area in unit time), but specifically of a frequency
higher than that of the visual spectrum, namely, X-rays and gamma rays.
Visible, infrared. mlcrowaves. and radiofrequency waves are not included.
Because of the quantum-mechanical aspects of the electromagnetic field.
.... such radiation can be described by a flux of (neutral) quanta. the photons.
<:. with an energy E = ltv and a momentum p = hu/c, where v is the
{ frequency of the radiation. These quanta interact with electric charges, and
;.:. the probability for such interactions is of the same order as that for the
.... interaction of two charges.
The tenn particle here encompasses all entities of matter (energy)
: .~.: :.~. to which can be assigrted discrete classical and quantum-mechanical
:
properties, such as rest mass, spin, charge, lifetime, and so on. The use of
..
,",
.....
',",
.....
295
. ..
- ~----x
~
JIll
..
:-:
JIll
...
. . . . . . . . III JIll ....
III III .III ..

III JIll . .
........
=-::-
....
... JIll JIll III
.... III
. . . . . . III JIII . . ~
296
III
.........
III
- ~ . .~. . -. . . .... III IIIJIllJIll
III III . .
. . . . . . . . . III JIll . . -~
_
. . . . . . . . . . . . JIll III JIll JIll
. . . . . . . III III JIll JIll III . . - ......
... III III III III III

~
... JIll III JIll JIll JIll III
.-1';
_.:.0:
~ . . . . . . JIll JIll . . JIll JIll

JIll JIll JIll JIll ......
~
.... III III III III JIll .III .
III JIll JIll JIll III III . .
~
... III JIll JIll III JIll III _
JIll III III III JIll . .
III III JIll _ JIll . . ~.
III III _
III JIll III
....
....
...
~
....
III
III
III
III
III
III
III~
JIll . .
JIll JIll
III JIll JIll
the teI1n "particle" is not always clear: for example~ we speak of a hydrog.~~~~~~f..y....:;.:W.
molecule, w?ereas. w~ refer to the nucleus of the hydrogen atom, the Pt~@r:mw
ton, as a partIcle. Sllrularly~ the electron~ the neutron, the (almost) mass~:~:~;~~~~~!@i
neutrino, the 1 n1eson, etc., are referred to as particles; the same ter'n~i~.~~;~~~~~:~
SInce particles have dimensIons on the order offenrus (10 13 em), th~y.<~~~~~~
l
cannot be "seen" even by electron microscopes, but their impact on cei:+!@i@
tain materials, or passage through them, can be noticed readily. Even mor~\~~~~~W
trajectory of a charged particle can become visible and be peI'lnanentl~()~~~$.j

recorded. Thus, a particle detector, or radiation detector, is a device that(}~~ffi;
ton amves5 1f ~e. deVIce rev~als to the e~perunenter the whole traJectoryiHj@.~:
of the partIcle, 1t IS called an lmage-fonmng detector.
.)i~:ili~~
All detectors are based on the electromagnetic interaction of the charge of~<~~;m;~
the incoming particle with the atoms or molecules of the detector~ The dif~})~;:i;;
ferent types of interaction (ionization is the most common) and the different~~~W~~i
principles of amplification of this interaction distinguish the different typeEl':ii@1.@
of detector. Neutrons, however, are detected tlrrough the interaction of the>'}:::;?::::
charged particles of the detector to which they transfer energy. This occurs':'i,:}i~~~~~~~
either through elastic collisions of the neutrons with protons (hydrogenous.: ':::\~J~~~~~~
materials), or through neutron capture in certain nuclei, or through the i:)~J~~~f
production of fission by the neutron: for example, n+loB~ 7Li+a.
:}~:~:~:~:~
In the following discussion we will be concerned with signal-producing :,\~~~~~~~~
devices, which we classify as follows:
:,<~~f:~r
~
....
I
-
~. . . .
........
-.
........
I
.II
.II
......
.II
......
......
.
.II . . . . _
..
...... _
(a) Gaseous ionization instruments, encompassing the ionization cham.- ::/:=:::::=

I
.... _
..
.II . . . . . . _
:i~}~:~:~
ber, the proportional counter, and the Geiger counter,

(b) Scintillation counters,
(c) Solid-state detectors, and
(d) Other detectors.
.II
......
,:~,):~:~:~
I
.......
. . . II
.II
':'::);~~;
I
III .. ...
III . . . . .
::');~~:
,
......
.....
III .. ..
III .. ...
......
Such detectors can be designed so as to respond to the passage or arrival ,,:}J~;;~~

of a single particle or quanrum. They can also be used as integratil1g devices ,<:~~~~;;~
,
...
..... .
I
I
"
...
III .. .
III .. ..
III .. .
I
,
...
..
....
..
III
...
..
III .. ...
..
..
electron-scattering experiments (which serve as a sort of microscope) ,: ,(~r

have~ however~ revealed mneh about the electromagnetic structure of the proton and neutron. ,: :)~;~~
......
1High ..energy
I
,
I
..
. . . ..
... . .
III ..
..
..., ....
.....
,
.....
, ..
.....
,, ..
,
.......
,
.....
,,....

I
,
,
'
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
...
....
.....
..
, ..
, , ..
...., ....
I
.....
I
,
. . ..
.,. ....
,
I
.
..
..
.
...
..
III
..
.. _ .
B.1 General Considerations
(as is frequently done with ionization cluunbers), giving a signal proportional to N E, where N is the total number of particles crossing the instrument per unit time and E the average energy deposited by each particle.
In evaluating a detector, the following properties are taken into
consideration:
(a) Sensitivity, which defines the minimum energy that must be deposited in the detector so as to produce a signal; related to it is the.signal-tonoise ratio at the system's output.
(b) Energy resolution, in certain detectors, which are large enough to
stop the particle; the signal may be proportional to the initial energy of the
particle. In other cases the velocity of the traversing particle can be measured, as in Cherenkov counters, or in dE / dx (ionization per unit length)
detectors.
(c) Time resolution, which characterizes the time lag and time jitter
from the arrival of the particle until the appearance of the signal, and the
distribution in time (duration) of the output pUlse; related to it is the dead
time of the device, that is, the period during which no (correct) signal will
be generated for the arrival of a second particle.
(d) Efficiency, which specifies the fraction of the flux incident on the
counter that is detected. It usually is fairly high for charged particles, but
can be as low as a few percent for neutral particles and for photons.
Particle detectors play a most important role in nuclear physics, and
in many of the experiments described in this text some type of particle
detector is used. Just as the spectrograph was the paramount instrument
of atomic physics, so the Geiger counter and, later, the NaI scintillation
counter have been the paramount instruments of nuclear physics. 2
In the following sections, we first present a brief discussion of the
interaction of charged particles and of photons with matter. Then gaseous
ionization instruments are described with specific emphasis on the Geiger
counter. This is followed by a description of the scintillation counter and the
measurement of nuclear gamma-ray spectra. The following section deals
with solid-state detectors and the measurement of the specific ionization
of polonium alpba rays in air. Other detectors are mentioned, and some
specific experiments using these detectors are described.
2It is interesting that the first particle detector ever to be used (by Ruthelford in his
alpha-particle scattering experiments in 1910) was a scintillating screen, a teChnique that
came again into prominence after 40 years.
........
'
...
.:.:.:.:.:.:M:-m
.......... ..
~~-%.~
.............7;:
.;. :.;.;.;.:~:-~
298
oJ ..... . .
./?~@~
B Particle Detectors and RadioactiVB Decay
',' .................~
'.
',' .~ ................~~
.:.:.:.:.:.:-:~
Finally. note that precautions should be taken when handling radioactj.~~i!i!i!ii1!m

sources. We recommend that the reader review the material on radiatio~~<r~~~!
safety in Appendix D before undertaking the measurements described ~?~?~~~~i
h
...........~~~-~
th
. IS C apter..
}}::::~:~
............ .
......
..........
.........
.... .
........
.. ..
..............
............
.....
.............
...... ..
... ,. ...... -...". . W.
I.''..AA.A*
........
..........
.............
.......
8.2. INTERACTIONS OF CHARGED PARTICLES

ANDPHOTONS~THMATTER
.......... I
, ,
,
,. ""'~'
--'
., ...........,...... .J
" ,. . . . . oIIIJ
, ,
"'"
,,
"
"'"
. . . .II . . . . __
,
" ,.
.,
,. ",. ., III
" ,. . . . . . . . . J
. . . . . . . oil .. ...J
,. .... !III II
" . . . . . . III ...
"
II . . oil. ~
" ...... lflii I
,.
tI
.. ..
~~ ~~~
~...:
::::::~:::::~~~:~~~
..... .. ~ .. ~;i'
...........
.....
.
.
.
"x:
.
.....
.... .. :y;.
~
. .....
.........
...........X...J
..... .. ,..,.
":':':.:.:~-~.X:~
.. .. ...
.
:"!
.......
.
......
x:
.............
. .........:-:
~
01 ..
01~ .. ~
01~
....
~
8.2.1. General Remarks
01 ~
III .... .
.....
"j(
~~~
...
As already mentioned the interaction of charged particles and photo~:~)~~~~~~~W

with matter is electromagnetic and results either in a gradual reductiQ~:(:)~~~:@.
of energy of the incoming particle (with a change of its direction) or in thW@~
1111....
absorption of the photon. Particles such as nuclei, protons, neutrons, an4.(m~

1r -mesons, are subject to a nuclear interaction as well, which is, howev~~~>~~~~~~]
of much shorter range than the electromagnetic one. The nuclear intera+{~~~~~
tion may become predominant only when the particles have enough energjf:n)~~~~
to overcome Coulomb-barrier effects. A nuclear mean free path, which is~:~:}~~~:~
2
approximately 60 g/cm ; is the distance over which the probability for ~j<}~~~~
nuclear interaction is of order unity.
/U)~~~~~
Heavy charged particles lose energy through collisions with the atomi6<:<~@
.... .. . ..electrons of the material, while electrons lose energy both through col-::::<:i~~~~
lisions with atomic electrons and through radiation when their trajectorYi:i~\~~i~~~.
is altered by the field of a nucleus (bremsstrahlung see Section 8.2.6\?~~~~:
Photons lose energy through collisions with the atomic electrons of the::i)~~~~@
. . ......"""
material, either through the photoelectric or the Compton effect; at higher< <:~:~~~~:
energies photons interact by creating electron....positron pairs in the field of <}~~~~~
.. .....
a nucleus.
.: }:::::~::~
...... .
A brief review of definitions will be helpful.
))~~~~~
""
"
.',~~
, , .... AriA./'
"'"
, ,
",
. . . . . . . . III
........ ... .
.........
....
"
I
"
JI . . . . .
.........
(a) Cross Section. We define the cross section, u, for scattering from ~,,:::::t~:~~
single target particle as
. }}~~~~~~~
.........
........ ...
,
(f
scattered
flux
....-f,
- incident flux per "unit area '"
$
.... 01
......
........ .
......
,,
, 01 . . . . .
,
, ",
, "'
, 0 1 .... .
" , ................1
...... .
{8.1):',,:: :::::::~::::
............. ..
.....
........
........ ..
...... -. .
.....
........
..
......
.
........
...
......
.. -...
2
Thus (J' has dimensions of area (usually cro ) and can be thought of as th~'>::\~I~~~~
.
'" "
,,
, ,
,,,,
, , ,
,,,
, ,,
,
"
area of the scattering center projected on the plane normal to the incoming,"'ii)~i~~~~
3
beam. If the density of scatterers is n (particles/cm ), there will be n dx" ::ii>i~;~~
.. .
,
...............
....
...
.... . .
..........
...
..
.
...
.
.....
.. -..
....
.
....
.
.
.
... ...
...
...........
....
. . . .I
, ,, ,. . .. ......
.1
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
" ,~ .J'
,
, ,
"
,
, ....
.I
, ,
,,,
, ....
.I
, ,
,
,
~
~~.
~
~
,',' ~~.J'
,',' ........J'
,
,,
,
, ,
,
..
,
, , .I
, ,,
~
~
~
8.2 Interactions with Matter
----
(a)
(b)
~~s
~~S
=;-11-
dP =
299
dxj 1-
0-(/0/ S)
fo
(Sndx) = (Jndx,
(8.2)
where S is the area covered by the scattering material and fo is the total
flux incident on the target; thus fo/ S is the flux per unit area as shown3
in Fig. 8.1a. The result of Eq. (8.2) is not surprising since d P must be
proportional to n and dx:
dP <X ndx,
a is then the factor that transforms this proportionality into an equality.

Nuclear cross sections are on the order of 10-24 cm2 (one bam), as expected
given the geometrical size (cross section) of the nucleus
O'geom
= 1( R2 = 3.14 x
10- 26 A 2/3 cm2.
(b) Differential Cross Section. For a single scatterer we define4
dace, r/
dQ
flux scattered into element dQ at angles (),

incident flux per unit area
It follows that
f27r
10
lr:
I" :,:
," .
::::
dr/>
10
dO'
dr2 sin ade
= a,
30ccasionally confusion arises because the area of the incoming beam may be smaller
than the area presented by the target as shown in Fig. 8.1 b. The definition of Eq. (8.1) is
:'~=:: :;~:,,=:,~.~~!;)i
-.....
~.~~.-~-~-~-~
..
III III . .
III III . .
~
~
~ III
~
. . . . III JIll . .
~
III III . . .
~
..... III JIll . .
~
Partic~e
...
...
........
III
....
III
...
....
...
III
III
..
JIll
..
III JIll III

JIll III
JIll JIll . .
III JIll I11III . .
III
=%W,
JIll . .
JIll
III
III
....
-.~
..
JIll
.... III III
III JIll . .
III
III
..........
00
III
III III
JIll
III
....
....
......
mCldent flux per urut area
..
<::::::~::::::~
Detectors and Radioactive Decay
'i
JIll
-.~.-
300
........
~
. . . . III JIll . .
. . . . III III . .
III III . .
........
JIll
....
..
.... III JIll III
III III III III
. . . . III JIll . .
<~~~t~~~rw
::::::::;:~;;;;;:joW
...........
..
.
.
.
....
. ............".jo.
were e mtegrat10n IS over POSS! e energies 0 e scattere UX~(:::;~~~;~~~~

(c) Absorption Coefficient. To obtain the probability for scattering{~~~~~~@j
a length x of some material, we. consider~an incident fl.ux per uni~ ~~~~~~~fflj
10; I (x) represents the flux at a dIstance x Into the matenal. Accordmg':ta.~~~~~~
".'-:::::::~::~~;::/""'''::
.............
,,"~m
Eq . (8 .2)
. ::::: :~::: :~:~~~./ .............:
..
.........."....~
...
"
.'
-dI(x) = I(x)dP = I(x)crndx;
<<: :~:. :~;~~~~.rw.
. . . . . . . III . . . .
.. III III ....
.. III III
III III
. . . . . III .....
thus
dI
"~
.. " .. "
-: :::::~::::::::~--ffim
..... - ... .
-...........
-
.II
.....
..
~~---
-............~~~@
have
-
::::::~~~:::;::~~
- -:.:.:.~.:.:.:-~
---.
...... ~~
-"
.. ~~~
.II
...
.II
....
.....
. .......
......."..
~.~
n = pNol A
nN ,,--
pNo
if we consider scattering by nUclei/Ui!!!0

if we consider scattering by nucleons,
<:;:UM@
........ ,.,,~~~
where No is Avogadro's number 6.023

number, respecnvely.
23
x 10 and
p is the density
offJi!jim
'':::::::::::~~X::
.: ::::::::~~~
.."'@
: .:-:.
:.~,,; *jo".I.
~
~~
... ,
I
III
..
III
..
,I~ ..... " ..
.'.
.~
III.
..
."~m
. ",~."
....".~,J
~
III
III
I'. -.........
..
~~
I:.. 'I:.:":"':.~*~~~
.','."..x:~"':
......
.: '-:<';.:"~~.Y"':
......"".*Ji/.
~
III
I'~~..""'
I
'
,III
III..
111_.
~
....
B.2 Interactions with Matter
30'
Often we wish to express the absorption in terms oftbeeqwvalent matter

traversed, namely, ~ = glcro 2 . Then the thickness of the material can be
~:: expressed by d~, where
:::-.
d~ = pdx .
~::
:::-'
~/
The mass absorption coefficient is defined by
,, =-,
K
:.-:-:
~:':
-;.' .
>
(8.5)
...~:::'- so thai the fraction of a beam not absorbed is

~:, :
~" .
!....=e-iU:.
(8.6)
10
Ii! ~~~~I~:f the regioo of im.raetion is very thin, lbe scattered ftux is giveo
~': :
Is = iO(1ndx,
for example, for nuclei.
1:1',
:-;-:
~~:-.
~~ :
~: -' -
8.2.2. Energy Loss of a Cbarged Particle
k: When a charged particle collides with atomic electrons, as we have already
. -H,enz expetsrirorent (Se.:~on 1.3,)" it canI.an"sfe,r enehrgyh,o

~:,'.:.:;:'. "'lben in thl e .Frank
:
em on y In dIscre e amoun . t can elu,er eltCI e an e ec on 0 a Ig er
~~~;: atomic quantum state or impart to the electron enough energy so that it will
leave the atom; the latter process is the iortization of the atom. Since in our
~:::: present considerations the incoming particles have considerable energy,
~:::;::"~~ :i~~~~::~oo is by far lbe p,evailing one, and we will use Ibis
n>
Let us consider then an atomic e lectro n at a distance b from the path of

~;: a heavy charged particle. of charge ze, mass M, and velocity v, a.<; shown
r:: in Fig. 8.2a. If we assume that the elecU'On does not move appreciably
~::: during the passage of (he heavy particle, we can easily obtain the impulse
transferred to it due to lhe electric fie ld, E. of the passing heavy particle:
::::::-
:f::
K
~f
~:::-
:.:'
=e
dt
e j+
oo El. (x)dx .
= j +OO E.l(t)-dx
dx
-co
v _ oo
--. . .
~
III
.... JIll JIll

. . . . . . . JIll JIll..
III JIll . .
JIll JIll
...... JIll JIll
::~
..
JIll . .
JIll JIll
.II
...
~x
JIll III . .
III III . .
.... III III . .
.....
III
::::~
8 PartLcle Detectors and Radioactive Decay
.......... JIll..
'. . . . . .
-:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:m:~J-:
(b)
...
III
III
. ., ; -
....
...
....
III JIll . . . . .
III III . .
..
':;:::~::::;::::~~.~x;:'
%
.......
III
JIll
........
III
JIll
- .-:.:.:.~.:.:.:.:.:
....
JIll
::::::::::;::::2~~x
ze, M
-.......
- . :.:.:.
--
(a)
III
........... . .'X
302
~~~~-~-~-~
.......
........
__________ ......... _ .......... "'"'-------__
JIll
III
....
III
..
~~
~~
JIll
..
III . .
III . .
..
.:::::::::~;:::::~.~'l~~
.- .......... ..................~
~
....
...
....
III
III
. . . . . . . III III . .
III JIll III
... III III . .
:-:.:.:.~.:.:.:.~
-..........Ldb>:::?:::::~
~--------~~
-::::::::~~::::::~~.
~~
........
... ... III ~ . .

. . . . III JIll . .
III III . . . .
.....
JIll
..
an nnpact parameter h. (b) The differennal nwnber of electrons WIth an Impact parame~t:~~~~:~m
. . . . .. . . ...
..............
4rrze
E dS =
2ie<::::~~~w.
+00
+00
~OO
b-:<-:.~.:.~
. ;....~./~~~
-: -:.:.: .>~";.Y~":w.
-00
hence
III ... ..
III
...........
,'.
.. ..-.....
...
. . .......~~~~
.
-............
......
III
III ... ..
.......
III
'~
III
III ..
..... -r
I 1. =
...
. . . . . , .. ~:.-".
'
..... ..m--'"
W~
2ze
. . ........ .
. ....................... .
III...
.I
:::::
,Since the electron was originally at rest, its momentum after the collisicj#tWi~~tf1
p = 1.1, and the energy transferred is
--<)~)~~~~W
-.>:-:.~.~.:.z~
2z 2 e4
-:.;.;.~.:.z.:w.
vb
. . ........ ..
................~..
--
E (b) -..; "2' 2b

~
i
m
mu
III
__
...
;:.:
(8"~?~~~~~~~~~ffl
..............~~
electrons l~ encounters and ave~age ov~r ~e Im~act par~eters. .i:t};~

From Fig. 8.2b we see that ill a cyhndncal nng of radlUs wIdth d~(:t@
b,
... ..........~
2 4
)<~~~~~~~ffl
........ ',~~:m
"'~~m
.. ";:::~:=:;:,,,;~
ne dxZ e db
_
41l'
d E (b) - .
".
b
m v2
.... . . , m
........
.~.
.
. . III III .. . : : : : :
,','~.w.
and
::-::-:";:m:::::
.
::::':~~m
.. ...... ..
. .........
, ~.
.
. .. "' .. "'..r~
~
2 4
dE
41Tz e
dx
mv 2
- , = -.
.........oI,rm
....
ne In
bruin
...
'
(8 ~8)~~J~~;~~
.. ...'~m
..... , ..
~
................. ';-,11
.. .... ,,:-,11
". :.:~:.; .. :~ ~~
... :-:.
.........
.....
..'............
,'
...
.
.........
.......... ..-.'
m
. .......
......
.. ..,''..,.........a:;:
. ...:-:
.......... .
.
............ ...
....
........ . ::::;....
.. .......
<-::;:''';m*~..:
....
. . .,.,.....
. . . .. ...
5ne is the electron density as also given by Eq. (8.4),
'
III ...
,'~.~:.*..-~
,~
~.-
'
~;::::
' ,,
,
, , ,'.r.~~
,,
- , ..... ...-......
:-:.~'~;.~
....
.......
...... :-:
.,
, ..... ... ..
, ...m.J'
.. ,' ,.. ....
.........
, , ... . ..
'~.~
. . . . . . .*.
~
,'~~
~
'~~
,'~~
.......
3D3
where because of the logarithm we had to use finite limits on b rather than
oand 00. The finite limits are imposed by physical considerations: for bmax
we consider the distance where the time of passage of the heavy particle's
field becomes of the same order as the period of rotation of the atomic
electron in its orbit. Thus
b
1
v
(8.9)
"t = - = or
bmax = -.
v
v
v
I ~:::~= web:~ ~-:-v

6
vruue
; :
DeBroglie wavelength : . :
We then obtUn
(8.11)
!
~:::.
~~~ ~:
The frequencies of the atomic electrons v are, however, different for

each orbit, so that a suitable average must be taken; we thus replace {nv}
with an average ionization potential i. Finally, inclusion of relativistic
effects and a precise calculation give
~:::
2
4rrz 2 e4 [
-dE
- -_ ---ne
In - 2mv
~:::
~-:'.
@~:
dx
mv 2
1(1-f32)
-[3
2J
(8.12)
~~: ~: for the energy loss of heavy particles due to ionization.
r.-."
r."."
?:>
In Eq. (8.12), f3 =
r."."
vic, and we see that the energy loss is only a function
~> of the velocity, v, of the charge ze of the incoming particle, and of the
~r:
~~L
~::::
electron density, n e , of the scattering material. Note that in Eq. (8.12), m is

the mass of the electron while the mass of the incoming particle does not
appear at all.
Before further investigating Eq. (8.12), we should note the following
effects:
I
~(
~::::
(a) Equation (8.12) was derived on the assumption that the incoming
particle is not deflected, and thus it i~ valid only for heavy particles; for
electrons the tenn in the parentheses must be slightly modified.
m? --6A-n-a1-tema-te approach is to set hmin such that maximum energy iE tTa1lsferren to the
{: electron. Because of momentum conservation we have pmax
~{ ze2 /mu 2 .
~ ~:
= 2mu leading to bruin =
..
...... _-.
.. III..
M
III III .. ..
. . . . . . . "" .II ..
.. III .. ..~
II
III III .. ..~
.........
..
............
'............................r::;
........
............ ..
..........
.......... ....."" . ... @
.............
"'f.1.
. . . . . . . . III ... ..

... III III..
~
8 Particle Detectors and Radioactive Dacay
:z.
X
III III .. : . - : : : : :
, . . . .II
...
III
..II
III .. ..
......
...
III .. ..
.... III III III......
. . . . . . . . . . II ..~
..II III .. ..
... .... III . . . .

~
A.~
' , ' .
(b) Electrons also lose energy through their interaction with the n\l.CI~t!tm
and this is the prevailing mechanism at high energies. That is, the e1ectrbnii~~~~~
trajectory is bent by the field of the nucleus, which implies an accelerati~it~~~~~
(since the velocity vector c~anges),. and ~o.m electrodynamics

that accelerated charges radiate. ThiS radiation!! called ubremsstrahltilig~~1~:~:~~
' ..... ~
is discussed in Section 8~~.~. .
.
;U)?i~~~j~~~
(c) .For extr~m~lY relahvlStic part1~les~ u ~ c, fJ ~ 1; Eq. (8 .12) pre~q~~~im
a continuous nse m dE/dx proportIonal to In)/2 where y =-= E/mc~!{##.~~~m
1/(1 -- p2) 1/2. Such a fast rise, however, is not observed experimeIi' :!.;.ii~~i~
This is due to polarization of the medium: the electrons that are being[~tJ~~~j
into motion by the field of the incoming particle move so ~s to ~educe;id
effect of the external field. Consequently a much slower nse With enWg.y~~~m
7
results; the correct expression is
.. /tM!~
..................~%~
wek##.f!ilj
dE
-.dx
ion
-= .
me
In
~Y
mc
ne
I'
+!
2'
'................
~
"." ............""' ...... ~
" " . " .... ,.
"''.1' ;"Y..-!
.:.: . :.:. :.:. . . .w.
(8J13j~~
......... . . J": ~~
. . . . '" oM ..
. . . . . III " " .
..
. ..... . 01.01 01.01....~
. . .,.. ...
. ..
. . . . . . . . III ... . . .
..
. ................
..... ............
.. . .. .. . r-.J
...,
..............
. . .. .. .. .. "-':;tI*,
.:
.~
~
' . ' . '" ",. "01
where
e::::
...11
...............
@
... " ...........
""~
. . . . 01.001 . . . .
......1"
.
.
.
.. . . ::::
...........
.
..............
""
.....
...............
.. :.' .."." .......
.......
.............
.........
. .........."" .e::::
...............
. ....... ...r..
.... .... .... .. ..... ... ...::::
.........
.... ........A. AAA.
....... . A.. Cor:
. .. . . . . .
@I"J'
. .. .. .......
. .. .
1i'".JIi
:.JI.r"
.:':":.:.:.:A~"~
..
. . .... ....
AA%
::1
. .. . . ....
.......
AI
......
., .001 . . . .~
. . . . AI . . . . . .
4nneze2
m
l
';
, i
'.I'~
.... .
<
" " '. . .
.. .. .. ... ..
4 ..
r'I.J
.
m
",.,.~
AA.~
For silver bromide ['
...... A
..
""
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .A ..
48 eV.
....... A
(d) For low-energy particles we obtain from Eq. (8.12)
<
..
........
..
..~
..
..
A..
'~
'.AA
..
rI
A..
.............AAAm""
....
~~
. .-:::: ~: :::;:::~t3j<".1.
::9.
........
. . . . ... ."::9.
. . . . .....
.......
.. A
..
..
A A .. : : : :
A
..
A"~
"
A"~
where M is the mass of the incoming particle and E its kinetic en~~~!m
The above expression (when applicable) is useful since a measuremerit~~(~~~
dE / dx and of E identifies the incoming particle
<~~t~~~~~~l
"w.
. ........ J.:J'I;.1
<
. . . . . .. :-:
_ .. :...;.r.
....
. A,,:-:
..
..
"......
A":"';
...
:=::
... ,, ,........
...
.
.
A"
.. "'rJj
........
...........
....................... :..;
.....
.........
"". . . . . :..;',,1
,.......
............
dx
....
Jf
dE
~ -
A
..
....... A
A
A
.. ....
A
......
A
...
A
..
.I
, . . . . . . II1II ,
..
,.~
A
A
. . ,,{"".
A
.... . .
-.I
........ ~
,
,
(e) In image-fomrlng devices and particularly in nuclear emulsj9ij;~t~

the density of 4developed ,silver bromide grains can be used as a *~:~~W
sure of the particle'S velocIty because of the dependence of Eq. (8.12):~~~~*
Eq. (8.13) on fJ. However, the density of the track depends only on e~~~~~;%
.. .......
........... :.:
- ----"-_.
-
. , . . . . . . . .,j
.J
.-~
....... . J
"
" ,
..I
...........
7See J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed., Section 13.C Wiley~ NewYJ.~i;~
::::::;:::.:::~. ~
.
, , ,........
......
.
1999.
.........
, , ............ .'"
, , .......
.-~
',
.....
.
......
"
............
.......
".
........
"
...
.
.
......
.....
.
.. ..
......
...... ."
...............
~
, ,
, ,
, ,
"
,
' ,, ,
, , ..
;.,
,
,
, . . . . . o/ .....
, ,
,
'". ....t. . ..
' r , . .... .. . .
",
,
, r ........ .
,
r ....... .
' , , , ,. Ii ...
, , '"
r
..
.....
...... .
. ............
..........
........
..........;.,,,
;.,~
"
.........
............
........
...... ."
.........
. .........
.... .
~
'
, ,
.,
Ii ..
,
, , ,.
' , , , ,.
, , ., .,
,
Ii ......,
.I ..... ...
305
transfers ::;5 keY, since when an atomic electron acquires more energy, its
own track becomes visible and separated from the primary particle's track;
such electrons are called knock-ons or delta rays. The energy-loss expression for energy transfers ::;5 keY does not exhibit at all the relativistic rise
of Eq. (8.13), but for high values of y, stabilizes at a plateau 1.2 times the
minimum value.
The energy loss of a heavy particle in a typical absorber. sucJI as nuclear
emulsion, as a function of the logarithm of its kinetic energy (in units of
rest energy) is given in Fig. 8.3. Strictly speaking. this curve holds only
for a given absorber and all singly charged particles, since we know from
Eqs. (8.12) and (8.13) that d Ejdx is a function only of the velocity of the
incoming particle and its charge. (Note that K.B.; mc 2 = y - 1, which bas
a one-to-one correspondence to {J.) However, the general behavior of this
curve holds for all absorbers.
We do recognize four regions of interest: (a) near the stopping point
where a Bragg curve is applicable (see Fig. 8.32); (b) the low-energy region
where the Ijv 2 dependence ofEq. (8.12) dominates, and tends asymptotically toward the value 1 jc 2 ; (c) the relativistic region, where because of the
rise of the logarithmic term, a minimum appears approximately at y = 1;
and (d) the screened region in which Eq. (8.12) becomes applicable. Had
polarization effects not been included, the rise of the dE; dx curve in this
last region would be steeper than indicated in Fig. 8.3. The lower curve
:. in Fig. 8.3 (energy transfers ::;5 keY) is applicable to the grain density in
.. nuclear emulsions.
1/v 2
Dependence
Slopping
region
(Bragg
E
7':3
curve)
Relativistic
region
Screening
&
Total
2
~I{
~I
<l.
Energytransrers<5 keV
L...L.-..L.J...LL:t::::;:::::;c::::Lu::::;:;::::;:===;:;:L=~::;::L===
0.1
10
y-1
8.3
The universal energy-loss curve for a singly charged particle plotted in

against y _. I. Note the upper curve for the total energy loss and the lower
for energy loss involving only energy transfers smaller than 5 keV.
-2)
. . . . . . .:::::
..z.
-':':":':':~:A-~~.r~
. .. ...... .J".I'if
--....~~A ~
~ .........~A.x:
---...
... ..
......
.. ........
_
306
..
JI
....
..
.z.
-..... ..........
.. .. .. .. ...".z.
---..........."..... ..*
_
Particle Detectors and Radioactive Decay
..
..
JI
..
....
~.
.......... ;1;,,1
.. ... .. ..... :.t".
- .. ........ "rJlli.
- .. .. '" .... .J"
.....................~
(MeV) of the particle rather than by y - 1, we will not have a univ~ij~I~~*

curve any more, but for each particle the energy-loss curve will be shjfted~:~
......
horizontallybyml/m2'J insuchfasbionthatdEjdx]ml = dEjdx]m2 ~~~~~~&.
the corresponding kinetic energies Tl and T2 result in the same valu~W~j.
.
-.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......
"
....
Y 1
.................
... . .. . .. ........ ....... ..... '.
~ .~
~~A.x:
... ..
JI
Tl
_
,T2
_
2( _ 1)
- -c y
.
ml
m2
...
...............
. . .... ..... .... ......
.. .... ..
...............
. ... .... .... .... .. .. jI,.r.,f:
............ :..:
. . . . . . ..
......
......
........ .
. .. ..
-
....
JI
..
,.
...
..
...
II1II.
~
.....
..
......
:.
....
.. .
.
.
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
._ ......
:-,:
......
.
.....
........
....
. .........
. x. .
. . . . . . . . ....
,Ii
.. .. .. .. .. "" .. III..."'"A , .
_ ~ 4
~ ~
~".:.-:
~
,
~ ~.. :.-:
, 4
~~:..:
..
I ..
~.
This is shown in Fig. 8.4, which gives the absolute value of energy:iij~~~~~?
.... ... X
2
-dE/d~ (in MeV/(g-cm- )) in air for protons (curve 1) and n-me~Q~~~~
(mTt = 140 Me V; curve 2), where the latter is shifted to the left by a f~QW.~~~~
. ........
- 0 150
.. .:::::::::~~~~~:.::
m1t 1m p.........
.:
~
... .
<.:.:.:.~.~.~
..
Further, if we consider particles of different z, the energy loss will ~.ift~~~~~

by the ratio (z 1/Z2)2 . In this fashion we obtain CUlVe 3 in Fig. 8.4, the eil~~1i~~~~~
loss of alpha particles in air, which is shifted (with respect to curve 1) tci~-t~~~~ili
right by a factor of ma./mp = 4 and upward by a factor of (Za/Zp)2 ~)f~~~~~~~~
. . . . . . ..
If we now tum our attention to the dependence of d E / dx on the absorQ.~~~~~~
material; it is clear that it will vary rapidly, due to its dependence oI{'~~~~~~~
2
If instead we use -dE/d~ (the energy loss per g1cm of materia1).:'ffi~~~~~
-.r
variation is much slower, since
.',:,::,({~~~
~
.. "
........ wf
'" '" A
....
~
..
II .... III ..
II ....... OIl
II
,~...
,
,
,
Z
ne = pNo A
,
,
...
II
II .... OIl
. . . . II ...... ..
... II II ... III
. . . II ... . .
. . . ..0lIl . . ..
Mil .. ..
. . . . . . . ..0lIl . . ....
~
.......... ..
......
'.....
....... ..-...
...... . .
...........
. . ...
.......
.... ..""........
........
........ ..
,
'
, ,
, , , ......
III
'.. .......... ....
,
,
II
II III III
. . . II ...... .
. . . II .... ...
~
. . . . . . . . . . }II
II II .... ...
.. .II. .II. III III
II
",
,
"'
. . . . . . . . III
II
. . . . III . .
<II
III
. . . . . . . ...
'"
,
,
OIl ..oil . .
, ,
,
, ,
, , . . . '" ...or "'"~
,
,
~
II .... ...II ..
,
~
.........
..r
, ,
, ~ ....... ..r
, , '"
and
........ .
, ........
,
,
,
d~
............ lOl !
....... J
~
~
....
..
, ......... J
Thus
. . . . . III .... . .
III ..III ... . .
........ . .
, , ........ ..
..
,.........
.........
..
..
.
..
..
...
- , , , ........ . .
............
........
..
,
.
'"
....
, ....... ..
, ...... .
, ......... ..
, ...... . .
, ,.......
............
, .......
, ,.....
.. ..
, .....
......
.
, ....
.....
.
,......
.....
.
.
, .....
, ,....
... . .
,
III
III . . . .
...
..III
'"
...
. . . . . . . . III
"I
No A Z f(fJ. I),
..III . .
'-=
OIl
...............
..........
.. .........
'" ............
..........
....... . .."'"
, .........
, .......
, ,...............
............... . ..
,
= pdx.
Z 2
.......... lOl !
, ,,
, ,,~
,,,
,
dE
- d~
.II ... . .
. . . . . ..Ii ~
. . . . . . . III
. . . . ..Ii ~
.
.
. . . . . . . . . III
........
~
,,'
, ,
,
, ,
iii
~.
~
~
so that the energy IOS8 per glcm is larger for low Z materials, neglecti#.g~~~~
the small dependence on i, the average ionization potential. Curve 4:':~~~~~~
......
Fig. 8.4 gives -dE Id~ for protons in lead~ which is indeed lower than th.#.~~~~~~
ill air, but not by a large amount
. <>i~~~~
... .
An approximate universal figure for the energy loss of a relativistic singly::~~~:
2
charged particle ill atly materials is 2
2
MeV/(g-cm- ).
::/:j~~~~
.........
..
.....
.
...
.
....
.
... . ..
........
......
... ..
..........
" ..
..
..
......
.
...
.
..
.
.....
.
....
..
.
....
.
...
.
....
.
....
.
...
.
......
.
..
.
....
.
... .
,,,
, , .. '"
,
, , ,
, ,
, ..
,
, ~
, ,
, ,
, , ..
, ,
,
'"
"
, , , '"
,
,
, ,
, ,
, , '"
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
,,
,,,
, ,
,
,
1
1
..
'"
...
~.
~.
~
,_._ .........
1---1--1--1-+-1-+
0.1
100
0.2 0.3
Kinetic energy, MeV
PIGURE8,4
Em~rl?\'"!o:SS
curves for
particles in air and
ill
lead. Not: how all the curves are related 10 each
.. "m
-.... " ""0

. . . .... ~
. . . .. .. ... ..
-
. . . . . lOll . . . . .
.......
lOll
lOll . . . .
JI
8 Particle Detectors and Radioactive
..
..
JI
....
..II
...
3DB
.AI
...
..II ... ..
... JIll! . . . .
......
AI
..
.AI ... ..
. . . lOll ...
Decay::::::::;:::;:~~~
-.............. w.@
. . . . . oil . . . . ..
..... ..II ......
..
...
III
....
:::::
.- :.:JI:.:
. .~. :. .:..~~
........
. . ...............
~.
&cl
82..
3 R ange 0 f a Charge d Pa rtI e
:::<:::::::~
';{:~:~:w.
- ... :.:.:.:.:.:~~
Since the exact expression for the energy loss of a charged particle is kno~:~:i:!!}@
?artJ.cle of gIven energy will traverse before comlUg to rest; this is call~njinij
Us range R, and we can set_:::::~:::::~:~~~
-...........
...........
........... .......m.
..... ........
.
- - ..
..
..
~
EO '
-
.. ...
. .. ....... "'""" ...
. ...... . .
0
. . . III "'"
-:-:;.::
.
.
.
"" .'".~..m~
. .... ... "" "'"
.
. . . . . *'
..
..
.... III ..
- ...... .. '"..
..J
ri'"
....... ... :~~
R=
R I o dE
dx = - i"
M
2
Po h({3)
'11
MYHl~
d{J = - 2
F(fJo)~;:::;::~~~?%$
.. ,." . .00
the incoming particle, inversely proportional to the square of its
charg~~~~i~1~~
ExtenSive tabulatIons. of range curve~ for dIff:r~nt particles and diffe~t~~~~~~
R - 0.543E - 0.160,
E > 0.8 MeV,
(8.1~jWjiim
.:.:.:.;.:.;.~~
where E is the initial kinetic energy of the electron (in MeV).

.:::{g~
As suggested ~ove. it is highly preferable to express the range in gr~t1i~~
per squared cenl1meter. because then the dependence on the absorber mat~f:~:~:~~
rial is slow (since ne/ P -= NoZI A), resulting in a larger range (in g/CIIi~l~~~~~~~j
in heavy elements.
:U~{J~~
Flg. 8.4, the Jr-meson curve 18 obtatned from the proton curve by s~~g:~~~~~ill*
,.
.. -... ~
.m
....... .Wi.m
....... ..
" ....
.... .... .
.......
" ...... ..
........
..
.......
"'". .
....
....
..... . .
. . .::::=:;:::~
.
......
..
..
.
.
.........
. ..'" .. . . ..."'"
........ :::::
.......
'"
.. 01 ...
......
-,.of"
........- .,.-,
100
50
30
20
10
5
N
C>
<I)
Ol
c::
III
a:
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.01 x
0.005
0.003
0.002
0.001
1
10
100
1000
Kinetic energy. MeV

FIGURE 8.5
Range curves for different particles in air and in lead. Nole how the different curves are related to eaeh other.
...........
... . ..
......
...
. ...... ..
.........
-
. .........
- ..........
. .....
...
....
-.
....
- -- ..
.............
............
. . ... ..
. . ... ..
~
- ~ ...... ..........J
-
310
.....
...
.II
.II
.II
.... . .
.... _
)II
.......
-.~
...
III
.II
III
.II
..
...
...... I
.II ... ....
.II
...
....
.......
.II
.II
.II
....
.....
...
.II
.II
.....
...
.II
.J
multiplying the ordinate (first) by ma./mp = 4 (due to the different m~ss)/t}~~~~

and then by (Zp/Za)2 = 1/4, hence leaving it unshlfted.
<?~j~~~~~
Finally, the range of protons in lead is also given. The concept of rang~<~~~~~~~
loses its meaning., however, when the amount of material that the particle>}~:~
must traverse before coming to rest is on the order of a nuclear mean fre~~~:~~}~~~
path as explained in the introduction to this section. to
<}~~~~~:
-
.II
..
.II
..
....
. . ... .
..... ..
~ ~
. . . . . . . . . .. .
. . . . . . . . . .. .
,~
...
~
...
I
I
......
I
I
III .. .
III
III .. III
III ....... .
III .. ~
.....
III ... .
III
III ... .
.......
I
'
III .. ...
...... .
........
. . . . II
.....
I
I
..
......
. . . . . . II
..
. . . . . . ..
. . . . ..
.II
.II
.II
8.2.4.. Multiple Scattering
......
.......
.II
III
......
III
III
. . . . . ..
I
. . . . . ..
........ .
I
I
III
...
In discussing the passage of a charged particle through matter. we hav~~:'.\~~~~ii~

neglected up to now its interaction with the electric field of the nucle~s~~:i:~~~~;~i~
r ..
because indeed the energy transfer to the nucleus is minimal. However~i,::<~;~:
r ...
when a particle of charge ze, mass m, and velocity v passes by the vicinity-i~\~~~~~
of a nucleus of charge Ze, it will be scattered (Fig. 8.6) with the Rutherfor~::)~~~~{:
r ..
..
cross sectlon
': :::::~~~:
III
.....
III
I,'..~r
1
1
drr
1
_ . . =dn 4
......
I . . . . . . . . . . .~
............
I.
""
,
......
. . . . . ..
....... ..
....... J
. . . . . . ..
.......
..... ...
1
,
......
...
(8.16} ::::: :~~~
".'::~:
..... .
..... .
....... ..
1
~
...... .
1
1
. . . . . ..
,
,
,
"J
1
,
....
......
1
1
.... .
1
1
..
...... J
....... ..
......
~
showing that the probability for small-angle scattering is predominant,.rFor,<}~~~~

such small angles we approximate the angle of deflection by
ii{i~~f:
.... .
.II
..... ..
. . . . ..
1
1
~
.II . . . .
. . . . . . ..
1
1
e=
6.p
2Zze 2
pub
,=
..
:):):~:
(8.17}i{:~:~
'':-:.:~:.
~
1
1
~
~
..... ..
. . ..
.. . .
.II
.II
.II
1
,
....
..
.. ..
...
ill
.II
..
where p is the momentum of the particle and b is the impact parameter. 'i\~i~~
During its traversal of the material, the incoming particle suffers many'i<i~~
small-angle scatterings. It can be shown that the resultant scattering angle (j ,. \~~~~~
after traversal of a finite thickness of material D, has a Gaussian 11 distri- :i{~~
..
bution about the mean e = 0; the probability for a scattering through an,:'>~:
..
angle within the interval de is
:,<:~
..
..
...
.....,,
.. ,...
2
1
1
......,,
P(8)d8=-
.. exp -
...,,
. ,,
2 u
aJ2:Ir
... ,
1
....
...
....
....
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
..
,
,
...
....
..
....
....
.,
.
., .....,,
1
....
....
..
02 (the root mean square scattering angle)~:'i:).

,
..,,,,
.,
,I.
,
,,
,
,
, ,
,
.II
..
,
,
,
.II
,
,
,
,I
,
The standard deviation is (J ==
....
lOPor heavy ions, energy loss due to collisions with the nuclei must also be considered.',:,:)
11See Chapter 10.
':::'::~.
,
...
, ,..
, .
, ,..
, .
..
, .
, .
.
, ,.
, .
.
, .
.,..,.
,.
, ,.
, .
,.,.
.
,
,,
, , "
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
311
::"
'.
Z9,
v, m
FIGURE 8.6 Deflection of a charged particle when passing in the vicinity of a nucleus.
Note the scattering angle e.
For the mean square scattering angle we have
82
~.
"
83l"
2Z2 e4
2 2 nD
v p
(aovp)
In 224/3 ze 2
(8.18)
1",',
~:~
r
'~.'
:::::
:~):
where ao is the Bohr radius, We further simplify Eq. (8,18) in order to

exhibit the dependence of 82 on the incoming particle's charge z, velocity
f3, and momentum p, as welJ as on the material's thickness D, the density
of nuclei n = pNol A, and the atomic number Z: we obtain
E
~!:'
where F is a slowly varying function of the parameters of the incoming

particle
and the scattering material (it contains the logarithmic term and
~r:
~:::constants). Furthermore I/(Z2 n ) is proportional to the "radiation length"
~~/ Lrad of the material (defined in Section 8.2.6 below), which is frequently
~::>.
~~:~< tabulated.. so that we finally write
~~~:
;::::
'", ....
.~~'.
1'.
1',','
1'.
1',",'
1',",'
1',',',
~~\
2" _
_
B -IBlnns -
21.2(MeV/
pf3
C)1l.
-(1
Lrad
+ E),
(8.19)
where IBlnns is in radians, and p must be expressed in Me VIe; E is a small

correction 12 depending both on the scattering material and on f31 z of the
incoming particle. Wben we are interested in the rms projected angle, the
numerical factor in Eq. (8.19) must be replaced by 15 (MeV/c).
12Ca!culated from MoMre theory; see U.c.R.L. Report 8030 by W. Barkas and A. H.
Rosenfeld for tables of E.
S;::>
~i~I:.
-:;:::
:.0:.> .
~~..-.--~
......
. .......
.
. :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:A:mmm.
. ','
312
..
..
.. .. JIll II
III .. II ..
III . . . .
....
III MIl _
.. {{;~:~:~:~~ri
:.:.:.:.:':.:.~~~~
' , ' i . . . . . . . ." . .",..
through Matter
absorbed In matter by one of the followIng three mechamsms:
...
...
....
III "'" II
:>:@j~j~~
. . -: -:.:.:.:.:':-M
<:}:;;::;::~
..........
........ "0
(a) Photoelectric effect, which predominates at low energies,
II
. . . . . . . . . . . JIll,.. III:
.. ... .. III A II
~.
......... ..
III ..
....
'" .. .ill ..
..}~{j~~~
M
V)
d
.
.
......
'
.
'
....
"
"
:::::
lew e . an
-::::::::~:~;~:;:y}.
........
. (c) Pair prod~ction of electrons and positrons, which is donrinant in th~H!)!i~
hIgh-energy regIon..
--::::::::~:~~~ill~
. . . .. .... ...
&.
~.-::
. ..........,,,...
...........
..-.JI.
.... '" 01 ... II; . . .

. . . . . '" 01..

... ...
The relative importance of these processes and the energies at whic~!~~(~~~~$~~

they set in are best seen in Fig. 8.7, which gives the cross section~~~~:~
for the interaction of a photon as a function of its energy (in units of/?~ri@
the electron's rest mass). We will p.ow briefly consider each proces<Hi!!l
-..........Ii"".:":.:
::::.:::. .,
separately
14_.".--, ....
4 -""
. . . wi . : : : :
....
.iiI"
(a) Photoelectric Effect. We speak of the photoelectric effect when<}i~r~

the photon is completely absorbed and all its energy is transferred to an>}~~~?t.~~~
atomic electron. Consequently the photon must have enough energy to)(~~~~~;~~
excite the bOWld electron from its quantum state to a higher state or intP:;{/~~~~~~~
. .......... ..
the continuum; the latter process (ionization of the atom) is much more- >~)~~~~~~~
probable. Since the binding energy of the inner electrons in atoms is on :}r~~~1~:
-~~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . III
the order of kiloelectronvolts, as the frequency of the photon is increased <}~~~~~~~~~:

and it reaches the value of the binding energy of a particular shell, 13 ~.~~~~~~~~~
a new "channel" opens, and we ex.pect a sudden rise in the absorption::?~~~~~~?
............ .
cross section. Apart from the onset of new channels, the overall variation)):~:~:~:~~
of the photoelectric effect is a rapid decrease as the third power of the pho-))~~~~~~~~f
2
7
ton frequency (as v- / ), thus resulting in the curve shown on the left in .::;}~~~~~~~~
Fig. 8.7. The cross section for the photoelectric effect is derived in Heitler ,}~~~~~~~~~~
(1954),14 from which we give the nonrelativistic value for the ejection of )\~~~~~~~
one electron from the K shell, when the photon energy is not too close to )~~~~~~~~
.......... -
- ,
"
. . . II .. II
01 . . . . ..
.. .01 . . . . . . . ..
. . . .01 . . . .
,
,
~
~
.01
...
' .. ..01. .........

. . . . .....
= 1 electrons are said to be in the K shell, n = 2 in the L shell, n = 3 in
.J. """' . . . . ..
,
,
""",
"
"
,
"
,
,
,
'P
.............
"""....
......"""..,
. """' .... """.
, , .........
, '" ....... . .
, ,...........
'" .........
........
...... .
..........
.......
.........
..........
........
...... .
,
,....
:.<~~~~:~:
:.~.:.~~:..:
h 11 et c.
the M set
. ::=:~~.:::::
.........
14W. Heit1er~ The Quantum Theory of Radiation, 3rd 00., pp. 207 and 208, Oxford Univ. .:,}~~~:~
l3Note that n
d
1984
Press, OAlor,
.
-pC
'..... """....
:}:~~:::~:
..... . .
...........
,
.....
.
......
.
......
.
............
.
.......
.
.
...........
, ........... ..
,
, ,
,
,
,,
.....
.
........... .
, .. .ot . . . . ..
..........
,
...........
.
, ........
..........
, ..... .
, , .. .ot . . . ..
, , , ,.ot . . . ...
,
.......
..
.....
.
......
..... . ..
.......
.........
.... .....
.........
.....
.
......
.
....
.
......
.
.....
.
......"'......
,,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
, .. ..If .. .
,,
,
,
,
, ,,
',
~.
'
. .,=':.'.l'.~
.
... ...'.
, <... :... ~w..

,.....
'
313
Compton
(TllIom,"",
C=::=~~-==-:i:::+~-------L--~
0.1
0.01
10
,100
l'=hwmc2
FIGURE 8.7 The cross section for the interaction of photons with matter as a function of
their energy (expressed in units of the electron's Test mass).
the absorption edge,

ap =
Z5
O'T
[ hv
(137)4 2 -12 me2
J-
7 2
/
(cm 2 ).
(8.20)
Note the dependence on the Z of the nucleus, indicating that L shell

and higher-shell ejection is less probable because of the screening of the
nuclear charge. Here O'T is the classical Thomson cross section, which is
derived from the simplified assumption of a plane polarized elecromagnetic
wave scattering from a free electron (it is assumed that the displacement
of the electron is much smaller than the wavelength); we obtain
O'T
8Jl'
3
[~]2
= 8Jl'r;5,
2
me
(8.21)
where TO == e2 / mc2 is the classical radius of the electron = 2.8 x 10- 13 cm.
Note that the Thomson cross section is independent of the frequency of the
incoming photon.
(b) Compton Effect. In the Compton effect, the photon scatters off
an atomic electron and loses only part of its energy. This phenomenon,
which is one of the most striking quantum effects, is described in detail in
Section 9.2; the cross section for Compton scattering is given by the Klein-Nishlna (K-N) formula, shown in an expanded scale in Fig. 8.8. The energy
of the photon is given on the abscissa in units of the electron rest mass J5
y = h v / me 2 , and the ordinate gives the ratio of the Compton cross section
O'c to the classical Thomson cross section O'T.
15Not to be confused with the usual definition of y for a charged particle y
introduced in Eq. (8.13).
= E /mc 2,
..........
......
...
. ..... 1*
.......... _.
.........
,.
..
-.'
- ......A
.
. ... ...... ~
AA:=:::
.....
. ......
....
. ... ..........
_ ........AA~
314
JI
..
..
..oJ . .
Jf
....
. . -...........
.......
......
..... .. -..........
.......
....
8 Part i c leD etee tor san d Ra di 0 act i v e Dec ay
-.....A._~
..
. . . . AI _
..
--
.~
A.~
. . . . '.A~
..
............. fa
JI
......
..
....
AI
..
..
- _ .J1.J1 ................
. . .... "'" .. :;;

.............
.......
. ...... . .
JI
,.
.......
..
..........
..
JI
.II
...
JI
....
..
J",.~
-. .... OIl . . . . .
. -...
'
..
0:
............
.....
.
.
..
.
.. .... .. :...:
"' .. %
........
.. ..........
..,
-............
.. .. '%
.. -
1.0
'"
"'"
.. '"
......
_-.
. .... .. ....
"'" .
..
........
A.~'J'.t'
..........
.. .... .... ... ......
",,/',.,.
. . ..":y...
. .. ........ ..
...........
.. .. .. .. . . ...%
. .. ......AA~
..
_..........
. .. ....... ..
- ......
.............
- -
0.8
.....
.II.
.......
.....
III
III
..~
...........
............ ....
......
..........
.. .. .... ....
...........
..........A.~
..
..
.....
.........
.......... ....~
.........A.X:
..
-....
- ..........
..
.............
.........
....
-II
.....
..
~ 0..6
--- -
~
~
..... x:
r---
- . . .
..... *
........
.........
... ..........**
.......
.........
.......
......... .*
. .......
....... .
_ A
0.4
.....M
..............~
........ ""
~
.. .......... . ~
.... .01
~
0.2
JI
.....
..
.. Ii .... ..
III ..
... .. .. .. ... .::JI.

~
...........
. ... ..
.......
. .... .
........
...
.
....
....
....... .~
..............
. .........
........
..
................
........... .::;::
'II
..
,,;
. ..
~
... I.
-. .
~.'
.... . ......... .
. . . .
~
~
0.01
10
0.1
100
1000
.. ........ ~
I.
'" ~ .J"
:-: .-:.-:-:-:..r'~A
.~~
~.Y"':
IJ
Y = h,viIm,,2
constat.l~:iii~~~!~
FIGURE 8.8 The ratio of the Compton scattering cross section, O"e. to the
Thomson cross section, 0'(. as afonction of photon energy expressed in units of the electron~#J~~
......... '~
retm
s ass.
:::::::::::~:~M~
........
. . ..........
...
. ....
. . . ....
.. W,
..........
...........
:.---,...:.
scattenng cross section:
~w,
-...
.
m
~~~~~m
::~~:m
-. , ... mPJ.
For low energies:
...... ........
.
I_..JI
' ............~
- . . . . ... ...
- ........
. . ....
-_-... "
AAA~~
--....
.
.
.
.
...
- . ... .
,.......
........0.
-'. ',......
Am
.....
.
...
.
.
- . . . . ... .
.
- .....
.
.,.....
.
....
.
-'.
- ,,'"......
.....~~!j-('
.....
...... .A@
.....
.
"
,.JII
"".J'I.,
'm~
- ---.'
-
1 - 2y
26
+ ...
y = hv/mc
~%j
"""A
x:
'A.~
For high energies:
'~~.JII.~
ere'
.: ,;.:.:.:.~:]
y = hv/mc
-D"T-
.:, "'........
.. A.::::;.
1.
>
>
........
~'*
1
.
.
--:-:(8. 22.1:-:.:-:.:.-.1".1"",.I
......
"".
- . ......
.
.
... ...,.
"'"
. . . ..... "'" "'"
-
..! ' ............
-.,
- . ,,
" ,~
_.,
JII",
...
.or . . . . .,
........,...
.......
(c) Pair Production. In pair production a photon of sufficiently hlgfi?@m

energy is converted into an electron-positron pair. For a free photon cori~~}r~~
servation of energy and momenmm would not be possible in this proces~~~Ii~~~~
so pair production must take place in the field of a nucleus (or of anoth~(~~~~~m
electron), which will take up the balance of momentum. Clearly the tbres~~{:~:~:~
2
old for this process is 2mc (where m is the mass of the electron), henc~}~~~~
1022 keY. The cross section for pair production rises rapidly beyond thei)~
2
threshold, and reaches a limiting value for hv/mc ~ 1000 given by16:n~
28
183
2
9 In Z1/3' - 27
,.... ......1'.*.
.... . ..... .....
..
, , , ..
..
.. . . .
JI
, ~ ~tI A. .~
.
.. . . . .
JI
"''' :,.~"
(8.23r:~:~~m
.......
'
...
til ..
x:
,.. 'Ax:
'.', , ,
~~
...
..........
.. .....
. .... X
.
. ..
. ..
. ..J A. . .
16See Heider (1984), p. 260.
.
.......
.
......
.......
.........
' ,
, . . . of ""
", . 0 1 " , ~
'.
...
. ,
. .,. . . A
, , , . . 'A.~
~
, ,
,
,
, A
, .... of ..
, ,
""
~
, . .
, ,
. ', ......
......
.. :.i
".........
........AX:
..X-
....
::::.
.....
..
, ,.........
. .1".::;.:.
.. A.X;
.',"'.......
@
..
............
....
.
".
'Ax:
...
.
,,'........
...'.'-: .X....
::::
....
.
.......
....
,
..
'"
III ..
. . . . . ,..J~
,',
, .......
'
"
,. . .
,
" '
"'
, ,
I.
<II ...
.:::::
" . A%!
;
~
' , .....,r;
"
'
:<-:.
~.t'ffi
.......
.
,
",
01 .. ..
, , ,'"
315
Since both the photoelectric and Compton effect cross sections decrease
as the photon energy rises, pair production is the predominant interaction
mechanism for very high-energy photons.
It is advantageous to introduce the mean free path (L pair) for pair
production; when a photon traverses a material with density of nuclei n,
1
L---parr -
nO'pair -
1
(28/9)(Z2n/137)r~ln(183/Z1/3)'
.,
(8.24)
where we have dropped the small term 2/27. Thus. the attenuation of a
beam of 10 photons will proceed as
1 (x)
= foe -x / L parr .
(8.25)
In conclusion, Fig. 8.9 gives the total absorption coefficient for a photon
traversing lead as a function of its energy (in units of the electron rest mass).
Note that
Kp = op2n
because there are 2 K -shell electrons per nucleus
KC = acne
electron density
Kpair = O"pairn
density of nuclei.
The dashed curves in Fig. 8.9 indicate the relative contributions of each of
the three interaction mechanisms.
1.4
I
1 1.0
c
I\)
~<II
0
<.l
c: 0.6
.Q
a.
l5
Jl
c(
0.2
0
0.1
10
100
1000
y=hvlmc 2
FIGURE 8.9 The relative contribution of the three effects responsible for the interaction
of photons with matter. The absorption coefficient in lead is plotted against the logarithm
of photon energy (in units of the electron's rest mass).
....
-...
.
.
.
. . . ..
, , . . . .. :-:
, , .........
. """,.,.... 2',
. .. . "".. .
. . .. ...... """"""......
., ,.' .....
......... "' ..
....."'"". .....
.....
........
....................
. . ............
.......
""A:-:
...........
..
-', .,, "
. , . . - ..
~
of
".
".
If
~ .~
"' . . II'
~
"' ,.., ..
.',J
.........
A~
.... . . A .. ~
316
~ji,
of
"' . .
~
~
"
If "' II' II'

. . . . . . . . "" Ai
,iii
. . . . . . . . "" A .. 1Ii __
. . . . . . . Ai ..
. . . . . . . "" ....
r-'..1
..... "' .....

'J
.... .... "" "" .. iii
"'
"' II' ..
-..}
. " . . . . . . .
III: ~
8.2.6. Interaction of Electrons with Matter

(Bremsstrahlung)
.I'
II
..II
......
...
..II
..
... )III
""
.... ... "" .. iii ..
1"
........".I'
. . ........
...........:=::
. . . . . .... ..
..
..II
. . . . III .......i.I
.......
..II
..
....
..
.. "'...
iii
.. "' .. .. iii
.............
.. .. .. ..............
..
..... ..
. . . . ....... ...-.
..II
........
..
. . . . . . . ..III ....
. . . ..III . . -..)
........ ..-..J
..II
.o.o
rtI"".
.........
. . . . . . . '..- "
Since electrons carry charge, their interaction with matter must followi{f~~~l~m
along the lines given in Section 8.2. Because of their small mass, however;/{:~:~~
their interaction with the nucleus results in significant energy loss by radif<\J~~
atioll; this process, called "bremsstrahlung," becomes the dominant mode!::::::::::~~.t
of energy loss for high-energy electrons.
. </:~~~~
We can obtain an estimate of the cross section for "bremsstrahlung" from>~:~~~~~
a classical nonrelativistic model. Consider an electron (charge e, mass ~~<}~~W
... .. .........::.-:
and velocity v) passing by the vicinity of a nucleus of charge Ze . and let us:;:)J:~~*
assume that in the collision process the nucleus does not move (Fig. 8.6J/i(~~~~
The scattering angle of the electron is given by Eq. (8.17), and the chang~:j}(~~~
in the velocity vector of the electron is
":\i)f~~!
,II
.....
.1.1
;/i,
..
of
, "
........ . x
,
,. ..... ...w
, , "\ III 01 III.. ~

, , ....
. . .III...
III
I
.
..,
,
,, ,....
.. '" III..
.. Jl'A .III,
2Ze 2
6.v -=-- - - . '"
,,"'.1'
", ................
,.. .....
.1',
.
......
.
(8 26) ....
.. . ..... ..
" I i .........
,,,
,
mvb
.'
'"
.... III ,..---- ..... III III . . . . .
........
".... x. ....
",
dE
2e
pet) .-:
=
--dt
3 c
,.
.--~
..
X"
, ....... ., .....
.......
1
charge ?
', ,........
. III...:.:,
is
. 2
(p) - (fi x~)
r'"
.... III . . . ..
'
...
......... ..
.... III ..---; , II

.. III . . . . ,
, .. III ..---,.
,
,
"
III ..
.... III..
.' , ....
.... .01 III ....~.
..
,
..---;
, .... III...
, , , ....
.. '" .01 III..
The radiation fOlmula for an accelerated
~.
, , ,....
, , .
...... ..---
, ,,
,
........ II
.. .01 . . . . . .
...... .---
,....'" ,. "'"'...' ::z.z.:..r-..

....... .......
, , '" . .
.. . "',.AI... .II. ...
..
'
.... ,.AI..
..
, ' ,.. ...

,. ,.AI..
,
..
..
"'
JI "'"
",,.AI
.... ,..
II
: ...
III ..
(8 27) ':~;:::;: :=::

"'."'''.fA,''
It
..
. ,,.......
.. III". . x:..;..
,
'"
'
..... ,.. lit
,,
.,
II . . . . . . .
...
..
.......
........ ..
. . . . . . . II:
,'" .. . '" III"

, . . . . '" .. II
, , ........
..
II
, ... '" '" II: II:
, . . . . III . . . . .
So for our case., since ~ is nonnal to ~,
. . . . . . II II1II
'"
,
. . . . III .. III
'"
..
.. '" ... III II1II
.... .
. . . . . . . . II
III ..
, , , '" .. . .'". .
...
, .. ....A"X..
..
..III
. . II
....
..III
III
....
II .. . .
..
'
2e 2
dE(t) = -" - r~' dt.
3 c
III II
..III
. . . . . . . II ..
.......... ..
.......
......
.
'.AA
................
,
....... II1II ..
.. .. '" III ..
, ,, . . . . . III ..
, , . . . . . III ..
'.
. :. .;......
(8 28) ,<.:.......
...
.......
....
..
....
.........
....... ....
....
.......
........ ..
....
...... ..
, ...... ".J"
II
. . . . III ..
, ....... III
, , . . . . III
,,
, . . . . . III ..
,
, . . . . . "---lIIII
,
, ,, ,
, ,, ........ III
, ......... III
, , . . . . . . .III
--lIIII
, ........,{-,, ,
,
,,
,
,
, ,'
,,
, . . . . III
,,
,
, .~:..;
, , , .. ...
~
--.
By a general theorem of Fourier analysis, if
.....
.
.....
............
......
......
.....
....
.....
......
...........
......
......
..
.....
.
......
.....
. ....
......
......
......
..
..
....
.
.... ..
... ...
.........
....
........ ..
~
~
2
e
E;; - :
3c
+00
IA(t)f dt,
-00
... .
,,
, ,I ,. .II.. ..
, ,
, , II
, , II
, ,
, , II
, ,
, II .. .
, ,
, II
,
then also
............
..........
.......
...........
...... .
, ,
,
2
2e
E=--3c
+00
--00
........... ...
.....
..
.....
.............. ....
' . II .....
II . . .
.... II
,
,
, ,,
IA(w) 12 dw,
. ..
II .... .
tel .. .
tel .... .
tel ..
.. AI .. .
, ,, ..
,,
,
, , ...
,
, ,
, ,
, ..
,
II .. .
II
.....
..... ...
..... ...
.....
......
...... ....
,
, ..
...... .
,
,
tel ..
.......
................
.......
tel ..
.....
......
~
tel
.. tel ..
, ..
tel ..
p. 666+ In Eq. (8.27) y was set equal to 1; similarly Eq. (8.28J.<~~~~~

2
should include a tenn (1 - /3 ) = 1/y2, which was also set equal to 1.
<.)~~:
......
17 See Jackson (1999),
, ..
.......
....
tel.
, ... tel.
,
,
,
tel
........
.......
....
....
...
...
....
'"
............
,
,
tel
tel
tel
,
,
II
,
,
,
.teI
,
,
tel
II
tel
.. tel.
.. I I .
,,
,
317
where
A(w)
= ~/+OO A(t)e iw1 dt

v2:rr
(8.29)
-00
is the Fourier transform amplitude of A(t).

Using then Eq. (8.29), we obtain in analogy with Eq. (8.28) the frequency
spectrum of the radiation 18
>
dE(w)
2 e2 [ IA(w)12 + IA(-w)1 2] dw
3~
4 e2
= 3~ IA(w)12 dw.
(8.30)
To evaluate dE(w) we must perform the integral indicated in Eq. (8.29)

= 1~1. We assume that the acceleration f).f3 occurs in a very brief
interval of time, on the order of T = a/v, where a is the characteristic
distance over which the force is appreciable l9 ; then
with ACt)
A(w)
= -1v'2i
1+
00
I~I e iW1 dt
= 11
../iii f).f3
0
-00
WT
< 1
w!' > 1.
(8.31)
If WT > 1, there will be several oscillations of the exponential term over

the region where 1~1 is different from zero, and the integral will average to
zero.
The integral results in a rectangular spectrum for the emitted radiation,
as shown in Fig. 8.10, with
dE
dw
2e2 4Z 2 e 4
{ -- _3Jrc --:---::--::--::c 2 m 2 v 2 b2
=0
w!' < 1
(8.32)
wr> 1.
Next we integrate over all impact parameter b to obtain the total radiated
energy at frequency w when the electron passes by a nucleus
x(U)
bm .. dEem)
--2Jrbdb,
dw
bmin
where we can set bmax = a
TV
and in view of w!'
1 we also let
bmax "-' v/w; from classical considerations (see footnote 6)

.
bmin
Ze 2
--2'
mv
18Because A(I) is real, A(w) = A*(-w).

19See, for example, W. K. H. Panofsky and M. Phillips, Classical Eleclricity and
Magnetism, p. 304. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1955.
::~:::::~:m:-:
It
" ".l1li"'"
~
. . ..........
JIll
8 Particle Detectors and Rad;oactive Decay
31B
"
"
"
.. JIll . . . .
JIll JIll . . ~
~
...
... .......
...... - ... , .... . :~.~
.. , ........
.',','.. ..........
, ...... .
. . . . . ..
11. 11. " , ......
..__J
" ...... - ?
,
........... -?
,
,
, .Jj
. . . .,:--:-:~
....
'
..
..
".Jj
......
..
. . . . . . . . . ..Jj. . . .- . .
........... ..
... " ......
..
. . . . . . .Jj . . . . . . . -I'll
"
. . . . . . . _I11III.
.r
A .. ~ III
I. ""
...... ..
. . . . . . Ii . . . .- .
..
.. JIll . .
. . JIll . . _
. . . . .III . . . . ,
.Jj
"
"
Ii .. .. ..
..
..
Ii .. .. ..
..
..
..
...
~.
....
..
III
..
Ii
;~~
..
III . . . .
OIl ..
. . . . . . . . JIll . . . . . , .
II . . . .::~
..........
r" " ". "...........- ...___...-~

'.' ............._ ..~~.l'.r.r"r
.....
...........
. ..
.............
..........
................
.........
......... ....
.........
. . . .. . .::~:....:;:::=::;=w.J
......... ..
. .. . .... . . ..... .
. . . . . .. .
"::::::::::~::~~: ~
...........
.
.
.
.
.
,",,m
'.' ......... ........
...
II
..
..
II . . . .
~ ~
~~~
.~:~:~:~:~~~:~:~:~~~
.. :.:.:i:~:.:. .:.~~~~~
. .. -. .
.:.:. :oI:~-:m
':.:.......
.,
FIGURE 8.10 Idea1i~ bremsstrahlung spectrum resulting from

III,.,tJ.l of a charged partIcle.
~~:~
""
...
... ~
. . ..
7.~
the sudden acceler~#Mji~!!~
.,,'
....
-..........
~
'. '-..~mhffl
...
. .. :...........:
'::::::;::~;~~~3:~
......
~....:.
'.4 ........
"
<:}~:~~~~~~]j
energy Iiw in the interval d(!U:v), is related to X(00) through
,'.........
. ,....... . ......m
. .m
~
(1Uu)abrems(w)d(1Uu)
',:':.:.~.~.~.~~~~
',
= X(w) dUJ,
...
16 Z2 e2
e2
me
.
. .... ....
.. -..
III
.... .
......
:.: -:.:. :.~.~~
. . :)}i~J~~~
mv 3
2 1
<::::?::;:WJ.
Ze w
dE
>:.:.:-::W
dx
:::::::::;:::~
..........
. . ~~~~~
."
Substituting 1/137 = e / lie, ro
"
=e
mc ~ and ( u..vmax) ....: Eo, the energy~~~~~;~

2
.:..,~.:.:
.. ...
.... .~~%:
.....~. .....:
.. ' .......
..... ....
dE
a
,, __
~z
:
.... ... ..
....
III ..
( 8 34'::::::%ID.Y.
.) .... "Z<
..
: ,'.: :..:....
',~
Ze 2 (W}av
dx
...
3
mv
'F"
~m
~ ~ ~ ~
' ...
~...:::
,
: ,~.:.:..: ..%
..~..::
....... :;::. :
..... ..-....
......
)OIl
....
III ,
Equation (8.33) is a fair approximation; the correct quantum-mechanic~~~~~:m~

::::::~~~~$.~
,...
X;:"-..
.
.
.
...
...
.. .....
......r.-,....
,,....
given by20
,
,
,
dE
Z2 n
2
183
-" EorO 4ln Z1/3
137
_Ii
dx
....
&1
av
",. . ,<.;.~
.... .:w:
=~
+-9
::}.}~~:::a:~
..
(8 . . 35:''...' .:~m
...
x;.
.
.
.
, .;.:.%..:
....
.......
. .-_:,.: ...
"",...
. ....... .*.
m
.. .. .
.,,'.....
........
.....*.
x. .
....
,......
..........
,
..m. ....
......
:. :..:.:.
"0.~
......
.......
.... .
~/.
','. . . *.
,
,
, ,, ,
~.
, ,
,
20See Heitler (1984), p. 253.
, ..
ra .....
.... ,I.
,
,
,',
, ,
, ,
,
,
,..,
..
,.~
,.~
... m..
"
":':.:.-*.
, ...... .-JJI ..~
, .... X
.....
">:-~W~*
,
",. . . .*.
,
II
,~m
", \~fiX;re:
......
. .- :-:.
,
' ,'
(8.36)
= nabrems = 4(Z2n /137)rJIn(183/Z 1/ 3 )'
which is obtained from Eq. (8.35) by setting L roo = dx, when -d E / Eo =
Lrad
....
~:::
1; the term ~ (small as compared to the In) was dropped.

~
To show at what electron energies bremsstrahlung becomes important.
we note that
,-."
(dE/dx)rad
(dE / dx )ioniz
I
~,
.',
....
~:::
ZE(MeV)
800
This is shown in Table 8. I, where we give for some common absorbers,

LlId, as well as the electron energy at which bremsstrahlung loss becomes
::'~~~2~~~~ i'::;;'azing,y sitcilar
fad
to Eq. (8.24), hy which we defined
= ~ L pair.
indicating that in matter the mean free path of a high-energy electron is of

the same order as the mean free path of a high-energy gamma ray; this is the
" reason for the phenomenon of the electromagnetic cascade. first observed
in cosmic rays.
,,
If a very high-energy electron is incident in the annosphere, it will soon
(after approximately 330 m) emit one or more high-energy gamma rays.
" These gamma rays wiU soon again (after approximately 330 m) produce
electron-positron pairs. Each of the secondary electrons and positrons will
" again radiate, and so on, until most of the energy of the primary electron
"
TABLE 8.1
Materials
Radiation Length of Electrons in Different

Electron energy for
Material
Air
A1uminwn
Lead
(dE/dx)rad =: (dEldx\oruz
m
9.7 em
0.52 em
330
120 MeV
52 MeV
7 MeV
"
...
"
,.
'"
'" '" A
A __~
,. '" "'" III ,
'" '" III III
. ' . . . . ...A ..A ..~
,. '" '" III

,. '" '" A ..
..... AAA..~
320
8 Particle Detectors and Radioact;ve Decay
'" A
',1"
,.
...
'" '" A ..
'"
,.
'" "'" A
'"
...
'"
III
'" "'" III
""',.._
'" '" "'" III

,. 101 A ...
" .. '" A '". .
III. .'"
.. .. .. ,.. '" "'"'"" ....

. A.
. . '" "'" ..
...
.". .....
. . . '" "'"
,..,..
.. ..
... ... ,..,.. ....
. .. . .. . ,.'" '" .... .,
. . . . ,. ,.
.
.. . ..
'" ....
. . ''"" ..... . .
.......
.. ....
.. .........,. ..... ..
. . . . ..
... ........
........... .....
., ,........
....... . ,
. , . . ...... .
.., .,.....
. ...--. .
.....
.... .......
.... ...........
... ............
.. .....
,
"
.. '" "'" A '"
JI
Ai
"
JI
,I
"
'"
..
'" III
~
,.. . .
'" A A
'"
'" III ~
'"
"
'" '"
,,""
" " " .... ,. II"",,..,
,.
. . . . . '" ... III

'" ,.,.

.. '" "'" III
,l
"
'"
,1,1
'"
Ai
'"
,..
..
.......
..
'" "'" III
'" ,.,.
'" A
,. '" ..
,.
'"
JI
.If ... ...
JI
'" . .
'"
...
'"
'"
,.
,.
'"
'"
'"
'"
'"
'"
...
'" III
,. ... III
....
III
III . .
...
III _
,
III
III
..
..
III
..III
...
III .... .
,~
..... III
II
'"
'"
'"
'" '"
. . . . . . . III
II '" III
'" ..... III
'"
III
... .... ..
..
..
....
.... III
III
..... ..III
..
. . . . . . . III
"
...
. . . . . . . . . II
, .01 .. ..
, . . . . iii II
..
......
. .......
.. ...
... .. .
.. ........
....
......
.
... . ..........
.
.....
.
. . .............
.....
..
......
......
.
...... .
"
"
"
, . . " ""
.. II
,
iii
.. ,, ,..
-" ,
",
,
, .01 .... ,
,
,
,,,
, ,
,
..
, ,,
. . .... .
FIGURE 8.11 Formation of an electromagnetic cascade. Note that high-energy elec~,;:~:~:~:J~~~
(positrons) radiate gamma rays and the gamma rays later convert into electron-positrq~(:}~~~
pairs and so forth.
. . . . . oj
. <~:'<:~~~~
, ........ .
....
'"
.,., ., ..........
.. ......
....
, , ......
,'
...
........
..
......
,
,
, . . . . .01 .. .
"".""""
(or gamma ray) has been transferred to many less energetic electroIi~:~:):i~::
8
11)
:.:.:.~.~.:.
.
. . ,'........
;-:. ~.:.:
(Fl g ~.
In another connection we have already used L tad in Eq. (8.19) for mul~':}~~i~~;
tip1e scattering; from Table 8.1 we see that in heavy materials scattering\}~~~~~
will be much more pronounced. Note that multiple scattering is the same<}~~~
for particles of the same momentum~ Thus, at low energies a light particl~<~~t~~~
.......
will scatter much more than a heavier particle of the same kinetic energyi<\~~~
(p = .JiT"in). This is clearly seen when observing the tracks of low~<{~~~
........
energy protons and electrons in an image-fonning device; the fonner one.~(\{~~~
are, in general, straight, whereas the latter ones suffer multiple scattering~::,::}~{
through large angles.
::':'~?I
. . . . . . . . . 111
,,
.-,
111 ..
...
111 . . .
, ,
, ,
II
...
".
....
III
III
..
.......
.II
III . .
... ..
, .... .
,
.... .
~
.....
,I
..
....
III ..
I
..
III . .
... ...
...
......
.
...
..
... ...
..
..
.. ..
...
..... .
, ,..
, , ... ..
, ....
.....
.....
I
....
..
, ,
I
.......
,
,
, , , . . . . JII
,
,
, ,
,
,
8.3. GASEOUS IONIZATION DETECTORS;

THE GEIGER COUNTER
..
..
..
..
:II
..
..
.J
...
..
.J
..
..
.J
..
.III
..
,
, ..
..
III
..
..
III
..
.J
.....
..
, ,
..
..
..
.J
III
..
III
.J
III
.II
I
I
III
III
..
.II
..
III
..
.III
III
..
..
.. . .
. . . ..
.II
..
III ..
..
III
I
,
..
..
.J
.II
...........
...
III ..
..
III ..
III . .
III
8.3.1. General
..
:II
II
...
As mentioned earlier, most particle detectors are based in one forln or:):~~~....
another on the energy lost by the charged particle due to ionization of the::,\~~~
medium it traverses. In a large class of instruments the detecting material :'::)~:
. ,. ..
is a gas; the ionization potentials are on the order of 10 eV't but on the\}
average, for example in air., the charged particle loses 30 to 35 eV for each<:~{
21
electron-ion pair formed. By collecting the free charges that were thus<)
,
...
..
IS,.
..
111
...............
...
..
.....
, '.
,,,
,
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
21Thls is due to additional interactions such as excitation and elastic ~cattering.
,
,',
'.
...'...."
....
..
..
....
...
..,....
. ...
, ..
, ,.
.
, , ..
..,....
,
,,
,
",
,
,',
,/
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,, ,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
8.3 Gaseous Ionization Detectors; the Geiger Counter
321
.. FIGURE 8.12 Diagrammatic arrangement of a cylindrical Geiger counter; the central wire
is cbarged to B+ through Rc while the cylindrical envelope is held at ground. Tbe output
signal appears across RL .
created, it is possible to obtain an electrical pulse, signaling the passage of

.. the charged particle.
The simplest type of gaseous detector consists of a cylindrical chamber
with a wire stretched along its center, as shown in Fig. 8.12. The chamber
walls act as the negative electrode, and positive voltage is applied to the
... central electrode. Under the influence of the electric field, the electrons are
collected at the center while the positive ions move toward the walls. It is
desirable to conect the free charges before they recombine in the gas; this
is mainly a function of the pressure of the gas and of the applied voltage. 22
If, however, the voltage is sufficiently raised, the electrons gain enough
energy to ionize through collision further atoms of the gas, so that there is a
significant multiplication of the free charges originally created by the passage of the particle. In Fig. 8.13, Curve 1 gives the number of electron-ion
pairs collected as a function of applied voltage when an electron (minimum ionizing) traverses the counter; Curve 2 gives the same data, but for
a much more heavily ionizing particle. Tbus the ordinate is proportional to
the pulse height of the signal that will appear after the coupling capacitor C
(in Fig. 8.12).
Referring to Fig. 8.13, we see the following regions of operation of
a gaseous counter: in region IT the voltage is large enough to collect all
.. the electron-ion pairs, yet not so large as to produce any multiplication .
. A detector operated in this region is called an ionization chamber. As the
.. voltage is further raised, region ill is reachec4 where multiplication of the
original free charges takes place through the interaction of the electrons as
. they move through the gas toward the collecting electrode. However, over
22It is also. of course, a function of the specific gas or mixture of gases used.
......
. . .... .

~iII"'
.......
....
. . ......
.. ...
., .. '. .
...
...

.., .. ..
. ..

. . .'
. ......
. .
.
., , ..
..
, ,.
, , .
.' , ..
, .
, , ,
, .
, ,-..
.
, ,,, .
,.
,
, , ,.
, ,.
,
, ,.
,,
,
, ,
, ,,
, .
.
,
,.
, .
, ,

"
'
322
iI
iI
'"
"" to ,

iJI
ill
. "."'.iI
'.',
.~'"',,,' '
It'
'to"
iI
iI
'"
"
...
iI
'"
,, "
~
Recombination
before coUection
.s
108
()
8
til
.-.....
0
106
1-
..c
E
Z
10
,
(
N2
,
,
t
,
102
"
t
INt
II, . -
l
t
I
I
f3 partiere
250
,
750
electrodes. Curve 1 is for a minimum ionizing particle. whereas curve 2 refers to a heavily
ionizing particle. Note the three possible regions of operation as (a) an ionization counter,
{b} a proportional counter. and (c) a Geiger counter.
a considerable range of voltage, the total number of collected electron-ion

pairs IS iarrry"'pnspt\QIlaI-to the original ionization caused ~y the traversal
of the charged particle.23 A detector operated in flns'regtUir a'\!led,a arpportional counter; it has an advantage over the ionization counter in that t
2
signals are much stronger, achievable gains being on the order of 10 to 1(
Finally, further increase of the high voltage leads to region IV, where vc
large multiplications are observed, and where the number of collec1
electron-ion pairs is independent of the original ionization. This is
region of the Geiger-Muller counter, which has
the
great
advantage
{
.
very large output pulse, so that its operation is simple and reliable. Indf'
wm_
,,,,
, ,
, ,
, , ,
. , ,
,
,
,
, ,, ,
, ,,
,,,
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
,
The number of electron-ion pairs collected when a charged particle traverses a gaseous counter of average size plotted against the voltage applied between the
,, ,
,
, , ,,
,
FIGURE 8.13
.Tn
,,
, ,, ,
, , ,
, ,
,
500
Voltage, votts
,,
,, ,
, ,,
, , ,
,
,
I
I
I
1
,,
Discharge
region
a partfcle
,,
,, ,
,
, ,
I
-, iii
..
,
o
. _ ...
t
1
,J
::.r
counter
d
t
t
--
Q)
c::
chamber
.J
Region of
Hm1ted
proportionaUty
ProportIonal
,~
,
lon'zation
, .... - - ) I
[...........-----.-1
"t:J
..,.....
23The proportionality does not have to be a linear function of the applied voltage.
8.3 Gaseous Ionization Detectors; the Geiger Counter
323
at such high voltages, once a few electron-ion pairs are formed the electrons produce more ionization at such a rapid rate that regenerative action
sets in. the whole gas becomes ionized, and a discharge takes place. At that
point, the resistance between the central electrode and the chamber wall
becomes negligible, and the counter acts as a switch that has been dosed
between the higb-voltage source and ground; this discbarges capacitor C
through resistor RL (Fig. 8.12). Since C was charged at B+ ,(on the order
of 1000 V). very large output signals may be obtained. For example, if the
number of electron-ion pairs collected is 1010 (as given by Fig. 8.13) and
C = 0.001 f..LF, we obtain
V
= -C =
1.6 x 10- 19 x 10 10
10-9
= 1.6 V.
(8.37)
By scaling this result according to the graphs in the figure, it is easy to

appreciate the difficulties involved in the amplification of proportionalcounter and ionization-counter signals.
The disadvantages of the Geiger counter are the loss of all information
on the ionizing power of the charged particle that traversed the counter,
and the long time necessary for restoring the gas to its neutral state after
a discharge has taken place. However, the simplicity and good efficiency
of the device for single-particle detection have made it a very common
nuclear radiation detector.
8.3.2. The Ionization Chamber
:::::
.",
:>
in,
~.:.
t,
r.',
~
..
~'
The main difficulty with ionization counters is their very low signal output
If they are used, however, in an intense flux of radiation as an integrating
device, high signal levels can be reached; in that case the output signal
corresponds to the total number of electron-ion pairs fonned (per unit
time) by the radiation. In this fashion ionization chambers are frequently
used for monitoring X-ray radiation or high levels of radioactivity; in such
applications they are far superior to Geiger counters, since the rates are so
high that a Geiger would be completely jammed.
When an absolute measurement of the created free charges is made,
as with an eil':Ctrometer, ionization chambers may also serve as standards
of ionizing radiation. Most commercial instruments, however, amplify
the output pulse and are directly calibrated in roentgens (or fractions
of roentgens) per hour. For use in the laboratory an ionization counter
. .:::::::::::::~_:~.t'
.... "".
...
...
..II
III
III
III .... II
::::
..~ ......... A . .~
III . . . . .~~
III III . . . . .J'A~
III .. II II ~
. . . . . . III ...... ~
. . . . ..II
.':-:-:-:..Il::":m-X:
. ......... ..
..... I I
~
...............:;--/.
"Iy~
is suggested for radioactivity surveys and as an X-ray monitor in the range'ijX{JIm.

<:;:::::~::::::~w.
Of 0-2500 mRJh
m
of
. . . . . . "' ...
Below we describe a very rudimentary "student-type" ionization cham~<}!1tm

ber that was used in this laboratory for measuring the qmge of a1pha/))i~
particles emitted by 210po. Figure 8.14 is a sketch of the 'app8l1ltus; i~\(r~~~~
consists of a flask with a 5-in. outer diameter, its inside wall having bee~,:}~(:~~~
coated with a conducting material (such as aqua-dag or silver). A rubbef;'/}~~~~~t

stopper inserted at the mouth of the flask acts as a support, electrical insri~~}~~~r~
lator, and vacuum lock. Through the stopper is fastened a brass rod at th~/j~~
tip of which has been attached a 20-j1Ci 210po. source,24 which is thns)))lf?j
located at the center of the flask A 180-V battery IS connected between the.>}::~~~~
flask walls and the rod supporting the source, and the ionization current is))f~l~~~t~
measured with a Keithley electrometer. .
. . ./i}i~
The energy of the 210po alpha rays IS 5.25 MeV, and thcrr range Itt.}}~~::~:
air at stp is 3.93 cm; hence the alphas stop before reaching the walls)I~~I~%~
of the flask and deposit all their energy in the gas. By using the number ot><~~~~~~~
approximately 30 eV per electron-ion pair, mentioned at the beginning of<)i~~~~~~
. ............. .
Section 8.3.1, we would expect per alpha particle a total of
")n~~~~W;
,
5,25
6
x 10 /30
....... III III OIl ,
. , . .III........
III III III
'.... //~~~~I~
-= 170,000 electron-ion pairs
'.III.
II .. III . . . .
, ........... III OIl
II .... III III III

II II .... III OIl ..
. . . II .... III III III
, . . . . . . III III ..
, . . . II .... III . . . .
~
(the true number in this case being closer to 110~OOO)4

Since
........
. ,, ,, ..
.........""".t'.
. ... .....
.......... ....
.,, , .........
.......
.......... . .....
, ,,, ,.........
.........
.........
..
.........
...........
..
...........
-. .
........
.
, ........
........
.........
....
.........
.
........
........
...
........
, .........
.
........
..
.........
.
........
.......
.. ...
........
..........
..........
...
......
.
........
.
.........
........ .~
....
.... ....
~
~
, ,
,
,
,,
,
, ,~
,,
,, ,
"
, ,
, ,, ,
,~
, ,,
,,,
,,
,,,
,
, ,, , ,
~
20 ~Ci = 20 x 10-
3.7 x
10
10
= 7~4 x
5
10
alphaparticlesjs
.......
.
........
..
.......
..
........
.
.......
... ..
........
.......
........
..
.........
.
........
........ ..... .
........
........
..........
...... . ..
'::::::;::::::=
' , ,.......
.......
.
', ....................
.......
.
, , ,........
........
..
.
, ..... ..
, , ........
..........~
if all the electrons were collected, the ionization current should be
I --:: 1.6 x
19
10-
x 7.4
5
X 10
x 1.1 x
5
10
= 1. 3 x
8
10-
A,
:'
(8 .38)
"
,~
which is readily measurable.

<)~~~~~~
......... .
If now the flask is slowly evacuated, the alpha particles will traverse a ,:}~:i;~:~:
........ .
longer path before stopping; however, as long as the alphas stop in the gas; <{I~~@
the same number of electron-ion pairs is fOl'Dled and the ionization current :::>~:~:~~
should remain flat and independent of pressure. When the density of the ,:i:~t~~~~
air in the flask becomes so low that the alphas reach the wall before losing, :<}~~~
.....,..
all their energy in the gas, fewer electron-ion pairs are fonned and the ,',(i~~~~~
ionization current will drop monotonically with decreasing pressure.
' :}~~~~:~
.. "".
......
,
. ...
. ....
,
".01""
,
"" ..
".01"".
"
"
- '--.
...
.
....
.... "".....
.......
...... . ..
....
.....
..
"."";";.
.......... ""."".....
..
.
.....
.
...
.
....
.
.....
.......
..............
........ ..
....
.
.
.
... .
,,
""
,,
,
' " .. ""
, ,.01"".
,
, ,
24See Appendix D.
. .. 01;";.
""
, , ,
,
"
"
. .....""""""
,
""
, . ..
"
,,
, ,,
,,
, ,,
,
,
,,,,
,
,
""
""
""
""""
, , . . . .""A
""
, ,,
;";.
.....
.
.....
. "."".
......... ..
."" .....
....
.........
,
, ,... oM.
, ,
, , ....
oM.
"'.I',',{',
, ,
,
, ..
, ....
,,
.01
JCOCl
...,/
"
Valve
coating
Manometer
Silvered
FIGURE 8.1 4 A simple arrangement for the determination of !.he range of alpha particles in air by measurmg!.he ionization
current as a function of chamber pres~ure.
.z,,-:-:
.....
.
.
. ... ..zz
... . ........
-.............
-
~~
.II .II .II .......
.II
...
...
..
.II
...
..
..
.II
...
..
... ............
:::::
-.
.
.
.
.
.
x
-. . ". ". -..... X
. ' ,.II ..................~
326
..
-. ......... "::z.
-
......... I11III:":
-.~
.......... ,....JfJ
- - ~ .. .... rt/"JI
- ~~
-
.II
....
..
~.'
. . . . . .... ..
.... "t-.
-......
... .. .......
. . .. . .
....
................
. . .. . .
........... ..
- . . . . ..... ..
t:::
.....
................
. . . . ...
.......
IiI
.. : . :
.AI
..
.II
.II
..
..
..
.II
. . . . . . .~.
.....
.II
. . . . .~
- ~~-.
~-jO
.
-
-r:
...
.II
. . . .~
......
.II
....
~
............... .II . . . . . .
~~
- :.:::~:::::::::~..~~Ji
'.1""
,...,}
-_ ............ :..-..JI
0.9
. . . . . . . . . . *.
. . ..........
..
..
..
..
..
.II
.II
.II
...
.....
.....
..
~.I
.l"'JA
- - ................~-
.................
........... . .
Pc=51.5O.2 em
..
.II
..
....
. .~
c..:
............. ..".z.
-..............
o ()
JI
..
............
..
..
.II
.II
.II
.. . . . .
.... . . _~
- . . . .. .. .......
.r'~
.<-:-:-:..:%-%
.. . .........
.
-. - ............
....
........
....
- ............
..............
- ............
....... ..
.................
_ .......~~~_-%
- . ... ... . .
-
-.. . . . . . . . .
",.~
- , .. ... .r'JtJ
~
I
..I
.......
_jj
0.8
or-
JIll
'
~JI
....
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .j
..t"~
:-:-:-:.;.:.:~~~~'
........
.-.
........
..........
" .........
.....................
- . . ........ .
...
'" "'. ~
"
.
.
.
'
.. .
...........
.
.
........
...........
" .. ... . ..
. - .. .
...... .
Atm pressure= 76.3 em
ill
- . . ....... ..
T=-2~C
.. .. .. .....
........
...~
...
.'
~~
... ... ~
'. '. -.II
"'.II .......~
....
:.:.:.:.~ ..~...~~~~~
...........
Y"":
...................~~
'-:<.:-:.:.:. .~ I~
.:.~.=.:.:.;.:..:~~
'. ... ..
-.. . . . . . . . . @
0.7
::::~~ ~m~~.-I
~~~.
................
" . .
" .. .. .. ....
r'A~
. . . . . . III ...
..
........
':':':':';":~:m~
............~-~.
. . " . . "" "'"~m
.........
. " ......""........
"" ~
'
:::::;=:::::~~~x::~
............
..................
. . ...... . .
~~~~.
.'
~~
' .. :::~::::~::~~~
(]I JE;
:::::::;:;;.~
P (em Hg)
~ ioniz~~l~~
FIGURE 8.15 The results of the measurement referred to in Fig. 8.14.

current is plotted against residual air pressure and a decrease in current begins at
p>#~~
--.........
~~---jJ"*~
- ............
. , .......
_-7~
the expected qUalitative behavior of the ionization current is observed; fr(i(i.(::~~~

the breaking point we co~c1u.d~ that at a pressure of 51.5 1 cm Hg, ~~::@i
210
range of po alpha rays In alT IS R = 6.14 em. Hence at stp (760 mm H8~;:::;::@
:::~::::::::~:~
_'........
~AA-..~8.
......
-y/.
:.:~: . :. :.:. :. ~
. . .". .. . ... ... ::P.
.
- .'. .
15C)
R stp
1:
51 5
288
6
1
4
R x
'" x
=. x
x
Rstp
T
76.0 298
stp
~~
...... --x
4
02
0
1
:}}::::::~
=.
. em :-}=:::::::;:;:~
~
-':-:.~.:A:_~
.... . . -:x-
-." ... A*
I
.........
..
in good agreement with the accepted value of Rstp = 3.93 cm.::Hilij~~

From the ordinate of Fig. 8.15 we note, however, that the ionization ~~f:~~~~~~
r~t ~s three orders of ma~i~de lower than the es~ate ~ven ~Y Eq. (8.~:~lM~~
thIS lS due to the recombInation of the electron-Ion pans, which procee~~~~~:~
at a fast rate because of the long path in the air. the high pressure.~ijjjm
25
the low value of the e~ectric. field a~cel:ra~ng. the electrons. This if!Hlij
example of a low-efficIency Integratmg 10mzation chamber.
::::?::::~~:~~
.'.........
"-~.*"
.,...........
........
.
. ...... .:;:
...... :::::
~
25Some loss is also due to self-absorption in the source, and the geometrical solid aria~~
. n1 21r
.............. . .
~
'.'.. ,.,. ........
18 0
.
...........
.......
........ .."r.::
~
~
,,
, . . . . .01 . . . .
" ' ..................~
.. . . . . II
tI
...............
..,. ...". . . tI
'
. . . . . .001 II
, . .....
II ..
. . . . . . II
" ' ................
.', '
.,.J1 ...... Q
, , .. " ...... .J'"'

', ' ................~
' ,
'"
" ' ............~
.. ' '.Ii ......
.', ........
. .m
..*
....... ..
''
.. 01 . . .
;. ;.~.;.:~: ~~
..',. . ..."m
.. . . ....
. ' ,. .".' r ~"*~.h
'
.... 01 01 II
~~
.... 01 .. II
- - ..
.....
'" ..
,iii
B.3 Gaseous Ionization Detectors; the Geiger Counter
.... 8.3.3. The Proportional Counter

:. We will not describe in detail the proportional counte~6 but only give
.. the results obtained by a student using such a detector in connection with
the experiment on the Mossbauer effect (see Chapter 9). The advantage
.. of proportional counters lies in the detection of very low-energy X-rays
or gamma rays, which can hardly penetrate a scintillation crystal, and
.: when in addition good energy resolution is required. This is the case in
.. the Mossbauer experiment from 57Fe, where it is necessary to identify a
14.4-keV gamma ray in a strong background of 123-keV gamma rays and
:: 5-keV X-rays.
The proportional counter used was'l:7 Amperex type 300-PC. It was filled
with a xenon methane mixture at a pressure of 38 cm Hg. The equipment used for amplification and pulse-height measurement2 8 is shown in
. Fig. 8.16, and the counter was operated at 2100 V. Figure 8.17 gives the
: results obtained, where the number of pulses is plotted against the discrim inator channel. The large peak at Channel 12 is the 5-keV X-ray; the small
peak at Channel 26 represents the sought-after 14.4-keV gamma ray.
As we know from Section 8.2.5 (Fig. 8.7) the predominant interaction
. of low-energy gamma rays in the gas is the photoelectric effect. The cross
section for 5-keV quanta is on the order of 6 x 10- 24 cm2 so that if the
counter represents approximately 50 rnglcm2 of material, the efficiency for
gamma-ray detection might be as high as
6x
l(f3
x 50 x 10-3 x A x 6 x 10- 24 ~ 10%.
Using the data from the 5-keV peak, we obtain for the resolution of this
.: proportional counter,
I!.E/E
= 1.7/12 = 14%,
where for I!.E we chose the half-width of the peak at half-maximum (after
background subtraction).
26For an extensive discussion of proportional and ionization counters, see the Encyclope dia of Physics, Vol. 45, Nuclear Instrumentation n, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 1958. articles
by H. W. Fulbright, pp. 1-50, and by S. C. Curran, pp. 174-221.
27Manufactured by the Amperex Corporation and obtainable from Scientific Sales, Inc.,
Long Island. N.Y.
28Por a more detailed discussion of pulse-height spectra see Section 8.4.
-0
I
...,.
.....
-'C')
r---.;'
I 0 i3
I g -g
I ~ g.
I .., i$
g ~
t'b
=
fii 0" i
ft ~
;is
n
~'
~
1'''''
~ g
.j;:..
::t
S
~
C")
E;
~
,..,
(')
<
CD
3
-=.:
....
m
C!I
-<
"'0
..,
2-.
ffl
0
0
.' '>.
~
__ 'T.I
rn t-)
"
==: g. IJI
_,
~
~
- . - . '
. - - -. - - - - - . - - - -..
-.-'-,-,-,-,-,-,-,-...
- - -'
- - - - - - - - ,.-'1:
,g
:3
.' a- "
-.o
~
~
.....
-.
g
-'01'
r-+
!.
g
I_~ ..... -
::I
<~;
(')
~.
~~~.
U~
~~
~
(Q";j"
, ~~ t
~n~
I
~~~
{Il
0
~=~
~~
Q.:r.
S'tO'
a= ~ I
(I:J
I"'t
1----'
, 00 l
Ii')
<
I
l
~
.....
'- __-_J
Er
""1
......
CD
.-
='
'.'.' , " . . . . . , .................. " ." . "."."""., , . . . . . . . . . .>:-:. . .':'. . . . . . ...."...,.... .'.. .,','.'.'
. . . .. . . ". . . . .', ', . . . ,.' . . . . . . . ". . . . . ". . . . . . . . . . . . . .". " . . ". . ". ". . . . . .
,
'.
..
.' .... '
,,'
.. ' , . '
,....
.
.'.'. '.'" " ....
D
"
..
..
. .. ...
. . . . ..~. . . . . . . . . .. . . .......
. . - ......
"'
............... , ' , .............................
.
"
"
"
"
"
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
....
....
..
......
_
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
..
..
............
"......................
- - - - - - - - - - , - - , - - , , , - - - ... - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ......... '.,
f"'t'
C
-.~'"
" - - "-- - - - ' - _. - . - -- -_-~ -_____
'-. - - - _.
-- . . -- - . -. .- _.
- - - - . -- - - - -- -- .- - - - -- - -- -- - -- - --. -_______
- - - - -- - - - --- --- --. -_- . -- -- - -_____
- - - - - - - - - ..
-_-. -_. , -'lIII!t
"'~-.- - ,-.-~~,,-.,
F"',
-__
..
'.'.-.'.-,'.' -.- , , - , , ,-. - .-.-.-,-,-.-,-,-,-,-.-.-,',-.-,',-,',- , , , , _ _ , , ,.,-,-,-,-,',_ . , ' ' , , , , , , , , ,',
,
.'
"
"
f"
,_,_,_
OM_
',_, _ _ _ _
. ,.. ,.. ,. ,'.' ,',':':':':':':':':':-:':-:' ",' -:.";", 'L..','." L":.':-:':.:':':,,:':':':.;.;.:.;.;... ....... """",'.',': ,; ,; ,; ,;,; ,;.;,; ,;.:.:.;. '. '';' '. '.', '.',',',.,.,'..:.:.;.;.;.;':.;, ;.;.;,;.;.:.;.;, '.~.;,','.'.' L' L' L" '~', LL;L;.;';';':':':'
._
"_
____
:,~,:.:.,
" " ' , . .
, ,',',',',',',',' ' , , _ '.' "
..
....
','
, '
. . . .
..
'
"
' ','.' , , , , , , , , ,', ,
~::::.::.~\~\@~~*~~~~t:::\t~tt~~t1tt~~~~~~::::::.::~~~:~:~:~:i:~~:~.::~i~~~~*,.: , : ~,: ,:.:~:~::~:~:::~:~:~:~:~:,.:~*~:~:~:.:~:.,:~~~~~~~

. . ~:~~:~~~~:~~:~~~~~
.
.~$~~~~~
. .~.~~~~~~~~~~:~~~~~~~~~~
..
..~~.~~~~~:~~:;:~;:;:;:;:;:m:;:HHm~~:~:~:~:;:;:;:;:~m;:;~~:;:::~::~:~:~~~~~:;
.
.-. ........ -.1."1 I I
I I .... I I I I.. I l. I
I l. I I I I I
II;'. 11;"".'.'.'.'l'.'.'.'
I I I I I I I I
I.... ..........
..
.. ...... II . . . . . . . . . . .
I...
..
...............
L L L L L L
a - : . : ' : . : ' : ' : ' : . : ' : - : , ' . : . : : , , ' . ' . ' . ' : ' ; - : . ; . : . ; . ; . : ' : . : . : . : - : ' : - : . : . ' , : - :
__
B.3 Gaseous Ionization Detectors; the Geiger Counter
329
8.3.4. The Geiger Counter; Plateao and Dead Time
It has been pointed out in Section 8.3.1 that a gaseous counter operates
in the Geiger region when the voltage between electrodes is sufficiently
large; that is, the traversal of a charged particle initiates a discharge in
the gas, and as a result a pulse appears at the output that is independent
of the original ionization. If the voltage is further increased, spontaneous
discharges occur, making the device useless as a particle detectOr.
Because the principle of operation is simple, Geiger counters are simply
constructed, the geometry of Fig. 8.12 being typical. For certain applications, the thickness of the walls is an important consideration, and Geiger
counters may be built with special thin windows (usually mica of few
mg/cm2 ). Glass envelopes for Geiger counters are fairly common, and
various pressures as well as mixtures of gases are used.
Another important consideration for Geiger counters is the "quenching"
of the discharge initiated by the traversal of a cbarged particle. Until the
gas is returned to its neutral state, the passage of a charged particle will
not produce an output pulse; this is the period of time during which the
counter is "dead." The quenching of the discharge can be achieved through
the external circuit (for example, in Fig. 8.12 the charging resistor Rc will
introduce such a voltage drop that the discharge will extinguish itself),
through the addition of special impurities (such as alcohol) to the gas of
the counter, or by both methods used together. The circuitry necessary for
the operation of a Geiger counter is also extremely simple. A single stage
of amplification and pulse shaping is usually sufficient to drive any scaler.
In order to operate a Geiger counter properly, the high-voltage source
must be set in the "plateau" region (Fig. 8.13, region IV), where a similar
output is consistently obtained for all cbarged particles traversing the
counter. We may then define the efficiency of the detector as the ratio
of the number of output pulses over the total flux traversing the counter;
since the pulse heights are all equal in the plateau region, we do expect
the efficiency to remain constant in that same region. Clearly any particle detector should be operated in a region where the efficiency is "flat"
C with respect to variation of operating parameters. Tbe efficiency of Geiger
~: counters is 90% or higher for cbarged particles, but for photons it is much
( lower, being only on the order of 1-2%.
( . It is difficult to make absolute efficiency measurements for Geiger counW ters. A "standard" calibrated source of radioactive material may be used,
and the output count compared with the expected flux from a knowledge
!C
:::::"
~~~: .
~:::::
~~::::
I
I
I
I
.II . . . .
.II . . . . . . I
. . . . . ..
.II
... I
I
I
... '"
.II
_"~
-
I
I
-
330
B Particle Detectors and Radioactive Decay
. . . . . . ..
~
.II . . . . I
~
..
.II . . . .
.II
... I
...
. . ....
.II . . . . I
I
I
..
.II
.II
... I
. . . . ..
~
.II
... I
I
-
.II
I
I
.II
.....
....
_"~.II
I
I
I
...
....
.II
. . . . ..
.II
... .
.II
.....
.II
....
I
-
I
I
I
I
. . . ..
..... I
. . ..
.II
... _
.II
I
I
.II
'"
.II . . . .
...... I
.II
.II
.....
...
of the solid angle subtended by the Geiger counter. If the counter iscplad~~~~~~:
at several distances from the source, the consistency of the measuremerit$i:~:~:~
may also be checked through the Ijr2 dependence. However, a relatf~~~/~~~
measurement of the efficiency as a function of the high voltage-is easy'::tQ}~~~
make; if it yields a flat plateau"} this is an indication that the detect.or OP~t~)~~~
ates at high efficiency (close to 100%) for the particular type of radiation}~:~
that is incident. Geiger-counter plateaus are usual1 y a few hundred vo~~~i~~~~~
wide and have a small slope, on the order of 1-2% per 100 V.
. .. : )~:}}~~
To deterloine the plateau, either a radioactive source or the cosmic~ray~}~~
2
flux may be used; since this flux is on the order of 10- particles/cm2-si.::Jt}~~
takes several minutes to accumulate 1000 counts for a counter of averag~r~~~
size. As explained in Chapter 10"} the emission of radiation is a randomr~~~
29
process, so that the standard deviation of any nleasurement is given .blfj~~~~:
the square root of the number of counts, and thus the measUrenlent shou~ij;~~~~~~:
be interpreted as
-:: <{:~:~~~:
~
.......
.....
.II
...
. . . . . . .,jI
..... .
. . . . . ...
..... .
I
. . . . . ...
I
I
...... .
..
.
...... .
~
. . . . ...
.... .
,
. . . . . ..
I
I
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
....
..... ~
. . . . . . ...
....... .
I
,
.... . .
..... .
. . . ..
...... ~
I
. . . . ...
.,jI
...... .
. . . . ...
.... .
. . . . . . ...
I
I
..
.II
........
I
I
.II
.II
lOOO31 = 1000 x (1 O.03) counts
or in common parlance, 1000 counts give 3% statisticsp The high v.olta~~t~~~

should be well stabilized, usually to a few parts in one thousand.
. .:.:.~):~:)~~
30
Figure 8.18 gives the plateau found by a student for the RCL typ~(~~~
10104 Geiger counter. A 10-~Ci 60Co source was used for the measur~~>~~~
ments, and the standard deviation at each point is shown by the size of ~ij)~~~
dot. The plateau begins at 1100 V and is approximately 250 V wide; ~~({
discharge region begins at 1400 V.
:.~.~):}
The slope of the plateau, from Fig. 8.18, is
:>~{:
~
.II
I
I
.II
.II
.II
.II . .
.II
.II
.II . .
I
.II
.II
I
~
I
I
....
.II ...
.II
150/3200 = 5% per 100 V.
.II
.II
.II . .
I
. . ..
I
.II
. . ..
.II
.II
....
.II
.II
...
.....
I
.II
.II . .
I
.II
.II
I
I
I
I
I
Next we tum our attention to the dead time of the Geiger counter already~}~~
mentioned. Indeed, once a discharge has been initiated, the counter will:}~
not register another pulse unless the discharge has extinguished itself, an4?~~
until, in addition~ the counter has "recovered" that is, returned to a neutrat:~:~:~
state. During the recovery period, the counter will generate an output puls~~(~~~
but of a smaller-than-normal amplitude depending 011 the stage of recoverYi(~~~
I
.II
..
....
.....
I
..
....
I
~
...
I
....
I
..
....
I
I
I
I
29 If this measurement is repeated many times, in 68% of the cases we will obtain N
...
..
. . . ...
.=*<~~~~
CJ
N > N + (j, where N is the average of all measurements. See Chapter 10 for the definitio~)~~
. . ...
.. :. :-: -: .;...
(J
. . ..
of .
3Radiation Counter Laboratories, Inc., 512 West Grove Stree~ Skokie, Ill.
<~~)~
,
....
...
'
..
....
...
I
.....
~
...
I
~
...
I
I
,
I
,
I
,
I
I
I
I
~
I
I
I
~
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
,
I
I
..
~
...
...
....
...
~
.....
...
.....
~
...
I
~
...
~
...
I
.....
~
...
I
......
I
I
,
I
I
,
I
,
I
,
..
.....
~
...
...
...
....
.....
I
...
....
I
...
..
...
..
...
..
8.3 Gaseous lonilltion Detectors; tile Geiger Counter
331
5500
"""
"''''
"'"
c
"'"
"'"
~c
u
"'"
"""
''''''
"""
500
,0000
FIGURE 8.18
"""
"'"
V~~
"'"
,.'"
Plateau curve of a Geiger coooter. Note that the plateau regi oo extends ((II'
250 V and has a slope of the order of S'i> per 100 V.
Horizontal scale
Vertica l scale
l00)lsecJcm
5Vlcm
FIGURE 8.19 Multiple-exposure pholograpb of oscilloscope traces obtainl from a

Geiger COUIlter eltposcd to a bigh flux of radiation. Note the effect of lJ1 e "dead time~
of the eounter and the gradual buildup (recovery) of the output pu!r.es.
-......
--....
-...........
...........
. . .-......
. ..."-z.
......Et:
!%
.........
- .. .. .......
........
.. 'X
-.......
........
..
.............
.........
..
.......
- - - .....
. .......
..
.......
.,~~~~~
- . . -.......
- - ... .......... ..
,.,
, .'" . . ......
-.......... ~
- .. , .............................,;
....
...
:::::
.
..
..
....
-.. . -. ....
. ....... :-:.
...........
_
'"
332
'"
'"
8 Pa rti c leD etecto rs and Ra di oactive 0 ecay
~.~~~
....................
"
. . . . . . !III ..
..
..
""
"
..
.. .... .. !III
,.~
This phenomenon of recovery can be clearly seen in Fig. 8.19, obtaine~m}J@~

by a student The Geiger counter was exposed to a bigh flux of radiation~?}~~~~~~
................... ..
the trace of an oscilloscope is triggered when the output pulse appears;~:>~:~:~:~~
The horizontal scale is 100 JLs/cm so that the shape of the output puls~~)}~~fJ
and its exponentially decaying tail can be seen in detail. If now a secontl.<>~~~f~
particle arrives within 1 ms of the previous one, it will appear on the same:~~~~~~~
oscilloscope trace since the scope will not trigger again until the sweep i$}~:i:~:~:~~
completed (the screen is 10 em wide). The picture shown in Fig. 8.19 wa$}W&~
obtained by making a multiple exposure of such traces. The correlation ot<~~~~~~
pulse height against delay in arrival time and the exponential dependenc~~f)~~~~
of the recovery are clearly noticeable. If we consider that the counter is/{~~~:~
. .... .4 ..
inoperative until the output is restored to 63% of its original value (1- 1/e}~-{:)~~
the data of Fig. 8.19 give a value for the dead time 'r on the order of
<>~~~~
. ,.,
'
.... .,1'1..
....... .t'..
~.
... x:.. .
. , ..
. . . . . . . . 11
.. 01 ....... .
01 """...
.01 . . . .
. . . 01 """...
..
.... .01..
..
01 """ . . . .
...... ', .......'
... ".i" ...
1:
~'
(8 .. 39). .....
........ ..
= 400 llS.
'.
,
, .01
.....01
,
,
.01 . . . . . . .
I
. . . . . . ..
.......... I
I
.01 . . . . .
........... .
....... .
.........
.........
""
...... .
......
........
.01 .. ..
....... .
,;., I........
............
,..... ..,
~40)I. , I
(8
.01 . . . . . .
. . . . . . ..
""" .. .. ..
...... .
....... I
IJ.S~
300
01 """ . . . ..
.01 """ . . ..
.
......
..
.....
. ....... .
I."
.......
.......
. . ....... ...
.
.......
Pulses, however., seem to appear after an interval

~
. . . 01 """ . . . ..
..
..
..
...
,.j
..
. . . . . . . ""
"'"
....
""
... ...
. . . . . . . . . . . ...
,.j
,.j
...........
...
The dead time of a counter may also be obtained by an "operationa1'~;;:?/~~~~~~~~

technique, such as by measuring the counting loss when the detector i~,\~~~~~~~~~~~
subjected to high flux. If the dead time is T (s)~ and the counting rate R~'~i~)~~~~~~~~
(counts/s), the detector is inoperative for a fraction Rr: of a second; th~/}~~~~~~~
true counting efficiency is then 1 - R7:
}{~~~~~~~~
Consider two sources 81 and S2, which when placed at distances from;:)~~~~~~~~~~
,.j
..........
,.j
...
......
the counter Dl and D2 give a true rate (counts/s) Rl, R2. The counter~),:,<~~~~~~~~~
however, registers rates
< R 1, R~ < R2 due to dead-time losses, and::ii(~~~~~~~i
when both sources are simultaneously present, it registers Ri2 < Ri + R~,:,<~~~~~~~~~
Ri
':,:~{~~~~~~~
due to the additional loss accompanying the higher flux. Now,
A
... .
. . . . . . . ...
~
~
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
....... .
......
...... ..
.......
.
..........
..
......
....
.
......
.
...........
.
.....
.
....
.
....
.
....
.
.....
.
.....
..............
.........
.....
............
!
. . . . . . . . . . .. .
..... .
...... .
I
...... .
,
I
I
I
I
..... .
I
.01 . . ..
.01 . . . . .
+ R2)(1 -
,
I
"I
. . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . ..
....... .
. . . . ..
I
I
..... .
I
..... .
I
R~2L).
,,,
We solve by writing
,
,
-1-'---~R..;;;;;.~-2-L
I
I
1 - R~;
R'2
..... .
. . . . ..
...... .
.....
....
,,
,
..--.
...
.
.....
..--.
.....
..... ..--.. .
....
...
. . . . ..--01
I
I
. ... "" .
..--
01 .. .
.01 . . . . .
I
01 . . . .
. . . . ..--.
I
01 .. ...
I
01 ..--.
I . 01 . . .
I
01 .. ...
I
,
.....
I
,
01 .. ...
..--.
.01 . . . .
.....
..--.
01 ... ..--.
01 . . . .
.01 .. ..--.
, 01 . . . .
.01 ... ..--.

I
01 .. .
01 . . . .
+ 1 ~ R2 it
01
....
I
I
.01
R'1
.. .01 . . ..
.01 . . . . .
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,
, ..
, ,,
, ,
, ,,
,,
R '12
.01 . . ..
..... .
...... .
...... .
, ,
Ri2 = (Rl
... .
R~ = R2(1 -- R~r)
...... A
A
I
. . . . . . . ...
...... .
I
........ .
I
~
I
. . . . . . ...
........ .
I
..... A
...
I
A
... .
I
. . . . . . . ...
01 .. .
.....
.01
',". .......rIl
,'. .......rIl
,
, ,
','
~
.......
"'."
.....
.........
, , ..........,;1
, , ..........,;1
'," .......rIl
',' .......rIl
'
, , . . .01
..
.....
.
...............:.-:
',' .......,;1
,
,'
"'
.. .
, .....
"''':'':
,
8.4 The Scintillation Counter
which reduces to a quadratic equation in
l:
with the solution
+ R; -
This can be expanded in the small quantity (R~

approximate expression
r
(Ri
+ R;
333
- R~2)
~--~--~~~
2R'R'
1 2
Ri2) to give the
(8.41)
We now apply Eq. (8.41) to data obtained by students with the same counter
used for Fig. 8.19. In practice, source S1 is first brought to the vicinity of
the counter and Ri is obtained, next S2 is also brought in the area and
R~2 is obtained, and finally SI is removed and R~ is measured: thus no
uncertainties due to source position can arise. They obtain
Ri = 395 3 counts/s
R12
= 655 3 counts/s
R~ = 334 3 counts/s,
yielding r = 282 20 I1-S, in better agreement with Eq. (8.40) than with
Eq. (8.39).
The rather long dead time of the Geiger counter is a serious limitation restricting its use when high counting rates are involved; the
ionization counter and proportional counter have dead times several orders
of magnitude shorter.
8.4. THE SCINTILLATION COUNTER

8.4.1. General
As we saw, in gaseous-ionization instruments, the electron-ion pairs were
directly collected; in the scintillation counter the ionization produced by
the passage of a charged particle is detected by the emission of weak scintillations as the excited molecules of the detector return to the ground state.
The fact that certain materials emit scintillations when traversed or struck
by charged particles has been known for a long time, Rutherford being the
first to use a ZnS screen in bis alpha particle scattering experiment".
--"'
..
....
.
.
.
.. " ..... ,.
.....
.............
. ... ".......:m
'"
,.
........
.........
.
..... --",;-.-.-..
~
-.~~-.r
-'.o . ",."
,.
lit
00II,
... .. - "'J""-J'.'
~
334
. :<:}~:~~~-~m
. . . .. . . . -rn
.:::::::~~:::::5.
-
. ...... ..
....
.lI .. ...
and consist of an organic or inorganic crystal coupled to a sep.sitive phoi~~~r~~~

multiplier that res~~ds to the light pul~es. Anthracene or stilbene, Crysti1t~tiijm
make excellent SClDtillators, but orgamc compounds embedded In trari~K::i~
parent plastic; such as polystyrene, are now widely used because of ease:ij}~~~~m
handling ~d mac~ning and availability in large ~z~. Such mat~rial~~M1i11~
31
commercially aVlUlable under the general descnption of "plastIc scmtiHr~~m
lators." The active materials are compounds, such as "PPO," 2.. 5-diphenYl;~)~~]
oxazole. ?r di~h~nylstilbene, or others, and are also available in liquid for#.r~
Orgaruc sClntillators have an extrenlely fast response, on the order q~}~:?~
9
10- s. which can be ma~ched by good ph~tomul~pliers. On the other han4:~J~
bec~use.ofthe ~ow denSIty and low Z, the~ efficl~ncy for gamma-ray co~tl~
verSIon IS not high. To detect gamma raYSt lnorgamc crystals, such as NaI ~~<~~m
~sL are used ~tead. activated with some impu~ty, for instance TI (1 p>X:i~
3
m 10 ). Inorgamc crystals have an excellent effiCIency for gamma-ray co~t?wJ
version, due to their high Z; from Eq. (8.20) we recall that the photoelectritt;:::~~j
~ffect is proportional to Z5 ~d from Eq. (S.23,) pair ~uction i~ propor+@~
tiona! to Z2. However, the light output from InorganIc crystals 18 sprea~,}~:~f
6
over a much longer time interval, on the order of 10- s. Such inoigani2./~~~.
crystals are also available commercially,32 appropriately encased since they(t~~~
are damaged by humidity; they come in sizes up to several cubic inches. :,:>~~~~~~
The light output of scintillators is proportional (as a matter of fact~({~~~
linear) to the energy lost by the particle that traverses the detector; thus, by){~~~
pulse-height analyzing the electrical output of the photomultiplier, the scin~,(~t~~
tillation counter may be used as a spectrometer. This procedure is discussed, (~~~~~~
in detail in the following section, where it is seen that energy resolution ODI ::\~~~~
the order of 10% or better is achievable.
}~~~~~~
.......
The mechanism of emission of the photons in the scintillator materia1:~:>~~~
...........
is rather involved. Table 8.2 gives a chart of the processes involved in the}}~:~:
..........
emission of light in organic and inorganic crystals. In inorganic materials}~~~~~~~~
.......
it is the migration of the electrons through the lattice (until they excite an/{:~:~
impurity center) that is responsible for the long duration of the light pulse. <~~~~~~
Even though the efficiency for transferring the energy lost by ionization :\~;;~
..,.,. ..
to the photons in the visible region is on the average low, E R:: 1.5%.,':'~i)~~
a scintillator still provides ample light output. Consider the case of a.:':':\~~~
plastic scintillator 1-em thick., traversed by a minimum-ionizing particle:<,)~~~
6
2
dEjdx = 2 x 10 eV per glcm ; if we take the average photon energy.::/~
...
,
'"
..... III
"
.4
31 For example, from Pilot Chemicals Inc,,,
36 Pleasant St." Watertown, MA.

32For example, from Harshaw Chemical Corp . Cleveland~ OH.
tI..oI.
01 01 ..
01
,1C"
01 ...
,
--,.
,
--,.
, .. JI ...
, , "
, ",,--.
, .. II ...
, , ",.
, ",--,.
,
...
....
.....
..--.
...... ..
,,
,
..
JI
..
.. .--..
, ...
, ,.. "'..
--...
, ,...
.
...
, ......
, ...
'" .
,.
., ....
,.
i JJi--,.
l
, ", l ..
,
,
,
,
,,
,
..
--
.--,Jj
.......... .
",--,.
, life,.
""--.
,,, ,
,,
, ,
,, ,
, , , , "'
, , . , "'
,, , ,
, ,, .., ,
,
....--.....
......
..
TABLE 8.2 The Series of Processes Leading to the Emission of Light When a Charged Particle Traverses a
Scintillator Materiala
Inorganic scintillator
Organic scintillator
(Impurity activated)
Of~gy
Electrons
Holes
Loss
to
vibrational states
Drift to impurity center

and ionize it. Emission
of thermal radiation
"
Energy may be
' " transferred to
olhe'-llecules
Excited iirUrity center
Electron drops into

metastable state of
inlPUrity cente.- ~
~OciatiOn
Emission of light
quantum
Ionized impurity center-+-Capture with

emission of
/
thermal radiation
/
Electronic structure of molecule is excited
E~n of light
Radiationless transition
quantum
,:.:~_~ Thennal ene.-gy
Radiationless transition
raises electron
to excited state
aAfter J. Sbarpe, Nuclear Radiation Detectors, Methuen, London. 1965 (Courtesy of the Publishers),
... ........ ..ill

"...................
.............
............... . ill
...............
~ ~ ~
"
. ......
:=::
.....' ......//...:
",
""
............................~
...
... . w.
..........
".,
.....
........... Yh
"
",
.......................~
geometn~ efficIency for collecttng the photons onto the" photocatho.d~~f:~f~;~:~m

usually hIgh:; so. that on the order of 1000 electrons are released. W~~~~~~~~~~~
modern techniques however~ it is possible to detect the release of a ft:}w:}~:~~~

'. ' .......,. _.......rIII"-,
9
photoelectrons, or even of a single one.

<:}}:::~:::~:~
.............. .
Clearly the scintillator material must be transparent to the visible r~~~~~~~~~~~~
~tion ~nd op~cal co~pling to the photomuL~plie~ must b~ p~vided. T~fl
IS achIeved elther drrectly or through a "lightplpe., n which 18 an appt~:~~~~::?J.
priately shaped piece of lucite or other medium of high refractive in~~~@~
that traps and guides the light due to total internal reflection at its st~~~~~~~m
faces. At the surfaces where the lightpipe is joined to the scintillator or'jij~~~~~~~~
the pho!,>muLtipli~r. optical cont~t is achieved by the use of either ~W~
33
caus fiwds or SpecIal glues. ObvIOusly the whole assembly must be h~'t~
tight; ~~ is freq.uent1! achieved by wrapping black electrical tape aro~Jf~
the SCIntillator, hghtpIpe, and phototube.
..:::::::::~~~:~
~ec~use of its great stabi1i~ and ~ ~f o~ation. as well as becall'~~ii~
of Its tnne and energy resolution, the scmtillation counter has becorpe t~~f~~~~~
most frequently used detector in nuclear physics, especially for high-energy)~~~~:@
I
..............~
:::::::::;::~;:*::::
......
Partlc es
,
" . .". . . . *.
. . . . . II..
. .. .. ....
.I" .../',
......
III
JI
...
..
.........
". ........
. . . . II
. x:J".
8.4..2. Experiment on the Determination of the Energy
JI
JI
JI
.. . . .~'
.
III
..
. . . . II
..
....
JI
..
.. )01
III
..
II II
.....
..
.... II II1II
II II
'" ... II
JI
II
...
..
".......x:
of Gamlna Rays with a Scintillation Counter
..
'"
..... II .. ..
II .. III III
JI
. . . . . III.
..
....
...
..
.. . ...........
. ..... .
.
.
.
.
.
.........
. .,.......
. . ........... Y-.
. . . . _..
.. III
'~
~
.......
....
..
. . . . . IIIIII ..
III ,-
..........
'"
~
. . . . . . . . III ..
. . . . . . . . . II1II ..
..
..
..
..
If atoms are quantum-mechanical systems and a typical manifestation" 4~~@~~~1:

this fact is the emission of spectral lines of light., it should be expected th~t}~:~~
nuclei~ when excited, would emit similar line spectra.
")}}~~~
Since the nuclear radius is three to five orders of magnitude smaller th"~ti~~~f
that of atoms, the forces that bind the nucleus (against the repulsion of ~~I~~~i
positive charges confined in its volume) must be correspondingly strong.t)~;~~
than the forces that bind the atomic electrons to the nucleus. As a conse:~}:;~~
quence., the energy levels and the quanta of energy emitted in a nuclear tra6.qm~~~~~t
sition are also orders of magnitudes larger than those of atomic transitio~~.?~~~~ffi.
Indeed, the quanta of electromagnetic radiation emitted in a nuclear tranSi{~~
tion fall in the gamma-ray region, and new techniques are needed for th~f$$.
detection and for the measurement of their (wavelength) energy.
>{~~~~:W
. , .......r, ....
''m'
tI . . . . 1
, , .. tI..,j... . ~
, if tI
~
."
r....
33~ the first category, Corning 200,000 centipoise fluid or clear vacuum grease; in thM~
..
J ' ..........
latter, R 363, PS 28 acrylIc glue, etc.
: '.: ' .}:~::a::

,;-~
.1''''
,,,',,,............
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, , ..... .
x
......
.
, ... ..
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, .:-:.:-:......
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. 'X
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' .','...........
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,...
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II III
'
,
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337
Further, because of the larger spacing between energy levels, it is not

easy to excite a nucleus from its ground state by the simple means of electric
discharges or arc sources such as are used for atoms; instead, beams of
neutrons or high-energy gamma rays, or high-energy charged particles,
are required However, in distinction to atomic transitions where the deexcitation probabili ty is on the order of 10 8/s, some nuclear transitions have
a very small "decay" probability, as small as 1O-7 /s, corresponding to a
lifetime of 100 days. Thus, it is possible to excite a sample of nuclei inside
a nuclear reactor, or by subjecting them to cyclotron bombardment, or by
other means, and subsequently bring tbem to the laboratory for measuring
their spectrum or for other uses. Indeed, some of the nuclei that have very
long lifetimes can be found in nature in their excited state; these are the
naturally radioactive elements.
We now know that the appropriate detector for measurements of the
energy of gamma rays is an inorganic crysta1. When a gamma ray of energy
< 1 MeV enters the detector, it will interact either by the photoelectric
effect or the Compton effect. In the fanner case it is fair to assume that the
ejected photoelectron will deposit all its energy in the scintillator; in the
Compton effect, however, the scattered photon mayor may not convert in
the scintillator (depending on the size and geometry of the detector).
The pulse-height spectrum for gamma rays of a given energy will consist of a peak at an energy corresponding to that of the gamma ray and a
continuum below the peak, corresponding to Compton-scattered gamma
rays that escaped from the crystal before totally converting. This can be
seen in Fig~ 8.20 and those that follow. Clearly the larger the size of the
crystal, the larger the percentage of the output counts that will lie in the
photopeak; thus, the gamma-ray line will become more pronounced.
Most of the data reported here were obtained with a NaI-l1 activated
crystal,34 2 in. in diameter and 2 in. wide, coupled directly to a photomultiplier tube. 35 (photomultiplier tubes and high-voltage bias schemes
are discussed in Appendix E.2.) The output pulse is fed to an Ortec 36
Model 570 amplifier, and its output is fed to a Canberra multiport multichannel analyzer (MCA). The MCA is controlled and read out through a
:~::
34Bicron Corporation, http://'MVW.bicron.com/.

35The crystal and photomultiplier tube assembly is a commercial package from Canberra
Industries,
http://www.canberra.com/. Model 802-3. The photomultiplier tube "base" was
~>:
i.,::.> con36s!ructed from a commercial socket and simple components.
'
f.:>
http://www.ortec-online.com/.
:;::
~!!
~f
...... ..
........
,
:;~:::-
Counts per minute over 32 bins
Counts per minute over 32 bins

o
.....
.....
......
o
o
U1
.... -.
tn
...L
...L
I\l
...
",..-
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
------~-----~------_.----~-----_.------~------.,
......
o
en
..
'1J
c:
- CI.)co
~ o
::r
_.c
_.
(1)
(Q
.;..
a:
Q)
C')
......
_.
<
c.n
o
o
o
dl
o
o
... . :..
"".-.
....
"
..
.
.-
8
o
..
,.
.....
~
o
o
(XI
g
o
C; ....
..'I
339
5+ (5.26 yr)
~99%
(Z=27)
4+
2.506 MeV
r,'r,
."'M'V
2.82 MeV
BONi (Z=28)
FIGURE 8.20
(Continued)
GPIB interface, in this case using a laptop computer. Spectra acquired in

this way are histograms with 8192 2 13 bins. (Adjacent bins were added
together to reduce the statistical fluctuations from bin to bin. This is easy to
do with the resha pe command in MATLAB.) The conversion of bin number
to photon energy depends on the combined gain of the photomultiplier and
the amplifier, and must be calibrated with sources of known photon energy.
The following figures give the results obtained by a student. Figure 8.20
gi ves the spectrum Of60Co and shows two distinct peaks, which we attribute
to gamma rays emitted in the de-excitation of 60Ni from its 2.505-MeV level
to the 1.333-MeV level, and from that level to the ground state according to
the decay scheme aJso shown in the figure. For comparison, we also show a
spectrum taken with a 3-in.-diameter and 3-in.-wide crystal. As a measure
of the energy resolution, we may consider the full-width of the peak at
half-maximum, which is on the order of 480 channels, hence a resolution
of 480/6000 ~ 8%. We also notice a significant background for pulse
heights lower than that of the peaks, which is due to Compton-scattered
gamma rays that subsequently escaped from the crystal. This background
is much less severe for the larger crystal.
Figure 8.21 gives similar data for a sample of mCs; here the 0.662MeV garruna ray represents the de-excitation of 137 Ba. Again we notice
some Compton background and an energy resolution on the order of
10%. Figures 8.22 and 8.23 give the pulse-height spectra from 22Na and
mBa, respectively. For the 22Na, the peak at 1.277 MeV arises from the
de-excitation of 22Ne; the larger peak at 0.511 MeV arises from annibilation radiation. Indeed, from the level diagram of 22Na decay, we notice that
350
300
..,-
m
c:
..c
N
(I')
!II
A
ell,
250
7/2+ (30 yr)
:L..
.!
;:I
.-E
c:
'-
150
CD
..
c..
UJ
C 100
:::J.
.'
1.18 MeV
,.
,
1/2+
137Sa
2000
3000
Pulse height (Channels)
1000
. .
.......
""
....
,'"...
(Z=56)
5000
4000
Pulse-height spectrum of 137 Cs gamma rays obtained with aNal crystat and the associated decay scheme.
...................
0.281 MeV
3/2+
.......
94.50/Q
(2.65m)
FIGURE 8.21
LL
11/2- 0.6616 MeV
,
..,.
(Z=55)
50
137CS
(I]
~ 200
'
.-
,",
-.
'
.
. , ,.
...
. . . . ..... , ' , ............ ' , ' " , .. , ' , , ' , .... ,' ........
'
,
'.".'"
....
. . . . . . . .. ...... ...... ..
......
' .. ' ........ ,........... ............................ ,..................................... ".-.".".'
..
...... ..
.... .. ',' .. ..............
......
.... :' ........ :' .......... ' .......
:.. :.......:.......
:.-................
:1.......
"' .. :.: ...................: .....: ........ _---_._------ --_._----'----------------.-_ ............ " .. " .. " .. ",,",,",,",,",,",,"" .. " .. " ............ " ...... --- ...... --- .. -...... " .. " ........................................... "" .. "".
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. ....
"" "~",,".
.~ . .~....:.......
- - _..
""
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - .. ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ .. ~ .. ~ . . . ~ . . . " " " " " .. " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,
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..................................
k ............ k k k
.... "
, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " " .. " .. ..
.. . . . . . . . . . - .. " .. " . . . . . . . . , .
.o - . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . k k k " . . . k " k " k k 1 k & .. k .. k .. k . I

. . . . . . . . . . - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " " "..
".......
~.
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k " " "..
"k"",
~ 1 1 ~ 1 1 ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " " " " " " " , ...... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . k ~ k k k k k k k .. k k k k " & k & k & k & k & 1 & k
' ........ ~ ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . " " " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~
"...
"
".

I " .... " "~""~
,' ' " . " . " . " . "

L , , 1 1 1 1 1 1 .. 1 " 1 " , 1 . . . . . . . . . 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ k k k k k k k 1 k k k I l k 1 ~ 1 & k & 1 & & & & I
......
........ " " ........................................ " " " " " " " " k ........
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.",".", '''IILIL ..
....
........... ' .... 'L .... ' .. ' ..' ...... ..LL' ..
..
..111.111 ..
1 ..
L
...
.1. 1
k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & & I. & & & & 1 & I. I & I & I I I. & & & I.
' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " ...... , " " " " . . . . . . . . " " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L L L L L L L L.
L L L L L L & I. I. I. I. & & & & & & I. l I. I. l I. l I. l I I I. I. I. & I. I. I
'
"
.......................................
"
........
........
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
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.....
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~.~ ."~
l~. L~11L ~ll
1~1 ~111~111
",'.0.".."
~ ~
350
m
300
-----r----.----.-----r----r----r----~---,1
:!Ii")
I
:. 1 : '
. \\
<1>'"
250
o .200
<I>
'E
8.
...
22Na
(Z=l1)
\
\
150
1.275 MeV
It
100 }.,
3+ (2.60 yr)
<1>
..
~ ~~~_:.....~".~ ~~~~~1
J.
:\.Jj
8 500[l__ __ ___.. __ __ __
~!
:
1000
2000
3000
2+
4000
5000
0+
2.84 MeV
22Ne (Z=10)
_ _
6000
7000
8000
Pul;;s6 height (Channels)
FIGURE 8,22 Pulse-height spectrum of 22Na gamma rays obtained with a NaJ:
SII-KeV line is due to positron annihilation.
and the associated
scheme. Note that the
342
8 Particle -Detectors and Radioactive Decay

1aoo~--~----~~~----~----~--~-----
1600
(J]
.~ 1400
.c
C\l
~ 1200
Ql
5
.....
:J
.-EC
Q)
1000
800
Q)
a.
600
en
C
::J.
o
()
400
200
-,
37 See also the detailed discussion in Chapter 9~
3SNote that they are emitted with a relative angle of 1800
:;:--.
8000
t~':
7000
IIk
<ii
5000
~~( ..
4000
3000
?:::,
343
6000
22Na
2000
:i3Sa
1000
00
500
1000
1500
y-ray energy (keV)
FIGURE 8.24 Plot of gamma-ray energy against the central channel of the photopeaks
. appearing in the spectra of Figs. 8.21 through 8.23. The detector response is obviously quite
linear over this range. Note also that for a zero photon energy, there is a "pedestal" of a
few hundred channels. This ensures that none of the spectrum is lost below the range of the
multichannel analyzer.
In interpreting gamma-ray spectra some care must be taken since spurious peaks due to instrumental effects or physical effects do appear.
~? First, there can be peaks arising from the emission of X-rays. following
~{ photoejection of K -shell electrons either in the source or in the shielding.
{::-"
~{ Also, a peak may appear due to photons that backscatter (by 180) in the
photomultiplier window or elsewhere; then the Compton-scattered elec~> tron escapes, but the scattered photon becomes converted in the crystal.
~t For 137Cs with its 0_662-MeV gamma ray, the backscattering peak appears
~? at 0.185 MeV a~d can be identified in a c~fully ~easured spectrum.
:=;::;::
Another spunous effect occurs when an mcommg photon of energy E
~t ejects a K -shell electron from the iodine of the crystal, but the emitted X-ray
::S:fescapes without converting in the detector. The ejected photoelectron has
an energy
E-EK,
where E K is the energy of the K shell of iodine, namely, 29 ke V. and will

give rise to a peak not coinciding with the true photopeak_ This so-called
- .........
.. .........
...........---
..
..
.
.
..
...........
. . .. .. ......
...............
.........
.
. -........ ....
..
-................
....x;:
"'X
~
....
Partic~e
Detectors and Radioactive Decay
......
..
--
......
-~~
344
III
........
.
.
.
............
..........
....... .. .."'X
-...........
. . ......~x
- ..............
- -.' ........ ..........
.............
- - - I,'~ .......... - .....

- ~
. . . .
~
....
..~
~
~
"escape-peak" can be identified because it is located 29 ke V belo\y~jjjw

photopeak; it is most pronounced in the pulse-height spectra of low-ene_rgyI~J~@.
. . . . . ..
- ...........
gamma rays
The relative ratio of counts in the photopeak as compared to the couht~jIj~@
in the Compton background depends on the crystal and source gerim.~~~~~~~
etIy and on the gamma-ray energy. Usually the relative counts in Qt~i~;~;~
photopeak give sufficient information, but when the absolute numbei~~Qf~~~~:~
gamma rays is required, we must calculate the efficiency of the crystat~~~:a
.................::.::-:
for the particular geometry and gamma-ray energy~ Extensive tables:~:ijf~J~~
efficiency for most combinations of the relevant parameters have b~~#~~~~~
calculated. 39
:\}:~~~~
. .. ......
.... ...
.... ~
:<.:.:.:.:~
...
.....
.II
...
..
...
~.,J
...
...... .',', .~
~
........... :.-:.r.
III .. .
-~
~ . . . . . III . . .
.... , ..
.......
III...
-'
III . . . . . .
. . . . . . ...-~
.' I~.."".r."~
~
8.5. SOLID-STATE DETECTORS
.......
III.. I"
rIl..JI-.
.tI.,:..:
x
III . . . . . .
'~.~""
I
~ ......
I ........
.
.... '.:..:
I,
.........
. . . ,"~
I~
",',
.....
..
.. . . '.x,
I
........
......
. . . . . . .~
... , ....
8.5.1. General
III
~..-.
I ........
I I
III...
I
I
..
...... .
......
I
I
' ..............
....
III . . . .....
..
.......
..
. I,' ........~...
...:
.......r..-;.
..... " .....
',.~
We have seen how the gaseous ionization counters and the scintiii~;~~~~~
tion counters are widely used for the detection of radiation and charg~'d~~~$==
particles. It is also possible to use semiconductor materials for the dete~~~~~~;}
tion of charged particles, especially those of low energy; such detectors at.~~~~~i
appropriately referred to as "solid.. state counters~'" 40
_ :.\}~;~~
In a general sense, we can think of this type of detector as a soli4.~~~~~~~~~
state ionization cbaIllber, having two basic advantages over a gas-fiUed}~:::
ionization chamber:
- >}::::::~
I
.......
.II
.....
1 , . . . . . . .,;-
..........
. . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . ..
.II
I
I
I
. . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . ..
.II . . . . . . . . .
I
I
(a) The energy required for the creation of an electron-ion pair is 3 e\(~~~~~~
(as compared to approximately 30 eV in a gas) so that stronger signals arid?~~~~
better statistics can be achieved.
.}}:;:
3
(b) The stopping power is approximately 10 times that of a gas-fille4H~~~
device (since the detector material is so much denser)., and thus it become:~):~:
possible to stop, in the detector t particles with energies typical of nucle~~~~~i~
interactions. Consequently a very large number of electron-ion pairs ~~~~~~
fonned, leading to very good energy resolution~ A 1-MeV proton stoppirig~~~~
in a solid-state detector will create 300,000 electron-ion pairs, whileth~)~-r
same proton traversing a proportional counter of 2-cm thickness wou14~~~~
only release approximately 30 pairs.
:i(~
I
........
........
......
.II
III
..
39See the Encyclopedia of PhYSics, Vol. 45., Nuclear Instrumentation II, p. 110.
40The scintillation counter is also a detector in the solid state!
III
...
III
...
,
,
..
III
III
, ~
III
..,,
I
I
,
,
III
'I
,
III
...
I
I
III
I
I
,
,
III
I
,
..
I
I
1m
...
.II
I
I
I
I
I
I
III
..
..
.,

.
...,,
.
.

.,
..
.
...,,
..
. ,

....,,
. ..

..
...
.
, .
. ,
I
III
8.5 Solid-State Detectors
345
~!:i:. In practice, however, it must be possible to collect the free charges (those
h created by the passage of the charged particle) before they recombine; this
Wmight be done, for example, by the application of an electric field in the
w.t detector material. This requirement is very difficult to meet with any of the
~f ordinary crystals. Clearly, the material must have a high resistivity, since
motherwise current will flow under the influence of the field. masking the
K:
effect of the pulse produced by the passage of the particle;
qn the other
~t hand, in high-resisti~ty. materials,.~e ~obility of the free carriers is very
:::=::: low and the recombmatlOn probability high.
W:
:::::::
~?
K:
~r
~{
~:::
Even though some results have been obtained by using diamond as

a de~ector, semico~ductor materials come muc~ clos~r t~ ~llin~ the
reqUlrements mentIoned above. Very pure matenal (an mtnnslC seIll1conductor) is used to achieve the necessary high resistivity, on the order of
107 Q-cm, and the detector is operated at low temperatures. Sucb devices
are called :'bulk semiconductor detectors.".
...
A great lffiprovement occurs when a seIll1conductor Juncuon41 IS used as
the detector volume; a device of this kind is called a barrier-layer detector.
The junction is made by either of the following methods:
~.:-
(a) Diffusing a high concentration of donor impurities on a p-type

material. usually silicon, thus creating an n-p junction.
(b) Utilizing a thirJ p-type surface formed by oxidizing n-type silicon
or germanium when it is exposed to air. This surface is so thin that it is
usually coated with gold to provide a good electrical contact; thus we have
a p-n junction.
~:~:.
Below we will briefly discuss the diffused junction (n-p) type of detector, Fig. 8.25a is a reproduction of Fig. 2.20, and gives the configuration of
the energy bands at an n- p junction., electrons being the majority carriers in
the left, or n, region, and holes the majority carriers in the right, or p, region.
Electrons may not move to the right, since the conduction band is at a higher
(negative) potentiaJ, and holes may not move to the left. since the vaJence
band is now at a higher (positive) potentiaJ; as a consequence there is some
repulsion of majority carriers from the junction; Fig. 8.25b shows their
density distribution. We note a "depletion zone" in the region marked S - T.
;:::-:
I:::::.
::-~
K-::
~~:
::::-:
t:
%:
jo";~:
41 Semiconductor junctions were discussed in 2.4.2, and the reader may find it useful to
review that material.
...
.~ :::::::=:::;~~~
.......
.............%:
.....
. ~
............
~ -.-~
"'"
"'"
.... ...........*.
346
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...... ""' ... ~/.
.:::::::::::::~~
......... "',~",,~
. . . . . . . . JI
# .............
:. :.:.:.:. :.; ~~
. ............
....... .. 9,;
... ........
..... ..-;0
.........
... . . . . x
.. . ...............
........ ..--z.
...... ..
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AI
......
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............. ..
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AI
....
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. "'"..-%
.. . .. . . .. . ....
-%
...............
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............. c.-:
7.
.................
.... ,. ........
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.
.::::::::::::~~~
.. . .. . .. . ....
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FIGURE 8.25 The n--p semiconductor junction. (a) Position of conduction and valenc~I::}~
......
bands and of the Fenni level across the junction; note the majority carriers for each regiori::~{:::::~
.......
(b) Density distribution of majority carriers on the two sides of the junction. (c) DensitY~}:~;::
distribution of impurity centers on the two sides of the junction. (d) Distribution of spacf~(:~~~
charge on the two sides of the junction.
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Next, Fig. 8.25c shows the density of impurity centers on the two sides o~~~~~~;~"".
the junction; that is, these centers which may be expected to be ionized by~}~~
the passage of a charged particle. To the left the donors have given electronsi)~~~
to the conduction band and are left positive; to the right the acceptors bav~)~~~
..................... ....
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B.5 Solid-State Detectors
347
acquired electrons from the valence band and are left negative. However,
these impurity centers are neutralized by the majority carriers, so that the
free (space) charge distribution is the sum of Figs. 8.25b and 8.25c, as
shown in Fig. 8.25d.
Thus we see that space charge exists in the region of the junction, and
as a consequence an electric field (the so-called barrier) exists as well, and
extends over the depletion zone. If an electron-ion pair is created in the
depletion zone, the electric field is such as to accelerate the negative charge
toward the n region, where it will have high mobility (being a majority
carrier); similarly, the hole will be accelerated toward the p region. Thus
good collection efficiency is achieved.
Figure 8.26 shows the same junction under reverse bias, 8.26a being
the same as Fig. 2.21. Figure 8.26b gives, as before, the dens.ity distribution of majority carriers, which are now further removed from the
junction, and Fig. 8.26c is exactly the same as 8.25c, giving the density of
impurity centers. Figure 8.26d, however, whlch gives the space-charge distribution, shows that the ionized impurity centers. have reached saturation
and extend beyond the junction. Thus, most of the applied bias voltage
appears across the depletion zone, which now is much more extended; the
limjt t.o this increase in sensitive detector depth is set by the breakdown
voltage of the semiconductor material itself.
In a diffused junction, such as used for a detector, the concentration
of donors in the n-type material is much larger (about 103 ) than the
concentration of acceptors in the p-type materia1. Since the total free charge
must be the same on both sides of the junctiort, the space-charge distribution is asymmetric, as shown in Fig. 8.2Th. Figure 8.27a gives some of the
physical dimensions in a realistic drtfused junction; wc note that most of
the "sensitive volume" is in the p-type material.
8.5.2. Practical Consideration" in Solid-State Detectors

From the previous discussion we have seen how a semiconductor junction may provide the appropriate electric field within a solid so as to
collect electron-hole pairs produced by the passage of a charged particle.
Multiplication such as occurs in the proportional or Geiger counter never
takes place in a solid, except under special conditions ("avalanche detectors"). To achleve good resolution in a solid-state detector one must always
coUect all the electron-hole pairs produced. Thus the sensitive volume of
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8 Partic'e Detectors and Radioactive Decay
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(c), and (d) pertain to the same distributions as described in the legend to Fig. 8.25 bU~~~~~
......
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8.5 SolidState Detectors
349
Dead
layer
----
Particles
incident on
this surface
Sensitive "olume
/.,...,,.....,....'" 10-3 to 10- 1 em
" .... ,"'''''' ,""p
(b)
FIGURE 8.27 Arrangement of an n-p semiconductor junction for use in a solid-state

detector. (a) Actual dimensions. (b) Distribution of the space charge.
the detector must be longer than the range of-the particle detected; it is also
desirable that the dead layer at the entrance side be as thin as possible.
Since detectors with sensitive volumes42 of a length of 3 mm have been
achieved, the use of solid-state detectors has been extended to particles of
energies as high as 30 MeV. The resolution in energy is usually extremely
:. good-that is, on the order of 0.25% for alpha particles (see also Fig. 8.31).
: The overall size of the detector is restricted to a few cubic centimeters, due
to the available semiconductor crystals; on the other hand, small size and
the absence of need for a photomultiplier are a great advantage.
.. It is also possible to use solid-state detectors, not as total absorption
:::counters, but as dE/dx devices, in which case the p region is also made
{thin and no electrodes are placed in the path of the particle. Such detectors
j:: have been made to respond to high-energy (minimum ionizing) particles
<
42The sensitive volume or barrier depth can be obtained from a nomograph. as given by
:;::1. L. Blankenship, "Proceedings of the Seventh Scintillation Counter S~mposium, Institute
Radio Engineers. NY," Nucl. Sci. 7, 190 (1960).
Lof
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350
,J
8 Particle Detectors and Radioactive lJecay
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FIGURE 8.28
Typical setup for use with a solid-state
preamplifier.
. . . . . ..
...
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.................
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.... .
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as well. Semiconductor devices are also very useful for the detection otf(~~I~~~f~
gamma rays. In general due to their small size, .the ratio of counts in the:<~~~~~~~
J'.~.'
photopeak as compared to background counts is smaller than that~ for a::~{ii~~:
~cintillation crystal; however, the resolution is excellent, reaching one part)H~
43
1n a thousand.
'<:::~x:~~
In practice, the construction of a solid-state detector is an art; and the:: ~)~~~?
attachment of electrodes to ensure good ohmic contacts may be quite/}~~l~~~
difficult. When gennanium is used, cooling to liquid nitrogen temper<:<:~~~~~~~
atures may be required, while silicon gives good resolution at ambient <)~~~~~~~
temperature. The output signals are small, the voltage being determined <Ji~~~~j
by the capacities of the junction and of the' amplifier input; the fonner. :;{J~~~Ijf
depends on the length of the depletion zone and the area of the detector. ::<~~~~~~~j
If we assume a typical capacity of 200 J.L 1-LF, then for }-MeV energy loss <~~~~~~~~~~
the signal voltage is
}~~~~~f
...... . .
..
' .. "~"" .,J
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III
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...
III
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V =" ::-.
C
19
X 10x
200 X
10
6
(10 /3)
1
2
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x
10
-
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4
V.
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(8.42)::::::::::
....
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,
, , ..
,
,
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- .. III ..
...... .
......
..... .
.oiI.oiI ...
III ... ...
It is necessary to use a charge.-sensitive preamplifier because the capacity: }~~~~~f

C depends on the applied bias; thus if voltage is directly measured, severe '/~~~i~~~j
variations in gain occur when the bias is changed. Leakage current in the, "i}~i:;:,:'
.r.t.crystal and amplifier noise set the limits of the smallest detectable signals. 'i,:~~:i~~,:'
Most of the hardware for solid-state detectors as well as the detectors, ':':'~:~~:~~:'
44
themselves are now commercially available ; Fig. 8.28 shows a typicali~
setup with a feedback preamplifier~ A surface-banier silicon detector is used".':':~*~~:'
.... . .
...
'" .. III ..
.... .
.......
.....
.....
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Adz;
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430. T. Ewan and A. J. Tavendale, Can. 1. Phys. 42; 2286 (1964).

44 For example, from Oak Ridge Technical Enterprises, Oak Ridge. 1N.
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..
,
,
,
"!
......
.........
......".......... .. ..
..... .
......
.......
.........
.....
...
""
351
and operated at room temperature. Figure 8.31 gives the response obtained
from polonium alpha particles of different energies (after attenuation in
air). Another type of solid-state detector, called p-i-n (positive-intrinsicnegative material), consists of a layer of intrinsic crystal placed between
p- and n-type material. It has the advantage of a much longer sensitive
volume.
8.5.3. Range and Energy Loss of nopo Alpha
Particles in Air
In Section 8.3.2 a description of the method of obtaining an estimate of

the range (and hence energy) of 2tOpo alpha particles in air, by means of a
crude ionization chamber, has been given. With solid-state detectors, it is
possible to improve on these measurements, as well as to study the rate of
energy loss of the alpba particles as a function of their energy.
A collimated 21Opo source and the detector are both placed in an evacuated vessel at a fixed distance of 15 cm, as shown in Fig. 8.29. Theil air is
allowed into the vessel, and as a function of the pressure we measure:
(a) The number of particles counted in the detector, and
(b) The pulse-height distribution of the output signals, namely, the
energy of the alpha particles when they reach the detector.
In measurement of type (a), the same number of alpba particles sbould
be reaching the detector until the pressure is raised to the point where the
amount of material (g/cm2 of air) between source and detector is equal
Slits
P0210
source
[)--:r-~
Signal
aut
~Topumpand
gauge
FIGURE 8.29 Arrangement for the measurement of the range in air of 210po alpha
particles. Note mounting of the solid-state detector and source inside an evacuated chamber.
Countsls
o
...,
-.
n
r-t-
(D
C1
,..
(tI
(.1)
01
.....
o
...,
tn
.....
c
m
n
....- .
-CIJ
01
....
... ....
--- -
353
2000
Vacuum
3.8 em Hg
1800
1600
9cmHg
1400
14 em Hg
.E 1200
i!11000
::I
800
600
Pressure
19 em Hg
400
200
2
4
6
DiscrIminator channel
AGURE 8.31 Distribution of output pulse height of the solid-state detector for five
different pressures. Note the gradual decrease of the energy of the alpba particle.
Turning now to the measurements of type (b), Fig. 8.31 shows the distribution of the detector pulse heights as obtained with the single-channel
discriminator (described in connection with the scintillation counter). Each
peak corresponds to a different pressure, and we thus note that the alpba
particles reach the detector with progressively less energy when they have
traversed more grams per squared centimeter of air. We set the pulse height
obtained in vacuum equal to the full energy of the 210pO alpha particle,
namely. 5 .25 MeV, and use the linear characteristic of the solid-state detector to obtain the energy of the alphas as a function of material traversed.
The results obtained by a student are given in Fig. 8.32 (solid curve).
If the derivative of the energy curve is taken with respect to distance, we
obtain the energy-loss curve, dE/dx, as a function of distance, as shown
by the dashed curve in Fig. 8.32. Such a curve is called a Bragg curve,
. and shows a 1/ E dependence45 as predicted by Eq. (8.12); for the ct. parti cles KE = ~Mv2 and the influence of the logarithmic term ofEq. (8.12) is
minimal. As the particle reaches the end of its range the energy loss dE / dx
drops rapidly to O.
45We might plot the dE / dx curve against energy by making use of the data of the energy
curve to express the distance from the stopping point in energy units.
:.0::-'
A - JIll- III
A ......
...
....
....
III
III
_
III
..
III
....
III ...
JIll
III
JIll
....... -.... . .
- -
8 Partic'e Detectors and Radioactive Decay
354
......
JIll ...
III JIll III
III
III
.. ..
. . . . .II JIll ill
~
... III JIll III
III III . . .
~
~
III III ... III
... III JIll

. . . . . . III JIll . . ...
. . . . . JII III . . . .
..II _ .II III
......
.~.I_
I
III JIll III
III JIll . .
.... ... III
...
III ... . .
III III III
.. -. ..... ...
_'~._..iI
--~
III III . .
III III
~
. . . . III ... . .
-......
........... .
'"
....
III
~'X
.III
..
...
. . . . . . . .III . .
..
.. ...
.. l1li
. . . . . . . . .III . .
5.5
..
4.5
/
/
10-
.9 3.5
{i 3
1U 2.5
/
/
..iI
JIll
III .....
JIll III ..
JI
III
III
JI
III ... . .
JI
... . .
...
III JIll . .
.... JIll III ..
...
III .. ...
JI
... JIll JIll . .

. . . . . III
... III JIll III

_
JI
. . . . . . . . III
III JIll III . .
. . . . . . . . III . . ,
. . . . . . . III JIll III
_
JII ...... JIll
... III JIll
..
..
...
:::::::j~i~j~j~~
2 c..
to
::::::~::::::~m
- ......
...............""..
...
.
......
"
..
............
......
.
. "".
..........
-........
. .........
........
. .. """"..
.. . .........-.... .
:-: ..:-:.. ......
:.~........ :::::
I
...
JIll . . . . ;
........
..~
.~~
~
--
oE
~ .......................
....
. . . . JII~
IIJ
~
:-.>
..'"
(1)
. :::::::~:~;;~.~.
1 ~
. ::::::~:~~~~::
m
.............
.......
.
.
............
.... ....
.
..
........ .
.....
...........
.
....-.
-.. . ..~
...
............
........
-LU-
.......
.
.............
...
...........
....
..
.
.
.......
.
.....
.......
.
..
.
.
....
""
.
..
... -.. ...."".......
- ...........
.......
........."" . ...
-:-:-:-~~
..........
. .. .. . ....
.......
.......
... ._......""""... ......
.........
..
. . . . .. ....
::: :::::~~~;:~. ~
'"0
0.5
0.5
1.5
2
2.5
3
Effective distance of air stp (em)
3.5
. .:Ii
..
..
" " ... .
..
..
...
........
~~.~
::,.;
::>?~~~~.~
FIGURE 8.32
. . . . . . . . III ..
.......... ..
--ns
III ... ..
. . . . JIll
....
JlJI . . . . . . . .
_
JI
_
III JIll . .
JI
\
\
\
\
\
\
...
JIll
("
JIll . .
.III III
III
.III
... .................
.. .........
- .... ..........
..
......
-~
..........
... -
. . .. ..-~~m
.. ......
.
4
..
..
..
..
..
Plot of the residual energy of a polonium alpha particle when it reache~;W.~~~~~~
of arr (stp) traversed}. These data are obtamed. fro~ distnbutiOns such as those shown::~~:~:
Fig. B.31. The dashed curve represents the denvatlVe of the solid (energy) curve; thus<~:~~tI
. . . . .- . ..
.... --........~ ~~
@i~
nium alpha particle produces at the end of its range approximately 67 ,Oq9r~~~~~
only 20,000 paIrs per centimeter; these.numbers were
obt~ned b.y .us~g~i~1~i~

-
........
- ........~.~~
...... ..... .~.. ..
- ...........
.
- . . . . .. .
. ... . . ..
...
-
"JIII
-'
..
....
.. ..
.. ..
~.~..~:
- .......
nuclear states. A ~or?ugh. discus~lOn of the ~me distributlOn In the d~~i~ii~
(S.~:~~~
per second. This is the number of decays per second in one gram of radium. The modem
unit is the Bequerel. defined as ODe disintegration per second, so 1 Bq = 1/ (3.7 x 1010r~.M~
"1s see A ppend"IX D
.... '......s:::: .
For more det aJ.,
<:~:~:)~~m:
.::::~"~~m
.........
ID
:::::;:.~: re!m=
. ..... .
..........
''~m
..
--..
:<;~:":m:
:................
~.
:::::::
::~=mre::."h.
... -.r.l'
::: ::::::;:~..
:.:.:.:'
, ........ :~.
..
01 . .
'" II
'"
. ,. .II.._
01
II
~
"
8.6 Nuclear Half-Life Measurements
355
proportional to the number N of nuclei in the sample at any particular

time. That is,
dN
R= =-AN.
dt
The proportionality constant is called -A, the minus sign reflecting the
fact that the decay causes the number of nuclei to decrease with time. This
differential equation has a simple solution, namely
,
N(t)
= Noe- A/ ,
where No is the number of nuclei present at t = O. Obviously, A characterizes the lifetime. The larger A is, the faster the sample decays, and the
shorter the lifetime is. There are two definitions we use for the lifetime.
One is the mean life:
I
A
The other is more practically minded, and measures the time it takes for
the sample to decay to 1/2 its original number. This is called the half-life,
and it is determined by solving N(t) = No/2 for t.
T= - .
tI/2
In2
= O.693r.
References usually quote the half-life, but not always. Be sure when you
look up a lifetime, that you are getting the half-life or mean life. A good
source of information on nuclear decay half-lives is the National Nuclear
Data Center at Brookhaven National Laboratory and available at the Web
site http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nndc/nudat/radform.html.
Obviously, we must resort to some sort of trick to obtain a sample nuclei
with short-lived slates that can be measured. One trick we will use is the
chemical separation of barium from cesium. However, we will also create
new isotopes using a type of nuclear reaction called neutron activiatioll.
In neutron activation, reactions with neutrons are used to create radioactive
isotopes from stable nuclei. Neutrons are produced using a pluto mumberyllium (PuB e) source, which is safely packaged away so you cannot
get near it, and allows the neutrons to irradiate samples inserted into the
container. Plutonium decays by a-emission, that is,
239pu ~ 235U
+ a,
-'----m-~
Ii JII III
... iii Ii ..
,I
..
and the Ol particles react with the beryllium
n.,
..
.. JIll III
.. JIi .. ..
JIII ... ,
.. Ii .. ..
III
.. Ii .. ..
. . . . . . . JIll III ,
.. .. Ii .. ..

Ii Ii .. iii
.. Ii Ii .. ..
. . . . . . . JIll . . ,
.. .. Ii .. OIl
,I
. . . . . . III ,
.. Ii _ III
J/I. J/I. Ii .. ..
,1
J/I.
. . iii
... ,
III .. ..
...
Ii
...
,I
...
..
..
. . . . . . . "" .. IiI,
..."
... JIll . . ,
. . . . . Ii .. iii
. . . . JIll . . ,
lre
J/I. JII .. ..
. . . . . . Ii . . . . . .
releasing neutrons. These neutrons are slowed down by collisions

protons (in all the paraffin, a hydrocarbon, surrounding the source:
.....
..
....
Ii .. ..

Ii ... .. III
...............
,
... "r"...,..,................
....
.
,
..
.........
..
.,. ........
... .. ..JIII.,
.. ..,
............ ,
........ -.
,1
_.
""
.........
..
.. JIi ..
JIll ,
Ii JIi ..
......
.............. ,
,.. ........ III

. . . . . . Ii Ii .. ,
,I
...
. . ... III
12C +
......... iii
,I
+ 9Be ~
...
Ci
,I.~
..... . ........
.. ... ..
356
.. III III
.. III
.. JII .. ,
... Ii Ii .. ..

... .. JII III
.. .. ... .. JIi ..
,I
. . . . . . JIll ,

Ii JIi .. . .
J/I.

.. Ii .. ..
. . . . JIll . . ,
. . . . . . Ii
wjm~t~:~:;;~
easIly detect~~~~~~~~:m::
.......
ics},:}:~~::ffiilim:::
., . ... ~.':.11:.::i
I'm'
' et1
.......
o
..
....
II
II .I
.:
~ :.~
.". . m'..
.'
m
..........
II ...
.:
'
X
,
~,
. . . . . . . . . III
III l1li1
'~~m~
. . . . . . .II
'
~~
.iI III II1II
.II III
III
..
~~
.9f~~m~~~~:
"background" signal, in addition to the primary radioactive decay. (SU9~t~~~~m~jj
Wlth varying half-lives. A key point is the presence of some sort
(1l6In decay), the half-lIfe IS rather l~ng, and a ~e~od for e~ti.mating ~~{~~~~~~;
background level "by hand" and for Incorporating Its effect Into the s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
tematic error is outlined. In the case of 137mBa decay, a fitting techniq"'l~}~~~~~~~~
that allows one to deterImne the background precisely and find the half:~~~~~~~~~~~~~
life with its corresponding random uncertainty is discussed. Finally. ~~j(~~:~~l~l
discuss radioactive silver isotopes, which present a combined signal fr()~:~:~:~~~:1::~~~
two radioactive isotopes, each with relatively short half-lives.
..:<}~~~~~*~~~~~
. . .. .. . .. . . . . .
...
.
x
.
.
.......
.
......
'" '" ..........
...........
.-.... . .
..
.....
..
.....
Jj
..
..
.J'"_
.Jj
.......... I
IIi . . . . . . .....
. . . . . . ..01 . . . . . . . "'"
"'"
. . . . . . . 01 ..01 . . . . . . . "'"
. . . . . '" ..01..
.. .. "'"
""'
.................
..
........
.
.. .. "X""''''
....
.
.....
.....
x
...
..
..
..
..
....
.
.
.
........... .... ""'..."
......................
,', ..................y."",""'Ji
8.6.1. Production and Decay of 116In
. . . . . . III "'" . . . . . . ""
......... ..
'
.~.
. . . . . . iii . . . .
.. .. ..
'
. . . . . III "'"
.J
..............J................
X ...
. . . . . '" . . . . . . . . . . I
. . . . . . l1li ..
~
.. .. l1li ""'..
. . . "'"
. . . . . . . . . . """
fill
. . . . . . 01 ..01 . . . . . . . . ..01
You can produce 116In using neutron capture on a piece of indium. Indil1ih(j~~~~~r~~~~@
. ................. . .
is a very common metal used for soldering compounds, and all of natw;ij{~~:~:~~~~;
indium is the isotope 115 In. The decay scheme for 116In to 116 Sn is shoW:#(~~~~@.~~~~~
in Fig. 8.33. Note that the ground state has a very short half-life, only 14 ~:~(~~~~$.~~~~
' .. .. .. .. "'" ... ~ .. lliJ
*. .
....... xx .........
.
.
.
.". . . *.
..~ ~_-J
.............. J
................
.... ...."".oIJ
. .. .. .
.....
....
.............. J
III . . .
....
"'"
. . . .oI..
.. . . . . . .
...............
................ I
.................. I
........ i"" "J
..
......
.. .. .III
... ,; .. ..' ....

...III4JJ
........
. . . . Ii ..
...........I. .*~
..
J
'" III III
.. ...
..
.....
..
..
""'J
. . . . . . . . : .. III ...
.............
~'
.lJ
......
.
"
......
X'"
....
,/', "@
.. .oI.'X
..
........
....
01"
.
... ......
........
I
41 . . . .
...
oj . .
... ...
Ii ..
.. ..
.. 001
Ii ... ..
.....
01 ..
..
.. ..
~.
~
..
5+ 0.06 MeV (64 m)

H
""~
-,,,
(Z"'4S)
(143)
~
1% .,..
+
4~
-f~;;:;;;'~+
= I H 2,38M eV
4
2.80 MeV
2.52 MeV
~+2.22MBV
3.3 MeV
-+_-+I_~"'~+
1.29Me'V
"Sn (Z=-SO)
FIGURE 8.33
Decay scheme for 116tn.
You will be detecting {J- decay of the excited state, 60 keY above the ground
state. The decays proceed mainly to a couple of stales at around 2,3 MeV,
and the available energy is 3.3 MeV, so the /3- typically have energies up
to a megaelectroovolt or so. These are easy to detect in a Geiger collater.
Irradiate the piece of indium for ao hour or so. Remove it and place it on
the Geiger counter pJatfonn, close to the counter window. Take data for an
hour or so, setting the multichannel scaling program to count for intervals
of something like a minute.
It is probably a good idea to make a semi log plot of the data, and estimate
the half~life by hand, just to make sure the result looks ahout right To do
a better job, you can easily fit the data to a decaying exponential. Jll'l.t
use the MATLAB function polyfit to fit the logarithm of the number of
counts versus channel to a SITalght line. In facl, this is a case where you can
accurately write the random errors of the points, since they are governed
by a Poisson distribution. That is, if there are N counts in any one channel,
then the random unccrtainty in N is oN = .../N. and the random uncertainty
in the logarithm of N is 0 log N = 1/../N.
A sample of data on indium decay is shown in Fig. 8.34. Each channel
represent,; 30 s. The simple fit described above is shown by the dashed
line. Note lhat the fit is not really very good. You can see thaI more clearly
if you plot the difference between lhe fitted function and the data points.
In fact, this is not too surprising since you expect some background radiation from other radioactive isotopes in the piece of imtdiated solder. You
can try subtracting a constant value (representing the background counts)
.. , ,........"' ........
"...
'" ....
....
'
"
, ...........
. ,. .... ,..
.......
..
',',
,
, ,
.......... lflii
~
.......
','~
..
.J
I1l.J/Il....
,
,
. . . . II . . . . .
, . . . . II . . . .
358
..
,,
,
~
......... ..
, , ......
......... .
, , ..........
,
,,
(D
. '. -... .
...
.,
.
, .. .
. ..,.. .. "-(
"
120
/I
100
.....
80
..
.0
E
::l
".
,
,
,
,
60
;+.
...
....,... ...-.......:
.- '.
....
.v..
.
. . ...
..
.
.
.. ,..
...... .
.. .... .
.\
~.
~-
40
..
...
"'''. l
..
....
III
....... ...
.....
......
.... . .. .
.,j
....
..
.
.
...
......... .. .
.......
.......
..... ....
...... .. ..
. ....
........
. ...
... . .. ..
.....
.....
.... .
....
........ . .
,
. . . . ..
..oil
III ...
.01 '"
.01 .01
. . '"
, , '"
.01 .01
'"
..
......
.......
. . '"
... ''""
. . ....
. '""'"
..
'"
......
. . ..
,
.01
.01
, , '" .01 '" '"

, , , , '.01" '",,
, ,
'"
, , , , '" '",
, , . '" '" '",
,
..
..
'"
..
, ,,
,
, , ~
l1li
l1li
.01 ,
l1li
l1li
l1li
, ,
..
l1li ,
.01
'"
.... l1li ,
, l1li
.... '"
...
'" .
...
.....
...
..
....
'
"
......
...........
.....
l1li l1li
.... l1li ,
,,
, ,
,,
'"
a
","
\.
........
, ,
..
.
" -..
.
. .-.
........
.... . ..
......
......
.
..
" ...
....... ...
~.
III III
III ..oil
. . . . . ..001
, , III ..oil
, .01 ..001
, , III ..oil
I ...
.....
.. ..
.....
.....
..... ... .
"
""'-
III
....
, , ,. . . . . .
..
..
,
, , , . . . . . III
, , , .......... ...
, ,, , ,
.. . .
,
, , ...
,,
, , , '"' '"' .....
, , , . . . . . '."' . l1li
,,
'"' '"'
,, ,
, ,
,,,,
, , ... '"'
180
. . . . . . III
J
.-
, , ,. . . . . . . . . .,j
, , , . . . . .,j
, , , . . . . . . . . . . . .,j
, . . . . . . III
, ,, , ,,
,
..;
,
J
. . . . . ...
,
~ 160
L.
,
,
.c
'0
, '"
, ,, , ,, . . . . . .II
-, ,,
, , ......
,
::::J
......
. ..
.......
......
..
....... ..
......
......
. . ....... ..
......
,,,,
200
......
(I)
. . . II .... .
II II . .
220 ...".
...... ..
. . . II ... .
. . . .III II . .
.. II .... .
c::::
II ...... .
. . . II ... . .
.. II . . .
II .... . .
.III II . . .
,
,
~
19 140
........ .AI
..
,
,
2
as
........... ..
~
~
. . . II . . . .
II II . . .
. . . II ... . .
..
~
. ........ .
, ..
,
,
,
,
,
,
l1li
,
...
,
. ,, , ,,
,
l1li
,
.......
., .......
,
. '" . ..
, ,...
"
..
...
.... ..
..
.
o
100
150
200
250
300
.
'".
50
350
..
.
'
"
, ,...
...'"
, , . ..
.
'".
, ,...
..
Time (Channels)
.
.
, , . '" '"
, , ...
. . '"
FIGURE 8.34 Data and fits for the decay of 1I6In. The dashed line is fitted to a decay~::'>):
. . ..
ing exponential, while the solid line includes a constant background of 17 counts.
. . ...
multichannel scaler recorded data every 30 s; that iS1 each channel represents 30 s.
':::::)
. ..
,
, , ,
, , ,
l1li
, ,
,,
, ,
, ,
,
,
..
.01
The<:::)
,
..
l1li
..........
........ ..
..... ..
.....
, .
,
,
, , ... "
,
, ...
,
,,,
, , .....
, , , ...
, ...
, , ,"
,
,
..
.01
from the data before you fit it, and see whether it looks better. By caI- <>~
2
culating the X function you can even optimize the background term by :r~
2
minimizing X
::>.
The MATLAB program shown in Fig. 8.35 was used to do exactly this. '::\.
After reading in the values of channel and counts, the user is asked for a ,:<.
number of background counts" Then this value is subtracted from the data, :(..
and care is taken to make sure the value is not less than 1. (Remember, you :):.
are going to take a logarithm.) Two fits are done, one that is unweighted ):.
(using polyfit) and one that is weighted according to the Poisson uncertainty in the points (using linreg). The results, including the X2 , are printed }
and plotted. By trying various backgrounds, you find that the ]owest X2 .
(i.e . , the "best fit") is found for 17 background counts. You can even esti- :;: .
mate your systematic uncertainty by looking at how much the lifetime .::~
2
varies as you move around in X near the minimum. This can be large .:::~
2
if the minimum in X is shallow. For this particular data set, we find <: .
that
. :.:':
t
, "
, ,
<
<
," "
,, ,
,, ,
,.
, ,
,.
,,
,
. ,,
r = 160.7 2.0 10 channels;
,
,
,
,,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,,
,
,
,
,,
,
B.6 Nuclear Half-Ufe Measurements
359
% LOAD AND EXTRACT DATA POINTS

load indium.dat
chan=indium(:.l);
data=indium(:,2);
%
% PREPARE DATA FOR FITTING LINE TO LOGARITHM
bkgd=input('Background counts ');
dnet=max(data-bkgd,l);
ndof=length(data)-2;
edatacsqrt(data);
ldataalog(dnet);
eldata=edata./dneti
%"
% UNVEIGHTED FIT
coefa-polyfit(chan,ldata,l);
fita=exp(polyval(coefa,chan));
Ghisqamsum(dnet-fita)./edata).~2);
fprintf('Unveighted fit;\n');
fprintf(' tau=Y.6.3e\n',-1.0/coefa(1);
fprintf(' chisquare/dof=YA.3f\n',chisqa!ndof);
%
Y. WEIGIITED FIT
[coefb,ecoeib,lfitb]=linreg(chan.ldata,e1data);
fitb=exp(lfitb);
chisqb=sum(dnet-fitb)./edata).-2);
fprintf('Weighted fit:\n');
fprintf(' tau=Y.6.3e'.-1.0/coefb(2));
fprintf(' uncertmY.6.3e\n',ecoefb(2)/coefb(2)~2);
fprintf(' chlsquare/dof=Y.6.3f\n'.chisqb/ndof);
F1GURE 8.35 A MATLAB program (Le., m-fiJe) used to tit indium data. The program
asks the user for a number of background counts, then carries out the fil, and reports the
results, including the X2 Although the background level can be fitted automatically using
nonlinear fitting techniques, this program gives one a feeling for the sensitivity of the X2
to the background level.
where the first uncertainty is random and the second is systematic. Since
each channel is 30 s, we detennine that
tl/2
= log 2 x
~rnin/Channel = 55.7 0.7 3.5 min,
which agrees well with the accepted value of 54 min. In fact, it seems we
may have overestimated the systematic uncertainty.
...
'"'-~-~0
.'
~~~
8 Pa rticte Detectors an d Ra dioactive Oe c ay
...
W.
til . .
.....
.II
#
til
III .AI ..
til MIl . .
til .III . .
~~~~
.. . ....
... .. -..
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.... ..
....
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....
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........
..
. . . .. ... ..... .,.
<
360
<
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til . . . . ..
..
<
'
11
,..
,I
..
~~~
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JIll . .
..
~ ~ ~
~IfII~ .......~~
~. .~~
IfII . .
..
IfII .. ...
<
,..
.. AI
, '
...
II . .
can be done automatically In :MATLAB. That bongs us 10tO the world of>}~;~:~:]
nonlinear fitting, and we will do that next.
<?r~~~~
......
<
~~ill~
.... -......
"'......@~
1"1'
Jt......
",", , , ,
I1111,",}d
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,t
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8.6.2. The Half-Life of 137mBa
....
,)}~:~::~
..........
............
"":t:
..
. . .....
.
~~~.r~:r
~-~-:t:
<
<
,t
OIl ..
.....
. . .
Now we will measure the half-life of another short-lived isotope, 137 Ba./!!Hml
The background is very clear in this case, and we will use that to go a step}}~~~i~~W.
further in our data analysis techniques. This isotope does not need to bei>@M
produced in the neutron oven.

>}~j~::$.?
Recall the decay scheme of 137Cs in Fig. 8.21~ The daughter nucleus~)\~~~~~~
1.37B~ ~s produ:ed in its ~ound state only 5.4% of the time. The rest of ~e/rtt&
tIme It IS made In the exclted state, called 137mBa for "metastable," whlch:>j~~g
decays by y-ray.emission, but with a r~latively large half-li!e (for y decay):}}~
of around 2.5 nun. Of course, 137mBa IS produced all the tune. as the very>~<:~~?f.;~
7
long-lived 13 Cs decays, so you cann'ot isolate the t37mBa decay without>}~~~W~
somehow separating it from the 137Cs.
<{~:m~
. .r..
v.
ak
h
tib
h
'
Il
.
.
d
.............~:r.r
u
.lOU can met IS separa on ecause c emlca y, ceSIUm IS very 111e-'<:~:::~~~*:j
rent from barium. By passing a weak. acid solution tbrough a 137Cs source!:i~~(f:~m~~i
z.~
....
oj . . . .
x~~
01 """ ..
barium is captured and co~es o~t.in solution. S~me. cesium comes ~ughi@!@~~~!~
as well, but most of the radioactiVity of the solution IS from 137m Ba. SImple >:}::~:~::
47
kits are available for carrying out this chemical separation. It is best if>}~~~~~~~
............. you squeeze the drops through slowly, enough to fin the small metal holdeI<:)}~:;~:~
in about 30 s. Then place the holder in the Geiger counter tray, and start,<)~~~~~B~
the data acquisition program.
;<~~~~~~~~~
"
. .~
OIl
..
OIl
OIl OIl OIl
. . OIl
OIl
Realize that you are working with radioactivity and hydrochloric acid~<~}~~~~~:
...... ....
Do not be careless. None of this is concentrated enough to be particut~~~~~~
larly dangerous, but you should take some simple precautions. Disposable:>}~~~~~~:
gloves are located near the setup. It is also a good idea to wash your hands;:<)~~~~~
soon after you are finished.
<:i:~:}~:~::~:
You should choose a dwell time that allows you to get a relatively large><~~~f~
nwnber of points in each channel, but many channels over the expected~:',::'I?i~~
~
*.
1, ...........
decay time of a few minutes. You should be able to get several hundred({~
counts per bin in the first bin or two, and a background of less than 20 count$.:})~J
per hin. (The background level will be clear after counting for a half-hour.)<)~ff.
You might need a few tries to get all of this where you want it
'.<\~J
.
........
.
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..
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.
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47For example~ from TEL-Atomic. Inc.; http://W\JWV.telatomic.com/.
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8,6 Nuclear Half-Life Measurements
361
You can use the program in Fig, 8,35 to fit the data and adjust the background counts, but that is tedi.ous, In this case, since the background will be
very clear, you can determine it precisely by averaging over the last many
channels, and subtract that number from the data before fitting. However,
MATLAB gives you the ability to fit things all at once.
What you need to do is minimize the X2 function numerically, and
MATLAB gives you a numerical minimization function called fminsearch
that can do this. You need to minimize X2 as a function of three variables,
two for the exponential fit and one for the background value.
FIrst, write a simple m-file called expeon.m, which calculates the
function you are going to fit to the data:
function y=expcon(x,NO,tau,bkgd)
y=NO*exp(-x/tau)+bkgdi
and then write another called fitexpcon.m, which calculates X2:

function chisqr=fitexpcon(pars,xdata,ydata,edata)
chisqr=sum(ydata-expcon(xdata,pars(1),pars(2),
pars(3)) ./edata) .A2);
Do not forget that for these data, the array of uncertainties edata is just the
square root of the counts, i.e., edata=sqrt(ydata). (If any of the channels
has zero counts, then set edata equal to unity.)
Play around with some values of pars(1,2,3) so that you have a good
starting point. (Just plot the data points, and then overplot the function
expcon until it looks kind of close.) Then type the command
frninsearch(@fitexpcon,pars,O, []
,xdata,ydata,edat~
"
and you will get the best-fit values returned. (Check the help documentation
for details of the arguments for fminsearch.)
Exactly this procedure was followed to fit the data shown in Fig. 8.36.
The fit achieves a minimum X2 for a lifetime T = 3.80 min, corresponding
to a half-Life tl/2 = 2.63 min. The random uncertainty is determined, as
shown on the right in Fig. 8.36, from the values of !' that increase the
minimum X2 by one unit These X2 "data" are fitted to a parabola, and
we detennine the uncertainty in T to be O.10 min. Consequently, we
co
Best flt x2
Counts per channel

o
I
1
l
,
I
I
t
c:
rToI:
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J
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en
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8.6 Nuclear Half-Life Meas.urements
363
find that
tl/2(137mBa)
= 2.63 0.07 min.
This is in good agreement with the accepted value of 2.55 min.

Note that the radioactivity you detect from 137mBa decay is y radiation.
whlch is not detected very efficiently by a Geiger counter. You might try
using a NaI(l1) detector instead, keying in on the particular y-ray in question. This should greatly increase your counting statistics, as well as reduce
the background.
8.6.3. Radioactive Silver Isotopes

Natural silver is pretty much evenly divided between two isotopes, 107 Ag
and 109Ag. Neutron activation captures a neutron equally weU on these two
isotopes, producing the two radioactive isotopes 108Ag and I IOAg. Both of
these decay with a relatively high momentum {r that is easy to detect, but
one isotope has a half-life of 24.4 s and the other of 2.42 min. You might
want to look up the decays to get more details.
Take a piece of pure silver foil and cook it in the neutron oven for at
least 10 min. Quickly take it out, put it in the Geiger counter, and start
the program. Do not forget that the lifetime of the shorter-lived isotope is
only half a minute. It should be clear from the raw data that there are two
lifetime components from the decay.
Representative data taken by students is shown in Fig. 8.37. The dwell
time was set to 2.5 s, but in order to get better statistics in each channel,
the MATLAB function reshape was used to add every four channels
together. Error bars are added to the data points using the errorbar function.
The points are fitted to a double exponential decay, completely analogous
to the way we fitted a constant plus an exponential to the 137mBa data.
The only difference is that the m-files for the fit function and for the X 2 are
changed slightly.
The best fit yields half-lives of 26.9 s and 3.53 min. The shorter half-life
. . is in good agreement with the accepted value. The longer agrees much less
well, but this is not surprising. No background term was included in the
fit (leading to an overestimate of the balf-life), and the statistical accuracy
of the longer decay is clearly marginal. The ambitious student can explore
. . these points using the techniques discussed for 116In and 137mBa decay in
the previous sections.
:::
m::::
--- -'~0~
.............
.. ...
........
. .. . ..
.........
- .. ... ...
- ........~'~~~~
- . . ...... A....
...... ...
~
364
~:~
- <::::~:~:~:~
-: ::::::;::~;:~~~
:::::::::::~:
.. ~
.
.
.....
...
- ...... ............
..
. .. . . w,m
:::::~~~*m
..
.......... OIl
II
....
..
- -:.:.:.:.:.~.~.:.~~
- . . .. .. ... .oil........
-
. . . . . . . . . . Jil J/Il. . . .
160
..............
140
'"
'"
OIl . . . .
60
~c:t ~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . JIll
....
II
JII~
.....
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fit
..
..
fit
III. ..~
.:.:.~.:.:.:.~
-'
~::;
::::::. :. m
ti~
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..... wrM
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.....
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fit . . . .
- .................~
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fit
..
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-.-. . ............
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I
80
...........................~
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o 100 '1
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120
--;. :.:.:.:.=~:~
:::::::::::::..~~
. . . . . . .. "C:::
- . . ....... ..
:.:............
.. :.:.:....:....~
..
-- --'"",,-\.
20
""
...........
. . . . .......
.::::::::::::~~::.~~
.'
,.. - -
o0
.. ..
100
~~..-;
..<:::::~~~:@
::::::::;:::;~=::~m.~
:-:-:-:::"~mm
.... ..
.....
'" "'-
.
"" ~
~
. .........
....~ .W,
~
:.:.:.:.:.~.~
.. -
""
- - 200
300
500
400
Time (Seconds)
.~~~~~~$
..
<>~~~~@
.. :.:.:.:.~~.:~
FIGURE 8.37 The decay of neutron-activated natural silver, fitted to the sum of ~i@ill
decaying exponential functions. The plot was made using the MATLAB function errorblir.i:>~~:~m
In addition to the best-fit curve, we show the two individual exponentials separatelY'::::::>~~;~m
:::::::::~~:~
;
8.7. REFERENCES
-::)}~:~:~
"':~:~:~:~:~:~:a%~
..... ... ~~/.
...........
m
not complete./UjJ~
""
....
. .......
. ..... ..-'"
'~ . . . . . . . . .A ...
'.
.....r/~
...... :-:.;.;.;. ....y/.
By necessity the discussion presented in this chapter is
JI
In the footnotes to the chapter) that the reader may consult for additlonaJt:::}::~:~
'.c
tt.
".,'..
.
.
mlomla on~
.:::::::::::~::. . . . ~
On interaction of radiation and particles with matter:
"
..
... . . . .
:r~,.
A .....
...
......
~.I",.
.:itJiW
. '~ ..Ii.r... :"-,.
.............
.. .. .. ""....... .... .. ..
... . Ii ....... ,.
..........
.
. ... .. ,.
........
...........
.....
. . . -0
-..
....
.
--: ,.:.:.:.:.:~~~....:
........"'%
,.
.
.
. J~
_,,
,
.,
... A
. . . . ..
E. Fenni, Nuclear Physics, Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago 1950.

J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed", Wiley, New York. 1962.
w. Heitler~ The Quantum Theory of Radiation, 3rd ed., Oxford Univ. Press London, 1954.
~.
~-
~ ~
. ,' ,........
. . . . AU
,,.
X
J
.....
~'AA
- , ,. . . . .
.....
.......... .....
.,."..,.......
. . ... ,..
", '~,....." " """
.
%.
, , .. .
'. ', ...... .r ....
.. ... . ....
...
... .....
..... ..
, .. .. x
, ...
. ... . . ........
On solid state detectors:

1. M. Taylor., Semiconductor Particle Detectors. Butterworth~ London, 1963.
.. _
..
.
....
.
.
...
,.....
..........x:
::::
,
.....
*
. , ......
......
... . x
....'...........
%.,.
.......
.
......
,
......
".x:
'..'..........
:<
..
,
.....
..
........
,,.............
*
..
.
. .. . ...x
~
..........~
"
W. J. Price.. Nuclear Radiation Detectors. McGmw-HiU, New Yor~ 1958.

B. Rossi and H. Staub~ Ioniz.ation Chambers and Counters, McGraw..Hin~ New York., 1949..
J. Sharpe, Nuclear Radiation Detectors. Methuen. London, 1955.
Encyclopedia of Physics Vol. 45, Nuclear Instrumentation 11~ Springer-Verlag. Berlin, 1958.
J. B. Birks. The Theory and Practice of Scintillation Counting. Pergamon New York, 1964.
""""
,~ A ..~~
'.'
On gaseous and scintillation detectors; neutron detectors:
."
'
,~
,"~
~~~
'~
' ~
, .....
I.
' . r ..
""
""~.
~.
""
..'. ,'.. ,..........

.....
.... :.:x
,",', .. .. .... x
..
.,.',..,....... .." ......'X
*
.'X
"'.....
. . . ..*.-.
. ,
, .
""
'"~X
~
~.*
...
...... ~.*
' ', ... '" ... c.-:
""~
, .... ""
, ... ""
""~
, .. ""
':', :"::""~~x"
..
""
... "" .
,' ......
... "" .. or.
,'...,,, ',,....,.......
." ""~m
.
%:
, ......
. ',' ...
,""" .;. .fI
, . ""
,',..wrM.
...s'
. ..'<~~
' ... ~.~
'.'::, :::::~:x:~
... "" .
,.
'
,.~
," A ",,~..~
......
.....
.
..
.,.,' .... . . ."".
"
".A~.'X
,.~
.-~
,.~
'~_._
..tI.
!,.II
8.7 References
365
There are a number of good introductory textbooks on nuclear and

particle physics. Some examples are:
K. S. Krane. ll11rodllctory Nuclear Physics, Wiley, New York, 1988. This is a good basic book with
some discussion of experiments and experimental methods.
S. S. M. Wong. InJroduc/ory Nuclear Physics, 2nd ed., Wiley. New York, 1998. A bi! higher level !.han
Krane, but a thorough survey of the underlying physics of nuclei.
D. Griffiths. Introduction to Elementary Particles, Wiley, New York, 1987. An excellent undergraduate
,
level discussion of particle physics.
D. H. Perkins. lntrotillclion to High Energy Physics, 4th ed . Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge. UK,
2000. A modern. up-lo-date versiou of a classic book.
Many of the details of detectors, materials, and the statistics of nuclear

process, as well as an excellent summary of particle physics, can be
found in:
Particle Data Group, Review of particle properties, EuT. Phys. 1. C 15, 1-878 (2000).
................................... :.:.;.:.:.;.:.;.: .......................................................... :... :.:.:.:.:.: ...........................................:.:.: ... :... :.:.: ....... :....................................................... :.:.:.:.:.:.: ................................................ :........... :.:.: ... :.: ... :.: ........................................... '
:.:.: ...................................................................
:.:.:.:.:.: .............................................................. :.:.: .. :.: ........................................... , ................. :.: ....................................................... :..... :................................... ,
......................................................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ....................................
..........
, . . . .
.
, . . .
.. . . . . . . .
.. ..
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
~ . . . ~ ~ . . . . .
.
~ ~ ~
~.. ~ ~ . ~ . . ~ . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
. . . . . . . . . . . ..........
. . . .:.:.:.:
. . . ............
. . ........................ . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,. ....... ,-.-.- '.- .
. . . .
. ..
....
..
.,
CHAPTER
Scattering and
Coincidence Experiments
9.1. INTRODUCTION
Ever since Rutherford performed his original experiments on the scattering
of energetic alpha particles from atomic nuclei, scattering has become
increasingly more powerful as a tool for investigating the forces between
elementary particles. By now it is familiar to the reader that an electron,
under the influence of the attractive electromagnetic force of the nucleus,
may be found in a bound state. The classical analogue of this situation is the
motion of the planets around the sun under the influence of the gravitational
forc.:e; they describe elliptical orbits.
In general, a scattering experiment probes a system by sending a projectile "into" it, and then studying what "comes out" of it. Similarly,
correlation or "coincidence" experiments can probe a syslem by looking at
what comes out simultaneously in two or more directions. In this chapter,
we will study some types of each of these measurements.
367
.......
.. ..
:':~:A:.:A:-aa:.X:
.......
..II
..
AAA_
.::::~:~:::~:~
"
9 Scattering and Coincidence Experiments
368
.... ::: ~: ::::::~~-:~

.
.J",I
.. :.:.:.:.:... ~ ... :...: : ~
.... ". ..II..-?P.
.........................
.
. . . . ..II . .
..II ..II ....
....
. . . . . ..III ..
"
11_
... ... ,. ......II.J"lIlA=--:

,J'
~
..II
..
The experiments in this chapter make use ofradioactive sources. We rec-:!:i:!i!trt.

ommend that the reader review the material on radiation safety in AppendiX:~f.j
D before undertaking these measurements.
)i(i~~~~
The concept of "solid angle'J' is important for understandirig the formal-.(~~~@
..
".-w.
ism dealing with cross sections. The solid angle is a three-dimensionaI))(1~~:1
generalization of the familiar planar angle 6.0, which is . the length of a .>~{;~:~
circular arc !J.s divided by the radius r of the circle, i.e., !J.f) --'! !J.s Ir.){t~
Solid angle 6.1 is the area 6.A of a piece of a spherical surface, divided)?~~~i@'
n
AAj
2 PI
1
..............
~.::::
by the square 0 f th e radIUS; l.e.~ A~.w - L1. r.. anar ang es are mea- >~:~~~:~~~:
sured in radians and solid angles are measured in steradians. Just as a circle <{:~~~w.
subtends a pl~ar angle of 2rr to an~ point inc1~ded in the circle, a sphere}:t~
subtends a solid angle of 41t to any mcluded pomt.
<{:~~~~]
Solid an~le is a u~eful co.nc~pt wh~never we are d~aling ~th ~me sort :::\~
of detector InterceptIng radlanon WhIch spreads out In all drrections from<~)i~~g
" . . . . . ..,!',
a source. Ionizing radiation and elementary p~cle. detectors. are ju~t one(t~
example, but you would encounter the same thing 1n fields like optics or'}}:~~::,,@.:
.... '" *It .

" ........ r" . ...
AI .. 1IIIl; . . ..
soniCS
.-: <-:~~"':N:
To be explicit, let dA be a vector whose magnitude is an area dA in<}JI~i~~@.~
some planet and whose direction is nOflnal to that plane. Letn be a uni~<>~~~~~
vector pointing toward the source, which is a distance r away. Then
'iifi1~
. .. ....... . .
...........
*""
.
,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
A
n
d
dA
- =-i
(9
1
)"
.
':}}:~:J::
d i'""\
~.G . 2
2'
. ,.. >:<.: . :. . . .::::~
to '" .........-
........
a.~.
.:::::
.III ..
'~.""""''''.l':
.1
'I.
---......
, ............. . .
., ........
.. . .......=-:... ...
. . .. .. ... ... ... ...
............ l1li ... ...
. . . . . . . . . . III ... ...
.....
... l1li
where dAJ.. is just the perpendicular component of the ar'ea~ A spherica1)i~t~~~~~

. .............::-,::...
surface is most convenient since all sUIface elements are nOflnal to the(:}::~::x:
'. . . . . . . . . . y...-:. .
direction to the center. In spherical coordinates (r, e, ), where 0 ::: () ~ 1r'>~)~~~i~
is the polar angle and 0 .::: tP ~ 2n is the azimuthal angle, a differentia]<\~~~~~~:
element of the surface has area
. ::::::::::~~::::::
.............
. .. . ... ... .... ....
~,
, .........l':.l':
. . , .............,J" ...
,,
. . . . . . . . . . . III III
. . . . . . . . . . l1li ...
..
...............
...............
.
..
..............
. ..
..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . III
. ,, , . . . . .... . . ..... ..... ...l1li

, ,,
... ... ...
dA = width x height = (r sin a dtP) x (r de) = r2 sin fJ dO dc/J,
. . . . . . . . III ...
.. III l1li;":
.
II III ...
, . . . . III III
...
, ~ . . . . . . . . . . . III
,
.... III ... ...
.......... :..,:
.,
.... III
III
~
.......
III
. . . II III III ...
, ~ . . . . . . . III ...
,
.. II ... ... ...
so the infinitesimal solid angle is just
, ,
............. ...
II
. . . . . . . III
. . . . . . . . . l1li
.............
.......... ,... .
.. . , ........
:,.:
'
"
...
, ,...
... '" "'...... .
. . . . III III III ...
..
"::
(9 .2). ,....
..
"'..
.
.
.
'
"
.
X
..
.
.. ......
.
.,...... ."' .... .*.. .
.
......... l1li ...
,~
"
. . . . . . . . . . ..
, , .... .J"
dO =
sineded~
:::::::~:~:::.:
!~"'""'''''x
, '" . . .
' ,
,
'" ........
, , , ..
....... ..
'"
, ,,
,
You will encounter this equation many times in physics.

~~~~::~
.............
We can easily apply this to the common case of a Udetector face," norm~:}~~~~~:
to the direction of the incident radiation, as shown in Fig. 9.1. Let th~ ;>~~~s.
"detector face" be a circular area with radius R located a distance d from ~\?~~f
,
source. There is perfect azimuthal symmetry, so we immediately integra~f!i~

.....
:.::.
. .........
,,. . x
, , ,. . .
III "'
' .........;.,
>,
'
'
.....
. ..
.. ..........m
........
:.-:..
, ,, , ...
......
" .r;.a
......;.,
,>,"
, ' , "......
, , .. .0:
','
~
,' '
;.,.
"'
~
, '.r' ;0.1'
',',
' , . . . .0:
'
..........
.........
...
...........::::
"....
'.........
.........
.
........
"'*. .
' ,
, ,
:.:-:.:..t'
-:'....
..........'"..t'!*
. !*..
' ,
, ,
, , , ..
. II .0: II
9.2 Compton Scattering
369
Source
FIGURE 9.1
Calculating the solid angle of a circular face.
over to get
dO.
and integrate from B
= 2:n: sin B dB
= 0 to 8max. = tan -I (R / d) to get

-.6.0. = -1
4Jr
9J1l8JL
sinBdB,
9=0
where we have written the fraction of the total solid angle as !:!.o./4Jr. Tbis
integral is done most easily by a change of variables to JL = cos B with JL
ranging from cos emax. = d / J d 2 + R2 to 1. Since d JL = - sin B de,
~~ = l~semax dJL = ~ [ 1 -
(d 2 +dR2 ) 1/2
J.
(9.3)
For d = 0, .6.o./4Jr = 1/2, that is, the surface covers one entire hemispbere. For d -). 00, expand Eq. (9.3) to first order in R/d to find
Ao./4rr = R2/4d 2 or A0. = (JrR2)/d 2, whicb is just what you expect
from the basic definition of solid angle.
9.2. COMPTON SCATTERING

9.2.1. Frequency Shift and Cross Section
This section deals with the scattering of electromagnetic radiation by free
electrons. As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, it is the scatterjng of electromagnetic radiation from various objects that makes it possible
for us to "see" them. However. as the frequency of the radiation is increased
beyond the visible region. the light quanta have energies comparable to, or
larger than, the binding energy of the electrons in atoms, and the electrons
can therefore be considered as free.
_._.'.A.A~-A--~
_
rtf"'"""
III ...
. . . ..I: III . .
. . . . III JIll . .
....... . .
- . . ... .
- ...... -....
- . . ....... ..
....... .. .
- ........
.........
. ... . . .
.........
" -.. ..
- . . ...... ..
- - - ... .......
... ..
.......
.
.
.....
- . . .......... ..
..... . ..
.... ........
-
III JIll
JI
....
III . . . .
III . . . .
.... III ...
__
370
9 Sea tte r i n g and Co inc ide nee Ex per i men ts
.... Jill . .
III
.......... Jill . .
...
III . . . .
....
III ... , -
..
JI
...
III .... . .
...
hvlc
,.
hr/Jc
()
_.- -
---- .......
III
.JI
..11
..
..
'
III
..... .
....
...
..
..
.......... II1II
..............
~~

III . .
.....
. . . . . .JIll ........ .
.JI
...
III . .
...
III . .
JI
III
....
...
JIll
....
III
III
....
..... III .JIll

III ... . .
. . . . . . III . . . .
..........
. -...... . ....
..
-. . .. .
......
.........
......
.....
...........
-. . .....
. .......
:.:.:.~-:-:
... ......
. .. "'~". .
.. ........
.. ...
FIGURE 9.2 Compton scattering of a photon from a free electron.
"
.... .Ii ..
,.
. . .:mJ
'"
,.
<0
,.
,;
,.
..
,. ,.
,.
,,;
..
..
Ii .. ..
...
X~rays from various materials. He observed that after the scattering..~~~j~j:m

energy (frequency) of the X-rays had changed, and had always decreas4~:~~;~~:
From the point of view of classical electromagnetic theory, this freque~~~f~~~~
1
shift cannot be explained~ since the frequency is a property of the incom~:~~~~~
be
. . . . . . . .001 ..
~g el~ctr?ma~etic wave (fiel~) and cannot

altered by the ~hang~.::?~~~~~~~
direcTIon lffiphed by the scattenng. If, on the other hand, we t.hinJc of ~~~~:~~~.~
......... .
experiments of Com~ton..
.)t~t~
energy E = hv and momen1um h v / C(FIg. 9.2) scattenng from an electr9l.1:~{:~

and h~' and hv'le are the energy and momentum o~ the photon after ~~~~~:~~~
and energy conservation Ylelds<~~r~~~~
................
.~~.~~~
. .. . . ..
;. :.::-::::.rm
.........
.. ..
hv + me = hv
2
2
p c
4
2
m c ,
..
..
....
..
"""
(9~.4)~:}~:@.
:::::~~w.~m--~.
" .. ........
.........
.... ""... .
... .. .. .. .. '" .. ..
...........
...........
.
.
... .
............... ......Am.
OO'
.
W
............
.
From momentum conservation we obtain
..
....... '
.. .. .. .. ~~
..
. . . . . . . 01 . . . .
.. ..
~....
hv = hV' cosO
+ ep costjJ
..... .....
" , .. . .. ...
..............
. ....
......
. .,. '"
..
.......
......... .
........
... .
W.
......
....... .
. . .. .
......
............. .....w
.
......
. .. ..... .

... .... . .
.......
.
....r.
........ ..
. . . .... .
..
..
..
'"
'"
, ,
..
.' _ "". "". ,.
..
tl'rI
r;;JIl:.J
9.2 Compton SCBttBring
371
Here (j is the photon scattering angle, and 4> the electron recoil angle .
To solve the above equations we transpose appropriately. square, and add
Eq. (9.5) and Eq. (9.6) to obtain
h 2 v 2 _ 2h 2vv' cos (j
+ h 2v l1.
= e2 p2.
By squaring Eq. (9.4) we obtain

h 2 1)2
+ h2v I1. _
2h 21)v' + 2hme 2(v _ v') = e 2 p2:
and substraction of the two above expressions yields

I! -
I!'
- -,- =
VI!
(9.7)
- 2 (l - cosO).
me
We can recast Eq. (9.7) into lWO more familiar fonns: (a) to give the
~~:: : shift in wavelength of the scattered X-ray beam

..;::
..}
A),=A - ) . = - (l -cos!J)
(9.8)
me
/ ::' or (b) to give the energy of the scattered photon
x:>
~::::
~~::
::;:::
,.
'=
1 + (E/me2)(1
(9,9)
cos B)
~:': From Eq. (9.&) we see that the shift in wavelength. except for the angular
~~\ dependence. is a Constant. the Compton waveleogth2
~~::
f'
~::
hlmc = 2.42 x 10- 10 em = 0.0242

For low-energy photons, with ).
0.02
A,
A.
the Compton shift is very

0.02 A, the waver,{,: length of the scattered radialion is always 00 the order of 0.02 A. the
.~.. Compton wavelength. These conclusions can equally well be obtained from
;::': Eq. (9.9), where the energy shift increases when E/mc 2 becomes large.
t For E/me 2 1. E' is independent of E aod on the order of E' ~ me2.
Hence),' = elv' = el(E'1 h) ...... c/(me 2 1 h) = hlme as stated before.
f: As an example. in this laboratory gamma rays from mes are scattered
;;:::. from an aluminum target; since E = 0.662 MeV, we have ElmCl = 1.29,
so that backscattered gamma rays (0 = 180) wiU have E' = E13.6,
K small, whereas for highenergy photons with ),
r.
~:l
,~; .
r::
f
f~..
~::
.. ....... ..
........ .
............
. ...... . . ..
~' -_~~'.t"
A
. a.A. ..........
. . . . . . ...
#
........ ..
. . . . . . . ..
......
..
::>':::;::::~"m
312
..
III ......
:.:.:.~.:.:.:.~
. . ... .. ...
......................
........= '
....
II
..
.... A.................
~.'.'
easy to ?bserve the Compton energy shift as compared to X-ray scattering~}J~m

where, 1f we assume A. = 2 A, D. A. / A.:- b. E / E = 0.01.
" <:>}~:i:M
(espectally for high. Z. matenals! 10 .addltiOn to the frequ:ncy-shifted<\(j~i@.l
X-rays, scattere~ radiation not shifted 10 ~uency. ~e unshifted ~-ra~!\:;<:j~~
3
are due to scattenng from electrons that remamed bound mthe atom : m this<:::;~i~ru
process the recoiling system is the entire atom, and we replace in Eq. (9.SY})jiID
m by mA (where mA ~ 2000 x A x me), resulting in an undeteCtable/Wrm
7
wavelength shift, 8.A' ~ 10- A.
.~~~*.w
Next we are interested in the differential cross section for the scatter~}{j~
ing of the radiation. from th~ electrons. CI~ssic~y this is ~iven by the}Jj~
wave propag~tJ.n~ m the. z .~~on WIth the E vector linearly polarized:)j:~
~on.g the x directIon. This ~s mClde~t on an electron of mass m, as Shown~~
-:::::::::~~W:
' ..... '. '~~~":'.t"~
.
x...::
.....
... X;
. .... 0I.r,
and lts acceleration wIll be

..
V --
e E0
w,
..
cos J",t
LV
.....
III ..
II
II
.-::::::::~~~~*,
. >;,:-:,~~;:,%
..,. ...@:
.
:
..
*~'
, ..........
.........
......
:.:.:.;
.,
.
..
.
..
..
.
..
......... ..
............ ..
..
,,!
..
....
..
III
A~cording to Eq: ~8.~7), ~e powe~ radiated by this accelerated electron)j!!!!j)i&J

wIll be (nonrelanvIsttcally" In SI unItS)
.' \::::~:::~::
.,'
"
dP
.d
dQ
=.,
..
e2
...........
,.::-:...
. . . . .. .. ..
1. 2 , 2 e:::::::::::Ji::::
" 3.v SID ~,
(9.1 0). :::::::::::~::
. :<:=:::::=:::~=
. . . . .. . .............
...
4il' 41T EO c
. ........,.,- . .
,,
~
where
e is the angle between the direction of observation and the E vee- .:~.:\fj~~~~
tor of the incoming wave. Using the expression for V, we can write for ~::.::~I~~~@f
'~:'~:~\~~~~~
............
......... ....
..........
:<-:.:.:~:..:~:~:
..........
............ .
.:::~:::::::~:
.. :<)~~~{
..........
.
.......
.
........... .
Eq. (9.10) averaged over one cycle

dP
1
----'" - -dQ -- 2
e2
EO E02c sin2
4rr Eomc2
.. ""...-"
'~
,,
,
...
,,
EJ.
. . . . 011 ..
. . . . . . . . . . . OIl
OIl
,~
, ,
,
Finally, from the definition of the cross section (see Section S.2.I.a) we".31@
.....
'
;'
.
..
:
.
:
.
. ......
have
"I~
I
I
I
energy
_.dO' =_,.
___ radiated/(unit time - unit solid angle)'*
dQ
incident energy /(unit area -- unit time)
_ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _
,,~
___
.
III.X'
......
" ..
.....
.......
..
.....
.. .
III..
III...
. '" .....
.
,r,
III
- - - - _ '_ _
a'_ _ _
.oI . . . . . . .
rr
III . . . ..
..
.....
~
.......
.~.
....
'
i.J0.~~'
'" ~.
..'.. ....
...:
.oI..
','.'...............-.x;.
. ......
,
,
,f
......
..
""'
,
,
,
,
,
'
,"'..........
' .......""'0.'
...
:lj.
,
....
.......
..
:.-;.:
<t~t~f
3A similar situation is discussed in the following section on the Mossbauer effect, where
the nucleus remains bound in the lattice and the recoiling system is the entire crystal.
4
See also Section 8.2.5.
~
,~"'.t"~~~.
".*~
~.oI"
. :::}~~
,'" ..~0
'::::::~~~X:
.........
::.-:
.
......
. .... .
.....
', ',
"
, , ,
, ,
, ..
,
'''
,
, ,
,
. .... .
.......
......... .
, ,..'" .....
""'.'.t". .
""""'
%
,,',,'......
. '" "'w'wi.
...........
,..........
~.
~.
.I..
.. 01
, ,
'
III
..
~.
," ,.. '. '. m

,: I:::~::;~~~
,
:.;~
"
. . . . . . . . ....
0~
III ..
..... ' ... ~

I
I
,
.....
......
...
.... _
~
.....
373
t .
sE
Observer
L2e~~z
y
FIGURE 9.3 Classical pictw'e of the scattering of electromagnetic radiation by an electron;

this leads to the Thomson cross section.
Here the denominator is clearly given by the Poynting vector
If!0 = 1
(/) = -
-Eo2
2 /.lo
-;;;ocEo2
Thus we obtain
(9.11 )
where
has dimensions of length, and is referred to as the "classical electron radius"
ro = 2.82 x 10- 13 cm.

Finally, we average over all possible directions of polarization of the incoming wave and use the angle measured from the direction of propagation
of the incident wave to obtain
da _
dQ -
ro
(1 +
cos 2 f) )
2
.
(9.12)
.>:-:.:.:.:.j-~
-:::::::::::::::~%~~~.H:
...... of....
~
. . . . . . . . III JIIII ..
-:.:.:.~.~.:.:..
374
.:::::::~;::::::~~
. . . . ...
~
::~:~:~:i~~:~:~:: ~
When integrated over all angles, Eq. (9.12) yields the Thomson cr~.~~i~J~mm
< ...............
::?:;:::::~~~.:
sectlon
. . '0'::
-
..
A M . . ..
.......
..
.AI ... . .
...
Of
.oil
oil
.. >:.:-:.:.:.:.~.~."
8'TT
~"
:.;.:-:-:.:.:.:. ~
err =.0 3 -'0.
~:
(9.13~~:j:~:~:~~m~
-............
~ .......""'-:.:
.
C0..'
. . . . ... ...
..
. . . . . . . . . . of...
- . ........ .............. ......"'.".... ...I. . ..I11III.
. . .. . ... ... . "'" .. . .. .
.. ...
.. .. ..
...........
OIl
..
..
]II1II II1II . . . . . . .
OIl
(This result was given without proof in Eq. (8.21).)

.}jt~J~iJ1J1JWJ~
Several objections can be raised to the simple cross section given~*?~~~~~~~i
Eq. (9.12) or Eq. (~.13): (a) it does not depend on frequency: a fact rl?~:mt~~~
supported by experunent; (b) the electron, even though free. 1S assum4H;~~~~~:~
not to recoil; (c) the treatment is nonrelativistic; and (d) quanrum effects are~:~:~:~~:~m;~
not taken into accou~t. In~eed, the correct quan~m-~ec?anica1 Calculatio:#i!!!!!ig!i~i~
for Compton scattenng YIelds the so called Klelo-Nlshma formulas "..<:)~~~~~;~~:
. . . . .. .. . ~:........
.....
2
rr1
+
cos
(J
1
.
""<:::::=::~~~:m~~~
d '-'
~
". ::::::::::~::~:~~~~j
. . .....
.t".
. . . . . . AlII ..
dQ ~
. ,
--
r.,
"
SF
as
uzI&:
[1
+ y (1 -
_.
_...
*. ."
.r.
..
..
<~{~~~~i~~~
. . . .. ... .f"~:'-':/:
...
'.t'.~
NX~~
........
..
cos 6)]2
. . . . . lOr.
1+
y2 (1 ..- cos 0)2

TO
+ cos2 e) [1 + y (1
. , . .
.. J ..
~ ~ A"
.. .. ..
..... ~

......-AA. . jI. . . . . .~
. . . . . . . . -. . . . A
.....
~.r....~
AA1
.......".,r
...... .....
"4')'
..........
n................
..... fA.... .. ....
(9 .. 1 .........
. . ...t'.0... ..I.J
~
J".'.t'."
'J.J
~'.t'
. . . . . -.I ..
. '"
............
.I.
.
.
.
x
'
"
..............
. . . x
2
were defined previously, and y = hv/mc The cros$.?J~~W.J~
(1
- cosO)]
,I
. .. . ... ....... . . . .
.....
"'" .
. .......-.
.................
........... ....._-"
"'" . . . .
""'''
.. . -... ,I
I11III . . .
where ro and (J
section has been averaged over incoming (and summed over outgoingf:d@~~~
polarizations, By integrating Eq4 (9.14), the total cross section can b'~)fi~~t~~~f~
obtained. We will not give the complete result here, but the asymptoti(}~~~~~~~~~~
expressions have already been presented in Eq. (8.22).:>\~~~~~~~~~~
A comparison of the Thomson (Eq. (9.12)) and Klein-Nishina cros~(~~~{~~~~~~$
sections, including the results obtained in this laboratory for y == 1.29, i$((~~~~~~~~~~
shown in Fig. 9.8. We remark that although the Thomson cross section isk{~~~:~:~~~~
symmetric about 90, the Klein-NishiDa cross section is peaked forwar~)rj~~~~~I~~
strongly as y increases. This is due to a great extent to kinematical factois/i~I~I~~~~~~i~~
associated with the Lorentz transformation from the center of mass to tbei~:}~:~:~:~:~~~~
laboratory; note that the center-of-mass .velocity of the (indicent gamma()i~~~~~~~I~j~
ray + free electron) system is
. <~\~~~~~~~~~j~
.............
...........
. ...
...........
.............
..............
.............
v = eft ::- cy /(1 + y),
..............
'" . . . . . . _ _~
<III
.......... ".I" ..
OIl
.II . . . . . . . . . .
II1II
iii
.II
.. .. ..
.... iii . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . III
III ........... ..
~
...
III . . . . . . .
II ..
.............
............ . ...
iii .. .. .. ... ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . II
,
..... iii..
oo.. 01.1''''
.. ......
.' ,
~
........ ..............
where as before y = hv/mc

<:)~:it1~~
.. ""......
The experimental data are in perfect agreement with the results of:}i~i~~ii
Eqs. (9.9) and (9.14), which are among the most impressive and convincing;:/~~~i~~~~
..... .
2
.,
fA . . . . . . . . . .
' ', '
.I ........ .01 .01

.01.01
.......
".01 ...
,.
, , ,. "' oAr
.I
..
.... ....
01 . . . . . . '"
.......... ..
.01
, .. '" ..
III.......... ..
5Se e for instance F. Gross, Relativistic Quantum Mechanics and Field Theory, Section/:~:~~~~~:~
, .... .r _ ..
10.5, WIley, New York 1993.
. ,:>~*;:~~~
....... -. ....
.......
.............
.""....... -. .. .....
.......
.........
,
..
,,,
,
",
,
....
.........
.. .
.........
...
..
......
..
....
.
.....
..
.....
.
....
""'...-. .
......
...
.....
....
-;:,.:.... .. ..
...
.
......."""'... ...
,......
'..
.."AX'..r'
.
.
..
.. , ..
,,
,
...
, ........
... ,
...
,
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. ' ......... .
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
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"'"
,,
,
.. ........ .r...
,,
"
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375
successes of quantum theory. In the following two sections we will describe

the experimental verification of these predictions.
9.2.2. The Compton Scattering Experiment

As with any scattering experiment, the apparatus will consist of:
(a) The beam of incident particles, in this case photons,
(b) The target (containing the electrons from which the photons scatter),
and
(c) The detector of the scattered photons.
The beam of photons is obtained by collimating the gamma radiation
from a 137 Cs source. An intense source is required in order to get an
appreciable counting rate for the scattered photons. As shown in Fig. 8.21
I37Cs (I37Ba) emits a gamma ray of energy 0.662 MeV, and the detection
techniques have been discussed in Chapter 8. Figure 8.21 also shows the
pulse-height spectrum of the gamma radiation from 137 Cs, as obtained with
standard equipment; the same detection equipment is used in this experiment with the only difference that heavy shielding is needed to prevent the
detector from seeing the intense 137Cs source directly.
A schematic of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 9.4. The lead pig A is fixed
and holds the source, which can be introduced through the vertical bole
(V). Another lead shield B contains the detector and can be rotated about
the center, where the target is located. The lead assemblies are rather heavy
(approximately] 00 Ib) and some provisions must be taken for adequate
mounting.
For the source, a 7-mCi 137Cs sample was used, which was properly
encapsulated before being shipped to the laboratory. It should always be
transported in a lead container, and when transferred into the lead pig A,
it must be handled only by the attached string. The source holder (A) bas
a collimator (h) drilled horizontally, sub tending a solid angle on the order
of 0.03 sr. Of interest to us will be the density of the photon beam at the
target, and the expected value is
3.7 x 1010 x 0.007 1

4n
r
--------2
1.3
]04 photons/cm 2 -s,
where we use a source-ta-detector distance r

ted here.
= 40 em., for the data presen-
.
- ----~Wirw
~ III JIll . .
III JIll . .
JIll
..
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376
.....
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....
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(a)
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--+-t-I-
..
--
t+-:,:::- ~,.,. ~~..... - -~---_-.flt-_--~---
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...
...
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7'7"n'.
'---'
-.. . . . . . "ma'
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- . .. .. .. . . w
. m.
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- :::::::::::::::::~.,:
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Scattered
photons
- .................~..
... ...
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.......
JII
..
. .. .
-:::::~~;::::~::mW:
. .
--:::::~~:::::::ffi~~:
-...... ~/~..
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...........
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. . .. . . .
.
1'J
. . .....
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-- ............. ~~ :
. . . ... ..
- ..............~ ~
. . . . '.'.'. w
~
detector can be rotated relatIve to the beam drrectlon, through a large angular range. ~~~~~~~:ru
the 137 Cs source is not directly visible to the detector at forward angles. (c) Use of a.'.llllt~~~
photons do not have to traverse very large amounts of the target matenal.
---......
...............
. . . ....... ... m'....
- -
---"1-- _........--
....
.-~
--
..
~..
~~...
~.~.~
'IE.
W.
. . />i1~
'" m
........
....,',....X
~
~
. ..... . .. x
.::::::::::::w.
. .. . . ..
.. , ,.
.......
'~fu:-:
.. .. ,'
.
... ::::::
.........
..
..
..
..
. II
..-
'S17
In contrast to the scattering of alpha particles, there is no need to enclose

the beam and detector in vacuum or to use a very thin target. We know
that gamma rays do not gradually lose energy when traversing matter as a
charged particle does, but their interaction can be characterized by a mean
free path. For the 137 Cs gamma ray we find that
A. = 4.7 cm in AI,
A. = 0.92 cm in Pb;
this corresponds to 104 cm of air, so that the interaction of the ph~ton beam
in the air of the apparatus (approximately 100 cm) is indeed negligible.
Also, the target thickness can safely be a fraction of a mean free path before
the probability for multiple interactions becomes considerable. Aluminum
targets in. thick are quite adequate for this experiment.
Some special mention must be made of the geometrical shape of the
target. We may use a fiat target (such as an aluminum plate), in which
event the cross section is obtained by considering the interaction of the
total beam with the number of electrons per square centimeter of the target6 ;
alternatively, we may use a target of circular cross section (such as a rod),
in which event the cross section is obtained by considering the interaction
of the beam density (photons per square centimeter) with the total number
of electrons in the target? When using a plate, it is advisable to rotate
it so that it always bisects the angle between beam and detector, since
otherwise the scattered photons may have to traverse a very large amount
of material before leaving the target (see Fig. 9Ac). In that case, however,
the amount of scattering material in the beam path varies as 1/ cos(a /2),
and this correction must be applied to the yield of scattered particles. These
effects are obviously eliminated when a target of circular cross section is
used. In addition, the scattering point is better defined even if the beam is
only poorly collimated. On the other hand, accurate evaluation of the flux
density at the target is difficult. The results presented here were obtained
by using a ~ in. "diameter aluminum rod as the target.
An interesting refinement of the technique is made by observing the
recoil electrons in time coincidence with the scattered photon. However,
the kinetic energy of the recoil electron is
..
:
:
'.
e:>
!l::
Te=E-E =E
;.~::
;.:::
~~i~:
!jj:
--6s-e-e-F-ig-.8.1.
1':->
7See Fig. 8. I.
y(1 - cose')
1 + y(l - cosO)
-- -..........
-'.' .......
-~-m.~~~
--.w..r~
. . ... . . -~-.. .. ~
.....
-~m
III
JI
'"
JI
.. ... . .
.lII ....
III . . . . .
...
....
"
- .' ......
378
9 Sc attering
-:.:.:.~.:.:.:-~~~
............. ~h
an d Co;n ci d ence Expe riments
--
. . . . . . -..@
:a
_
. ......
.......... . . .
.......
_
-
stop m the target. On the other hand,
If
.. ..
..
...
...
III
III
...
II1II ..
....... -
OIl OIl
.~
--:::::::W~a=J'-'
'- .........~
which at its maximum value (0 = 180) is
--~
III
. . . . . . III.".
examp~e, Feather's rule. Chapter 8, ~q.
-~
. . . . . . . III . . . .
III ... ....
... III JIll
....
III
.....
III III III
III
III
..
-: ...
-:::::::~:::::~:~
'"
..
~
(8.15)).
~hi~h correspOndst9ii@@@
a plastic scmtillator 1S used as tM{:~:~~
a signal that can be easily detected.
~)fit~~~~.
3 in. thick. Data was acquired with a multichannel analyzer, with a G~];a{~~~~
alummum target rod both
1D
and out of the beam, but
Wlth
all runil~!t;~~:MI
By measunng the pulse-height distnbunon at vanous angles, we o1?~~~:::~:@
to the photopeak. as observed III the "background subtracted" spectra;_:(Q~:::::::~
GaUSSIan
peak fit can be done III MATLAB
by taking the
logan~::9l~~~:-~
order polynonnaL To obtam the yteld of scattered photons, we Integrat~:@~;~:~::@
or "peak-to-total rauo" ~s well as for crystal efficIency. Th~se co~~!W:~~~:~
W).m:;:::2m
depend on the crystal SIze and on the photon energy (which vanes
of energy for several different NaI crystal dimensions.
_>}~~~:~:~::: .-.-~_
.............
.............
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................
. .............
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. .... ....... ..... ""...
............
.
. .. . .... .... .. . ..
..........
............
.
.
. . .. .. .
..... ............ ......
. .. .... .... ... ....

.........
. ............
...........
.
9.2.3. Results and Discussion
..
..
.II
A _
.....
... A
AI
....
.... _
..
"""
..............
..
"""
....
.I
. . . . . . . . . ..
ill
"
...
...
...........
...
...
...
descnbed III the prevIOUS section.
i:::};;i~W:
from the online hbrary at http.IJwww.hlcron.com.
<::::::::::::~::;:;m.
. ' '.1'.
"'....... ~
'.'"",,
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.........
....
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.
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01 ..
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....... oJ
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... II ..
9.2 Complon Scattering
5000
(.)
379
"""
"""
O ~ 30
"""
3000
,
Channel
(b)
"""
H'900' '
:.
.. Target in
o=Targ9! OIJl
00'
~
,
700
.00
- "'"
6"' 100
'00
300
re~ :
200
.~
''''',
q"
La> Ire 'tWP4SZ'RoLb;

>000
2""
5000
Channel
FIGURE 9.5 Pulse-height spectrum gamrtlll rays in the Compton scattering apparalllS.
The plots (II), (b) show daTa acquired for 120 s both with dJe target rod in (solid points)
and out (open circles) of the beam. AI fJ = 300, the detector inlercepts some fr:action of
the primary beam. and the raLC is considerably larger than al 0 = 1000. In addit ion, there
are l.aIge signals due to K -shell X-TIl)'!> and Com pIon back.sc.ancring in the lead shielding
31bot11 scattering angles. However, in each case, these ba;kgrouod sigoals subtract cleanly
: away. leaving a pu re Compton scattering signal from the aluminum target. The subtrnc.led
: plots;m shown in (el and (d).
,". "A~.-A-.-.-.-~~
. . ..... .
. .. . . ... ..... :.
............... . ........
- ...............
..I
......
- - . . .. .. ..... .
.. MIl
...
..
...
III . . . .
III
.....
III .. ..
III
..II
oil . .
JIll . .
.. III .. ..
......
..II
...
380
.. ..
....
III
........
..,
III .. ..
.JI
.. ..
~:::::::;~::::::~~
... III . . . .
. . . . III JIll . .

.. Ii JIll
...
... III III .. ..

. . . . . III II .Ill ..
... .. III MIl ..
..II III .. .. ..
II III III .. ,

. . . . . . . III
.... ......... . .
III
..II
..
oil . .
..II
. . . . . . III . . III
~ . . . "" JIll . . . . .
... II III . .
.....: :."":.. :... ~

.............
. . . . ....... ..
~::::::::;::::::~~~~~~~:
. .. . ... . .
.:.:
.. :.:...
(0)
800
(J =30
subtracted
...
III
III .. ..
...
. . . . . III ..
... III . . . .
III 0IIII .III III
........
.oil
..
700
....
of ..
11
....
JIll
III
. . III
III . .
..
...
.. ...
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...
... MIl MIl . .
III .. MIl ..
..
III . . . .
,.10.
. . . "".. . . ...
, ........
600
. . . . . ..II . . . . . .
. . . . . . . JIll . .
...
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III MIl . .
,
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(/)
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400
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. . . . . of ... ..
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...
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200
100
..
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..
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II II ...
'
. . . . . II .. .. ..
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..
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2000
4000
3000
5000
.
01
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..
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iii
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01
.
..
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:.:................
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"
.. II II .. ..
.. .. II ..
:;::~:~~wa.
. . . . . . II ... ..
f .. .. ..
ooe subtracted
. . . . . . II ...
II . . . .
.. II .. .. ..
.~.:.:
., .
.,
..., ..... .... ..
(j= 1
ifI
600
ifI
t+
....
..
'
. . . . . III ..
.........
..
........... ..
.~:.
;.:.:.~.:.~A;
...........
.
..... -...
.. .........................
:::::::::::~~::m::
... ... . ........ .. . . . ..
.. .. .. ... ..
. . . . . . II .. ..
(d)
500
ill
.1-.
.......
.........
..
. . . .. . ..
Channel
700
..
.'
1000
.. II
II . . . . . . :
" " . . .....
II IIof.....
. . . . . . . . . . oM :
............
... . .. . ...
..
00
............
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- .........
300
rn
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::::;
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ifI
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:.:.:.~':.:-:~~~.:
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.
,.. ... -.. ........... ...
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.. . . ... .. .
.
:::::::::~::::wa~~:
:.:.:.:.~.:A:~:~:
.. -... . ...
.
. ... ... .......
..
....
. . . . ........ ........
.'
.A ....., . . . . . . .
m.
....
..
1. ....... ~ .........A ....

,
...- 400
~::J
o 300
200
..
..
..II
ifI
.. .... . .
....
.....
...
.A
.. ..
OIl
OIl
..
...
..
..
..
OIl
.. . . . .
...
.. . . . .
. . . . . _ A ..
....... A
..
..
..
..
OIl
.. ., ...... - ,....J":
..
......... -';-,J
100
ifI
..
..
..
..
..
..........
. . . ..AA~......~_..
I
.........
..
. . .........
...........
. . . . . ......... w
..
... ..
A~~~~~
+
+
r-....
.. .. "' .. ..
'.t'".J"
.....A~~ ~
1000
2000
3000
Channel
FIGURE 9.5
4000
...
......... ..
. . .... ... .
. . .......... ..
Continued
........
..II
III ... . .
"'
.01 ..
..
...
..
...
..
. ... "' . . ....

.........
..
....
"' A
"'
..
. . .... "' . . ..
.............
. . ... .. .
to ~easure the beam profile
. . .... "'
5000
OIl
"'
"' ... . .
?f ~e 137 Cs so~ce. ThIS IS best done by co:~j@W1
to keep the count rate relatively low. (A number of drfficulttes anse at a~.:::.:~;~~~iij1
. .. . ..... ..."W
..
..
.........
..
........
..
......
...
.
................ .
.. ., ..
:}}~~~:w
.......:w.
. . ..... .
.. :.:.:.:.~
. .... ..... .....:
I
..
...
_ . . .; . .-a
~
!.II
9.2 Campton Scattering
,"..
,.,
~ ,.,
' .4
,.,
~
,.,
,.,
,,
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Energy (MeV)
".:\
1 _ In
11~
O.
Energy (keV)
fl GURE 9.6 De-Iectioa efficiency plots for NaI crystals of various dimensions, from
hnp://WWW.!licran.com. Shawn are the peak~lo-tOlai ralio and the inoiosic absorption
efficiency, aU as Bfunction of cnergy for ylI1iou~ crystal dimensions .
..;.
f:
~:;
photon beam. Forour measurements here, however, we wilt simply assume

the calculated beam flu x for a mca.'mremell( of the differential cross section.
Compton scattering data arc taken by accumulating pulse-height spectra
at various angles, both with the target in and out, for fixed periods oftirnes.
1 ... ...
1
~::
~::,
~ ::
I:i..i
~
381
~. :,
~. : :
;:::..
~~;
In order to minimize the effects oj gain drifts, and other changes over
lonKer times, it is best to lake the "il!" and "out " spectra immediaJely
6660
ZL-O
066"0
0960
O6"O
0680
~90
S98~O
Z9
Z8tt'LI
ZZ61
oor
ISZ9
89l'91
8~ZZ
OS
Z90S
Z8~91
018Z
99~'t[
9~8'6'l
v8f:
09
017
ZL
OOt
S'~O
9Z0
OZO
Z01:'O
80S0
O~"O
W~O
lZI'IS
99'L6
L17O
1719'0
PIL~80~
19I'8Z~
LS'O
(u!)
SlUnO;)
sluawp adx 3
SlunOJ
a3Uapp]U~oJ pUB
6upa:u.B:lS 6
or
383
4.5
4
Slope=1.98 MeV- 1
3.6
I
>
(l)
~
2.5
~
..2
1.5
0.2
0.6
0.4
O.B
1.2
1-cosfl
FIGURE 9.7 The results obtained forlhe energy (frequency shift) oflheCompton scattered
gamma rays. Note that 1/ E is plotted against (1 - cos II), leading to a linear d~pendence.
The slope of the line gives the mass of the electron.
are also summarized in Table 9.1. To obtain the cross section we note that
drr
yield
dO.
(dQ)N fo
The detector solid angle is given by

dO.
= crystalr 2 area
-2
= 6.4 x 10
sr,
where r is the distance from the target to the detector. For the total number
of electrons in the target, we have
= J! ("2d)2 hp N
AO Z,
.'.
....
j~:i
~r
:'::
:~:.
.~::
.0:::
<:
~:::
~1~1:
where9
d
h
= diameter of target = ~ in. = 1.91 cm

= height of target = 4 em
9The height of the target is obtained by estimating the length of target intercepted by
the beam.
........
...........
.... ...
. . ..... . ....
. . ......
...
...........
...........
.. ...
....
- -- ..
.........
... ..
.
.
.....
-......
- ...
. ..........
~
.II
..
.II
...
.II
-.~~
-~.~
384
~~
~
.II
...
.....
-.~
-:::::::::::::~m
. . ...... ..
3
gm/cm
...
II
....
..
........ ..
.. .........
.:.:.:.:~:~:
...-........
..... ....~=
- . . ...... ..
-
- -
-
= Avogadro's number = 6 x 10
A = atomic weight of aluminum = 27
23
No
~~
p = density of aluminum = 2.7
~~
--.~
~
~
~
Z = atomic number of aluminum = 13,
II
II
.... . .
II . .
...
II
...
..
II .... . .
. . . . II . . . .
. . ........ ..
~
....
II
...
..
::::::::::~~:~~
-:.:.:-:.:. :.:=
::::::::::~~~:~==~
-
......... ..
...
II
...
..
II ... . .
II II . . . .
.II .II . . . .
thus
:.:.:.:.:.~~:~
10
= 1.3 x
10 photons/em
..
II
II
}}~~~~~~:.
..........
-8,
...... ""'~
-------
.=
.
.:::::::~:::~~:~
.... .
II
II
..... ,
II
...
-.~.-
,
...
70
....
60
,,
,,
,,
cff!
E
50
(.;)
,
,
...
....
,
...
...
....
...
...
(\J
...
40
........
---"
,. '
,.
'
'
,
,
,
r
.....
II
...
..
. . . . . .. .m.
".-
II
....
..
- .:.:.:.~.:.:~:~:.~
II II . . . .
....
....
".
........ . .........
~~.
-:::::::~:::::~::::=W
-
II . . . . . . .
... II II . . . .
..... II . . . . .
~
. . . . . II . .
. . . . II . . . . .
II II . .
. . . . II .... . .
~
--
...
..
.. ....... ..................
~
II
.II
...... .
II . . . .
-- .........
~~~~.~
. . . . II ....... ,
II
....
II
...
II
II . .
.... . .
~
.... . .
.II II . .
~
..... II ... . .
. . ....
....
..
.... ...
II
!II
..
...
m..
--:':::::::~:~::~:~m~
~
-: -::::::~
........
. :~::::~:::w:
... .... .... .
.
I'
.....
II
..
~.
~.
::::::~::~m
....
..
---::::::~~::::::m~:
..
II
....
.. ..
~....................
~ 30
~~
- ---:-:<':':'ZW:
-~m
.......
:s 20
.~
~~
-:,:,:,:,:,:~j-m~
..
...
.. ...
..
':':':'~':':
. .. ....~.w.J"~
,JJ,JJ, ..
. .......
. . . .. .....
....
.........
. ......... ..
. . . . . . .. ..
. . . . . ..
. . . .. ...
..
~
10
O ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Scattering angre ()
FIGURE ?,8 The results
ob~~ed ~or the sc~~ring cross sec:tion ,of ,
parucular energy; the dotted hne lS the Thomson cross sect1on~
137
Cs
..
..1
.. ...
..
.......
w.~~
----
~~
..J"w....
..............
............ .
- .. .
:=:::.....
. .................
. . . . . . . ._.
.."'.w.
..
. -.:.:.:.~.:~*~
. . . . . .. .. . . . ..
.~.~
. '::::::::::~~~~$::
<>~~~~~~~~~g~~
. . . joW
gammar#:~~~~jjj~@jj
.. ::::::::::::::~~:m.:~:
.:.:.:.~.:.~
. . . . . . . . .. ~=J"w.~.~
. .w.. ..
. .. ...
......................-ill'
. w.''..
...
::::::::~::~~::~$...::::~:
...-. . ...w.....
.- ... ...
00
............. .. m....
..................
_
... .. .... .M.....
. . . ..
.. .. ..
. . . ... ...
. . .
....... ..
.-
...
...
...
........
..
..
. . . . . . . . . 011......
...
'-'-'-'-'""'"'~
oil
. . oil
~.
.~
r.
C.:<
9.3 Miissbauer Effect
Ir
385
::: gives the theoretical values for da jdQ derived from the Klein-Nishina
::: fonnula (Eq. (9.14 for y = 1.29, while the dashed curve represents the
Thomson cross section.
::::
The agreement of the angular dependence of the experimental points
:( with the theoretical curve is indeed quite good and clearly indicates the
inadequacy of the Thomson cross section for the description of the scatter~.' ing of high-energy photons, while continuing the Klein-Nishina formula.
? On the other hand the absolute value of the experimental cross section is
:.j. \.:,.. subject to some uncertainty due to the way in which the flux density 10 and
total number of electrons N were estimated Nevertheless, the agreement
.' is good.
~~::
~\\ 9.3. MOSSBAUER EFFECT
f 9.3.1. General Considerations

F
~,:.~.\.' . In the Compton scattering experiment, we could visualize the scattering
(::: process as if it were a collision of two billiard balls in which the incom-
1:.::.::.:.:::::.::::.:.,::::::
..
\:
.......
~~~~~~2E:~i~~:;~::~=;a~;7::!::~E:fe:::
with the subsequent re-emission of these quanta; this was the model
we used in the derivation of the Thomson scattering cross section in
Section 9.2.
Since we }mow that emission of quanta of energy h(up - uet ) in the
., visible spectrum is due to transitions of atoms from a state of f3 -+ (i we
must also expect that when quanta of this energy h(u{J - va!) are incident
on an atomic system in state ct, they may be strongly absorbed, with the
consequent raising of the atom from state (i to state f3. Evidence for such
strong absorption is obtained by detecting radiation of frequency (up - Vet)
emitted from the absorber in all directions; it is due to the atoms that,
having absorbed a quantum from the beam, were raised to state f3 and then
.' underwent a spontaneous transition back to state Ci, emitting the quantum
h(vfi - va). but with equal probability into all directions. Such radiation
is called "resonance radiation" and was first observed by R. W. Wood in
.. sodium vapor in 1904. A sc;hernatic of the apparatus is shown in Pig. 9.9.
An absorption cell was illuminated by sodium light, and at right angles to
the incident beam the sodium D lines were observed.
.......... .
.... -.......
'.'~ AAA~-MA._~
.....
....
... OIl
~~
oil All
II .011 OIl
. . . . . . . . OIl
'.~
__
9 Sea tt er i n 9 and C0 inc ide n c. e Ex per i men ts
386
oil OIl OIl

oil .. OIl
II
.....
............ ..
..
.................-J"M"
...... -....... ,.
.....
oil
II
All
II
OIl II1II
..
.............
.-.:.:.:.~-:...:..~ ~
-
.....
oil ... ...
...... III..
. ..
"-..............
..... OOO.'.M... @
..
....
III
...
.......
III
...
:j
":':':O:':.:M~..
"....
OOO.._..M
..
Collimator
.-
II .... OIl
?:::
III .... . .
......... .
.. ..
.. .oil..
":':O:_=':':M:~~
::::::::::::;::::~
:::::~:::~~::::~
. ---:::::::::~~::~:::m~
......... iII~"';
To spectrograph or
detector
". -":.:o:o~.:.:.:.~%
._..
. . ..... "l.............
:.:.:.:.:~:.:....~
."
.;;;;r;
"::.' ...
:::=:~:=::::::~:~
OoOo.o' .....~
-: }~}~::;:~~~
:'.: :::::~:::~::~:~
..
~ ~
Primary beam
Filters
".:::::~::~~:::::~%.~
... 0.0._. _......
0
~.I'.
Absorption
Na lamp
..
-Jl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
5890 A
.
":.:o:o~:-:~~m
Resonance
radiation
..
01
-: <o~-:.:,<. ~:@
. -::::::~::~~~~~~@
can
{Na vapor}
.. :>:~::~::::~~~~~
YN
.o
01 . . . .
.....
. : ::::>:::~~~~%.
experim~~i{@iji1
FIGURE 9.9 The arrangement of an optical (atomic) resonance radiation

Here the sodiu~ D lines are inci?e~t on a cell containing sodium vapor; ~s then posst6~~}t~~~~
to observe, at nght angles to the mcuient beam, the appearance of the D hnes.:~d~
i:
.oOoO. . . . .J"~-.~,.~JO
J"~~.~~~
ooo . . . .
.. II1II 01 .....
.J...
~~
'.' .Oo.:r
......r~~~:or..:
Let us note two facts: (1) Since the atom must be in state O! when the radi~~~~~I~~W
radIation mus.t be exactly of the correct energy h(vp - vQ.) correspondin~)jjjm

to the separation of levels a. and ~. .
.,
~::):j:i~
a nucl~ar gamma ray (lnstead of the sod1um D lines), we wIll obtaI1?:~~:~~~~~~~~~
c:ooservation. which ~roduc~s a negligIhle eff~c~ m the case of an ato~J:%~i~j~~~

line. To understand this, consider a system R onglnally at rest; R undergo~~:~:~:~=~:~
a transition from f3 -)0 O!, where the energy difference between states";~):~:~=~~
_...... ......
and fJ
~A~~...:
-::::::::::~::::X:
"...............
:x;
1S
. . . . . . . . . . ..Ii
"
EfJ -- Ea = hv.
tII*
.............. ,
-_
..
"5:::1:~{:i:~:m*~
,. .......
............
(9 I -.. . ........
.......... ,..
. . . . . . . . . .,..*
~
-'
~x
... ..........
. . ........,.. ::;-:
..
"
As a result of the transition, a quantum is emitted, which will cany aw~iiJ~~~~

energy h Ve and momentum hve/c; Ve is to be detennined. From Fig. 9.1Q~:}~:~~
\'''
,.
.......
AI
..
~. .
we see that to conserve momentum, the emitting system R must recoil w~~{~~~~~~~
momentum h Vel c; therefore it will have energy (nonrelativistic ally
)}JiiM
*X
.",.. II. . . . .
' . ' o . . . . . . '~~~~~~
111
111
".: ': 0: 0: . ~;:~~x
'
:1:~ ~~ :~~~'.."'h
(9..l ~~?::~~*
.'. ......~ ...... .......... ... ...::::
x
.
x
........
.
...
...............
. . ......... :..-..
...
l!he available intensities of visible radiation, the absoIp?on cross sec~on, an~. :.~W~~lli
~
. . . . . . . . .. .;ItA
I
. . . . . . . . ..
I ~ . . . . . . . . J!A.;ItA
..
zd&1
...
~ ~
denSity of the absorbers are all such that most of the atoms In the cell must be able: ~~::::~~~~
absorb (and re-emit) radiation in order to yield observable results. In very special case~~"~#.~~~j~~
metastable state, to which a large fraction of the atoms can be transferred (by some otI~~t~:~~E~~
.... ,.'.:..; ..:~.~
means), can serve as state a -.
.' ::?::;:~:~~~
, , . . ......:H:
.',' , ...................
,.;.;, .........
0= o; .~..;*
.
,', '
.........
;. ..... ,./jti
...........
.............
....... .
~.~
, ~ ,
,',"~
.. 0"":::
~
' ,
... .1"'.
,".JIi
, , , ,.. ......
" ,~~ ................ .
',', ......
............X:
,
'
............. . . .
.........
0
. . .' . . " '. . . .. . . .
,',"~
~*
' , .....
,..,JIJ
, ,
,', ',.
~~
, ' , ' 0 . . .~*
.':':=:::::
. .;......:
, ..
~-
:~~~
9.3 Milssbauer Effect
--
387
I , \\
1\=0
hvlc
---0
vvv-
Jt ~-1
hulc
v'=/iiil
>.'..-l
vt=v~ ')"'= ),.(1~~)

c'
(a)
(b)
(e)
FIGURE 9.10 The effect of momentum conservation (recoil effects) in the emission and
absorption of nuclear gamma rays. (a) A system R originally at rest emits a gamma ray
hv; it must recoil with a velocity l1f ==: (hv/c)/mR' (b) A system R moving originally
with a velocity Vi = (hv/c)/mR absorbs a gamma ray hv; after the absorption the system
will be at rest. (c) Derivation of the first-order Doppler shift for an observer moving with
velocity v.
To balance energy, we must have

EN +hve = hv,
leading to
hUe
= hv(1- X
+ 2x 2 + ... ),
(9.17)
where x = h v j2mc 2 will generally be small.

Similarly for a system R' originally at rest in order to be raised from
level a ~ (3, where EfJ - EO/ = hv, it must absorb a quantum of energy
hUe
= hu(l +x -
2x 2 + ... ).
(9.18)
If the emitted quanta were strictly monochromatic, then it is clearly not

possible for a free system R to absorb a quantum hVe emitted by a similar
free system R', since hVa =1= hVe (Fig. 9.11a).
We know, however, that spectral lines have a certain width!! LlV; in
Fig. 9.l1b the emission and absorption lines are shown appropriately centered about h Ve and h Va, but with a width Ll v. If then the two line shapes
overlap, it is possible to have resonant absorption.
llThe minimum or "natural width" of a line is determined from the lifetime 1: of the
transition f3 -+ a; from the uncertainty principle IlElll "l; fi. and thus Ilv "l; l/T:. Other
contributions include the "Doppler broadening" due to the thermal motion of the atom or
nucleus, collisions, external perturbations or imperfections in a crystal lattice.
............ .
"
.,
. . . . . . . III . . . .
. . . . . . III .JIll . .
III JIll . .
. . . . . . . III .JIll . - .
III . . .JIll ~
III III ......
..
...
.. JIll....
......
III
.....
.....
III
.......
.JIll . . III
.JIll .-~
.JIll . .
JIll
JIll
:-:.t",
..
..
. . . . . . . III .... . .
III JIll . . . . . .-~

III ...... ~
9 Sea tt e ri n9 and C0 inc i d Q nCB Ex per i men t s
........... c:::
.......... PJ.:.-. . ........... ..
......
JIll
....
-.1
. . . . . . III . . . . . . . .
...I JIll . .
. . . . III .... ....
~-'
-
-
..
...
J""..
III
......
.. ....
...I .... ....
III
...
...I II .JIll . . ...

.if ......... . .
. . ............
OIl
II
III
..
..
II ...... . .
",,-
. . . . . II . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . . II . . . .
.J
............
......... ........
......... ..J
......... ..
. . . . . . . .JIll ...
.....
....
JI
'III.
...
..
JI
.......
......
....
-.}
.JIll.
..
.JIII.
..
II
...:--:
'J
....
..
...........
. . . ..............
.................. ..
. . .......... . .
...........
..................
........
....
.
........
. .......
............
.............
.... ......
............
.........
.............
..
...........
..
.......
.
.........
.. ..........
........... ..
........
..
...........
... ............
................
.
........
......
.... ............
..............
..
........
.I..........
...... ...
...
JII.
JII
......
II
..
..
..
. . . . . . . . . . JIll . .
. . . . . . II . . ...
.... }J
.JIll.
.....
...
h.av
II
II
...............
......
hLt.v
"'
OIl
..
JiJ.
......
..
................ OIl
...... ,
JI II . . . .
..
. . . . II . . . . . . ,
II
.. II . . .
........ . .
.II
. . . . . . . . 'III. ....
II . . . . . .
....
II .... . .
. . . . . . . . . . II
'O
........
..
........
II
II .... III
..
...
..
II
...
... ...
...
...
...
... ... ........ ,
...
~
~
"
OVerlap
(a)
III
III .. III
"""
""""0000I ..
.01
..... .
.. 0000I
, ~ ..01. .... ..
. ..1
'.' , '
(b)
..................
, .......
.
....
..
, ........
.01 .. .
'~ .oIoooo1.J1
, . . . . . II
"
...... J!
",
FIGURE 9.11 Indication of the energy shift of an emitted or absorbed gamma ray due .tQ::':':~:i:i~~
.. ............
the recoil of the nucleus. (a) The situation when the line width is very narrow in compariSoU:}:~~~~
. .......
to the recoil energy; no resonant absorption can then take place under normal. conditio~~i}:~~~~
(b) The situation when the line width is on the same order as the recoil energy; note that}}~~
resonance absorption can now take place and it will be proportional to the convolution Q~{}~
the two line shapes.
.
:,:,:.::):~a
" .. r . . .
,
.,'
.01
""
.......
...... .. .'"
.....
.
....... '"
........
........ ...
......
.....
........
, ,
,,,
",
,
,,,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
.01 .. ...
II ..... .
......
..... ...
~
.01
... .
This is true for atomic systems: here hv ~ 2 eV, and for hydrogen\)~J~~
9
2
9
m c ~ 10 e V; thus x ~ 10- The width of atomic spectra lines; however; })~~~
6
is on the order of A vI v ~ 10- . Thus
.);~~
.................'
" ' .......
, , .. ........
. .......:.01.'"...
"
hv
9
-- 2. ~ 102mc
......
..
......
..........
......
.......
... .
...
.
... . .
...
..
........
.... . ...
, , ,........ . .
, , ,........ ..
, ,
,
, ... , ... ....
,
, .....
.II .... . .III
, , ,. .....
..
. . . . . III
, , ,. . . . . iii
, ,
.... ....
, ,, ,
, ,
... . .
For nuclear gamma rays, hv ~ 104-106 eV; also, in general, nuclear<)I~j

.....
lifetimes are longer than those for atomic systems, so that
\/~i
......
,
8V
...... .. .
....
......
......
..
.....
.....
...........
.......
.......
....
~
,
,,
,
, ,
,,
, .......
,
,
,,
~
,
,
,

,
, ,
,
,
~ 10-10 _ 10- 15
..
..
, ,,
,
,
Thus we see, in contrast to the situation for atomic systems,12 that
hv
,~
2
2mc
.......
.
..
...
..
....
..
....
....
..
....
..
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
10-7
'
,
,
,
,
,

,,,
,
making resonance radiation impossible~

. . :' : }
In the preceding discussion we assumed the that the emitting and absorb-,:'i~~.
ing nuclei were at rest. We could, on the other hand, think of imparting to the :i:~.
absorbing nucleus (by some means) enough velocity in a direction opposite,<:.
to that of the quantunl (Fig. 9.10b) so as to satisfy Eqs. (9.17) and (9~18). ,:;~
,
. ,, ,
,
,
, ,
,
12Por example if t" ~ 10~9 s, then AE ~ 6 x 10-7 eV. Further, nuclear gamma rays)
.
are subject to broadening influences much less than atomic lines.
:':
,
389
For example. if h v ~ 104 e V, and the nucleus has A ~ 100, and we wish
that
hv
c
-=mv
(9.19)
we find for the velocity
3 x 10 10 x lit
V=
100xL09
=3xlcfcm/s.
Such velocities can be obtained in the laboratory by placing the samples on

the rim of a centrifuge and orienting the incoming beam toward one of the
tangents. It then becomes possible to observe nuclear resonant absorption.
Nuclear resonant absorption would also occur if both the emitter and
absorber were so massive that momentum could be balanced with negligible
energy being given to the recoiling system, that is, if the denominator In in
Eq. (9.16) became infinite. Indeed, R. Mossbauer showed in 1958 that for
atoms bound in a crystal lattice, a nucleus does not recoil inctividually13
but the momentum of the nuclear gamma ray is shared by the entire crystal.
This can be understood if we consider that the binding energies of the atoms
in a lattice site are on the order of 10 e V, whereas the recoil energies, gi ven
by Eq. (9.]6), are always less than 1 eV.
Since, however, the nucleus is now part of a larger quantum-mechanical
system, there exists the possibility that the energy available from the deexcitation of the nucleus f3 ---4- Q! might not all be given to the gamma
ray, but might be shared between the gamma ray and the lattice, in the
form of vibrational energy. Lattice vibrations-the so-called emission of
phonons-are a quantized process, and the lowest energy phonon that a
single nucleus can emit has
E=kT,
= en is a characteristic temperature for the crystal, the Debye

temperature. Thus, if the recoil energy of the free nucleus, as given by
Eq. (9.16), is ER < ken, it is not possible for the lattice to become excited
where T
into a vibrational mode, and the total energy of the transition is taken by
131t is c[Jstomary to say that "the nucleus does not always recoil individually," in order
to account for the instances where the nucleus transfers energy to the lattice as explained
in the following paragraph.
:':~:A:A:~:M:.:~.~
~
..fAJ":
-.' .............@
...
9 Sea tt e r i n 9 and Co inc ide nee Ex per i men t s
..............
....
All
..
:.
--m
-........
0
............
-
:.:.:.:.:-:. :~~
...
All
.. ..
II1II All ..
oil
" . . . . . . . . .~11111............
~
MIl
.. ,
............
- -...............
. . . . . . .... ::=
...............
......... "' .... . '
. . . . ....... .. J
...
... . . ..!IiI
. . . . . oII . . . . . . .~
;
..... "' ......
""'.J
.. ..III! . . . . : . - :
. . . . . III!
"' .. ..
........
"' ... fill ..
the gamma ray. The probability of recoilless emission of the gamnia ray- i~HJ~~~~~~]
then given by:>}~{:~~~
........ .......
. . .. '"' "' "' .. :.-:

- - ....... "' ..... ..
- .......
...... "'"' "'.......
....
.
,
......
"'
.......
,
.. .. "' ..... ".I".
- -
. . . . . . .!II "' ... . .
. . . ..II '"' . . . . .
3 ER
=exp ---';2k80
..
, .... ....
(9 20)
..
oil
.......
.!II . . . . . . . . .
~.~
',J
' -.:.: .. : -:.: OIl:..:,,:,,:

--
.....
........ ..
.....
...............
"' "' .... . .
............
..... "'"' .....
.....
- -......
.....
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.
...........
- ......
"' .......
-
JI
............
JI
...
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.......
..
Equation (9.20) holds at absolute zero, and for finite temperatures we<}~~~~~~~~~
. .
:';';::X::
............. ..
may use
. ........
,.
~
....
~ ~ ~ ~
101 . . . . . . .
,.
101 . . . . . . . 1
.. III ... . . . .
. . . III ... II .AI I
.........
0101 . . . .
.. .01 .J .. .
. . . ..001 ..... .
,. . . . .AI .. .
~ ..001 . . . . .
...........
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<-:':':'~';.~A:
(9 21)
... .
~.oIo1
'''",oI.of
, ..001 . . . . .
01 oI.of....""" ....
I ' ..
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...
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.....
...
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. . . . . . .01 .. "'"
...
""" ...
.
'
"
. "'"
. ., .. ,. '" ""....""""""""" ..
.,
,.
"'
,,(
Here 1/i2 = (2rrv/c)2 is the square of the wave number of the emit- ..iitW~~I~~
2
ted gamma ray and {x } is the mean square deviation of the atoms from "N~i~~
their equilibrium position and is proportional to T. As an example, for the .\\~~~~~~~~
of 57Fe
. :.::/::~~~:~
14.
4-keV line,
. .......
........ ..
.,~
.'
ER = 0.002 eV '
aD =
and
..
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III
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...
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..
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...
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..
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. . . II II .. .
, , II ..... ...
, , , II ...... ...
f =-
O
08
e-
= 92%.
. . . II ..... ...
.... II .. ..
II .. ...
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.... II ...... ,
.......... .. .
........
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' . " II ... ...

, , .. II .. ...
"
57
( Pe being
We therefore see that in certain materials

the most suitable) the
Mossbauer conditions are met; recoilless emission and absorption can take
place, and consequently nuclear resonance radiation can be observed.
It has been explained earlier (Eq. (9.19)) that we could compensate for
the recoil of the nucleus by moving the absorber in a direction opposite
to the incoming gamma ray (so as to make the total momentum of the
nucleus-plus-gaInma-ray system zero). It follows then that if the absorption
is recoilless, such motion of the absorber would destroy the resonance
condition. In recoilless emission (absorption) the gamma ray has energy
Ey = h \..10 in the system!J which is at rest with respect to the nucleus; if the
nucleus is moving in the laboratory with a velocity v in the direction of
the gamma ray, the laboratory energy of the gamma ray E~ is given by a
Lorentz transformation
...... . .
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II . . . . ...
. . . II .. ...
,
,
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II ... ...
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..
Ii
-'
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(E y
+ VPy)
l+P
",.,';.,.
= Ey
Jl - f32
Jl vic. For f3 1 we obtain to first order
a.
ll.E
= E~ -
Ey = fJE y
or
II
JI
....
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...
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,,,
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where {3 =
II
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, , ... ...r .. ...
hence
......
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,.
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........... .
, .......... .
..
490K;
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II
9.3 Mllssbauer Effect
391
Thin
abSOrber
Source
\
Detector
Counter
G-D
Scaler
-j
-2 0 1 2
'
Velocity (mm/s)
(al
(b)
Overlap region
-!
00
~il
:5~
ala
Emilledline
.oc
.~
.~
depends on
velocity
source
t
~/~
__~~~____
Absorber
line
(el
FIGURE 9.12 The Mossbauer resonant absorption experimenL (a) Diagrarnmru:ic view
of the e{juipment. (b) The probability for transmission of a gamma ray as a function of the
source (or absorber) velocity when no hyperfine structure is present. (c) The width of the
transmission curve is a combination of the shape of both the source and absorber lines,
which, written as /1\)11) = vic, is the first-order Doppler shift of a wave

emitted (absorbed) by a moving observer (Fig. 9.lOc). To obtain a quantitative estimate we consider again the l4.4-keV line of 57Fe, which has
a lifetime r ~ 10,-7 s and hence /1 v /v = 4.5 x 10- 13 Thus, velocities
on the order of v = c(/1 v/v) ~ 1.5 x 10-2 crnls will be sufficient to
destroy the resonant absorption. Such velocities are easy to achieve and
control in the laboratory. We therefore measure the transmission of the
l4.4-keV gamma ray through an 57Fe absorber as a function of its velocity.
Alternatively we can leave the absorber stationary and move the source.
A possible experimental arrangement, indicated in Fig. 9.12a, consists
of an 57Fe source, an 57Fe absorber that can be moved at a constant velocity,14 and a detector for the l4.4-keV gamma rays; we measure the rate of
transmitted gamma rays. At zero velocity the transmission is low because of
14-rhe velocity, however, is varied in the course of the experirnenL
- - .:.:.:.:.:.:.:.~~.~.
:::::::;~::::::.~~
., '," ..........
.. .. . "" .. ..
..
, , ..........
"
"
392
..
""
JIll . .
... ......... """""""".............

........
""
JIll . . . .
.......
JIll
'."
- .. ..
..
. . ......
. .. ......--. ... 0:
"
......
JIIII . .
resonant absorption; as the velocity of the absorber is increased. howevJ{J!j!j~j~

the resonance is destroyed and the transmission increases, leading to a typi~U)J~~~~~m
cal curve as shown in Fig. 9. 12h. We may think of the incoming gamma rajf}~{:~:~:~
as scanning over the absorption line as a function of the velo.city, and there~)~~J~~~~~~%j
fore the observed absorption is a measure of the convolution of the two lines()~~~~~~~:~~~
pP
9
2
In
thi
"
"
th
allin
adth
f.
-.........
~.~..
as s hown In 19.. .1 c.
s way we trace out
e natur
e WI
or:'<::~::::~::i:::
........ -. .
this nuclear gamma ray, and measure energy deviations of one part in 1013<>~~~~~~~~~~
(v ~ 0.06 mmls). This represents a highly precise measurement and this is~~~~~WJ.~
why the Mossbauer effect is an important tool in many physics applications~<~~~~~~~~~~;
................
.................
...
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................
...........
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..................
*.
.'
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.
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.
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..............
.
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. .. ,. .. .. .. .. ..
I,., ..
01 . . . . . . . . . . ..
.;
9.3.2. The Apparatus and Some Experimental
. . . . . . . . . .I . . . . ..
...... iii . . . .
. . . . . iii "'"
Considerations
.. ..
. . . . .-
. . . . . . . . ..01 . . . . ..
.... iii iii . . . . . . . . .
.............
.
.............
..
.. .. ,. .. .. .. .. ..
. .. . . . x
. . . . . 01 . . . . . ...
...... iii . . . . . . . . .
...
...
.. ...
III ... .. ..
.01
~
.... 01 01
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'
In this laboratory the Mossbauer effect was observed using the 14.4-keV<t~]~~lf~~~~
gamma ray of 57Pe, which follows the decay~ by electron capture, of 57 Co</~j~~~;;;~?:
.......... (see Fig. 9.13). Basically the apparatus required for the experiment consists- ;~(~~~~~~;;;~~~
of (Fig. 9.12) (1) the source (with or without appropriate collimation), (2) <>~~~~~~~~~~
the absorber and a mechanism for moving the absorber or the source at H(~~~~~~~
constant speed~ and (3) the detector for the 14.4-keV gamnla ray. From--->}~:~:~:~:;
Fig. 9.13 we note that 'the 14.4.-keV line of interest will be accompanied ~<}~~~~~~~~;
by a l22-keV gamma ray as well as by a weaker 136-keV line. There is'- -~~{~~~~~~~~~~~:
also a strong background present from the 6.5-keV X-ray of 57Co, wbic~ ::<t~~~~~~~~~
follows the electron capture from the K shell. The source used was I mCi- ~,:~r~~~~~~~~~~
of 57 Co plated and annealed onto an ordinary iron backing. 15
}~I~~~~~t~
The detector is chosen so as to provide good efficiency and discrimina-. -<;{~~~~~~~~~~
........ .
tion for the 14.4-keV gamma ray. A xenon--methane proportional counter, :~~(~~~~~~~(
followed by a single-channel discriminator, was used. In Fig. 9.14, curve (a) -, ir~~~~~~~(
gives the pulse-height spectrum of the gamma rays emitted by the source, -i~)~~~~~r~
while curve (b) gives the same spectrum after the gamma rays have tra- :,:,~,}~~~~~~~~
versed a 0.001 in. absorber. The shaded area represents the "window" :':\~~~~~~~~~
....... .
selected on the discriminator, so that only gamma rays within these energy ::\i~~:~~~~~
. ........
limits were recorded by the scaler.
:{:~~:~~~:
" ".r-..tti.
The absorber in this case is usually a thin steel foil, but it should not .:)};~~~~
exceed 0.001 in., since nonresonant scattering increases so much as to <}~~~~~
smear out the 14~4-keV line. Fllrther~ natural iron contains only 2.170/0 <~~~~~~~~
of 57Fe~ so that poor signal-to-noise ratios result. It is possible, however,<~~i~~~~~
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01
15 Purchased from Nuclear Science and Engineering Co., P.O. Box 1091, Pittsburgh~ PA.:\:~*~:~
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9.3
0.122 M,V
"'-+ - ----ir-
M~$sbaue r
EHeet
393
Ii''''
0.OU37 MeV
.... 1 .10).10 ' s
FJGURE 9.\3
The energy-level diagrunof lhe. S1Fe.nudeu~.
'"
300
!c
~ ""'''''
! '"
~
.0
E
'''''
'"
,,
_ ,-' -
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Chllnllel nu mb er
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flGURE 9.14 Pulse-height spectnnu of the low.energy glUl\llll rays of ~ ' Fe as obtai ned
with a proportional couCiter. The solid eUf\lt has been taken without the absorber in plsee.
wbereas the dllShed one bas bee n taken with the absorber in pluce. The shaded region
indicates the di scriminatOr window used for observing the M!lssb<Uler effect.
to obtain absorber samples enriched in S7Fe, and in the present experiment,

such a foil (of 1 cm 2 area) was used; the 57Fe concentration was 91.2%
and the thickness 1.9 mglcm 2 (approximately 0.0001 in.).
The motion of the absorber can be achieved either by purely mechanical
arrangements, or by a transducer of some type. Examples in the former
---~~.rm
01
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----:. :-:.;. :. :.:m

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FIGURE 9.15 An amplifier circuit capable of driving a speaker coil for use in
Mossbauer experiment.
th~;)t~~m~
.' <:::;~?*:~
.... .j- .......
.1.....-: .
...........
"". .
.......j ......
. .. .. .
. .. . ..
. . -... .. -..
.1'
'
.1' ' .1'
...........1'

- ".I" .1'
. . .. .. . ..
.....................
'~Ii
...... _
~Ii
...
Ii . . . . . . . . .
......... ~
category are a plunger driven by an appropriately shaped cam (logarithmic)IJ~@i~Ij

spiral r = kfJ) or the rim of a wheel rotating about an axis that is not){:~:~t~:~
normal to the surface of the wheel. In all cases of mechanical motion,,::}:::~:::::~
special attention must be paid to decoupling the vibrations of the driving'/I~ft~~~~~1~
motor from the absorber..
}::::::~::::::::
.... ..... _ ... . .
For the present ex.periment, a device of the latter category was chosen,<~)~~~~:~~~~~
namely, a loudspeaker driven by a sawtooth current (see Fig. 9.15). The- <}~~~~~~~~~A
source was mounted on the core of the speaker and the absorber was kept<~~~~~~~~~~~
. . . . . ...
stationary. The driving wavefonn was obtained from the horizontal sweep}}~~~~~~~~
of an oscilloscope after amplification.
.>~~~j~~~~~~~~
............
To calibrate the speaker, a micrometer screw was mounted in a special.~<{:~~~{
........
manner above the speaker. By listening, the experimenter coul~ discem.\?~g~;~~
......... .
when the screw touched the speaker; giving results to within O~003 em :.::):~~~~
out of a maximum travel of 0.2 em. Assuming that the speaker is linear ~i~~
, . ..""'....r
with current~ the calibration shown in Fig. 9 . 16 was obtained. The small':':'<~~?i~:
variation in solid angle with the change of source-detector distance doe~<:::)~~ij
not affect the results obtained. It is also advisable to gate the scalers so <}~J~~
as to count only during the linear part of the motion (and in the desired <}~~i~~i
,' ....~
.........
,;.:.>
:
' .....
..r..
direetion)
...
......
..... .
_ . . . . . . . . Ii................~~
....
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II
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.r'...
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,
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3.5
395
r-----.----~---...._--~--___,
Speaker caJibra~on
0.274 cmll00 mA
0.5
o~--~--~---~--~--~
100
300
200
Current to speaker (rnA)
400
500
FIGURE 9.16 Velocity calibration of the speaker used to provide the motion of the source
in the Mossbauer experiment.
9.3.3. Results and Discussion

In Fig. 9.17 the results obtained by a student are given; the abscissa gives
the velocity of the source in millimeters per second. and the ordinate, the
counting rate at the detector. It is clear that maximum absorption occurs at
zero velocity, in accordance with the hypothesis of recoilless emission (and
absorption) of the gamma ray and the conclusions reached in the previous
sections.
The full-width at half-maximum for the zero-velocity peak as obtained
from Fig. 9.17 is [' app = 0.70 mmls. If the two curves shown in Fig. 9.12c
are assumed to have a Lorentzian shape. then the apparent width ['app can
be related to the true line width r through
rapp/ ['
= 2.00 + tenn correcting for absorber thickness.
Thus we find that
r(14.4 keY)
0.30 mm/s
and
.t..v
=
r
c
~ 0- 12 ,
",1
...... ,. .
',..IIIIJ1'"
......
""'.,..
... ,..,...,..
....... .
....
..........""',...,.
.........
, .........
"'.
........
,.. ..
.. '" ........
....
.... '" ..,.."",,,,
-..
.. ....
'" .....
,..,... .
.. '" ....
.
...........
, ..........
..
........
....
..
"
396
9 Sea tte r i n 9 and Co inc ide nee Ex per i men ts
..
'"
JI.
01
II
..
II
II
JI
"",
AI
01
II
...
01
Ai
II ,..
II
..
.....
II _
AI
. . . . . . . ...
II . . . . ,
II
.......
II
............
........
II
........
........ . .,
........
.......
,
,
..
..
...
II
II
............
"
.....
..
.II
..
..
II
.....
II
..
........
II
...
.............
.......... .
,
"
200
......
..
..
..
II
..
...........
..
...........
.
....
...
.......
.
...........
.
.....
..
....
..
.
..........
........ ...
.............
...........
..
.....
.....
.
...........
............
.. .
.........
........
..........
............. .
..........
............ .
..........
....... ..
............
. .......
.......
........ ..
.........
........
.......
........ ..
.,.........
..........
.........
., .........
......... .
............
......
.---.... ..
...........
......
.---.... ..
............
.....
.---...""'"'"..
.
.........
.......
.......
""....
..
......
.--....
.
........
"'" ...
...........
..
............
.
.
"'" ."'" ..
.,
.. .. "'"'"" .---..----"'"'""""'.......
. .......
............
. . ...----"'" . .
. . ."'" ..----"'" ...
.............
.
............
............
..
.---..... ...
..........
.
..........
.
.................
..
.......... .
.. ... .---.... .
...... ..----.... .
..... .---.... .
.............
. ... ... . ..
...........
.
. .. .... .
........... .
.
. .. ..... .
............
.
.. . ......
.---......
.
..
....
.
.
........ .............. .
I
.....
... .
,
,,
,
,"
........
~ 180
,"
,
,
,,
160
'"
..
,
,
,
,~
,
,~
:::::J
II
........
"
.....
II
...
"
~
~
,~
a
.-
.~E-
...
.....
'"
.....
JI.
JI
,
,-,
,
..
'"
..
..
'"
. . . . III .. '" '"

JI.
III 01 II
..
..... "",.""
'JIM ..
]I
.. .aI . . .
. . . . "'"
..
II . . .
...
...aI . . . .
"
II
140
"I
...... ~
. . . . . "'" II
lD
c:
120
e
t-
..
. . . . . . . .;oj "'"
. . . . . . .;oj . . . ..
100
" ..
"...
______
_ _ _ _ _ _- L_ _ _ _ _ _
4
6
Velocity (m.mls)
10
.Jj . .
.Jj
01 . . . . . . . . .
..Jj
. . . . ..
. . . . .Jj. . . . . . . . .
"...Jj
.Jj...
. . . . . . . . . . . . 01
01 .. ..----. . . . .
______L -_ _ _ _ _ _
..
. . . . . . . .;oj . . . . . .
.. .Jj ..----...
...
. . . . . .Jj . . . . . . .
80
.. .Jj
...... ,
....
... . . . J
.Jj
..... ,
.Jj
..... J
... ...
... ...
...
" ~
"
...
.. . . . J
. . . . . . . . . . . . .Jj
. . . . . .---. . .Jj 01';
~ 01 01 .. .. .. ..
" 01 . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
. . . . .Jj..
.Jj . . . .
. . . . 01 .Jj . . . . . . . . . ,
~ 01 . . .
.. 01 ..
" 01 .. : . : ...
"J
FIGURE 9.17 Results obtained for the Mossbauer effect of 57Fe using a 57Co source on .<:}~~~~~:::~:~~~
ordinary iron backing" and an enriched 57Fe absorber.
. ...........
}}]~;~~~~~~~:
" ..
............. "" .. .. ..
...........
which is in fair
10
-13
...
.01 . . . .
.. .. ..
01 . . . .
. . . . ..
01 . . . .
..............
. ........ ........... ..
.....
. . . . ..
.......... "" .. .. ..
............
. ................
.
. . .....0.... ...
16
agreenlent
01 . . . .
01 .....
..
01 . . . .
. . . . ..
. . . . ..
.. ... ..
~
~
. . . . .Jj..
. . "'" . .
with the accepted value of 6.vjv = <~}~~~~~~~~~~
:-:-:.:.:.:.z.:.::
.:.r'. :.:.:
.......
_........
..
.... .
to
....
.11
....
......... - -...............JIi. ...
. . . . . . . JIi . . . .~ . . . . . .
. . . _ . . . .. -. . . . . . JIi ..
It is clear that in Fig. 9.17, apart from the zero-velocity peak, there a1so<~t~~~~~t~~~~~j
appear subsidiary peaks at v = 2.5,5.5, and possibly also 7.5 mmls. What)\~~~~~~~~~~~i~
is the origin of these peaks, so reminiscent of the hyperfine structure of\}}~~~~~~~
atomic spectral lines ?
.;:~::~t~~~w.~~~~~
Indeed this structure of the Mossbauer line is greatly dependent on th(::::{j~~~:~j~j
. . . . . . . JIi
JIi
..
~. . . . .
In natural iron, there exist strong magnetic fields at the site of the nuclei; a~~>~~~~~~*~~~~
:</~~~~~~~m:~~
The probability for Interactlon IS gIven by
........~ .
....".
..............~;:~
.................~
the Mossbauer absorption cross section = 1.5 x 10- 18 cm2~ f = probability for recoille$.$::::~~~~::~:::
absorption, approx~tely I, and a concentration of the resonantly absorbing nuclef1#I~r~:~
the sample, a~proX1matelY 1. ~ence: for ~e present case P ~ 3D!
:<:}~:~:~:ii~
17 See Secnon 6.2 for a detru.led diSCUSSion of the Zeeman effect.
.
.~::::::~;:::::..
.. .....
..... ....
.........
..........
. .... ..
.........
..
.
.
. .......
........
......... .. .
.........
........
...........
II ..
........ .
II .. .
. . . . . . II
.. . . . II
.. II
. . . . II
II
....... .
. ... .
.......
....... . .
. . . . . II
. ....... II.. II
II ..
- II
II .II
. . . . . II ..
" .... II ..
.. - II ..
.. II ..
. . . . . II ..
" . . . II ..
.. .. II ..
........ .
- . .
- ..........
397
-312
.' g,
",
Excited
state
'"
-112
3- _---,_ _ _ ,&.~-
''':- -+
2'
'01:' ....
+112
"
"
Ground
state
1- _ _!....-_ _ < : -
+312
+1/2
......... go
...
2'
(a)
112
(b)
FIGURE 9.18 Hyperfine structure splitting of the nuclear energy levels of 57pe. (a) When
stainless steel is used. the levels are not split (b) In ordinary iron, however, both levels are
split, giving rise to a hyperfine srructure with six componenlS.
and the ground state of 57Fe. and consequently the 14.4-keV line has six
hyperfine structure components. Figure 9.18a shows the same levels for
stainless steel, where no splitting occurs.
If both the source and absorber are not split, then clearly only a single
peak will be observed, as in Fig. 9.12b. If the source is not split, but the
absorber is, then as a function of velocity we will "scan" with the single line
over the hyperfine structure pattern of the absorber. In this case there is no
absorption at zero velocity (see Fig. 9.19a). Finally, if both the source and
absorber are split., a complicated pattern emerges, depending on the degree
of overlap of the individual components as the two hyperfine stlucture
patterns are shifted one over the other; however, maximum absorption
occurs at zero velocity (see Fig. 9.19b).
In the experiment that yielded the data of Fig. 9.17, both the source and
the absorber were split, so that a pattern of the type shown in Fig. 9.19b
was obtained. Table 9.2 gives the relative intensities and known positions
of the peaks as well as the positions obtainable from the results of Fig. 9.17.
The apparent discrepancies in tbe known and observed positions are due
in part to a small velocity catibration error. Materials like stainless steel,
potassium ferrocyanide, sources made by diffusing 57 Co into chromium
metal, do not exhibit structure in the 14.4-keV line and give simple patterns.
In Table 9.3 we summarize some of the numerical values pertinent to the
Mossbauer effect in 57Fe.
- .......
............
......_..-z.,. . ..... . . . .. . . . - . . . . . .. . . . - ............ -.
- ............ -.
- . . . . .. . . . .............
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
. -...
- ...............
- - .............
. . .. .. ...... .. .. --.
..............
- . . . . . .... . . -.
- .. .. .... ..........
. . Z. . ---.
................... ...... .. ......
.. --.
................ ..... . . ....
............ .
. . . . . .... . . ..
-.~
.II
.......... ~
.II
......... _
-~
_
..
111111 . . . . .
.II
....... _
~
.. .. .. _
.II
.II
............
.II . . ~ I11III I11III . . _
398
I11III
..
..
..
.II . . . . . . . . . . ~
.II
. . . . . . . I11III _
~
....
.II
.II
..
I11III . . . . .
..
..
..
..
. . . . . . . . I11III . . . . ~
I
I
I/)
.......
E
(/l
1=
"
l-
1-
+-'
--
Q)
C)
t:
m
..c
l"-
n
-
I
I U
"
f-
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
..
.II
..
....
..
..
..
.II
...........
..
.II
..........
.II
..
..
..
..
..
.II
..
..
..
..
..
.II
.....
.II
......
..
...
~
.II
....
..
..
.II
..
....
..
...
"'
...
...
.II
..
..
....
.II
..
..
..
...
.II
..
...
-
-
.II
..
.II
..
....
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.II
...
....
..
..
..
.II
.~
~~~-~
'.~.~"~~-~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~
~
~
~
II
-4
-6
~-~-.
~~~-.
.~
-"~
...
'"
..
.......
I
.........
I
.
.
...... .
l
I
I
....
I
I
I
I
, I
I,
.J
.
2
468
-2
0
2
4
6
o
10
..
.. .
Velocity (mmlsec)
Velocity (mm/sec)
. ... ..
....
.
(b)
(a)
. . . . . . . . .
The expected pattern of the Mossbauer line when splitting of the levels take:~iiiW~~~~@'@'~~~:
I
'
1 1 r"
4 ~
6 l8 r-10
12
\..J
..
.... ........... . ...................

.. ........
..
- ........ . . .....
.... -- ..
.
.
.
.
.....
- .
.
.
..... . ..... .
- - . .. ... - ...... .....
..... - .. .. .. .. .
-.............. . ..... . . . .. . . .
..........
. .... ... ..........
..... ......
...............
.
.
...... . ..........
- .............. . ....................
..
..
...
...... . .
....... . .........
.. .. .........
... ...
.. .. .. . . .. .. .. .... .
.. .. - . . .. .. ..
.
.
.
....
. . . - .....
0-
..
l-
..
ctS
,.
"
....
.II
I
I
I
c:o
-en
...........
.............
...........
...........
..........
............
...........
.........
.............
FIGURE 9.19
place. (a) Either the source or absorber is split; note that the Mossbauer 'line is split intif::::::~~~f.$.~~~:
six components and no absorption takes place for zero velocity. (b) When both source ~d~{~~~~~~fif:~~~:
. . .. ..
. ...
absorber are split a complicated pattern results with maximum absorption at zero velocitY~(:}~~~:*~~~~:
. . .-~m~"
. . . .. ...
.......
...... . x.
....
. . . .-..
....X
. .. .
-~m
..
....
.
..
.
..
.....
.
x
...
.
TABLE 9.2 Position and Amplitude of Mossbauer Peaks in 57 Pe.lncluding
....
......
~.*.~.
~ ......
III
III
'",,"
"""
II ,
"" i
Amplitude
"'II
(mm/s)
,
.1' "
7
4
1.5
2.5
3
2
2-3
4
5
6
!
,n,
Observed position
(mmls)
"I' ,
"'!!"
... I ' i L
III
",
..
2.2
2.75
III
~
III
III
"'I!!
ELL' iii i
....
..
~
, , " II"
~.
~~
~~~%~~~~
~~~
~~~.~~~~~%~~~~
~~~~
-00
..~.
~
. ...... . . m".
-. . ill
.-... .. m...
~ ~ ~m
- ::::::~:%W:
. ..
- . .. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
- .. . .
-: :::::~:::~:::::::~m~:~~
.. . .
- ::::::::~::::::~~ffi~m~::~
~~~
-.~....
. . . .-~~.~~~~@~~
.
.
- . .
::::::::::::::~:.
- . ...
. . ~%~
.
- ....
.
.
.
...
- ......... ..
.. .... .
~
~ '.~-~
~~-~~~~@.~
~
~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~
~ ~.~~
~ ~ ~
--
~~@~~~~
.~
~~~..
~.-%
~~
-..
. .. .. .. .. ....
.
.
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . . .. . .
.
..... .
............... . ... ........
......... .......
..
..
....
.
.
... .....
.
.
.
..
.
. ........ ....
..... .
.
....
......
.. . ....
.
..... .
.
................ ......
.
....
.......... - ...
. .......
......
.. .. ... .. -. .... ...
......
..
......
.
.
.
.
. ..
.
.
.
.
.
.... . . .
.
. .. -. ..-... .....
.
.....
.
.
.
....... .
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
... -. .
.
.................
ffi
. ..... ...- ...
.
.
......
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
..
.
.
...
.. ..
.
......
.
.
.
.
....... ..
..
::::::::;;~~:Wj:
.......
.. .. -.... ...
.
.
....
.
.
..
.
.
.
x
........
.
.
.
..
.......
.
....
.
......- ...
.
.
.
......
.
...
....... .....
.
....
.
......
.......
. ..
......
.
,.
.
.
.
. . .....
. ...
~~-~~
III
III
~
III
~~~
~
.. . .. ....... ..00.
-.~~~
~ ~
~ ~
~ ~m
~~
~ ~
~
~
~
~~
~
IF
~.~~~~~%~-~~
2
19
15 x 10- cm
~~
~~
f = 0.80
~-.
~.
--........ . .. . ..
....... % ..
- ....
....... -. ..
~
"
~~*.-
,am,
~x
iL.
~~.~~
0.19 x 10- 2 eV
2_17%
~~.
~~~
ER
eO =490K
GO =
~~~z
~ ~ ~
~
= ely = 15
= 1.4 x 10-7 s
13
fl.v/v = 3 x 10-
Debye temperature (Mossbauer)

Probability for recoilless transition
at room temperature
Cross section for resonant absorption
Natura1 abundance of 57pe
~.~~
= 14.4 x 103 eV
~x
~~~~%~~.
~ ~
~~ ~ ~
'.'~~
RecoiJ energy of free nucleus
~ ~%
,~
........
-......... ...
. ...
....
..
-
~~
~.
~~~z
.'LLlL"
~~ ~"0
~
a
t
"!E.
~.-.~~*-.
~ ~
~ ~
7.6 (1)
Ey
~~~~~z
5.5
Lifetime
Relative width
~*
Transition energy
Internal conversion coefficient
L a , Ii iL
~~
I'", . . .
"'h' ,
. . ..
III . . . . . . .
Some Numerical Values Pertinent to the 57 Fe Mossbauer Line
Ei Ii ,
~ ~
TABLE 9.3
4.3
6
8
10
!
0
1
III
~~~~
Position
Peak
I'",,'.
.........--.. ..... *.. ...

-..
the Experimental Results

Lin Ii ,
...... . x.. .
....... .-. . .
..... . .-...
....
.....
... .. . ..-. .... ---.
- . ...
....
:.:.:.:.:.:.:~~%~
........ .% -.
~~:~:
.. . .. .
.... ..-.
.
......
. . . .
. ....
.
- . . .. .. .
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.
.
- .... .
~~~~-~~~~m
~~~~
............
-.....
*.r
...
- - .....
. . -.
- . . .
.... .
....
- - .. . . .
.......-. %..
-
Ei
~...
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
...................-~:-:-:~
_._.......... ~=========::::
~
9.4 Detection of Cosmic Rays
399
A very complete description of the Mossbauer effect, including reprints

of the most important papers, will be found in H. Frauenfelder's The
Mossbauer Effect (w. A. Benjamin, New York 1962); this reference should
be fully adequate until the student finds it necessary to consult the current
literature.
9.4. DETECTION OF COSMIC RAYS

9.4.1. Flux, Composition, and Detection of Cosmic Rays
The earth is continuously bombarded by a flux of high-energy particles
that originate outside of the solar system. These are mainly protons but the
primary cosmic ray flux also contains a fraction oflight nuclei. When these
particles reach the earth's atmosphere they cause nuclear interactions so
that at sea level we observe only the final products of the nuclear cascade. is
The interaction of the primary protons with the oxygen and nitrogen
nuclei of the atmosphere results in the production of secondaries including
unstable particles such as n mesons, K mesons, and others. These in
turn decay by the weak interaction into lighter particles, including muons,
electrons, and neutrinos. Electrons and high-energy y-rays also interact
rapidly, giving rise to electromagnetic showers as discussed in Section
8.2.6. Since the earth's atmosphere is equivalent to ten nuclear interaction
lengths. all strongly interacting particles are absorbed before reaching sea
level. I9 What is observed (at sea level) is a "hard component" consisting
of f.L (muons) and a "soft component" consisting of e and low-energy
y-rays.
The total flux per unit solid angle around the vertical. crossing unit
horizontal area is
(9.22a)
where 75% of the flux is in the hard component The angular distribution
is approximately cos 2 () (with B = 0 at the zenith). It is also useful to know
18 A goad reference an cosmic rays in general can be foond online from the Particle Data
Group at http://pdg.lbl.gov in the "Reviews" section under" Astrophysics and Cosmology,"
19Some of these unstable particles were first observed and studied at high mountain
altitudes or by baloon-bome detectors. Today such sobnuclear particles are produced profusely by particle accelerators. but cosmic rays are still used for the study of the very highest
energies.
........-.-.-.-'.I''.I'f@
......... ..
. . ... . ..'.I'.~
..
Jt
..
.JI
JI
..
..
....
..
..
..
.<{:~.~
400
JI
.....
JIll . .
....
. .:..:... ~
:-:-~.~-:~:=*~..:
:.:Jt:.~
Pulse from PMT

(must be cont~ined with th~ gate)
lnvertar
Dynode
1SSS'-"'~"-~s.\'Sl ~s.'SS~D=2~=--t------..r--------,.
Anode
-'w.
Dlscrim- Coinci- Discriminator

inator dance
1-
Anode
".
"~mi
::::::::~:::~"~Wh":
t
Set to generate
II
.. :-:-:.:-:.~~~~%
........... :--.-:'...
.:.:.:.=.:a;..:~:.... ~:.
. ::::::::::::~~.~:
................
....
.......
. . .........
-.. ......X;.........- -
...................... ......... W
.-.......
. m.. ...-.....
...
.or
....... .......m~
. ..........
...................
""'.... ::::2."
..
.. ....
........
..........
...........
........ ... . ... ..ill-
.
..
..
. . . . .. . .. ..
.. ::::::=::::~~:
. ... . .......~.....:~
..........
.
......
.....
.. .........til.........
.......
.... ......
.... . ......
isions fd~::::::~~~w.~:~
~' .. ....XX
~ are alsoo:.}~::~~:::=-k.:~:
........
"' ...or ....
~-
'
... .t'~.._-.
......... re::
x: .._.
..........
~
. . . . . . . . . . .
Cosmic
ray
w.~
...........
" ' . . . . . . .. .
................
'.
J.
. . . . . . .:;.-.:.:.. ..
%.~
.. "' .r'
........
w.
.
.
.
.
.
.............
.
...
.-_.
......
"'.... .. X ....
...........
. . til.... .... ... .
............................ ......%--.
.. ..
.
A. ...
.
.........." '. . . . . %.-.
.
...
...... . . . .X
..JII. ..
...
.II!
%~
..
..
Jt
Jt
~...
.II!
.......
Jt
..II
...
....
..
III
..
.. . . . .
...
...
..
..
..
_%. .
....
.. . . . .
.. ..
..
',. .. ... . . .-...... ... . ...

..........
. . . ... . X. ..-.
............
.. .... ......... . :::::
...............
. "X.... .
Jt
Jt
...
. . ...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . )III
...
...
...
..
1II1II
....
%.~
..
...
....
...
...
....
...
..
50 msec
'-.~.'.I'%
...
......
~:
....
..
..
..
. . . . . . 0I.
1II1II
.. ..
.......
",
;
. . . . . . . '" .I..
..i
. . . . .or """
~ ... .or .....

~ .or ..... ,
;
..... ...0'"
.......
. .'%!......
.
.
.
..
.
..
.........
. . .. .. "" .....
.
..
'........"'. . x
~ ~ ... .or .....* ,
.........."''" ..
...
...."....
.
.
X;
.
.
.
..
.
. .. .... ... .....
.~
.AA
..
::~::WJ%~
gate
....
. . . . . 001 ..
Height of the
stretched pulses - - - t - -.........
proportional to area
of scintiiJator pulse
.":: ,<::::. . . .". . .m

.. .. ......
. -*.
.
...........
m
. ..
..
of
"'.....
..
.111
. . . . . . -JJ1
:
.~
..
...........
...........
. . .. .. ... ....:,.:X"
........
'.
PHA
..
....
.JI
... ... ... M. ~

. . . . . . .II! . . 1II1II .
..
1 ~sec
...
........,50 nsec gate

pulse
"..................
"... . . x:*.
.
""........
.............
....z
..
FIGURE 9~20 Typical1ayout of a cosnric ray telescope and electronics. Pro'

measuring the pulse height in one of the counters (not discussed in. the text
shown.
................
......*
. x::-: ...
...
...
......
..
.....
A ....
A......
.......~
' A.A .....
A ..........
....
..... _
.....
z:... ....
..........
.......
........A_.,.
..... z
A ...

A
".A
.... ~
"A
.......
"" ... AX
.........
x ...
z.
..... A
..... A
...
....... ;
"
..
"
....
..
...
....
..
....
that the total flux crossing unit horizontal area is
.. .....
l::::~:::~;::::::=
,"
;. " " "
. ').. ",," .................~ ...... .
......... .. .
(9 .22b ............
**... .
X
.. _..
"" ......... :,..
....."",,
.......
.
d
A
81 e\-:::..:..::Xz.:.:.
...
2.4 x l02/ m2- s.
..
. A"
A............
""
.......
.19h
"
..
....
..
"A" ..
"
l
." ...:"""" ....A . . . . . . .
..
X~
..... :"A
: .
,.1"" .......
'.,If....
A""
A" ....
A
...
.. A....
A
"
...
.... . . .
A." . . . . . .
._
:i<:......
...
" .... AA X
....
%
..
"
.. A
......
"
"".A~"
..
",," .......A......
.. "."".A ....
.. A
"-A
~ ..
lcidenc'e::::;:::;:::~:::=
..: . .
r" .......... ~..~ ..
X
c<;::::::-=:::*:=
" . ..... .. ..
"
.. A
......
ove th"""
X
.' """....". .... .....X:
.. ...
..
-:.:.:
le coun..""
".............
.........
. ...... '.1"x......
.............
::::::::;~::%:::
'........
*y,..:....
angulaI:
..
.
. . ..
........ ... ..
:" "
........
I . . . . ....
..
.......
".""
" "
....
"A
...... A
. . . . . . ..
".~:-:-:.:.;.:
....
:--~
lvantage}{::~:::*::
Y/..
".",'tt <-:.~.:.:.:.%.~
.... ......X:..
f a tllii .I'................
.
. . .... .. ...
... . ...................
~ , but lSl:::::::~::..0..........
....... .........7....-......... .
.
,
...
x
.
.
:;X:
)b servO es>:::;=:
.........
. '" ...
.%
. ......
.................
...
i.:t;< : : .;;-::.z:
he Sam
~:~:: ~:::::~:..:..:::~
. ...........
w;
countet/::=:::==m
... ... .m0~
~.r~.
'" ..r .. .... ""

"'
~.
:.....' ...'""'... ......**'.-.

....... ...m~...
.....
. . "m"
.
. . .'"......... ....
, ..... . "X. ...
.....
.....
. . ."'.......
...........
~
. . . . . . . oM
The mean energy of the muons is 2 GeV and falls off on the b
as E- 2
Cosmic ray muons can be easily detected by measuring the COil

rate between two scintillation counters placed vertically one al
other as shown in Fig. 9.20. By increasing the distance between tJ
ters one can restrict the solid angle acceptance and also study the
distribution of the flux. Plastic scintillation counters have the a(
of large area so that the counting rate can be several per second. .
counter is placed in coincidence with the two-counter telescop
located physically in a different location (as in Fig. 9.21) one still
coincidences,,20 These occur because several cosmic rays arrive at
time over the area covered by the telescope and the third "roving'~
..
,.~.
.r'~.:"-
lave beeriC~:~~:m.~.fi;
. ......
'" ".
.. .
'. '..J'..
.....
::::~::::~:'-:Z:*
. .......
...
.:.:.:.:.:.~ ~~~
... .
.:::~::::::~j:~
........ "'..... ~:
:::::::;::,,:,:Z~~
..... "'7'
.:::::::::~~~
::::::::::~:.:~.
.. .....
"...
..
......
" .. _........
..
"_
~
wi'
20These are true coincidences after any accidental effects (Section 9.5.1)
subtracted.
FIGURE 9.21
401
Arrangement of counters for measuring cosmic ray air showers (top view).
Namely a "shower" of cosmic rays occurred. One finds that the rate for
such showers is 11300 of the telescope rate, given a typical counter area of
0.2 m2 and a displacement of 3 m.
We will describe an experiment in which cosmic tay muons are also
detected by simply using a 5-gal tank of liquid scintillator, viewed by a
2-in. photomultiplier tube. Muons traversing the tank give a large signal
so that it is possible to use the singles rate., without the need to form
coincidences. However, the PMT high voltage and the discriminator must
be set carefully. The dimensions of the tank are d = 28 cm diameter and
h 35 cm heigbt from which we can estimate an effective horizontal area
of2 x [rr(d/2)2] "" 0.12 m 2. The singles rate is of order 251s, in reasonable
agreement with Eq. (9.22b).
9.4.2. Time of Arrival of Random Events

The arrival of cosmic rays is a random process,21 so we expect it to follow
the distributions discussed in Chapter 10. In particular when the expected
number of events in a given time interval is small, the observed number
should obey the Poisson distribution. Let r be the average event rate,
namely the average number of events per unit time. Then the probability
of observing n events in the time interval t is
(rt)ne-rt
Pen,!) = - - -
n!
(9.23)
From Eq. (9.23) we recover the differential probability for an event (n
= 1)
to occur in the differential interval dt. Since (dt -+ 0), Eq. (9.23) reads
dP
P(1, dt)
=r
dt.
21This is of course also true for the decay of radioactive nuclei.
(9.24a)
- :::::::::::::~::::-~m~
........ y/..
::::
.I'
-:.:.:.:.:-:-:.~~
.. ... ..
"~."'''JIII''

.. III .. ..
............
~ .. JOt . .
... .. .. III
402
..
.. ..
. .
-
9 S catte ring an d Caine id e nee Expe riments
. . . . . . . III
Ii JIi AI ..
Ii III ...
_:.:.>:-:
.
.
:.ti:..~
............
. . . . . . Ii ... III
JI
~'
~,
.....
..&...
'......
....... :.:-;op ...

. . . . . . Ii .....~0
-rt
,-J
Ii .. ..
.....
....... W=--=.
......
~~
,w;.:
JI
...
...
....
..
~::0
.!.
We can test this proposition by measuring the distribution of the tim~::::!~~~~iW

between the arrival of adjacent events. A time interval. t between events i~}1%t$~
at the time t
(10
the dIfferenual. dt) .. Thus the .dis.tribution 15 g1ven by thlf\<I~$.~

d
P
q 1 (t) -- d' t
...................~'l~~./..~'
....... _
= re- rt
iii . .;.--,..-:.._
(9 25~;::?~~~~:::.}.::~
. i<=:~:;:~~..m;:::-~::~
m=l
JI
..
..
...
..
.---
.-::::::::::::~~..-*..:~
......... , . ' .....~~.'.i'
time intervals t between adjacent events are much more probable ~~t:~:~:~~~~m~~
longer ones.}t~~~~~~~
23
(rt )m-l e- rt
--"'"
-:<'>:-:':"~"#jf:....
. ......
. . . . . . . ..:.... ..
If
~.I':
""...
,;i . . . .
....
Of course one could also test Eq. (9.23) directly by measuring how ofteWJjjj~jj~
one, two, etc., events are found within a fixed interval t. However, me~~~~~t~~~~w.~~~
here, 18 by far more pracllcal and efficIent.
}::::}::~:~~:~::
Data are acq~ired by reco~g the time of arriv~ of every muon. ~N~]m@
computer ~le. Stn~e the mean bme be~een C?unts 1S "-'40 ms, a prec1SlO$I~~~@~~~:
of 0.1 IDS 18 suffiCIent and can be e~slly pr~vld~d by the computer ~loc'H<~~~~w~~~~
The file can then be analyzed by sorting the tIme Intervals between adJaceq~:}~:~~:~~~
pulses (m = 1) in time bins of 0.8 ms width. The same data are next an~i~tJ~:W:~~~~
lyzed by sorting the intervals for different values of m in cOITespondinglYH}ijmjj~
longer time bins.
. .)~:~~~~~~~w.~~~:
1~ F1g. 9.23, and for m = l?O
.
t
."
+ dt.
10
Flg. 9.24. One ~otes how the distribW)\~~~~
::::::::::::~~
..-:<-:-:.:.....~..~.:
See W. Bothe, Phys. Zelt. 37, 520 (l936).<~~

-:<-:.:,~
..=;
". , ... ~
~.;
:~:~:~~~;~~:.~.~:r:~;
. ..
....
. .. .
~
""~
. . . . ""
<II
..
. . . . "" ..
..
.. 01
.. 01
. . .. ...
::::::::~~=m.
..... """" ...
. Wj='.
..
.. .. .. ..
.. ...
::::=:~:~~.
.. 01
: 01
403
700
600
t1l.=35.00 ms
500
>.
<> 400
t=
OJ
:::l
300
200
100
0.02
0.04
O.OS
0.06
0.12
0.1
ArrIval time (s)
FIGURE 9.22 Distribution of the time between the arrival of two cosmic ray counts. The
fil is the Poisson distribution for m = 1.
400
.6:.. ....
....... .. ..
.....--.
~
~~.
350
300
250
t=
Q)
:::l
a:::r
~
LL.
200
150
100
50
"'>.
...'" -.
.- ,....."
.
.
"'7
."
1.:-..;:
0.05
FIGURE 9.23
...-.
1).....
0.1
0.15
Tlme Interval (s)
As described in the legend
to
0.2
Fig. 9.22 but for m
= 3.
- --,.ili-~
.....
-JIll......
..
~
I".'".."
"~.r,
. . . . . . . JIll..
III JIll..
........
......
........... III
. . . .......~~
....
JIll JIll
III JIll
. .. . III IIIJIllJill... .
-....
..
-
404
9 Scatte ring an d Coincid e nee Experim ents
....
JIll
JIll
III
..
III .. ..
~w
III
. . . . JIll III .-
III
:- :}:::::;:;:;:. MWi,
-
III JIll
..II
-......
. ......... ..
. ...
. . . III .A III...JIll... .
-.~
.I'"
-mx:m
- ............. WfiJ':
1600~----~----~----~----~~----~--~-'
III
..II
j'.
III
...
JtJ
III ..
III .. ..
III .. ..
JIll
III
..
-..........
... .. . ..
.....
...... .. ..
- ............
. ........
....... ,. ....
,. - ............
..
- ......... ,. . .
. . . . III ... ..

... III ... ..
.... JIll .. ..
.,.,
~
~
1400
1200
~ 1000
c
III .AI ..
III .. ..
...
...
. . . . III
..
.. .. JIll ..
. . . . . . . . . JIll
_ . . . . . . . ..
.......... .
.. III .. ..
.. III .. ....
... JIll .... . .
III .. .. ..
...
..
............
.
.
.
...
..
. . ... ... ...... .....
- ........
........... ..
- , ' . . . . . . . . . . . .A ........~
--
. . . . . . III .. ..
III .. ..
- .........
~
800
C"
~
LL
. . . . . . . JIll .AI
III
600
400
200
o '--__-'-__
a
1
--L_......II
...
m
. ..-.m
...........
. m
..........-....w..
:-;.. . . . ..
.
'::.....
. . . . .m..:
..
.
...... _. m
.... ...........
...... ....
... ....11..........
I
I
II
..
..
...
..
:-~:~~m.r
.........
... .. rIfi"I~
.:.:.:.:.;.:.~::~~
::::::~:~~m~
.. ..
..
......... " ~.
. . . . . III
..
.':............
-:::~'=m~'
.............
. .. . ... . ..
' ........... .......m'..
.. . .
...... ....
"
:':-:-:':'~'~@=
:<;:}:~=:fW
..........
.....
~~
'.~.
FIGURE 9.24 As described in the legend to Fig. 9.22 but for m = 100. Note that
distribution is centered at a mean time t ~ 3.56 S, where t = (m - l)/r ~ lOOlr.
th~f~ti~t~j~
.::)t~~~~tl~
.' ........,...m:=%..
'.. -:~z
..... .
,
..01 ..01
, .. ..
JtI",
~:::'
, ,
100 events is much more "stable" (relative to its mean value) than betw~i!iii~~
every second event. As can be seen from Eq. (9624) the distributions
fOi{{~~~~~~~
.
.." .. ~%.
m > 1 have a maximum (dqm/dt
= 0) at
\(~~~~~~~
'
m-l
..
:.;.:.:.:.~~.:~
:.:~:.:.:~~.~.:
....
:-:-:'
:
:-:
--:-:
......
:--:.
........
...
.......
(9.27) ...........
..........
.... ....
~
= .,. .- - .
y/.~.
.,
:--:~
...
,
.X
.
.
. .. xI
...
...
...
.. . . .
.-.
Thus, from the location of the peak in the distribution we can obtain the<}~~~~:f~~~
I
average rate. We find that for the data shown in Figs. 9.23, and 9.24
"..
~
tmax
= 0.073 s,
,~
,
3.56 s,
r = 2765
- 27.7
/s
Is.
~.
_<)~~~~~~~
......
. . ...z
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .. .. .. . ..
..........
.
.............
...........
............
. ... . .... ..
~
m = 3,
m = 100,
,
,
I
JI
,,
....
...
.......
..
..
..
. ........... . .
...........
..........
.
.........
.
...........
..
..........
.
.......... ..
........
.............
...
JI
...
JI
,, ,
,
,
.,,
... III .. ..
. . . . . . . ..
... III .. .. ..
. . . . . . . ..
.......... .
.. III .. ..
Furthennore, a fit to the exponential for m = 1 (see Fig. 9.22) yields((~~~~~:~~~

2
tile ~ 3.50 X 10- s, or r = 28.6/s in agreement with the average rate./JM
,
9.4.3. Measurement of the Mean Life of the Muon

electro~
.... .
... . . . . . )11.
....... .
...::::;.
..........
.. ."::,.:.
*. ........--..,'
.......
.........,.. ..
, ' ..
, ,
, , ..
,
, ,'
, ~
,'
..
,
,
,
The muon is not stable but decays- into an

..
.
antineutnno:
........ .
.. ....
. .....
'
.......
:=<.
..
',. ....
.. ................:=<...
.
.... ..............
, ... :,J-Ji ..
....... . ...
, .. .............
',~
,
~.
~.
' .... ..
, , ......
',
.
a neutnno, and an:,::;::::::::;::
..... "F.."
",,,...............x
.*............
",".. ........ . . .::?:..,','',..........n.*. . .
..
, , ......
, ..
......
,"
.1'.
J.L
, , .. .. ~.
. . . ~ol
,........
,
,
..
..
......
..... .
(9.28) ,::?~~~~
........
...
....
.....
. .. .
. ,....
.
".. ..
..
:. ..."":::=
"
,', ......
~
.I'
,,
j
......
..
','
, '.
, ' JI ...~.
"
..01
~.
" ',-,,,,';;9
.......%'.1'
..
,
.. III.
III . . . . .
..
, ... '"I';t'.
~. ~ .~
, ,:;:~:~ill~
'"~h
,:::;:;mre:
..
. :-:
.:......:.~'.x:
'
'
405
The mean life, or lifetime, (Le., the inverse of the decay rate) for this
process is of order 2.2 ~s, and thus the decay is easily detectable for muons
at rest. The neutrinos are not observable but the electron (or positron)24
is energetic enough to give a clear signal of the decay. The mass of the
muon is
miL
= 105.65 MeV /r?,
approximately 200 times the electron mass. The maximum energy of

the electron occurs when the two neutrinos recoil against it as shown in
Fig. 9.25a. This corresponds, in the rest frame of the muon, to
Ee(max) :::
'12 mJ.l.c2 = 53 MeV.
The energy spectrum of the electrons from muon decay is shown in

Fig.9.25b.
The long lifetime for muon decay indicates that the decay does not proceed through the strong (nuclear) interaction but rather through the weak
interaction responsible for the ",8-decay" of nuclei. However, the process
ofEq. (9.28) is very important because it involves onJy leptons (no strongly
interacting particles participate) and thus can be used unambiguously to
e
(a)
......f - - - - -
1.18
till
_ _
(b)
dN.
dE
ml'c2
-2-=53 MeV
25
Endpoint
50 MeV
FIGURE 9.25 (a) Configuration of the particles in J.I.-decay for obtaining the maximum
electron energy. (b) The energy spectrum of the eleclrons from JL-decay.
24To save words we wiU speak only of the eJectron even though we mean either
e- or e+.
................ -.....
- -- ~BW
-
. . . . III _
..
... III III . . . .
. . . . . . . . III . . . .
... ~ III ~ . .
-
. .
-
...
muon 1S gwen by
1:
-....... .........-..... .... ::x.
_--:.:.:.x.:.~.:~.
- . . . . ... ... ... . . .
.
J(
Precise measurements of the muon mean life yield
.. .
~~ ~
...
....
..
..
..
_:<.:.:-:.:..
. .. .
GF . = L 1664
( fie) 3
..
~
-.................
m IL c
5
x 10-
...
............
- -
III
>~tt~
-- .
III
....
.'
...
. . . . . . . . III ..
. . . . . . . . III . . .
. ....
. . .. .
(9.3()~filjH@l
2
GeV- .
......
t..'."'.t~5
.::::::~:~~:~:::~
. . . . .. .
...........
.
'
W:
. . . . . III .. .
..
..........................
sCInullator tank.
Mu~ns lose appro,?mately 2 MeV of energy fore~~~~~~~~~@@
that muons ente~ng the. 35-cm-hlgh liqUld s~InUllator tank W1th enefWJ~~~tm
E 1-t ~ 50 MeV will stop m the tank9 The fracoon of muons that do stop~;~.~~~~~~~~~
accuracy for ~e mean life value in .a reasona~le t~me intervaL
){J~~~~t~
enters the tank the PMT gIves a SIgnal, which 18 amplified and ~~~~:~:~:~~:
discriminated. This pulse is used to start a "tirne-to-amplitude convert~~~\:~:~:~*;:~
gIve a. second S1gnal wlthm a Ume 1Ote~al.of a few mean lives. The seco~%t~W1~
d1rectly.read out. The 60-~s delay In the start s~gnal1s to mak~ sure that~ft:tm=~
pulse wlll be on the stop line when the start amves. Commerc1al electro~~~r~:t::
computer card, deslgned ?y Professor D. Harull of Com~ll Umverslty;)~[:~:~Mm:
performed the TAC funcuons and stored the data in a file 10 the compl!~~r~~~~:ffij::
memory. If no stop arrives within l!.t = 25 f.l,S, which corresponds to "'-'W~::~~~~
.
...
...
.
_.
..
"ru.;.-~
_.
1.::-:::
. . ...
.
~
II
"
lnteractIons.
~~
III
~.
III
<:::::::::~~~~~W
. . . .. ... ..
.
. . . ... ..
.
....
. . . -.... ....
.
. . . . ..
.
. . . -. .
.. -... .
.
,W
::-:-:":;:m
. . ...... .
. . ...... .
..
III ... .
III ...
. . . III
. . . . III .. .
III ... .
. . . III .. .
. . . . III .. .
...
. . . . III ..
III ...
.:::::::~~~~~~: 00
. . . . III ... .
. . . .. . . .
. . . . III
.. III ..
. -'-'-'-.".~.
====
~
9.4 Detection at Cosmic Rays
407
Electron
5-gal
liquid
scintillator
tanK
Calibration
FIGURE 9.26
Block diagram of the electronics for measuring muon decay.
mean lives, the TAe is reset and the start pulse ignored. To calibrate the
TAC one applies a fixed frequency (oscillator) signal to the discriminator
input.
If the singles rate is too high, then the stop pulse may not be due to the
decay of the muon that started the TAC, but to a different muon entering
the tank. We call such events "accidental stops." and we can estimate their
rates as follows. The singles rate is r = 25/s, so that using the PoissDn
distribution of Eq. (9.23) for n = 2 and t = At = 25 J.LS we find for the
accidental rate
R a-- Pa(n
= 2,
M
At) _ 78
-
x 10-3-1
s.
(9.31 )
This is ten times smaller than the stopping rate Rs, and does not affect the
detennination of the mean life as discussed later.
Data obtained by a student are shown in Fig. 9.27. The data were accumulated over five days and yielded Ns = 32,000 stops in 6921 min. The
very early events, t < 0.25 J.Ls, were discarded, leaving a sample of 30,069
events di~played in 100 bins each 0.25 J.LS wide. The data for t ;S 5 J.LS show
an exponential drop-off, as expected, and in this region are well fitted by
N(t)
= Noe-t/r:
0.25 < t < 5 J.LS.
contrast the data for late times, t > 15 J.LS, are flat and are well fitted by
N(t)
=C
5<
< 25 I1S.
,, ..,,. ,,....
, , , , ..
, , .
., ..
, ......
, ..

, , , ., .
,, . ,, ...

, .
, ,
, , .
.
.. ..
.. '"
. ,, ..
.
, , ., .
, , .
, ., ..
, ,,., ,
, , , ,.
, .

, ,, ..
,,
, , .
. .
, ,.
, , ,.
,,,
,, , .
,,
, .
, , , ..
,,
, ,
, ,...
. .
~
408
9 Scattering and Coincidence Ex.periments
.II
.II
...
.,
*-
*-
.. .
..
..
. ........-..
...
................. ........... ... +
111.
~': .", ~~ ~fItW!.

....,,\.tu.
...
. .
..-
'.
. . . ..,
*-

10'~----~------~--~'--~------~------~
20
15
10

*-

*- *-
..,
*- ...

*-
...

*-

..,
*-
,.~
25
Time (J.s)
..
..
Data for 30,000 muon stops. The bin size is 0.25 IJ..St and the fit to the ...
. .'
including an exponential decay and a constant background tenn are shown.
FIGURE 9.27
.. .
A combined fit
27
of the fann
N(t) = Noe-
/-,;
+c
yields r = 2~088 O.016j.Ls, No = 3410, and C

28.8, and an
.'.
X2 = 0.909 per degree offreedoID. The contributions of the two tenns::"
the fit are also indicated by the dashed lines in the graph..
We briefly discuss the background leveL Since there are 100 c:
nels,. the total accidental count is N a
2880, and thus the acci .. " '.
3
rate is Ra = Na/6921 min = 6.9 x 10- /s in agreement with our
......
of Eq. (9.31). One recognizes that the background does not affect< .'
measurement until
<::::;.
"
..
............

. ..

...
*-
This occurs when t It"

to determine t:J.t-
... ...
4.71, which allows for a fairly long "lever -... . . . . ."".

Our value for the mean life is in close agreement with the acc~enJte.
value as given in Eq. (9.30a). The agreement is even closer because< ...
.,..,..
27 See Section 8.6.2.
. .
..
. .
. ...
... *-
...
...
"
*- ...

.. ...
*-*- ......

*
*-

..

*-
.. *-
9.5 y-yAngular Correlation Measurements
409
measured value for iJl must be corrected for the following effect. When
negative muons stop in matter, there is a finite probability that the J1.. - will
be absorbed by a proton in the nucleus, leading to a "capture" reaction:
Il-+Z-r (Z-l)*+v/.L.
Thus the effective mean life is shortened and given by
ie
Til
Tc
-:::=-+-,
where 1/ iJl and 1/ ic are the rates for decay and capture, respectively. As a
result the observed mean life is shorter; for mineral oil (the capture occurs
mainly on carbon nuclei) and for the Il - / J1..+ composition of cosmic rays
this correction is approximately 4%. Therefore, the corrected measured
value in this experiment is
TJ.1.
= 2.172 O.017lJ.s.
(9.33)
The error shown in Eq. (9.33) is only statistical and does not include
systematic effects, in particular any uncertainty in the TAC calibration.
9.5. y-y ANGULAR CORRELATION
MEASUREMENTS
9.5.1. General Considerations
We will now discuss the measurement of the correlation in angle between
two gamma rays that were emitted simultaneously from the same source.
The origin of these ganuna rays is frequently the cascaded decay of a
nucleus, as in the case of 60Ni ( 60 Co) already discussed in Chapter 8. (See
Fig. 8.20.) We reproduce in Fig. 9.28 the decay scheme of this nucleus and
note that the 1.333-MeV gamma ray follows the U72-MeV gamma ray,
the lifetime of the intermediate state being only about 10- 12 s, so that for
all practical purposes the two ganuna rays are coincident.
The fact that these two gamma rays are correlated in angle can be
understood from the following general argument: the first gamma ray will
have an angular distribution with respect to the spin axis of the nucleus;
thus its observation at a fixed angle
= 0 conveys infonnation about
the probability of finding the spin at some angle 1/1 with respect to the
........... jol'/..............-::
..... ........
.......
......
........
. . ....... ..
"
410
"
"
...
" ""
"
"
"
"
.IIiI
..
"JIll ..
. . . .l1li . . . .
"
"
"
...
......
"
-~~~~~ ~M
. . . III .. II1II
"
"
......
.III
..
:::::::::~::~:~~:~~
.............. ~
": <:::::~:::::~:::::~m~
.... . . .. . - ..
6OCO
Z7
....
....
...
.III . .
..
.........
... . . . . . . ........
, , . , . . .
. " " ... ... .... .....
.. , , , , , ......
" .. " ...

, " '""
..
l1li ,
of . .
..
..
, " " "..JI ........""..JI.
' . . . . . . . . .JII.J/I-J/II .JI.
....
.J/I . . . . . . . . . . .
. .'
..,. . . . m
:.~.
. ' "........... "JIll"" ...
.... ...
....... III
..'
II1II ..
JIll
..
..'"';
~
---.............
JIll........
./l ..
"
"
III
..
. :::::::~;:::::~:~::
II1II
..
.....
..
. .. ..""...
.... "" ..-......
" " " . .... ..... ..
....
. . "... . .. ..
Prompt
4 + -~ i I r - - - - 2.505 MeV
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
.,
E2
"
..
...
"
..
JIll
..
oil .III . .
....
". . . .
"... ...
"
..
.IIiI . .
III
.III . .
. . ..
~~.r~.
"
....
.. . . .JI.
..
--..
. . . . -- .....
.
=:
..." " "... .
. . " .. ..~~~~~.~.1i. ...
.....
.
.....
..
.
...
.
..
.
..
..
.... ,. ...... . .
.....
.....
::;:;:;:::::::::1m~
... " .. ~... ..

~
2+ .--.......---1.333 MeV
r ..
...
~
~ ~
~
.,.
.~
~ ~ ~
.~
E2
0+
. . . ......
..
.'.-_fttii.r
........
"",.;.
deexcltanon of the 60NI nucleus to Its ground state by the emISSIon of two cascaded ~%~j~jf@;~
rays..
. ...........
-........
~.~
.. .'....... .. .. .. X".......
:::?~~~~Wt~~~
~~
.....
.
.
.
~ ....
~~~
..
.
.
.
....
.... ... .... . ..
".. .. m
~
'. ': : : :
~~
~
~-~~
~ ~
~.~~~.
~.
....
.~
............ ~....
that the second gamma ray will be emitted at an angle () can be
foun~r:~dm:f:
SIgnal assures us that the two gamma rays have Indeed come from
~:~~~:~:~ifi]:~~
9
5
4
Section . .
....
~~:W~
. <::::;::;~:::~~:~3
The posItrons are slowed down ~ a thin copper sheet WIth which~~r~~~:~~::~~
surround the source; the slow POSItrOns are captured by the electron~::~~~~~~~;~~:~~~
the ,copper to form p~sitronium, which decays by the annihilation of~m'M;1~il~i~
~sltro,n and electron mto two ,gamma rays. The energy of th~se g~a r~~~t~g~*@
~est, the two gamma rays must be directe~ m ,exactly OpposIte direct1?:~~Hj~~~j~
Thus the angular correlanon theoretically IS 0....
01 yen by
'. ::::::::::~~~~~~~~~~~
....
..
.
.
.
.
....
.... - . .....
.....
. . .~
~ ~
~
:
-.~"'..
-,
~ ~
~"'.
..... - . .
........
.....
..
. ~~..
~~
~ ~
~ ~X
11
.1
.........
ObVlOU~ly ~ two g~~ rays are slillultaneous. ~mc~ the 22Na angu1!~~@j~;j~
...............
..,
.. ~ -~~~~
~~~ ~
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.... .. .. . ...
...
.
.
.
.....
..
.
..
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.. ..
....
."
~.
.-~.
. . . . . .I...
~ ~
~ ~ .I...
~~
*~......
~~
*.~...
.~
~ ~
~...
~ ~
~~ ~..
~
...
.1
.::i~i~ii~~~~~~
.
~
.
'
.
.
.
~
...
- ...
.,J
~.~.~~~~~ ~~
9.5 y-y Angular Correlation Measurements
411
HGURE 9.29 Capture of a positron by an electron to form posilronium and the subsequent
annihilation of the positron-<,-lectTon pair imo two gamma rays.
Lead shielding
- - - - - - - - - - -$RBdloBctlve source
Photomultiplier
5"
Inlervals
marked on circle
FIGURE 9.30 Apparatus that can be used for angular correlation measurements. Two
scintillation crystals mounted on photomultipliers are protected by appropriate lead shie1ding. One counter assembly is fixed, whereas the other can be rotated about the position of
the source.
Angular correlations may also be observed between beta and gamma

rays, alpha and gamma rays, etc. This technique has proved very fruitful
for the analysis of nuclear decay schemes and the assignment of spin and
parity to excited nuclear levels.
We will describe a measurement of the gamma-gamma angular correlation of 22Na and of 60Co. The apparatus shown in Fig. 9.30 was used; it
consists of two similar gamma-ray detectors placed at equal distances from
the source; oue detector is fixed and the other is free to rotate around the
source. varying the angle () between the detected gamma rays. The detector
outputs are fed to a coincidence circuit. and the rate of coincident counts
C(O) is measured and compared with the theoretical correlation function.
It is important to measure e(8) with the best possible resolution if the
data are to be fitted with a polynomial in cos 8 of high order. It can be
shown that C(e) must be a polynomial in even powers of cos e, the highest
power being 2k, where k :::::: lb. ll. 12 where lb is the spin of the final nuclear
state and 11.12 is the angular momentum (multipole) of the emitted gamma
rays. Frequently the experimental measurement may be restricted to the
I
I
I
I
J"
".:.:.:.:.:.:.j-~
. . -..... ....
412
III
....
.. . .
' )
"J
.. ..
.............
.
-':':':"';4:":":"*.~~
..: ..:
- ~
. ... . ... .
~
of
......
.. ..
III . .
..
..
.~ ....... 4 ...........
~
..
..II
..
III
..
. . II
.. ..
......
......
....... _
~ .................... ~
. . . . . . JIll
.....
~".t,
:--/.r:~
....
III III ... ..

~ ... III ... ..
.. . . .
.. .. ..
.... .~"jO~J"J".A~
III . . . .~~.
.. ..
~ .................. ~.....
-........
. . . . X... ..
0... ..
. .-... ... .. .,. ::P.._'
. . .x
.......... J"_... .
-
~ III . . . .
........ ~
~
.. ~ ............
~
~
III
..
"
"~
..II
.......... -
...
-.J"'"
~
. ."
..
'"l-,/""
..01 . . . .
...................
III . . . . A
..01
....
_ -. I, ........ ..01.............~
..
'I
~...
.... i
~ .........01...........~_-'
-:::::":"':"~ili":
- . . . .. .... r-.JI'
..,..t'.....
. . . . . III ..
.............~ 'J"'.... .
- I"' .......................r@.~--'
. . . . . . . . . III ........~

... III .. ..
'"f',
...
. . . .. ... ..
...
- ~-r
- - ..........
... ..... -.I"
/.t":.--.
The limiting factors in these experiments are two: (a) The coincidenc~i?l@.1~i
rate must be high enough to allow statistically significant data to be acc~hrj~~~lJ~~~
mulated in a reasonable time interval.. To increase the :oincidence rat~fim~
a stronger source may be used, the solid angle may be 1ncreased, or th~~}~~~~~~~$.:~:
efficiency of the detector may be improved (if it has not been maximize~(~~~~~*~~W~~
already). (b) The accidental rate must be kept well below the coincidenc~(~~~~~~f.g~~~
rate; again it depends on source strength and solid angle, but also o.~/d~~~~W~~~
the resolving time. Let aQ1 and AQ2 be the solid anglessubtended a.fm~
the source by detectors (1) and (2), and let 1 and 2 be their respectiY~~~~~~~~~i*~~~
efficiencies. Then the "singles" counting rates a r e i U m a

.....
... .,...--.... :.:::::...
......
-.
.
..
..
_
.....
..-ili
"
.... . .. .........
.........."' . .. . .
~
.,.
.... .....1
~.m.
'J
'
':':...
.
.
...... .,.
.,...,..
........- .. .r.... .
';;:;:::W""':~
(9
.
.':.;.:
.. :.... .-Jj..
341
.
'
...
'
"
.
.
...........
. . . . . ........
. - . :. -....
-.. -.-JjJj.
where N is the number of disintegrations per unit time of the source. If tIj~).
'
"'''~.
",
~:
. . . .. ....-
"' . . . . . . . . Ii
.~'.
.,
AI
.."
. . . . . . . .,. -
. . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . .M
...~.,. ~:~.-.
~
. . . . . 1--.. ,. . . . . . ...
.............."'
two gamma rays are uncorrelated (or if the correlation is small, as happen'~{:;:~~~:~:::~~~~
2B
mostly in nuclear decay), the coincidence rate is;>{J~~~@~~
.......~0..~~~
...
-
.........-.J
.....0.
(9 35} '................
z: ...
...........
......... ..
For most experimental arrangements 6,.01 ~ 6.02 and El = E2, so thafij~~~~~~~~:~~~~
we find for the accidental rate RA,
<:~:}~:~:~?::j:~~j
...........
.
........
. . "" .......
"
)':~:::;;;:::::::}::;;j
.
(9 36"
...... "".-..-"x.....
......
.
.
"'
.
.
:,
.
.
(9 37)l'.......
- . ...--'.
........-z- ._
-%.
.
.......
..
_-'
..........
..........
----'
'...........
--.....
-:x-.
.......
_
......
z
.
....... -- -- ... '
......
...........
and for the ratio of the accidentals to true coincidences t
........
.. ....
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.......
. '".......
-_-.....
-.
.....
......
..".-0.
. ....
_......._..
'
AA . . . . . . . . . . . .
".
If ..
, ......
- .........~- -J
,
..
If If
. . -
...
".J".t'...
"~-,J
"..I
. . . If ~.
.... I f . .
-~_J
,I . . . . . . . .
If.
.-~J
A
"
"
.....
_.
If
_J
A
..
:.-:
..... I f . .
~J
. . . ~ ........... ~ J
"J
If
..
~ .-~-J
""
.....
...
~~
~~
~_-J
i~""'."".."" ".~J
.J
..
rl'~ ..............~~_
/" .... "" riII.
"" "" rill.
..... "" . . . . . .
~
~~J
~_".1
........ "" ""
~.J
--~
7.:.~.:_:.j. :..:~~
..
Ir . . . . .
M
..
...
~.
--~
. . A -:
RC
'
-~
-(9 '3'8\'?~~~~;f*,~:~:~~~
'}i. ....",".....1', ... .
%......
%.'"
"
.....
.':-:'.:.';."'..:.:.....=:.-::.....
~
-~
" '" ........' ..

"
NAt.
L.l.
-~
.:-.11
'
:or.
.~.
. . . "' . . .
~J
.. .....
.. J
A ~ .
.. ..I
.........
I ....
. . . . . . .~... .---.. JI
We wish to keep this ratio smaIl on the order of or smaller than 0.1. Fromi~i~~~~~&.~~~
Eq. (9.38) we see bow important it is for correlation experiments to baYMW~
a short resolving time; with ~t -= 10 ns, a source as strong as 0.5 mqj~
may be used. We also note that the detector efficiency should be hig1jf~
.A.r ...t.-. ......'"
~.A ~...;.~
.-..::
...
-........ %2 .....
:-: ..
.;.
;.~. .:~:
:::::Jj'
.................:.: ' ..... .
: : :
...... .-."tM, ..
28'The efficiency of the coincidence circuit has been set to fEe = 1 as it should be.
_~
A ... oI
..;
.......
. . "m'"
~
I#-~.
AA"'."
II ~
~_..
. . :.:r"-.......
. .'....... .....
. .. ...-...
.....
' ........... ~'J
.... <Ii _
. . . .~
1#--.."
-.~'.r
""'.Jj~,"
...
..; .. _
rIl--"",'
...............~
~""
Jj.~-~_.
t ............
.JI"'-:
........ ~Jj-.,JI
.. :,:",~ .~.::~.-:.
::: ::~:~~~:::m
~:
~...:~
........
.... .. .....Jj'
......01....--,. ~
..
'.I"",/".
..; 01 ..
............._.
.'
ri'"
'
......Em
..
' . ' . ...1
' ,;ori,r,
~~
413
since it enters Eq. (9.35) quadratically; however, the solid angle cannot be
increased arbitrarily because this will destroy the angular resolution and
wash out the correlation C(8).
9.5.2. The Apparatus

The apparatus has been shown in Fig. 9.30, and we give here sO{lle additional details. The reader should, however, refer to Section 8.4.2. in connection with the instrumentation and techniques of gamma-ray detection.
The detectors were Nal crystals 1 in. in diameter and 1 in. thick. mounted
on RCA 6655 photomultipliers. Each was located 8 in. from the source.
Both crystals are protected from scattered radiation with lead shielding,
and the movable detector can be rotated about the center in 5 intervals.
The block diagram of the electronics is shown in Fig. 9.31, where
the individual units are available from a number of vendors. 29 The
units are interconnected with 50-Q coaxial cable. Manuals accompanying
the amplifier, discriminator, and coincidence modules should be consulted, especially to achieve the smallest possible resolution time. In the
ensuing disc,ussion we will assume that the circuits have been properly
adjusted.
.
One of the outputs from each discriminator is fed to the coincidence
module and a second output to a scaler capable of a peak rate of 105/s. The
coincidence output is also fed to a scaler. In this way the "singles" in each
channel and the "doubles" are counted. The delay between the two inputs
to the coincidence circuit may be easily adjusted by inserting appropriate
cable lengths between the discriminator and coincidence in one or the other
of the channels. One foot of typical 50-Q coaxial cable corresponds to a
transit time of about 1.5 os.
Some care is required in order to properly set the discriminator bias levels
and photomultiplier high voltage. First the system is checked out with a
pulser, to adj ust the setting and functioning of the scaler drivers and scalers.
Next the actual signals are fed into the circuits and the discriminator outputs
"looked at" on an oscilloscope to ascertain that the pulses are "clean" and
uniform. The high voltage is set by taking a plateau curve, which will not be
completely fiat but nevertheless should show a clear knee. If the system is
29For example, Canberra Industries (http://www.canberra.com/) and Orlee (http://
www.orteconline.com/) both give details of similar setups, including cross references to
their own product line.
--~-~-m~-~
.. .. ~ ~
~ ... ...
III III' III'
.. ..A - _ - .........III. .
..
414
...
..
III
..
III
. . III' III'
.. III III'
.-iII
..... ..
.......... ~w~
.
..
- . --..
.......
.. .. III' . .
..
.. .-ill .. . . III'
~ ..... - .III .III
.. ... ... . . .. III' III'

,
,
. . . . . . III III . . . .
..
..
. . III'
..
.. .-ill ... . . III . .
,
,
..
..
..
..
...
..
...
.. . . III'
.. .. III' III'
..
..
..
..
..
..
III'
-:.:.:.:
...~-:. :..:....~,
" " .........
.
.. III' III'
..l"
J
........ III . . . .
..
.. ... .. .. III' III'
..
.. III III III' III'
..... III .III . .

.. ... ... .. III' III'
(1)
Discriminator
IH-51
RCA Preampfiffer
6655
,.............. ~..
Scaler
driver
!H..71
..
...
..
....
III
.. ..
' . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . ..JI..II. . . . . . . . . . . .
..
..
..
.JI
..II
.....
..
III'
III . . . .
III'
..
..
..
-.............
III
.JI
..
. . III
.. .. ............. -
. ' ..II.-iII............
..... _
III JIll . .
..
..
. . . . . . . . III . . . .
.. ...
..
.. ... . . . . . .
_
_
- ............
r::
. . . .. .
"t"IIiII ......'
.............~.-~
. :.;.:.:.:.:~:.::::~...
Scaler
. . . . . . . . ..11 . . . . . . . . . " " . . . . . .
. . . . . . . m
CMC
: : - ;. .
.......
..
III' . .
;j
......II_..JIIII...... I111~.......
.
::::::=::::::::::r@3d=::
'"f'.:
., -.'
-. ' ..... "'...................
..
..
.JI
.JI
..
III . .
III . . . .
...
. . .....
. . ............. ...
, . . . ... .. . ... .
~-~:
;. :::::::::~::::::~.
Scaler ,..
... ..............
.. .. ... ... ........ :'''.
...
..
. .. ... .. . ... -. ...
CMC;; '(r .;.;.;
;:-:::-:m
:~.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...-.
.'
...
......
.
...
.'
. ......
. . ... . ......'
. . .
~ili
....
.'""
...
....
.
.
.....
..'
.........
....
.
.. ......
...
..
.
.......
Scaler
....

:::::::;;;:~:~..
~J"~~:
CMC
.........
....
.
.
.
..
........
....
.J&
.
......
............
m;~
~
..
..
........ ..-....
..-.....
~~. ~:.
:.:.;
.
:~:-:.:
.....
'.J
.....................
m.;
...
. .
. . . .. r-.... '
...... .. .. .
III
III . . .
~. ~
.......
...........................~.:
Na'
Coincidence
IH56
Scaler
driver
,H71
...
Fixed
~ III
...
.,..
.~
~.
~ ~
~ ~
~~.
... . . .. m
.
.m. ..'
'.....
..
".... ru'
~
-.~
~~
~- ~~
~
~. ~
~
-~~.
.~
~ ~
~.~
6655 Preamplifi B r
~ ~ .~
A.AA
.
RCA
..
'. - .I"
delay
~
(2)
..
.. w......
...
Dlscnminator
Sca'er
'H-S1
driVer
IH-71
"~
. .
~
~
~
~ ~
FIGURE 9.31
ments.
~~
rl
rl
m.
......
. . .. .... ...
............
..... ..... ...
:::::~~~:~:~:~~~~gm:~j
.....
.
.'
. . ..
.
.
' . '.'.I"
.'
.............
::::
..
.......
.
.
.
.
.. . ..
.
.
..................=m;m;J"........
.'.....
..... .... . ....
~ ~m
::::~~:~~m
.~.:
........
...
..
.
.....
.
.
.
.... . .... .. .. ......
......
J".....1
......
..
.....
.
.
.
.......
. .................
.....
........
.........
.,.. ,..............
.......J
.
...
,
.
.
.
......
0
....
. . . ,..,............
.. .. ..
.. .J.
....

- ~.1"
,
~~
~ ~
~ ~..
~.
~~~.
~
~.
~~~......
. . . . . . .. .m
~ ~.~
~~
~~
~
~~~~
~ ~
~ ~
'. '.'....... . . ......

~ ~~..
...~
~ ~~
............... ...ax."'
... ...
~~~~~~
~.
'
~~.......
~ ~
'.'
il t;;;::. 13.2 ns
,..
. . . . . . . . .At ..
.'. .........
.;.:..:..,.;,.;..:. :..:. ..m.........:.. ..,:
~
,.. ,..
,..,.."" . . . . . . . . . . . . . i.
m.~
C
::J
...... "" ... ....,ti.,i'
--m
..
A .. :
...............~ ~
..
....
...
. . ,..""......
. ..........
.. .. .. . .......
,..""
o
Q
~'.
'.,/
,
~.'
~~
~~..
"".............. ~......'.I'J'
"
,..
,""':./': ,. . ...~
. . . , . . . , . . . . III . . . .
: "'" "'"
.. , ..
,.. ,..
:
,..
,.. ..... A
.............. A ..
... .. ........
.....................
......
:..:' ..... .
..............
...........
"'" ............
.
.
... ,.. ......... "'" .... ....
10 1
'
il)
-cu
.-c
. . . . . . ;..:""''''''
..
,..,.. . . . . . . . ""'_
.J
~". . . . .
,A
: "'" ""' ....
..... ............. . A.
.,..,.......
:..:: *.....
.
.
. ....
..
....
........
.
""
,..
,..
..
...
....
...............
""'''
......
..
...........
:..:
.
.
.... ......... .... .
.............
... .... ........ ........... . .
...........
"0'"
..
...
.
.......
.
.
.
,..
..
..
....
..tIII
......
.... ......................
,..,..
... III . . . . fill
,..
""
. . . . . . . . . III
A ..
,.. . . . . A .. "'" "'" "'" . . .

...............
A .. :
. . . . . . . . . . . A "'" .......... .
" ' ' ' ' ,..
--o
,..""
lflii .........
. . . . . . . . ,.. III . . . . "'"
,..
. . . . . . . . . . . . "'" lflii ...........
~~
,.. A III . . . . fill
r ..... A..
,.. ,.. III .. ..
lflii ...
,..
'
,..,..,.., . . . . . . . . ... IfIII ...
~
I"..J".......
' ,......"" ....... A .... .......
.. .. .. ....
,..
...
,..""
,..
'r,.......
*' . ..
,.. .. ... ..
...
. .. .
A ....

,.., ,.. .
til. ...
..
.. ..... A ..
1fIII
till ........
:::;;::~:":m~.ti:..":~
.':':':':':'~.:.:.:.~~0:.:."
...,.. ..,..,.....,.................. ..-_............ . . .
.
.....
.... ,... ..........
:-:'..-......
.
.
.
..
..
....
.........
::::;... .....
.....
,.. ,. ....
,.. ......
L-,-_ _- J -_ _ _' - -_ _- - ' - -_ _'---_ _........_ _----'I--_~....I
. . . . . . . . . A ..
" ,.. ,.. .........
- 1 -10
~G~RB 9.32
10
15
20
25
De~ay in channe~ 1 (ns)
30
35
....
~..J".."
.... ,. ,. .. ,. ......... XI .." ..
A ..
..
.. .. .. ..
till .......
>:::::<::::::w:::::~
:.<:}:::::::~:@~"",~:~:
7~..
..........._-.-...;::::.r
. :..
........ A
..
A delay curve for coincidenc~ from a 22~a somce. Note that the ~~1~@!@~~!
'.'.......
. . ._..._.._........ .""'' ' 'rm'. '
..... ...........
......... ...
...
. . . . . . . . . . .m;.J".
~~
~.
be (almost) equal.>::::::~:;:~
.............
---. .. ..
....Wj.....
...............~.
... ""
....... ....... ..
...""...........
. . ... ..
'.....
'I........... ....
..
rIA
..
....
........
.....-.............m
. ..
..
-...... ..
........
. .-... ..m
... w;a.
..........
.....
m
. I..
~
. . . ..
....
. . . ..
. . . ... ..
."....
........
~
415
TABLE 9.4 Detennination of Resolving Time from Accidental

Coincidences
III (s)
Countsfs
Channel (I)
Channel (2)
Coincidence
2056
6262
13,481
35,443
0.061
0.528
2.912
14.217
2151
5920
14,662
31,207
(ll!
= C/RtR2)
13.8
14.2
14.7
12.8
x
x
x
x
10-9
10-9
10-9
10-9
>
of Eq. (9.36). When the latter method is used, the two counters are separated by a very large distance and a separate source is placed in front of
each. In view of the geometrical arrangement and the fact that an additiona1
delay of 60 ft is placed in one of the channels, all the coincidence counts are
accidentals. By varying the distance between the source and the respective
counter, the results given in Table 9.4 were obtained; the counting time
was on the order of 10 min at each point. We note that the resol ving time so
obtained (column 4) is quite consistent despite the fact that the accidental
coincidence.rate increased by a factor of about 2000 between measurements; this resolving time is also consistent with the width of the two input
signals (which were about 6 ns wide) and the data of Fig. 9.32.
The above results as well as those to be presented in the following two
sections were obtained by students.
9.5.3. The )'-y Correlation of 22Na
A 100-Il-Ci 22Na source, wrapped with a O.OOI-in. brass foil is placed at
the center of the apparatus. The dimensions of the source are kept at a
minimum, and it is positioned as accurately as possible. Since the solid
angle is
where the dimensions are in inches (see previous section). Assuming a

detector efficiency 1 ~ 2 '"" 0.3, the expected rate for "singles" is
R) ""' R2
37
= .
1010
4n
10-4
X
(4n x 10-3 ) x 0.3
!Z;::;
1000 counts/so
............. ..-..-.
--....000-_-.. ~
- oo-_-~-~J"-J"
-.~
-..............
-
416
....
...
...
III
III
....
JIll JIll
JIll . .
III
.. ..
JIll
..
III
JIll
..
. -...... ooo_-_~~
...
...
JIll
..
..
. - 0 JIll- JIll- . .
- - ..
III JIll . .
III III JIll . .
III JIll JIll
are at
e = 180
..
..
..
..
_~
~:~
III JIll JIll
... III JIll
= 300 cQunts/s.
>:::::~:::::::0.::::
. . . . .,
the expected cOIncidence rate at this angle IS

C(e) -:- nL\Q2 = R
- . . . . . 0 0_~
. . . . . . . III JIll . .
III JIll . .
.... III JIll . .
7/~
(9.39)\i3~~~~~~~W@
-
JIII::0---...........
_...... ..
- ... ... III IIIJIllJIll
............
.........
JIll
III
....
....
III
....
JIll
III
....
The observed rates are on this order of magnitude. However, the 1_277-MeV \/~j~~~H~t~~~~~
gamma ray also contributes to the single rate; on the other hand., the )/~~~~~~~~lli~~@
finite size of the source and errors in geometrical alignment reduce tbe}:;:;:::;:::::::~::::~
. d
fr
th
lId I
........ ... -.... .
COlnCl ence rate om e ca ell ate va ue.
<:>~~i~%:r.;;:
We first wish to check whether the coincidence cirelli t is correctly }>~~~~~~~~:~:~:~
~'timed" that is, whether the appropriate delay has been inserted so as. ))~~~~;~;~@
..... -
~
...
.. ..
. . . . . II
~.
.~
. . . . . III . . . . . . . . ..
to make truly coincident signals arrive at the circuit at the same time. To <)~~~~~~;;;~~~
0
this effect the movable counter is rotated to 180 and the counting rate i~.)}l~~~~~w;r
obtajned as a function of the variable delay introduced into channel (1); for.<:;<:~~::*;~~
. . .... -,.. ......r
convenience. a fixed delay of 12 ft of cable has been introduced into chal1nel.)</~~~~;~~
.. . ... ........ .
(2)~ The data so obtained have already been given in Fig. 9.32 on a semilog. )}~~~:~:~~:
.... ............
plot, which is the more appropriate representation for a delay curve.
<)~~~;~;i:
We note that (a) indeed, the peak counting rate occurs when. a 16-ns delay <;J~~i;i~2~
is inserted in channel (1) as expected; (b) in the peak region, the delay curve- .~~~~i;i~
is flat over at least 6 ns; this indicates good efficiency and consequently that ~~~~;~~~~
... .r.. .....
small time jitters will not result in changes in the counting rate (provided :i:~~~:i~
. .. the delay is set at the center of the cUlVe); (c) the width of the curve at -<}i~~~~~~~~~.
.. . half-maximum, which gives the resolving time of the circuit, is 13.2 ns, <:}~:~:~:~:~:
............... .
in excellent agreement with the values found in Section 9.5.2 and what is -<}~~~~~~~~~~
expected from the width of the input signals; (d) the accidental rate is very <}~~~~~~~~~~
.. . .
low; by inserting 40 ft of delay it is found to be 0.048 0.005 counts/s, ~~~~~~~~~~
yielding a ratio
_-})ji~~~~~~ji
... . . .
~
III
~ ~ ~
3 x 10
(9 .4. 0)
..........
..
.
.
....
.
. ....
....
..
..' .. -..
- ..
...
. ... -_-.00
-- _-.........
. ..... -.
- ...
...
.
- ....
.
...
- ...
..
...
...
....
.
..
..
..
..
- .....
..
....
.. .
. , ....
..
. .....
.
., ...
... ..
- . . ...
...........
.......... ..
........ . .
..........
..........
..
-
signal
150
_.
~ = _.
noise
0.05
....
.II
.II
..........
~
_
.. ~
-~
~~~.
.~
~~~.
~~-
~-~.
~ ~
-~
~~~.
-~~.
~-~.
~~.~
~~~~
.~
~~~.
-'
~~-
~~~.
~ ~
~_~.
which is more than adequate.

The considerable slope of the ascending and descending parts of the
delay curve is due to the time jitter of the input signals associated with
their low peak amplitude. The stability of the system can be judged from
the fluctuations of the coincidence rate in the flat region as well as from <.<~~~~i~i
the fluctuation of the singles rates given in Table 9.5.
.:i:\~~i~~~
".,r ..
We are now ready to obtain data on the angular correlation of 22Na~ .<}~;;~~~
0
The nlovable counter is rotated in appropriate steps to either side of 180 , ... i)~~;~~~~
and the doubles and singles rates are recorded. The resulting data are .. :.<~~;:~~~
shown in Fig. 9.33, and in Table 9.5 some representative points are listed.. .i.:)~:ifJ
~ ~
.~
~~~.
-'
~~~.
-~
~~~.
~
~
-~~.
.~
-~
~~~.
~~_
~~~.
~~~
~~_.
...
-I
~~_.
. . . . . II
..
...........
..
..........
..
.........
~~~.
.........
~ .......... .
...........
..
............
..
..........
..
...
..
.'
I
,
..
..
.
.. .
.... ,
~. . . .
..
.......
......
,"
....
..
~.
....
..
I
.........
.
I
.........
..
I
.....
..
.............
......... .
....
....
.
....
..
....
... .
I.. ' .... , ..

, I.. '
.... ..
,"
.....
.,.
,
..
. '~-....
I
.....
.
. . . . . . . . . . ...
.....
...
.......
' ...
...
....
...
.
........
.,....
..
I
.....
. . . . . . . . ...
....
.
, " ~..~.
I
"
....~
.II...
'~
...
..

TABLE 9.5
417
Representative Data on the y-y Correlation of 22Na

Counts/s
()
(0)
Stationary
counter
Movable
cowHer
3011
2996
3013
2994
3011
2992
2995
3014
2991
3086
3071
3090
3064
3114
3189
3035
3178
90
150
160
170
175
178
180
182
185
190
3069
3039
200
3127
3102
3136
3005
3007
210
Coincidence
1.5 0.1
1.5 0.2
1.7 0.2
3.5 0.2
66.8 1.0
148.0 1.5
159.0 1.6
124.0 1.2
50.2 l.0
3.2O.2
2.0 0.1
1.8 0.1
Coincidences
(Counts/s-degree)
0.21
0.23
0:23
0.49
9.2
20.6
22.1
17.2
7.0
0.42
0.26
0.25
180
160
140
6
8
120
tll
100
'E
<:
<J)
~<::
0u
00
60
til
Z
gj
40
20
0
150
170
180
190
200
Angle between detectors (degrees)
160
210
FIGURE 9.33 Angular correlation of the gamma rays from a TINa source. The coinddence
rate is plotted as a function of the angle between the two counters. Note thal the full width
of the correlation curve is 8.5 0 , which is entirely due to the angular resolution of the two
counters; the isotropic background outside the peak is very small. The curve is a Gaussjan
fit to the peak region. with a fixed constant background, but only serves to guide the eye.
...........
.. ..... . ....-..--...... . ..
- ..........
..........-:-:
- . . . ... . -.. ......
.. ..
- . . . .. . .. .. .. .. ..
--.
.......
oil oil ..
..
..
.. . . . . .
til ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . oil til
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oil til
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III . . 0lIl
OIl . . . . . . III: til
......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . til till
. . . . . . till ... OIl . . . . . .

- .. .......................
..
. . . . . . . till .. OIl til
418
.-
....
JI
. . . ... ... ... .. .. .

- - .................. ,
- . . . ... . . .. . . .
- . . . ... . .. . . . .
9 Sea tte r in g and Co inc ide n c e Ex peri me nt s
. . . . . . . . . . . . till till .. ..
....
. . . . . . . . . til .. "'" .III
.III .. til . . . . OIl
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I11III .III .III

-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . OIl .. ..
. . . . . . . . . . III III III ,
. . . . . . . . . . . III III III ,

. . . . . . . . . . . OIl OIl OIl ..
..
...
JI
..
...
..
...
..
. . . . . . . . . . OIl OIl OIl
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .III ..
. . . . . . ..II OIl II1II OIl ,
Colwnns 2 and 3 of Table 9.5 give the singles rates for the stationary and{~~~~~~~~
30
the movable counter, respectively; the coincidence rate is given in col-//?I~~~~~~~~
umn 4. The counting time at each point was on the order of 1 min, which~<J~~~~~~~~~~~~
............. ..
provides good statistics (about 1% in the peak region).><?~~~f:~:~~~
0
Indeed we do notice a very pronounced correlation at = 180 , with><~~)~~~~~~~
. ... an angular width of 4.25. This width is on the order of the angular .><~~~~~~~~~~~~:
resolution of our system, which might be taken as the angle subtended aty)~~~~~~~~~~~~~
the position of the source by one of the counters
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
..... .... .
~
"""''''''''
.....
~. . . .
"
.......
_=0)
AO = 7.20.
......
"
~(1i
- 8)_
.. II ..
_~
""'"
""'" ""'"
01 . . . . . . _
""'"
01 . . . . . . . . . . .
.01 .01 .. .---. . . . ..

. . . . . III . . . . . . . .
................
............
):::
....
:::::
:
........
x
.
............
(9 42 .........
...............
. . . .. ... ....... ....
..........
. .. -.. .....*
.
.
.
...........
.
.
.........
.
..
...............
. . .. .. ....... ....,
...
.
x
.
.
.
..
.
.
.........
. . .. .. ....... .
.............
...
.
.
..
...
.
..
............
.
.
...
.
....
.. ....
.........
.........
...............
... ...... ..
...
...
.
........
...
..............
. . . . .... .... .
. . . . ..... ........
.. ..
'
......
'
.'
...
,..-.........
.
........
....
...
........
. . .. .. ...x'
.
...
(9 . 43)
" ...........
X"
.. .. .. ... .... ...X"
.........
.........
......
...........
. ...""'..... ........
...
.....
III
III . . . . . . . . . . ..
.
.
.....
III . . . . . . . . . ..
'-
""'"
..~
"
. . . . . """ . . . . . . II
We therefore conclude that this correlation is compatible with
'-
C(O)
till
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . till
. . . . . . . . . . . . . till till
~
0.5
= .
. . . . . . ~. . . .Jj
..........
tan
...............
..
.............. ...
.........
......
......."""''''''' ......
........
':':':':'~'~"
..
:.:.:~
.........
.... .
(9 41) :->
:... :..:...~. .~... ~:. ... :... ~.
.
.
. . . .. . . .
...............
..
.
........
.--....
................. . .
..........
. . .. ..... ...
.... .
....
.. ..- ...
.............
.
.
.
..
.
........... .
.......... ... ...
....
....
...... ... .....
.. ... ........x
........
.............
...........
....
..
.....
AfJ
:::==~:~:~::~
.
. . ...
.. ..
,
"
."
..
. ..
..
..

...
The anisotropy as defined by Eq. (9.34) is
~
~
.......
.................~
~ ~
"
......... :X ...
.. . ... .. ..... ..
. ..................
....... .... ....... .... .. ... .,
..
....
.. .... ....
predicted by:':::::::;::::;~*::::j
.' ..........
........
.. ,. ....... .r-......
.:::~z-:-:-:-:-:-:
... . ..........
.............r-......
........
~
..
"
A .. _ _ .. A ..
. . . . . . ..JIII:...:' _ _
which is extremely large and compatible with ct --+-) 00 as

E q (9 42)
. >~":":""~":~:":A~.
The counts observed at large angles are still real coincidences, but due>~~~~~~i~~i~~~~
mainly to
isotropic correlation of the 1.277-MeV gamma ray with o~::i\fj~~~~~~~
of the annihilation gamma rays; it should be on the order of the correlatedf./~t~~~~~~f::~~~~
2
counts multiplied by the solid angle for one detector A. n ~ 10- , as isH)l~~~~~~@~~~~
indeed the fact. Also, a small fraction of the background originates fro~>~~~t~i~~~~~~
annihilation gamma rays that have scattered through a large angle in th~:~:~:}}~:*:~:~
.. ............. ..-....
source or the converter.
>::::::::::::*::::~
. ............
........... .r
or.........
In column 5 of Table 9.5, the coincidence rate has ?een divided by th~:::I@~%.@
angular acceptance !J.() of the movable counter as given by Eq. (9.41};():~;~:~~:~:~
~~
the
. . . . . . . . . . . .: - : . . -. . A
measures C (0) at {J withIn the dIfferentIal range aO,.

-:\~<t~~~@~~~
From the results presented we conclude that 22Na provides a very gOQ4~:)~:~~ft~:
strong correlation from the annihilation gamma rays IS qUlte easy to dele<fB!<i@m:~
:.:::::::::::~~~
however, It IS so sma1J (see Eq~ (9.40) that we neglect It.
.'.:::::::~:::~~XX;~~~~:
.............~~~~:...
..........
. .. .. . . "r"". ..
..................:,.
JI".......
.............
.....
. . .. "'.." .... ...
. . . . ... .....
..
:::::::~::;:.:m:::..
.......... ... ......
. . . .. .... ......
.:.:.:.:.:""'~.~~:.
..................
.
............
. . .. ""'"'"' '..'.
.
::::::::::~:~.
......... ~~
'"
. . . . . ..
'~.
....... . w.;.
~~~
...
'"
9.5 y-y Angular Cor relation Measu rements
419
Also, the obtained correlation provides strong evidence for the annihilation
of the positron--eleetron pair into two gamma rays; if a differentia1 discriminator is used after the detector, it is also possible to measure the energy of
the coincident ganuna rays. The angular resolution of tbe equipment lTh1.y
be easily improved by simply increasing the distance between the source
and the counters. In fact. precise data on positron annihilation are quite
sensitive to the momentum of the positronium just before it an.nihi.lates;
this in rum provides infonnation on thc structure of the Fenru surface of
the converter material.
9.5.4. The y-y Correlation of 60Co

Once the equipment has been adjusted and aligned (for example, with nNa)
as described before, any correlation may be measured. A weo source of
the same strengLh as the 22Na source (lOO IJ.Ci) was placed at the center
of the apparatus, and data were taken every 15. The discriminator levels
could be readjusted., but it i ~ usually preferable to leave everything as is.
Since the 60Co y-y correlation has a smal l anisotropy (as compared to
22Na, Eq. (9.43) the expected coincidence rate is
C(O) = N(D.r.J.)22 ~ 4 counts/s,
(9.44)
which is much smaller than that given by Eq. (9.39) for the same source
strength. Consequently, also, the signal-to-noise ratio (Eq. (9.40) will be
only about 30, and the "accidental" rate., which was 0.070 counts/s, must be
subtracted. Furthennore in view of the smaller correlation, better st<'l ti stical
accuracy is required.
Representative data taken in one ru n are presented in Table 9.6 and
plotted in Fig. 9.34. In column 5 the coincidence rate after the subtraction of
accidentals is given, while in colunm 6 the rate at each angle is normalized
to the rate at 9Uo. At each point sufficient coincidence counts were taken
10 give I % statistical <lccuracy (10,000 s ~ 3 11); these errors ace indicated
by the error bars shown in Fig. 9.34, where we plot a(8) = C(fJ)/C{900)
against angle. We see that thcfractional errors on (a(8) - 1) are now much
L.trger, and on the order of 10%.
It is known from theoretical considerations that the 6Oeo correlation
function is of the foan
(9.45)
..........
.
..........
.
.............
... ...
.
.
.
..
..
.
..........
.... ..
. ..
.. ................
...
..
..
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.............
. . .........
.
.' ............,.~~~
A .. .. ..
...
.II ..
..
- -
.........
..
~~~;~~~~~~~~~~~~~:'J':
~
.:.:.;.;.;.:.;.: ~%%.t'~:..:J
9 Sea tte r i n g and COl n c ide nee Ex. peri me nt s
420
.. . .
.
>:-:
. ........
:.:.=. :~-tI',
.
.
.
.
.I
..................
........ ....
. ...
.'. j
TABLE 9.6 Representative Data on the y . . . y Correlation of 6OCo
"
"
::::::~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-
.tJ j
... .. ..
..
...
..
..
)1
~
..
. . . . . ..
....1
..... .
. .. ..
c:
II
Eli
4L
if
21
Ii
Counts/s
Ii
Stationary
counter
Movable
counter
. ' j
Coincidences
105
120
135
150
165
180
210
0.880
0.820
0.857
0.864
0.886
0.933
0.931
0.944
0.889
2157
2127
2152
2144
2130
21.09
2125
2136
2123
2124
2134
2132
2121
2116
2086
II
is
hi
is
.,
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............. ... ..... . .Z
..
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.. .. ...... ....... ....

X'
..
..
..
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...........
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'
J
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:
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.... .................... .......
.....................
.
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.
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...
.
.
.
.
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.
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....
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o
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W
j.-..
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...........
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1.080
1.000
1.049
1.059
1.088
L151
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.. "
.
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~~
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~.
n .. " . . . . '
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,.~~~:.
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"
' ....
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ill ... .-.

............
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.
..
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.:.:.:.:.:.:.I'.:.:~:'~~
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.. ...oJ
..... '"
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. ...............
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m
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..
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1.087
,
1.148
1.165
Ii
'F
ELL
.........
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.. . .. .. -....-. %.?:
(;(900 )
0.810
0.750
0.787
0.794
0.816
0.863
0.861
0.874
0.819
...:::::::::;;::::::.~~.:~~.
.. . . .. .. . .
..
C(6)
coincidences
iii
.tJ .
.tJ .
2129
... .. .. .....
... .. ..
.. . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. ... OO
@.
2203
2132
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60
90
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100
120
140
160
Angle 8 between detectors (degrees)
180
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FIGURE 9.34 Data on the angular correlation of the two gamma rays fror
correlation function C(9)/ C(900) is plotted against the angle between the 1:'
Note, however, that the ordinates begin at the value 1.00. The experiment
shown, and the dashed curve is a least-squares fit to the data. The solid liI
theoretical curve~ which is given by the function 1 + 0.125 cos2 9 + O.D42co
9.5 y-y An 9 lila reo rrelati an M eas u rem ents
421
A least-squares fit to Eq. (9.45) was made, using the entire set of experimental data,3l and the following values were obtained for the coefficients
al and a2.
al
= 0.190 0.08
a2
= -0.04 0.08
The theoretical values resulting from the spin assignments Ia

2+ and Ie = 0+ (see Fig. 9.28) are
a1
= 0.125
a2
= 4+, Ib =
= 0.042.
The correlation function that results from the above coefficients is included
in Fig. 9.34; the dashed line represents the least-squares fit, and the solid
line the theoretical curve.
From Fig. 9.34 we see clearly that an anisotropy in the angular
distribution of the y-y coincidences from 60Co exists; we obtain
ct = a(l800) - 1
= 0.165 0.016.
(9.46)
The error flags in Fig. 9.34 were set at 1.5%, but the data points scatter
even more. This is not due to the "statistics," but to random fluctuations
and drifts of the equipment over the long counting intervals.
31 'This included 21 more measurements in addition to those presented in Table 9.6.
.
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, ................ ..................................................... - .... , . , ..... , ... , ...... , .... '.-.'.'.' ..
.. ...... ........ ....................................................................................................................... .
, .............................................................. -........ ~ ......... .................................. ~.~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ ~ .............................................. ~ ......................................... ~ .............. ~ .. ~ ............... ~~ ... ~~ .... ~~ .... ~.~ ... ~ .. ~ ....... ~.~ .. ~~ .. .
':.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.: .. :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.;.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.
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w~
'$:-'-~-':.
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' '. ...... '. :'. :.:~~-:: : =:;:; : ~.: ~ : ~ ~.~ : : :.: : : ~.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::~:::~:~::.::::~:::::::::.:::::.:.:.:.:~ : :.:.:.:.: : :~.:.: :-"!~...... . .",
C HAP T E R 10
Elements from the

Theory of Statistics
10.1. DEFINITIONS
Statistics is the science that tries to draw inferences from a finite number of
observations constituting only a sample, so as to postulate rules that apply
to the entire population from which the sample was drawn.
In the field of physics, statistics is needed (a) to fit data-that is. to estimate the parameters of assumed frequency functions; (b) to treat random
errors; and (c) to interpret phenomena that are inherently of a statistical
nature.
10.1.1. Definition of Probability

The probability of occurrence of an event can be axiomatically defined as
~: ,.': :, : ',
r:
:~:.,
equal to one (= 1) if the event occurred, or equal to zero (= 0) if the

event did not take place. An alternative definition of probability is based
on the frequency of occutrence of an event. Suppose that several trials of
the same experiment have been made; then the pr;@bability of occurrence
423
.' ................
.....
~~
III
JIll . .
JIll JIll
...
III JIll . .
... III III JIll . .
. . .......... ..
10 Elements from the Theory of Statistics
...'..'.......................
.. . .. . . . . . *%*
... , .............. .
.......
~ . . . . . III JIll . .
... III III . .
424
..
...
JIll
JIll

... III . . . . . . . . . . . JIll
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JIll . . . .
.......
.....
JIll . .
.'
of....
. . . . . . . . . . . . III . . . .
obtatned divIded by the total number of trials (In the hm1t that the
...
III
.. III
,
........
III JIll
JIll
JIll . .
to~::~:::::::~
:::::\:;;:::~:
-~:~.
tnal can be consIdered as the first of a senes of tnals.
..........
::::::::=:::::::~Wl~~
:::::::~::;::::::ma~ma:
~ ~:
....
10.1.2. Sample Space
m
'
:-:. >:-~. ~. :. :..:~.:

............
" .. of......
.- '"
..
III JIll
~~~~--~.
...
of of
::::~:
..:..:m.m~
............
J/"""
'
"".
............
a s~ple space. Fo: ex~m~le~
If
~ C~ln IS tossed tWIce, the' sample sp~%.~}~~~W~
or infinite and discrete or continu~us.)
.:>\i~i~~~::
.:)~:)~~~i~::
..... ~..:~.
of the space. From the defirution of probabIlity, we have
.:
. . . " '.m.
.:.:
.................
.:::;~~~*
. .. .. ..m~. ..
. . . . .. .. .
...
. ........."'...... ~....,
.............
. ..~
""'.....
......
"'" . .
....
...........
.........
.
..
.
..
..
..
.
'.'......
"'
"
.....
.'
..........
......
.
..... ........ .....
...
..............
. . ... .. .. ... .. ....
' ...........
Pi> 0
~ ..
. . . . .I . . . . . .
~
"
,"
aU sample space points
.................
.. .. .. M ..
....
thus
~.
Pi :5 1
and the probability of occurrence of an event A is
P{A)
= }:ALPi
Pi~A)
...
..
...
..
. .. . .
:.::.:. .:.:...~..:~:::
M .. ~.. ..
.....
-."........
.. ... . ... . .... ... ............
..... ... ... x:.... ... ..
........................... ~
-",
".~
. .. . ..
- . .. ... ... ...
'"
...
- ...........
.t"'",j,
... .. ..........
... ... ..Mwt*
.....
...
.......
""......
......
.
..
......
.......... . .
. M
A)
...........
. . . ..* .. .. .
m
...
... ...
~~
-- Pi(
.II
............................ ~.
where
. . . . . . . . . JIll . .
~
~
' ' M
~.X:
.....
... .. .AI ..
.. ..
~~
....
......................
-.. -: -: <.:.:.:..:..:~::
.......................... ~~
LA indicates summation over all points that include event A./itji~~~~I~~~

.......
' ," . . . . . . . . . .m
. ..
ma~"
........... III ...... ";-/1 ~ .. ..
:::::::::~::~:~OO'~~::
.. A...~ . . .
~
... . .
.........
.... ... .. ......... ..
. . .. .. .. ..
.', ........."'........
-
Tails
Heads
(c)_
Heads
Heads
(d).
..
.....
A .... : -.
-. .
.......
III
..
_ I,A ........................
- -
..
..
...
..
III ... . .
..
....
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..
..
.~A..........................
. ....
....
....
..: }}:::::i~*:
M~
-:::=:=:::::~:::
...... ""
..... .... .
................
................
. . .. .. .........
................... .
Tails
..
.. .. ...........t" ".J",
Heads
. . . . . of .... .
,.;
.........
-.I'....
.. .. ... of..
. . ... ... ..
. - -: -:. :-:.:..~ . :~. :..
.
FIGURE 10.1
Simple example of a discrete and finite sample space. Here the
. . . . . . . . III . . . . .
~.
..
samk~;r~
.... ...' ' '.-h....-:m

.:.:.:.:.~
.......
:~
0(
..
. . ...........
. " .. ..........
.. 01.1'.
..........
. .........
, ........
. .....
'.I'. ~m
..
.
........
........
.........
.
.
.
..
..
""
.......
. . . .. 01.."'"
......
..
..
.. III of.
.... III .. .
..
.. III
..
.. -.I
..
.. .01
..
. . . . . iii
.....
:~~
.... ..
.:.:.:.:. ;. . :Ii
~
..
.. .. .. ..
-"--~"~
.~)I
~-
10.1 De/ i nitions
C25
In most situations trcated by statistics, equal probability is assigned to

each sample-space poinl, a condition we will maintain throughout this
discussion. Then
Pi = -,
rI
being the tolal number of sample-space points, and

P(A)
~ n(A),
n
where n(A) is the number of sample-space points containing event A.

For cxample, in the case of lhe sample space of Fig. 10.1. the probability
of obtaining heads al least once is
P(eas)
h d =
n(heads at least once)
= -
while the probabiliry of obtaining heads once and tails once (irrespective of
order) can again he found by counting the appropriate points in the sample
space of Fig. 10.1. We obtain
P(heads. tails) =
n{heads. tails)
"
= -.
10.1.3. Probability for the Occurrence of a Complex
Event
The probability that both events A and B will occur is called me joint
probabilil)'
PtA 81 ~ n( A and B),
n
where n = total number of sample-space points. T he probability that either
A or B will occur is called the either probability
P[A
+ B]
= n(A or B)
n
and thc probability that A will occur when it is certain that B occurre<l is
called the conditiolUl{ probability
P IA IBI ~ n(A and B)
n(B )
. . ... ,.,
- ................
-wm~~
.. ... ... ........ ....... ......... ......
- .. ...... . .
. . ... ...... .... ....... ....
- - ... ........
.
- -- .............
...................
.......
..
..............
............... ....... .
.,
-
426
JI
......
. . . . . . . JIll . .
JI
..
..
...
..
..
"
10 Elem e nts fro m th e Th e 0 ry of Statisti c s
-::::::::::~::::::~~
:.;';-;":.;.w..
:
.............
...
~
".....................
L.....
,...
13
.
t . ... .... . .
.
. ..."
..
..
.......
"...
....."
III
- . . .
......
""
.fill
.: .. .A ... "'.......: ...I': . . : ..

..
.
..
... . . ... ,.... ..
...
",."
....
...
..
."
..
.a
... -
..........
...
. '
....
..
to
...
... .. A.. . .. :.
t.-.
to . .
...
..
. . . ... .. ..
.....
.. . . . .
..
..
"..
to t
..
., .. ..
'II
..
".
---i~~"ii:.~\. .. ... . . .
.......-..
..
......
. ... ...
. ...... . ..
.. 'r....
....."
.
...
.
.
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.
.
.
.. .. . .........
. .... .. ". ..". .
.....
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.
. . . ..
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.
~.
...
If
til
..
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.
.
.
.
...
.
. . . 13. . .'....
........
... ,......
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.. . . . . .
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61
., , .....
.....
.
...
.,
..
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,.
. ..
"". . . . .
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....
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....
6:......
.....
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6:..
.,.....
..
til
p
II
-.
lIP
..
.,..
..
.........
'II
.....
6:..
....
..
.,
...
_________
__
_ _ _ _.......
1...
..
..
fI..
....
"
. .
- " " ....
II"
.. .. ...
..
... ..
~",.,.
.... .. . . . .
III
;:.,.a .. ... ..
""""
""" ,
"~'~~."'''''''''''''''.''''':m.
..
..-
... . . . . . . .
- -- ......................
. . . ... .. . .. %....'
~..........
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""""......
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- .......................
. .........
' . ' """"..............
...
.....
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...........
..
.
.
.
...
.....
. . . ... ..........
. .............
. ...
"l1li
-:<--;. . ;.:. .:.:..~~......:
.................
... .. ..
....
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
_ . . . . . . . . . . . . II1II,
m
.
W"
'. '. . .. . .00. .
... .......
..
. . . / '..... ..ll...
. ............
.............
..
t.
: : ; : :....
. ......... ""'.....
.. .. ...
.. ....
.,
::::::::::::~::it"-.y/..:,
..............
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..
".~".X3. . .
.......
.
.
.
..
..
... .
.
.
,
"
'
'
.
%"
..............
...
. .' ............."f" :--/
.......:
""'.
..
'
(b)
(a)
....
-~c-:'~.
IA . . .
-'~'
~
....
::::::::;:::::::~.,,...~
=::
~ ~ ....... .. .J"rtf' ..... ,
. . . . . ..
..
~OIl
.. ... .. ..
..
.....
.. - . . . .
--. . . ..... . . .... ' .'"..
-..
..
. . . . ... .. .. ..
II-
..
...
-' ""-- ...........................
.,
.,..
..
.:
III..
. . . .... .
...
.....
".'..
...
" .. ............
" ..... 0'X"'
.1'..1"....
.....
..
to..
.,
.....
. . . . . . . ,.
II.
..
. . . . . . . . . .- ..-
"" .
"'.
....
I.
.<
. .:. . ;. . ;......
...... ~:
...
"
.
.
..'". . ....... . .. .. ..
.......
" .
.
.
.
. .'.
...
.
. .
.t'
IIIl.
II,.
...
"
.
~..
.,
.. to
"
...
.......
#.
....
" . .
. ...
. ..
.. . .
.
."
"
.............
to
-.<:::::::::~::::.~
..
- . . . . ..... ..
_.. ............. .. '

.,.
IoJI . ,"
III
III
it.
,. ..
,.
...
..
....
.,
.....
"
..
....,
. . "
..
........
...
......
\I
.........
..
..
........
.
..
........
..
"
""
'" . . .
~..
.....
..
........
..
.,
JI
:':::::::;::::~~~ffi?:
domain A contain event A~ whereas all points in domain ~ contain event B. (a.) There exist$(::;;~:~iB=J:
X.
..
. . . . . .. ... ..
..
......
. . . . """".
.. .. . . .
II
II
number of sample-space points that c~ntain the stated condition divided ~l~I~~~
the ~tal number of sample-~pace pomts allowed for by the stat~ment:.<~tj~1j
domaIn A mclude event A while all pomts WithIn domam ':B Include even~t::~:~:~~:~
mc1ude both events A and B.
. :::::::::::::::~:~
If such a common intersection does not exist in sample space, the tWQ(:~{:~W~:~
events are mutually exclusive, and
)}j~~f%t~~~~
.-.~~~.
. . . .. .. """.... ...
.."'"'
...........
.... I111""_ ............ ..
' ~"
,,
P[AB] -
....
~
. . .f~
..... 1
~
"""'~. .
J:
............ .
-..........-.....
........
..... , -.J" ......
o.
A~AA
_.A~
~
-
..
~-
..
.. l1li .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
.. .. l1li ..
... . ,
..........
..
.. ..
.. .. .. . . . .
. . .. ..
~
~~~
~~.r~
.....
. . . . . . . ..'~...
II1II .. _
. . . .. ...,....
- -.....
.....
.....
II
..
... ...
...
...
'''.''.''II1II . . . . . ..
.... - .. 11111.~ .... ..
.. .............
=.-: ..
.. .
...
...........
. ................ ..
It follows from consideration of Fig . 10.2 that
I111I1111:
. . . . ..
.......................
"'
.....
_ " _ " ' l 1 l i . . . . . . ..
'" '" .......

I 1I .... .t~
....................
..
P[A
+ B]
.......X3
...
.......
......
... .........
....... .
!~
P[A]
+ P[B] -
P[AB].
A
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
A
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
~
'"
,;/'"~~
.J"
A ...........
'.'
....
..
.. ''--it~
:.:.~ :~:..:..~.
~
:
..
:
. ...
'" . . .....
-:.:.:.;.:.:.:~.:.~
...... .......
....
......
..
..
y~
For the conditional probability
~~
,.......
....... . . ,.;.... .
m
.x;.-.;..........
"
.. II . . .
.........
....... .. ..
~,.;.~.
.."
.J"~"
~...
,.;
~A
..~
......
.""
'........~.....~ . .
..........
....... ...~.. .;........
.-..
~,.;..
'B. However,
::::::::~;~~:.~.....:
. . ... .
..
. .............
.
"::::::;~~~~~"M"":
. . . . . ...
........
:::::::~~~~~~:Wm::::::":~
.... ...
.
....
:::::::::~~;~[fj'.l'm
::
....
... ..........
.. .-.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
. . .. ..
.
. . .. .
.
::::":,.;~:m"
~ 01
.".~,.;.
~
P[B]
--
.--
I'D)
(
n .i::J
n
is
'. ' ...... ~... 01".
~.
::"::":"~~:W
~
~..
,.;.""~
~
~
,.;
,.;
................
.........
.........
...
:::::::~::~::
. . . ~.
.
.
. ...... :-:.
.. .
.....
, , .. .
,.;
~ ,.;
~.
10.1 Definitions
427
and
P[AB]
13)
= n(A intersection
= P[AIB] P[E] == P[BIA]. PtA].
n
(10.1)
If PlAIB] = P[A], it means that the occurrence of B does not affect

the probability of occurrence of A. We say that the two events A and Bare
independent. It then follows from Eq. (10.1) that
'>
P[AB]
= peA]
(10.2)
. PCB].
Equation (10.2) in turn implies (when combined with Eq. (10.1

that for independent events
P[BIA]
PCB].
To illustrate some of the ideas we have just expressed, consider the following. For the sample space of Fig. 10.1 we may define: event A = heads
in first throw, and event B = heads in second throw. The domains are
shown in Fig. 10.3, and it follows (assigning p = ] /4 to each point) that
1
peA]
="2;
P[AB]
=4
PtA
P[B]
=~
+ B] == PtA] + prB] -
1 1
+2 2
P[AB] = -
- -4 =-4
T-T
FIGURE 10.3 The sample space of Fig. 10.1 including the domain A (heads in the first
throw) and the domain :B (heads in the second throw).
....
....
-ili~JIll ...... .
JIll . . ...
III
.....
...
III
....
I11III
III
JIll . .
~
. . . . JIll . .
. . . . . III JIll . .
......
.....
III
-
....
JIll
..
III III . . . .
~
..... JIll . .
. . . . III . .
III JIll . .
"
III . . . .
428
.. :.:.:.:-:.:-:-%.
... __ .. "';
. ... .. .
.
:::::
........ :-: ..
-.. . -W
. . III.... ..
.....
JIll
III
P[A,B] =
2;
P[BIA]
.~.-
....
....
111.
JIll
....
...
III..
..
....
....
JIll
....
III
.. ..
III
..... III . . . .
... III _
..
III
..
....
.....
= 2: 2 = 4 =
.. ..
JIll
....
III . . . .
.... III . .
III
....
P[AB] = P[AIB] P[B]
......
III
..
--.-:.:.:.:.:-:.:.~*~.
. . . . _. Xj.
- . ... .. .
.
- . . . . . . -~ . . . -. -.% .-.
. . . . .. - -- ---m-
2
1
......
III
.~.............
...
JIll
..
..
..
III
...
III
.. ..
..
..
_
--m
...........
.............
...
.. .
-.. -m--:
P[A] P[B].
...
.....
~. .
....
..
.
.
.
.
.
-ill
... . -......
..... --m. .-. ..-......... . . . ..
~
. . -....
....
JIll
III
....
.. ..
-'.'
III
..
.............
-.~
~~:-:
. .111111
. . . .'
..... :-:_.
ill
..
.. ..
_......
%
..
. ... -. . . :X. . -_.~.JII
Thus events A and B are not mutually exclusive but are independent.
..
...
...
......... joj-.
III
....
.. ..
-.............
.. ........_.1"%
* -.. ...
-
.II
...
...
...
...
...
...
III
...
..
..
...
....
.... ....
III
....
..
..
III .... . .
II . . ~
II ~ ~
-...........-...-:~J"_.
-
10.1.4. Random Variable
II
~~~~
..
II
.<>~~~~~~~~ffi.~~~
. ..'.. . .-............ . . *. ........

....
venient t~ use a numerical variable that takes a definite value for eac? ~~::Ij~w!~~
every pOInt o~ the sample space; howe:er~ the same value m~y be as~l~~~~~~~~~~~~m~~~
to se.veral po~ts. Thus, a random v~ab1e used fo~ the representa~on cj~::)j~ii~
a tilute and discrete sample space wlll have a defirute range and wIll t~!:i{~~~~~lli~~~
can asslgn to the random vanable x the value a for pomts (b) and (c) (oIl,~:}i:mi:l
each of heads ~d tails), the value -1 for point (a) (both tails), and th~UiiiiiWiil
value +1 for pOint (d) (both heads).
)~i~~%ru~~::~~
.......... ........ .... ..
-"~lli'
..........,.....,...X;:
.
.
...
..
..%
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
...
x
. . .. .. . ....'
........
10
1 5 F requency F one ti on
- .
- -:::::::~::::::=:::~
..... m
-
-'.~- -.~-
----mjo"~--~
. . . ..
.
......
...
..
~~
..
~~
A frequency function (of a random variable) is a function f(x) such th~t:mjjj%jji

f(xo} is the probability that the random variable x may take the specifip)}~~~~~i~~@
value xo. By Definition 10.1.1: f (x) gives the number of points i? tI:i~}!j!M!@
sample space that have been assigned the value of x of the random vanable,j{::~:m::::
divided by the total number of sample-space points. The function f(x) i~j{~~~~~@~@
defined only within the range of x and need not have a definite ana1Y~9i6~J%~~~i
forrn. For the example considered above (the sample space of Fig. 10.1 )\{~~~~*~~~~
I(x) is just a table, as shown in Table 10.1 (see also Fig. 10.4).
)nif*~f
_........
_*
...
.
. ...
. . _*_.-..
..
........-*_
.
.
_.....
.. -: ..
. . . .. .... ..X...............
..
.
... .. ......*
::::;
.
.
.
...
..
.....'....
.....:1.
..
.
.
.
..
.
.
..
. . .....
.... x...
........
.... ..*....
. ......W
'
.......
.....
.. .
..
......
~
=:
Ii
It
"
Sample-space
point
/(x)
-1
Ii
(a)
(b,c)
"2
(d)
-41
Ii
+1
Ii
ii'
.II
....
..
~....
...
~~
~~~
~%
..
~~.
~
..
.II
~111111
~~
"~X:-.
..... ..
.. ..
. . ..
... .. ..
...... ..
I
.II
..
.II
TABLE 10.1 Example of a Frequency

Function f (x) of the Random Variable x
.......
I11III
II II
II . . .
.
.
...
.
.......... .
..........
............
.. .. .. .... x;..:....
........... ......... .......
-......
,'.. ..
~lli~
......
.
.
..
..
.
'W:"-"':.......
........ .. .....
,'W
...
........... ....
......
:..;.....
.
.......... ........
.
.
. . . .. .. .......
. . . . .. ..
..
:-:-:.;.
.. ..:'~';m
... .... . .....~...
. . .. .... .... . ....
...........
.......... ........... .....
.....
. . . .... ....
........
',,m;m
~
...
...."'
.. .....
..
.
.
.
.
..
.
..
.
.
..
..
.
..
........
............
.....
...... .. ......
..
... ...
........ .......
...
....... .....
. ... ..
.
. ......
......... :.-~
x
.
"m
.....%....
..
..........
...'re
'm
x;
..
......'W
,.
ill
..... ffi
~
.... '.@.
.. ,.% .
... ,.%...
.....%...
.
....
.. ... w
~
~
._._.~ .. ..J......
y~
10.1
Definitions
429
1(.0:1
,,
,,
L
----:';---~-';----_.
-,
0
tlGURE 10.4 The distribution runction of the discrete mndom variable

Table \0.1.
,
~
defined in
The summation of f(x) over the entire range of x must give 1:
The probability that the random variable may take any value smaller or
equal to x is given by
F(x) =
L:
,.,
f(1)
and is ealled the dt'siribulionjuncliollof x (or integral distribution function).

It is sometimes convenient to describe a sample space in terms of two
or more random variables , a frequency function existing for each of them.
If these random variables are independently distributed in the sense of
Eq. (10.2), the joint frequency function is
[(XI , X2, ... ) =
f(xil
!(X2)'"
!(xlI )
If the random variable is continuously varying (for example, it describes

the height of individuals), the probability of occurrence of the specific
value x when a measurement is perfonned defines the frequency function
j(x) dx of the random variable x. The nmdom variable may now take any
value within the range of its definition. Note, howevcr, that the probability
of occurrence of tbe exact value X is zero, while it is the probability of
occurrence of some value in lite infinitesimal interval dx about x that
exists. For a continuously vary ing random variable, we have
( +00
f(x) "- 0
and
Loo
I(x) dx = I.
.....
~ ....AA-~-~-~_@.:~~
.. . .
...
~
....
III ... .III

.III .III ~
III
... . .
. . . . . . III . . . . ~ ~ ...~
..II III .......... ..,j ..
..... ... JIll I11III
,-r_.
-r--:.o
A III . . . . . . .
_
A
_
III . . . .
430
. . . . . . . . . . . . .III ....
A
. . . . . . . .III ... II1II
for
: :'::::::~~::::::::~m~
...... -.....
.... '"
.....
:.:.:.:.:.:.:-:~:~~
III .III . .
III
.III . . . .
~ ~
- A ..iI_................
III
.III
.III . .
-.~
-:<':':-:-:~
Similarly
III III....
:::::::::::::::~~~~
...........
,
........
III . . . .
:::::::::~:::::~:~
::::::::::;:::;:~~~~
.........
--~~~
a<b
f(x) dx ...:::. P[a < x < b]
:::::::~~::::~~:~
, :-:<:-;.:m~
......
--~~~
'.'
:. :.:A:. .:. ;..:. .:.... @w.

~..:
and
"
III . . . . . .
... _ ........
III . . . .
...
F(x)
.........-~.~-~
~
.II
- ......... ................ ~~
...
,. .............. ,-i
...
III .... . . . .
..II . . . .
......
III
IIIIf
....
._
. . . . . . . . . . . . II1II
...............
....
III
.II
.....
. . . . . . . . . . . ..iI ............~ ~
- _
... - ... ~ .. 1IIIf~

- -, \ ..........................111111~~~
- . . . . . . III
I
... .. ... ..
1-
A
..II ... III . . . . IIIIf
._
f(t)dt.
-00
. . . . .. . .....
_ A _
A A ~
~ ~
_ A _ . . . ..J
- ~
.....
~ - -JIA rIf":.
.......
.'......................
. .'................
. .........J~m
.@
..............
. ...............
.. .. . @
:::::::~;~;:~;:m
..~~ ,
~. ~
~
... .... ,r.~~..:

Yh
'............
. . . . . . .
.................~,.~
. . . . . . . . . J .. .. :
~~oo
(a) Permutations. A ~rmutatio~ of n objects in groups of r obj~i!~!!!!~~

defined as follows. ConsIder n objects; any group of r of these obJec~$=~:::::~~~:il
when ordered. forms a permutation; the same group of r o~jects, whi@i!l&:t1
ordered in a different fashion, forms a new permutation. As an examl1~i#tW.4i
consider the three obj ects:
}:::::~::~~:::i
.......
'. .. ... ...... lli~
........
. . .. . .... ... :.:
. .........
.
.
.............
.
.
.
~x
..........
O ~ 0
, ,
.:.~:~:~:~;~~~~;;~
~
. ........ .
.....
..................
.' ". . ... ~
~
011,
In groups
L10;
I.J.O,
DO, 00;
OJ:::,.
.<:)~{:~
..........
,
n.
,,}~<}~~~~
~
........... ...
r. n P" is
+ 1) =.
nPr = n(n - 1) (n - r
_._ . . . . . .AA..- . .
-~-.~
:.;:::~:::;:;:;-==0.
,':~)}~:~:;m
'.
............-....w;,x:
(n - r) 1
IF
-.~
:':.:.:.:.:A:_%.:~
...........
-..
-.......
-
- . .. .....
.....
. ..--:.
Then
A A
.-~
n Pn
b
as It must e.
-:~
::::::::;:::;~~
:}::::::;~:w.
-:'::;~-jJ"~A
...---x;
-.........
=- n..
AAA-~
.... A
_
,', ..........---~
......
'
~fi~ed as any ~ou~mg of r objects out of the ongt~al n.
.::::;:::;;;:::~~
The ordenn~~~~t~
WithIn the grouping 1S not relevant. Thus for the preVIOUS example tbe~~\?~@j
bl
b
.........
~'$ft
are on1y three POSSI e com InatIons
"::~:~~
,
.',
'.'
..........
.....,-.,.
.',
'
.,
..;l
~
I,.~ ",,,,,::::
I ...........
The number of possible combinations of n obj ects in groups of r, n

,i~)W~~i
r . ',',. ...'. .jt.,-.:
.',",..'..
,........
......*7..:
.
,.','',.. ..... . .x;

....
..... . .
'',,''".'
....
::.p;
,..... ..---. m
:.;
........
.
...........
. .... :.:
.' ...
,
~,J
'
nl
= -....:::'
'-.
rPr
r!(n - r)!
'
"
~~
'
..;l
~::a
~
, .... IJilJ
'
, ' , ' . ..........~J!

"
" i ' . . . . . . . .: ; : :
"
"
',
j
..---
.;.:.:.~@
~
, ,',"
, ,
......
.. . .
~~
, , .... I"..I'.J,
. :. :-::~"'~A
,':, ......
':.~.~.~JI'.I.
J"~
':.....
':.~.~.~~.x
'.....
~~
....
..
.......
.. .
,',
,
, , ,,,
,
~
1..1
, . . . II
..
10.2 Frequency Functions of One Variable
431
(c) Note. Note that

n!
= n . (n -
I)!
1!
= O! = 1.
10.2. FREQUENCY FUNCTIONS OF
ONE VARIABLE
10.2.1. Definitions
Let us assume that a population (for example. all the possible outcomes of
an experiment) can be described by a frequency function; we may attempt
::
.... to find this function in two ways:

:::::
.....
-:.:
~~:: -
(a) By the use of a mathematical model based on the definitions of the

previous section, thus obtaining a "theoretical frequency function."
~:i.~ "e:~i!~ ~~~:!~~ ~n~:~~~

.::: ::.:
of the population and determining its
The advantage of obtaining a frequency function for a popUlation is that
~: .:~',::_,: _-- the few parameters involved in the frequency function suffice to describe
completely the entire population and thus provide as much information as

the most extensive data.
We will now deal only with populations that can be described by a
frequency function depending on a single variable. To obtain the empirical
__ .__ frequency function it is best to divide the members of the sample into
classes (defined by the random variable) and tben make a graphical plot
f:~: : : : - or histogram of the sample. If we try to describe the histogram, the first
obvious features are its location and its spread.
{_
A very useful set of measures are the moments of a histogram, defined
in the usual way (moments of forces, electric moments, etc.). Thus, if Xi
~:::: is the value of the random variable for the class i and if fi is the number
of events in this class, the kth moment of the empirical frequency function
X . about the origin is
~r
I
1 '" k
mk=-~xifi,
all i
where n is the size of the sample. Similarly, the kth moment about any
other point Xo is
mk(xo)
"
= -1 '~(XI
n
~~~(. .
~:::: ..
~:-: .
...:.:.
all i
xo) k fi-
-::::~:~:~::~~m~
. . . ..
-..............
-
......
III
JIll
......
JIll
JIll
.......
III
III
~.-
..
~. . ~~
~~:
.. ..
:':':':':':':';:~~M'
~~
432
.....
-. .
...
'"
-.~~
~
....
JIll
..
.:.:.:.:.:.;.:.:~~
. . . . .. . . ~
- ..... '"
JIll
III
JIll
III
..
....
....
-................~0.
....
JIll
III
JIll
III
.. ..
. .........
III
.II
.......
~
.II
JIll
III
..
-.1'
~
.. ..
JIll
..
~~
-M~
10.2.2. Mean and Standard Deviation
..... :..:..:'m
.m
III
III
III . . I11III
JIll
..
denoted by m.
III
...
III
......
III
.
Xl
---
an r
.
:hl
JIll . .
JIll . .
JIll . . . .
....
JIll
~~.-,
..
- -:/::::::::~m
::'--h
.......
.
.
. . ... .
.........
.-. ........
... .......................
. .. .. ....%:.
... :.:,'"
.....
, .........
(10 .3")::::::::;:%:
-.... ..~m.
m:
--
1
-
...
......... ~.J
........
"
m - m1 -
:.:.:.~.~
-
. . . . III JIll . .
. . . . III JIll
' ...
.-:.:.:.~.:.:.:~~@~
0::.:
~.
....
... ....
...
....
III
....
III
......
~~~
...
~.
III
..
I11III . .
~~.
~.
III . . . .
:<.~.:.:.::::x:
..... "X;:~
variance; its square root is called the standard deviatioti)j~

and is denoted by s: s has the same dimensions as the random variable ~;~<i~~~~~W~
................
..
.... .. ..... %x
. x
.X
X ..
......
..
. . . .. ....
1
v....:
........... . .
.. - .. ...
all i
.....
.. .. .. ... ...'.w.;'
.... ...
. ........ .
.
An often used relation pertaining to s is
.....
'
.
w.;"
........
..... ... .
.'
~~:
2
1
2
1
2
2
.'..............
. . . . ffffr.:~
S = (Xi .- m) Ii = (Xi - 2mXi + m )Ji
@
..
......
;.
n
n~
....
. .rill.......
. . - . ..
aU i
..........
. . .... w... .
. .. .. .. .-'. . . .. ..
.
2
122m
2
. . . . . ... .
.'
...... W"
.. .....
'......". . ".._-:-:
.....
s = -n
xl Ii - -n
(Xi!i) +m
:.
m2, is called the
......
;.:~II
III
. . . . . . III ...
. . . . . . . III
..
III.
III ...
~~
. . . . . . III . . . . . . . .
J ....
..
III . . . . . .: " - / . .
III
n~
. . . III ...
. . . III...
. . . III ..
. . . III ..
.-
.:.-:
.. ..............~
.I".
...
.. III ...
.. III
.. III ..
........ m
. . . . III ...
..
...
iii
....
III
III ...
~.
III ...
. . . . III . . .
.. III ...
iii
III
..................
. . . III
.... ..
....
III
III
..
..
III
III ..
III
III
III ..
....
III
.-
...
.~~~
~m
III ...
... ...
........ w.;*~
'-J/Il
-....... m.
_
... ..01
III
.. "
~-..........
:.:.:.:.:.:.~.~~:.
. . ... ....
.a......J
. . . . . . x'
-...... ......
- -
alli
:-:::::~:W~m"::
-......................
. ....
. . ... ...
..
.
...........~......~~..
.. .. ...... ........ .
..
........ :.z'. . -..................
- ........
.;....
.....
.
:.-:
....
- .....
- .... ....
-.... -......~%.'... ..
. . . . . . . ..
- - ... .......
.............
%
--.....
'W
.~.
..
.
- ...........
- ........~.. ~:~
- . . . . ..
...........
. . . ''l_/'z
-..
--........'.' m"
w."
~
- '"
..... . . . . . . :.
~.~
--.. . . . . . .
~
~ ~
~ ~ ~
usually written as
~~~~
"'...-
Ax2
=x
(x) ~
-.. ....... . . . . .
~
~~ ~~
(10~~1rt~~ffi~~
.:.:.:.:.:.~.:~~
In most cases the mean and the standard deviation are the best measuremJ~m~~
(contain most infonnation) of an empirical frequency functio~; there ~~t?ili
nevertheless, cas~s where they ~e very poor measures, and m~tead ItW?~~~~@~
much b~tter to gIve other locatJ.on meas.ur~s, such as the median or th~\~~~@j
geometric mean.' a~d so on; and other vanatJ.on measures such as the rang~)~~;m
......
.. . . ~.~~
......
.. . .
.:~:~:~:~~w.~.
....
. . .. .. ..
<{~~~MW.;
.........
.............
.. ....
. . ... .
:.::::::::::~~
~
~.
10.2.3. Theoretical Frequency Functions
... . 00
~
the discrete type---
.'...........
.. .. ...Wm.
", . w:
...
..
...
~-:~.=;:
.. W
. . W.
. . . .. .
:-;.>:,~
.. .....
I
'. 'ru~
... . .
.
:::~"'W
~
..
..
",. xI
...
...
..
...
II
.
..-
433
or of the "continuous" type. Most of the discrete random variables usually

represent the number of successes, or of counts obtained. etc. In going from
discrete frequency functions to continuous ones, obviously all summations
are replaced by integrals.
Moments are defined as in Eq. (10.3), but instead of the empirical frequencies fi' the theoretical frequency function f (x) is used; the
theoretical moments are designated by Greek letters, Latin letters being
reserved for the empirical moments.
Thus, the kth moment about the origin is
p.~
z=+oo .
xk f(x).
x=-oo
The first moment about the origin gives the mean; and is denoted by
p. = p.;" The kth moment of a theoretical frequency.function about its
mean is
x=+oo
J.l-k =
(x - ILl f(x).
x=-oo
The square root of the second moment about the mean gives the standard
deviation and is denoted by (J = $2:
IL2
x=+oo
(x - p.)2 f(x).
x=-(Xl
10.2.4. The BernouDi or Binomial Frequency Function

This basic frequency function is applicable when there are only two possible
outcomes of an experiment. as, for example, the occurrence of an event A or
its nonoccurrence (we designate this by B). If the experiment is repeated
n times, the random variable x describes the number of times event A
. . occurred. The frequency function-that is, the probability of obtaining a
certain x-is given by
;:::
(:
,:
I(x)
n~
x!(n - x)!
pXqll-X,
00.6)
:~( where p is the probability that event A will occur in this experiment (defined
~I:: ~:~~:~~:~e;:l~.e~~~:~~~; .~)~~dn~t::c~/ is the probability that B will
~:>:
~:::.:
....... r::;
:::::~::~:.rm~~
............. ~~
-- .........~
-.. .....~*'-.-1.
..-'.............
-..'..'....... . . . x:
......
..... . . '." . . . *W.%
434
-'
III .... ...
...
III
.III
..
- -:.:.:.:.~.:~~~~.~
10 E'ements from the Theory of Statistics
-'
-'
III
....
.......... ..
~.
. ..........
......... ..
.
.... I11III'0
..
........
..
..
..III
III
......
~.~
-'
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:~
To prove Eq. (10.6), consider the probability of obtaining event A,it~!~~

times in a definite sequence
- --:>~<:~:~:rn
AA
..
BB
1 : .
'"
.:.~.:.:.:%
'
. . . ,
;!!
to
.-:.:-: ~:. :.:. :~~:.~
"'---;
..........~
-'
.JIII
n -x
-' -' ................
-' ........
. , '
-' ........ ~.r.
..
. ' .............~
, : '
.. ...........
. . . . ... .
. :-:-:
.
:
.
.
:
.
:..-:--:.1
.r.JI
...........
::::
.........
..
..
.........
............
. .....
..
... ... . .. ..........
...
-'
this joint probability of order n is according to Definition 10.1.3

\ "
.,
..
yJUE;
"'V'
&11
q . p X q n-x
-'
-'
JI
JI
..
...
.. . . . .
..
JII
'i
!III
,j.~
......
....
.' ':':.:JI:.:":":"~~
................. ..
..
......
m
.. '::::::::::::~:.w.rpj
.. .. .. . ............... ::::
..........
.......
.
. . . . .. ............
...w..
~ :~
,.
.J
..
n -x
.....................~
......
-'
pp .. p qq
JI.
'
. .' ...............
.....,. .... .:::::
.0
~
since the outcome of consecutive experiments is independent. Howevek)!ilit~

any other sequence,) containing the same number x of occurrences, is a1s~~)~}~]
a satisfactory answer, since we are not interested in the order of occurrenc~~{~~~m
of event A_ Thus we must sum over all sample-space points that give ~<}~j~fj
occUlTen~es; the n~ber ~f all such sample-space points is giv~n by th~U@~~
permutations of n objects In groups of n when x of them are ahke (have::::::::~
-I
)
hi
h
-:-:.:-:.:
.
~.
pro bab1 Ity P , w C 18
-:::::=:::::~:~
.....
;''''./.
,','..........
*u;.
.......
".,
.............
... .. .......
... .%
..
...
n!
..... ' ,""'.:::-
,
,
,
,
x!(n -
, .. .......
X,.....
. ,.....
...
, . . . . . ri"'
",
....... ,
......
/..,:
. . ,< ::::
x)r
. , ..........A.~}I~
, ,
:~;m
The ~equency function fulfills the nonnalization requirement as itmi!i~m

should, since
.:-:.:.:.:-
,., '.."'.. ."0

...... .
..
, ......
........ . y.
. ...... ..t'..
...........
f(x) =
-0
I.--tI
X-
...
,
n-
' . , . .... , ..1"0lIl
0~
, ' ... '"

' ,
'
x n-x
_.
-p q
=.
x=O x! (n - x) ~
(p
+ q)
- [p
+ (1 -
.;.:-=.;.:.....:
p)] = 1. ~:~
.,.,.
:~:=:::;:::::
.....""""...
.......
.......
...... :.-:
.
:.:.;.:
..
:
.......
..
...........
(10 7) ........
......
..........
.... "'"
......
" ..... ...
" ..... ...
.....
.............
.......
.......
............
........""
........
,'
"
"
, ,
,
' , , ,.
'
, ........
"
. . . . . OIl
. . . . . . . .011
. . . . . . .011
,.
.011
....... OIl ..
,. . . . . OIl ..
, . . . . . . .011
, . . . . . . . OIl . .
, . . . . . . .011
10.2.5. Moments of the Binomial Frequency Function
,
, ... .. ... .011
,
" , . . . . . . . OIl
,
,
,
,,
,
M . . . ..:
, .. MII.J"
From the definitions of Section 10.2.3, and since the range of x is from O"<}~i~~~
', . . . ,....:::
t o n, we h ave
<;:;:;:f.
.
....
......
..
....
.
.
.
.....
.
.
........
....
""...
n
n
......
....Z.
,
n!
x n-x
.., . '....
..
.......
/.L = J..tl xf(x) =
x
p q
""'.'''.:x''
, , ,.
, ... ,
,
,
,
,,,
', M....
I
'n.
---."
..r"",......,
x=I
iii
....
, , .. ....r,..
'"
...
.
'," ..........:r
..............
.....
........
.....
, .........A.. .
....
......
.. ...
..."" '"
......
, ... ,r",
,, ,
' , ' ....

....A ... .
, , ... .oj,
, .... ....... ,jM
, ... .r.
n!
. ..
x-'
x !(n - x) ~
01 .....
. ,' ........... .Jl

,
x n-x
p q
" , ......"".,jM
. ,' ....
...."A.r,JII
.r
,
......"" .Jl
, ," , ,, ...
.r.
,', .......... ,jM
,~
- np
xl(n - x)!
x=o
x=O
n
'Ii
.I
'
(n - 1)1
..
'"
- p
x=l (x - l)!(n - x)!
,
, .,
,'
' ,,..':x
"" i"
....
'.l'
,,....
..
... ..
, , , ..... .
,
01 A
...
.
.
...
.
....
...
..... .'"..
....,. ......
....
...........
.....
....
......... .. ....
......
...............
.'::'-:
, .
...
......
..
...... ..
.......
.
j
x-I n-x
,
, ,, ,,
,
,,
,
....
...
, ,
,
,
I
..... .
, ,
I
,
,
, ,
,
,
, '"
,
,
,
, ,
,
...... .
.,
I . . . . . .~
.r.
...
.... . . . . . .:
10 .2 Frequency Functions 01 One Variable
435
If we let y = x - 1. it follows that
"-,
_ n "C""'
(n - 1)1
y [(II -I ) -y)
11. - P ~ y![(n - I) yl! p q
,
where now the sum is equal to (p
+ q)II-1 :ii. l. Thus

,
11. = np.
Next we wish to obtain the second moment about the mean. J1.I =
Orst calculate J.L2, giveD by
(10.8)
0" 2.
We
Weuse
x 2 =x(x-I) +.t
so thai
"
n~
11.2 = LX(x - 1) I(
x. n
~=O
)' p;rq"-~
x.
+ J.L
"
= n (n -
I )p'
L: (x
.f",1
.f-I II_~
(n - 2)1
2)! (n
x ) !p
and letting y = x - 2, as before. the sum is equal

we oblaiJI
11.2
= n(n -
+ J1. = n I p2 -
l)pl
[0
npl
+11.
(p
+ q ),,-2 .. I and
+ np.
Next we use Eq. (10.5) to obtain

11.2
J
{.
=0-
=14 _J.L2 =
_npl + np
= np( J -
p) = npq .
(10.9)
The binomial frequency function is applicable 10 many physical sit:::. ualions, bm it is cumbersome to calculate with. When n becomes large.
-_.
... . ------
..... ....
. .
~
~
~
~ ~
. ".
~ ~ ~
. ~ ~ ~ ~ ...~ ~ III
,~
.... III II II
III . . . .
III ..
.... III III II II
~
.... III II ..
III . . . . .
.... ... III .. II
..II III III II

~

III .. II
...
... III ..
... ... .... .. II

~
... .... III .. ..

III .. ..
....
..II
..II
.. .. . I . II
...
......... ..
..II III III II
..II
...
..II
..II
~
~
~
~
"
436
.- -
....
III ..
III .. II II
... III III .. II
... ... .. II
-~~
III
..II
III ..........
III .. III
.....
... III .. III
III III II II

III .. III
III . . .
however, the binomial frequency function approaches either the PoisS~n~Q~~~r

the Gaussian frequency functio~ which will be discussed in Sections 1(f2~6~~~~:~
1
and 10.2.7. In order for the binomial frequency function to approach.~"~i~~~~~~J''''''''''''''''
Gaussian distribution
n must be large, for example, n > 100.,

but f-L :=! n p must be fim te and small.,
for example, p < 0.05.
n must be large" for example,. n > 30,
'.
and also p must be large, for example,

p > 0.05.
l'~'"
III .. ..
III..
III II
.....
... III
.........
. . . .. ..
..... . .. ...
. .. JO"'......
Poisson distribution
II~JO~"''''
4
I

If III .. II
. . . . . . . . III .. III II
... ... . . . . II
,..
III
,..
~
,..
,..
..
,.. .. III
III _
.. III
III
....
.... ,. ...... .JO"'
......
.JO"'..........
.JOJO
,I
,I
,I
,1
,I
,..
,.. . . . . . . . . .
,..
...........
,..
III.I.
I.
I ..
..
,;
i
~JO"'
..............
,;
III..III..III ..
i
,..
III III . . . . . ~JO"'
,I
~ ,.. . . . . . . . . . . II
,..
III
III
. . . ..
...........
.....
... ... .. ....,..,.,. .... ....... ..
..............
.
.....
., ...
.
.
.
..
..........
....
. . . .,......, .. .
....
...
...
.......... ...,.,..,. .
...
.. .. . ... .,.........., '".. ......
...... ..... ..,. . . .
........... . ...,. . ...
.........
.. .. ..... .., '".'". ..
..........,., '". .
......
........,....,.,..... . .
.,1
........
i ,
III ..
,..
III
,..,..
III
~ ~
,.. III . . . . .
,I
.4.
,.
,.
.,;"
,.
,.
,.
,.
,. ,.
,.
,.
,I . . . .
'" ..
'.'. . . . . '.
~.1m
If the
expenment 18 repeat~d n tImes when n --+
00
fO.r ~l~e n). Contr ..i:&~
expressIOn of the frequency function, but instead only their product))~
~,
'.' ' ..r'....
which remains finite despite n
~i> 00, since p
function is given by
.... ~~~
--+ O. The Poisson frequenc~n:#j@

::::~:w.:
.'
YX e-Y
f( x) = ,
X I.
.. :::::::::::
::::::::::~:
.....
1M
_..
.._
~ ~~j-:'-:
'>:':':':~:"9h:
(10.11J\>~:~:~~~~;
.
...........
... . ,..-ax."
. .J',. . . . ..
oM
.1
...... -
..
-.
1M
.....
'J"'.... .
and it is shown in the next section that y is the mean of the distributio~:i::::~!~%:
governed by Eq. (10.11).
. . .
:.:.~<~}~W~~
To prove Eq. (10.11), let us first note that since n IS large, It (but not xJ:}~:~m:~
may be treated as a continuous variable; second, we will assume that for :~~(J~1~~~~
small (differential) number of trials dn., the probability of obtaining even~::)1~~@~~~
A once is proportional to this number of trials: that is,
~::}~;~:~~:~
.."' .........

joj ...
.. ... .... .
'......
. . . ~.. ..
......
(10 .. 12) . ... .......
P{1, dn} = :Adit.,
"' .... .
"'
...
I}III II:
... I
, ',
..
.......
""'
~~-
.....
... ...
.....-..... .
where A is a constant. Note tllat Eq. (10.6) fulfills this requirement for>}~~;t~
..........
x = 1 in the limit that p ~ 0 or q ) 1. In terms of sample space o~<J~~~
.' ,...............r'.
,
, ,
"
"'""'
assumption means that the density of sample-space points containing event}~~~~~~~~

A is unifonn in the limit of a differential element of sample-space area~. \)~~~~~~
,,',,..........
:.:t-
.r
.r..'}.r
ii'
..........
......"".
......
.
........
.
......
.
...
" .... .
.........
...
......
.....
....
..
......
.....
......
.
......
......
.
.......
.......
......
..
......
..........'''
','
",
,', ...........1"...""
,
1See, however, the detailed discussion in Section 10.2.9.
"
"
,
,
"'
..
"" ,
""
", ', "' .r
,,
""
,,
""
,,
,.
, ,
"
,.
"
.
"
,,
.....
....... .
.. .. iJAJI ..
',''''
"'.. ..
.....
.
. .
..' .,'...............*x'".....
,
"
, , ''''
", ',.
.......~ .r
, I. ,
,.
,',. ....... .JI.....
, . . . . ".JI -
,',.."' . . . . . . ..,f
"'.~
..
..
,
',_ .... "'...
.J"-.....
437
The Poisson frequency function then follows for all populations for which
assumption (10.12) is valid.
Let P {x, n I be the probability of obtaining event A, x times in n trials,
so that P{O, n} is the probability of obtaining no events A in n trials. Then
the probability of obtaining no events in n + dn trials is
prO, n + dn}
= pro, n} . [1
- P(l, dn}]
since the events are independent. 2 Using Eq. (10.12) we obtain
prO, n + d;~ - pro, n}
-pro, n} . i..
or
dP(O, n}
--:---= prO, n} . A,
dn
which bas the solution

In P{O,n}
= -n)..
prO, n}
= e- n >..
and use has been made of the initial condition that for n
P{O,O}
(10.13)
= 1.
In a similar manner we obtain

P{1, n + dnl
P{l, n}P{O, dn}
+ P{O, n}P{!, dn},
where the two possible either probabilities are summed. Making use again
of Eq. (10.12), we may write the above result as
P{l, n
+ dn} =
P{l, n} [1 - )"dn]
+ P{O, n} . Adn
by further transforming and using Eq. (10.13) as well,
+ AP{1, n} _ Ae- rr }, = O.
dn
The solution of this linear first -order equation is straightforward, leading to
dP!!, n}
P{1, n}
= e-n>.. [ / en>")...e-n>"dn +
making use of the initial condition P {I, O}
cJ
= (n)..)e- n >..,
(10,14)
= O.
2Since the increase in the number of trials dn is differential. the possibility of obtaining
more than one event in dn is excluded.
................
........ --:..:
......
..
........ .... ,. . .
"'" "'" A..
"'" ""'
.....
"'"
....
..OIl
,11
.....
.......
01
.......
.....
..III
..
Jo.J
01 . . . .
- ..
","",
. . . . . . II 01 . .
. . . . 01 ... . .
.................
-
'
.. ... .
.
. . 01 ""..III:
01 . .~
10 E'ements from the Theory of Statistics
'
':..:
... ... ..
....."'"
. .. ... . .......
438
....
-~~
II
.....
-.J
...... 01 ...... . .
. . II . . . .
.............
OIl
..
......
Z~
. . . . II ..... . .
. . . '" ..01 . .
'.'....
..
....................... .r
....
'" ..... ..
.....
'" ...... ..
.
.
.
.
.........
.......
. . . . '" '"........ .....
... ..........
. . . ... ... ... ..
.. .........
. .............:-:....
-......."..."'"
.. . ......... ..
.......
. .. . .........
.......
-........
.... .....
.. .. . ...... .
............ .
....
..........
..
.
.
.......
..
..........
............
........... . ...
............
............ ...
........... ..
- ........ '..t
....
.......
..
'"
+ ",P{x, n} -
",P{(x - 1), n} = 0,
'" . . . . Jill
.. .... . . . . OIl
"'" "'"
. . . . . . . . . . . . )III
..
...
..
............. JIll
. . . ..!III
......
III
....
III . . . .
. . . . . . . ..!III..
....
III
"'" . . . . . .
. . . . . ..!III . .
......
'"
JI
"'" ..!III . . . . ,
"'"
..
..... JIIIII II1II

. . . . . . "'" .. JIll
dP{x; n}
Ai
"'" '" "'". . . . ..,{"'.

~-'
OIl
AI . . . . ..
".tI
.....
."
. . . . . .AI . . . . . ..
In general the following recursion fornlula holds
l1li ,
"'"
. . . . . . oil
...
"'"
"'"
.....
..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . l1li
-. ' ................................J
~~
.......
:II
which is satisfied by
AI ...
........
AI . .
:II
......
...
"* ...... III

"* "* .. ..
"* ..... ..
A
. . ... ... III

A ...
"* ....... III
.. "* "* ... ... ..
SA.n)Xe~nA ,
....
f(x) = PIx, n} " .
AI ...
..........
~~
. . . . . . . . III
.:II
.:II
'"
.:II
")
.....
(1 0 15
. . . . . ..
... "*~A~~~~
.... ..
"* ....... ,
,.=' ......... "* ...rIA...rII".'
.~
'
xl
,..
.:II
.:II
........
.....
II . . . . .
II . . . . .
..
..
..
... ...
..
.......
11
..........
..........
...
..
....
........
II
......
II . . . . .
as can be verified by substitution.

>~}}~~~~~~
Thus Eq. (10.11) has been proven, and we can identify the proportion~>~J~~~~~~~
3
ality constant A as the probability that event A will occur in one triat AS<~)j~~~~~~
pointed out before, however, it is only the product y
An = pn that<}~~~;~~
may be properly defined: it is the theoretical mean of the discrete random~<~~;;~~~~~~
. . . .. .. . ..
variable x when the same (large) number of n trials is repeated many times<\~~~;;~~~~
Equation (10.11) correctly fulfills the nonnalization requirement
. \\~~~~~~;~
..........
..........
. . . . . . II . . . .
......
........ .
........ .
II II . . ..
.... II . . . .
n=oo
J
'--.F
x=o
X~O
-,
x_
..
00
II . . . . .
..
II
II . . ..
II . . . .
..
..
.. ... .
.. -"""""""......
.............
..
..
..
..
II . . . .
II . . ..
II . . . .
II
,
, ...............
",
,,,
"
II ""
.........
.
...........
..........
.
............
.........
.
..
........
........
.
.........
.........
th
I'
..
f
"
........
.
(10.11) IS e umting form 0 :':}}~:~::~
............
............
,
.........
,
, "
..
..
..
..
II
II . . . . . .
.. "* ...... ..
It is shown in Section 10.2.9 that Eq~

Eq. (1046) when p > 0 and n Ai:> 00.
...........
. . ... ... ..........
...........
...........
.......... . ... ..
,...........
.. "* ...... ...
...
,,
............
.. "* .. - .... .
..........
, ............. ...
......... . .
,
. ....... .. ... .
.........
...........
......... .
, ...
,
........ ... .
............
,
, ~ .. "* ..... ..
, ~ .. "* ..... ..
.........
........... .. ..
"* "* "*.....

.. .....
, , ...
, . .
..........
"* "*"*......
, ... ...
...... ..
, ... "* ..... ...
.....- ..
, , .. "* "*.....
,
"* "*.....
,
.........
10.2.7. Moments of the Poisson Frequency Function
......... . .
.. .. _... ...
........ . ...
...........
~
.........
..............
Following the approach used in Section 10.2.5, the moments of the Poisson >~~~~~~~~
frequency function will be obtained by direct evaluation of the defining :}~~~:~:~
"* .........
, "* .........
equations; note that as n

J.L = ILl =
I:
.........
........ .............
..
......... . .
x=n--+oo
I
(~~~~~~~~
> 00 the upper limit of x is also 00:

yXe-Y
X
x=o
x!
00
:--".
yXe-Y
III
III ... . .
...... . .
III ...... . .
III ...... . .
'" III III.... ._. . .......
.. ..
, ..... -...
.......
.........
......
... .
,, .......
.......
.......
...
.....
.
.
, ....... . .
....... . .
...........
, "* ...... ...
'"
_.
(x - 1)1
..
111
III
...... ...
III ... _
. . . . . . ..
'"
... ....
, "* "*......
"*
..
..
, , "* ...... ...

"* ...... ...
,
(x--l)
00
..
.......
.
.......
......
.. ...
......
...........
..........
,
,
- = e-YyeY = y.
- (x - 1)!
rII.a
...........
.......
.. ... . . .
..
.........
.......
.. ... ......
......... . .
, ........ . .
,. ........
. ...... .. .
,.
,
.
= e--Yy ) "'\ .,Y
. . . II . . . .
....
II .. .
II .. ..
..
..
II . . . . ...
II .. ...
II . . . . .
........
...... .. .
,
,
..
..
..
..
II . . . . ...
II . . . .
......
.......
. .....
... .
.. II . . . . ...
, . . ..
.
, II ..... ..
., .
Thus
..
.......
.. .
....
.
.......
.. ... .""
.....
" . .....
.
, . .".r,
3 P{L. I} = le-1
,
.
,
,
(10.16)
J.L~y
:::::~~~~~
. .
,
...
II . . . . ...
...
....... ...
II . . . . ...
... . ..
......
........
..........
.-..
.......
.......
....
.
.
...........
......
.
.....
.
...........
.....
...........
....
......... .
....
...
......... ..
....
......
.........
........ . .
, , ...... ..
....... . .
,
.....
.........
,,
..
,
,
,
.
.......
.......
..
.......
. ........
. .. ... ..
,. ......
. .. ......
.......
...
,
,
) 1 when A
II .. .
..
..
II . . . . ...
.,j ... . .
,
,
,
,
,
,
,,
,
,,
,
..........
, ........
........ .
......
....
..
II
II
II
II
II
,
,
II . . .
..
, .,,. ..:.;.;
x.
,
' '~.
II
....
~
..
II.
JIA
439
as expected from our previous discussion. We see that through Eq. (10.16)
we obtain the physical significance for the parameter y. Further,
r -y = '""'
f..L~ = '""'
x 2 _ e_
~
x!
x=o
00
-y
= e
00
00
x(x -
x=o
yx
(x _ 2)!
-y)
l)~
+y
x!
+Y =e
-y 2
x=2
00
Y(x-2)
+ Y ~ Y + y,
(x - 2)!
x=2
and using Eq. (10.5) we obtain

f..L2
= = J.L~ -
J.L2
0"2
= i + y - i = y.
Thus
0"
=..JY.
(10.17)
The close analogy of Eq. (10.16) to Eq. (10.8) and of Eq. (l0.17) to
Eq. (10.9) should be clear; also the derivation of these equations is
completely analogous.
10.2.8. The Gaussian or Nonnal Frequency Function

and Its Moments
TIlls is indeed a most important frequency function because (a) it is a limiting case that many frequency functions approach; (b) the distribution
of most physical observables is satisfactorily described by it; and (c) measurements contairung random errors are distributed normall y about the true
value of the mea.sured quantity.
The Gaussian distribution gives the frequency of the continuous random
variablex in terms of two parameters a and h, which are the first and second
moments of the frequency function. In its normalized form, the Gaussian
distribution is given by
f(x)dx
= --exp
b../2ii
[12 (x-a)2]
b
--
--
dx
"" and is shown in Fig. 10.5. The range of the variable x is from
(10.18)
-00 to
". +00. In order to show the normalization of Eq. (l0.18), as well as to find
the moments, it is useful to know the values of the integral of xn e- ax2 ,
. .
~~
....... _
A ..
~
......
~ . . . . . .AI
..II
..II
...
.....
.AI ..

... ...AI.AI..
11
...
..
..
"
.AI .. : - :
~"
"
" " " " "........ II:

" "
" "
" ""
" "
....
"
"
""" "
" " " ""
"
..
" "
" " " " .... 11
"""" ""
"
.....
"
11
"
"
,l
"
JI ..
.....
. . . ..
11
"
....
....
11
...
" "
"
"
....
11 ......
11
...
..
....
11
"
11
.... . . . .
..
"
11 . . . . . .
" " ".11
....
f-
"
....
'
11
J\
11
"
,l
11 . . .
"
"
....
"
11
...
..
"
"
...
'
...
11 . . . .
"
"
"
"
0.3
..II
,
7

0.4
. ........
...... .. 0.
"'':=j
0.
"''Xt
.
.
.....
.
..
......
..
.......".........
." ............. ..."x::
. 'fli.
.. ..
..
.
......
..."" ""....
......
"i?r
....
.
........
y.
.
.
..
...
.
....
..
. . ..Z,.
. " ".........
..............
Y-...
.
.
....
. ... ... .............
. . ....
. . "'.y;
. ....". .............
.
.
......
-::.:,...
.
"....
... .. ......
... .. .J
..
. ." .......
. . ..:.0::.0:
.......... .
.......
.. '"
.........
......... "'"
..
..
..
.. ........
"'" ........ ..
.........
. . . . .. .. ... ..
. . .. .. ... .
..........
.
"...........
.........
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
' .........:.;
.
. .. .. ...........:.;
.........
., .. .. ...... ...
,........
.....
....
......
.........
.
. .....
...
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
........
. . .. . . .. . .....
......
....
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
. . ....
.... .... ..........
.
.
.
... ..... .......
........
.
.. ... '.1'.'
........ .
. . . ... .'"'.I'.
............
. . .... ..
..........
.. . ......
.
............
...
f"
..
....
.....
....
..........
............
.
.
..
..
.
'
:
.-:
.
....
... .... .....
..............
440
..........
............
.........
... ... . --.z.
~
"
11
'1'
...... .
. . . . . . }I
A A .."
"
A .. ..
. . . . . . . . A .. '"

A"",
" " A .. "",
0.2
"
.. A .. ..
"
A .~
..
A .. ..
A .. _
...... A
" ""
..
.' " ............__J

,
"
.. .. .. J
. . . . . . A .. ..
. . . . . . . A .. .
" "
'
,J
" A ..
..
.
: 01
~
0.1
,;
,;
,.-
,;
,;
""""
-4
-3 -2 (
"1
\ 0
3~
,;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -.J
..............
,;
'
01 01..
..........J
01 01 . . ..
~
'
"
",;
,;
,;
,;
FIGURE 10.5 The Gaussian frequency function nonnalized to zero mean and unit variaii~~}~~~~:~
2
f (x) dx = (1/ ~1r)e -x J2 dx. Note that the probability of finding a value of x betwe~~tW~W
Xl and X2 is proportional to the corresponding area under the Gaussian.
:<~:)j~~~
..........
. . ........
...............
. ......
. . .. '"
",
..............
. ......
. .... "'."
...
...,.....
.---, ..I..
.
..
.,;. ...-:;.:.
x.I
...
..... ..........
.. ...."--', ..
....
......
.
.........
.
.. . .. . .
.......
--..'"
... .'.1'..
, ....
...
......
.
.....
.
, ,...
"--'
..
....
'.1'
,....
"--', '.I'.
.
..
., ........
:...;
.....
..
.......
,. ,.
'".....
.. . . .. "'" "'"
...A,."",.
"""
,. ,. ,.
.','
,
.......
A,.,.,.,.,/
.,
.....
,.,..
. .,
, ' .....
....
,.,.,."
. .,.
...
,.
,.
......
~
,
,..
,
.-
,;
...... *.
. , ".,f
TABLE 10.2
..
-.
Value of the Integral f (n) --
Ii
f(n)
,.---,
'I
Ii
fen)
"
~ y'n /a
1/2a
!Jrr/a
1/2a2
.'.' '. . . . .
Ii
.,
,
,;
"---'.
,
,
,
-_
,
~*.
,,,
,.---,
'
"
,
' ,
, , ,. . . . A.. ,
,
,
,
"
'
,
,
, ,
i.J;r/a
'
'F
sa
!I
at
Oi
"
it
II
,
,
, ,,
, ,
, ,
.. , . .
..
..
.... A
"'" jill
. . . . . . "'"
....... _
. . . . . . . . III
. . . . . . III
......
..
......
..
......
..
,
'
,
, ,, , ,,
, ,
,,,,
,
, ,, ,
,,,,
, ,
,,,
, ,
,
,
.," ,
Ii
........ ..
.......
........
"'".
........
........ ..
.......
.......
.
....
.
, ,'.....
.....
z
.......... .. .
.......
.
..........
....
.......
.
.........
......
..
........
..
.
.
......
..
......
.
........
........
...
-..........
............
,
when n is even
when n is odd
. . . . . . . . III
. . . . . . . ..
--
,
I
2f(n)
~.
, ...r'....
', .......... .....,f
"'"
"'"
"'"
...........
......"'".....
.........
......
.........
......"'"... .
......
.
......
.
.....
""'
......... ...
~
~
which are summarized in Table 10.2. To obtain the moments we proceeqi:'>i~~:~:~

.......
...... .....
.........
........
.
....
. ...
as before
........
..
..
.
.
........
..
....... .. ..
.........
..
......
..
2
+00
......
1
1 x-a
.. -. . . .
..
..
--xexp -dx.
... .. ..
.......
...
2
......
b
b 21f -00
,.....
.....
.
.
.......
.
.....
.....
......
...
.--......
.
.......
.
......
.
.......
...... .---.
...---..
.......
.
We let x - tb + a, dx = bdt; thus
...
.
.......
"".
......
.......
..
..
.......
.. .......
.....
.. . ..
.
.....
.---,.
+00
+00
2
.......
....
......
.---.
1
...
......
......---..
bte-(t /2)
"
, ,
, ,, ,
. . . . . . . . ..
..,;
,
, ,, ,
,
. . . . . . . . . . . ..
"
, "A
. . . . . . . . ..
,~
,
,
....
. . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . ..
( 10
--
.... .
...
.....
......---,...
......
.....
....
........ . .
...
.
....
..
......
..
.
......
"
.....
.....
...........'.
..
...........
According to Table 10.2, integrals with odd powers of t vanish., thus
-- a.
...
,,
, ',
' ,
--;
"
,
,.--"
,,
, ,
,
,
, , ,
, ,
, ,
.---.
, ,, , ,
.---.
,
,
, ,
,,
~
,
.
, ,
~
, , , ,. .,.
,
~
, ,
' ,, ,
,. ,
~
, ,,
,
, , ,.
, ,
, , ,. .. ,. .---.
, ,
-00
-00
.. ...
........
",
"
,
, ,
2it
.. ..
. . . . . . . ..
,,,
", ,
dt+
"A
"
"A
"I
I
, ,
, ,
---
. . . . . ..
w:
.. ..
. . . . . . ..
"I
....
.
....
.
.
........
19t}~~:~
.....
,. . .--.
,. ... .
" ....
' .....
"."
..
.....
,. ..--.... .--........
."..........--"
,. ..
.....
"'.",=,"
,. . '.1'
, , ..
" . '.1'
, ,...
........... ''""
....
' .... .
"'''::':
....... ""
, ..... .
. .. ......
../),. ,. .. .i"..
, ,, , 01 . . .-, ,
,
-, ,
,
, , 01 .. ..
, ,
, , .. 01
..
, ',.
, ,
,
--
,',. .;11
'
, ,
'
, , ,.
, ,,
"
'
, ........... ,)11
, ...... JIIA
,.A.J-..
ID.2 Frequency Functions of One Varia hIe
441
Similarly
, 11+ [I (' _a)']

00
'"
-b..fi7C
[':00
-00
x , exp -- - 2
b
2abte-(J2/2) dt
[:00
dx
a2e-VZ/2)dt ] ,
so chat by using Table 10.2 we obtain
Jk2 ==
~ [b2lv'g; +a 2.J2rr] =a 2 +b2
and, using Eq. (10.5),
Thus
d
=b.
(10.20)
We see that through Eqs. (10.19) and (10.20), we obtain the physical
significance of the parameters a and h or Eq. (l0. 18). Thus, Eq. (10.18)
takes the form
1 [I-"2 (I" -X )']
f(x)dx = a.J2ir exp
- a-
dx.
(10.2 1)
It is sometimes useful (0 LTansform (he random variable linearJy so as to

oblain a frequency function with zero mean and unit standard deviation;
the transformation is
y~
X-I"
--;
dy~
dx
- ,
and Eq. (\0.18) becomes (as shown in Fig. 10.5)

f(y)dy = _1_ e -(yl/2) dy.
.,f'irr
(10.22)
:.:.:.:.~.:-:-:-~
.>:. .::::}:::::;~~
.. . . .
.1
III JIll . . .
.. JIll JIll . .
. . . . "" JIll . . .
10 Efements from the Theory of Statistics
442
. . . ... ...'" """" ""
..
III III JIll
.....
III
.JIll
1l1li
' , ' . . . . . . . . . . . . .l1li. . . .
I . .
. . .
.. .
... ._ IIIIII I IJIll
JIIII.....
'
' . ' I ' I ' ..............
.-~
' . ' , ...............II1II. . . . . . . . . . .
......
III
"--~M
JIll
... ::::::;::;;:::::~~
:::>}~d!i
......... ...-- ~
as a LImiting Case
'
. . . . ...
-~
ConsIder Eq. (10.6).-:~:m.lli:

................. ~
n~
!Jr 00
but np
... . .... .....

..........
:
"
.
.
.
.
.
.
'...', ...
.
.
.
..
..
.
.
.
..
..
..
.........
.'.,,,,............
."............
... ... .. . ... . x....wI....
............. ....... ...
x n-x
)i P q
= x .'(n _-x.
f(x)
If n .
................................
.....J".J'M
, ", '..........or.. . . ~:::::
.. .. .. ..
.I'
~.2:?:.:
...
.............
... -.. .1m .
~.
~
:
oil.
~
! ..
...
............. , .II"""
.--...;;".>
.. .... . . .
.........
......... x;......
.. .
..
..
....
.-..- ....
. . . .. .. . .
J-L remains .finite, we may write
.........
........
. . .-.. . .m
.
X'"..
I
..........
. . . . . iii ..
. " ... -r"

~ ~.
(x)
"",'
..... ...... .",". .

......
.....
... -........ :.0::........ '
n(n - 1) (n - x + 1) (np)X
n-x
....
......
. ....... . .
(1 - p)
....
..... ...
.. .. .......
.
..
.........
.
nX
xl
...... ........
.
.':':.:':.;.j.:~
. . .. . ..........
...
.
.....
.........
.....
'..
............
.......
1[1 - (lin)] . . [1 - (x - l)/n] (np)X ~
n
,<.:
.
.
.
......
"
.
.
.
....
.
'
.r
..
s. ,s II - p) . ( 1023)
.'.' .. :: :~~.=;~~x::~~~
~.
""'~x
..... .
. . . . . .I ""
.I
s,
"'
~ ~~
.. .I "'" ~
. ~. . . . . .I .~
..
............
~.
.~,
~ ....~. . .~. . J
~
~~
""
J' .... .
.I ... ~
(x)
. _..{I -,- p)X- '. .
..-..
Ii.
. . . ..
~.*2
..
' , ' I ' ......_ ........

~%~.'
J'
...... .
'.I'. . . ...
l .....
...
...
.......
.
x'"
....... """'. .. ....
x.

...."".r~x,.~.J
~ ...... " '"
~.J
.~
"""""'~
....
""
. . . . . """'.
...
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.... x'.
.............,
::::;
. . . .. .. .. .
.
-.
.
.
.
~m"""':
............
.....
.
.
.'........
x
. . .. ..... . ......
....... ..
I
However,
""",'
"""'~
........
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.....
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........
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.....
. .. ..""",... 'x'"
..
......
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...................
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......
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...
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...
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........'
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....
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..... J-: .......
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.
.
......
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. ..............
. .... . . ...
..
.............,r, .. ...
...........
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.
.............
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
..
.
..
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.. :-:......
....
.
.
.
....
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
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.
. .. ... . . .. .
....... . ... . . . .. .. . ....
.............
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. .. . . . . ......
.
.............
. . . .. .. . ..........
..
... .. .
.......
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.
..................
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.
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..
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.
.
.
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....
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...
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.
..............
..
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.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
.. .. .... .. .. .... ... .
..............
.
... ........ . . . . ......
...........
. . .. ... . . ..
...................
................
........ .......... . .. . .. .........
. . . .. . . . . .
~
~
~
since from the definition of e,
~
. . . . . . ..J
..
........
..
..
....
'
. . . . . ...1
".
......................
lim (1
z ~ 0
+ z)l/l = e
~ ~
...
...
.................~
" "
and in the present case we have p. > o. Further
.' ....................~
'
1[1 - (lin)]. [1 - (x - l)/n]

Inn - - .. . - - .. = 1
n ;'00
(1 - p)X
..
...
..
..
because p -)0 0 and x is finite; by substituting the last two expressions intq}~\j~~~~~~~~~
Eq. (10.23) we obtain the Poisson frequency function, Eq. (10.11):
<?~~j~~~~~~~~
............
......... ...
...........
............
.....
............
............
.. .. .. ......
............
......... ......
............
..........
......
..
......
..
..
.
.
. ."''''''''''
..........
.. . .. ... . . .
..
....
..
.....
...
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.....
...
....""""' ...
..
.
.
.. ,.........
, .....".r.. ...
. ~
~
~,
."
... ...
,
I , I ...
II II II
~
""'"
"""'~.~""'"
.' ,
"""''''''''
~
,
,
,
,
""'"""'"
""'"
""'"
""'"""'"""'"
""'"
""",
""'"
"""'
.~
~""'"
We now use the further condition that x be a continuous variable Md~)~;i~~~~

Inp - xJ np, namely, its deviations from the mean J1.. be small; then th~?f~~~f~
% ..
following approximate expression is valid:
<::~~:~~~
~ .~
......
......
, ,.....
x..........
.
...
, . ... ...
,.......
... .. .. .
........
......
, , ... .. .
.... .... .. ..
, .....
.......
. . . . ~ ......
.. . .
..
, "'.~
JL
In - = In 1 +
x
f..L- x
u.
/-L - x
1
-2
/-L - x..
x
+ ......
..
.......
.
.
......
.
........
.
.
.......
.
......
.
......
.......
.
............................ ..
.......
.
..
...
..
.....
..
..
.....
..
....
.
..
....
.
........
...
.....
......
.
.
...
.
...... .
I'M.......
........
... ......
... .......
"
"
,
,
",
",
"
~
~
.....
........
........ . .
, ,
,,
'
,,,
, ,
, ,
.,
, ,
,
I
I
~
I ...
"
,
...
.....
......
1M
""'"
, ,
,
, ,
, ,
"
""'"
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""'"
,,
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~~
......
...... ..
;..
'"
...
;. .
"""'
, ,',', .. ',""~ ~
, ,
443
Hence
f.1.
~ ~exp
1 f.1.-X
(-f.1.-X
x - ) exp [-"2 (- x - )2]
and
f.1.
x
[
~x exp(f.1.- x )exp
-2"1 ell. x- x)
2] .
From Stirling's fonnula we have
x! ~ J2rrxxx e-x
and by substituting (fLY and x! into Eq. (10.11) we obtain
/.J/e-/-L
f(x) = - - =
x!
= _ 1 exp
J2rcx
e-/-Lxxe(/-L-x)
[_!
exp { -.l[(fL - x)2 IX]}
2
~27rxxxe-x
_X)2].
(f.1.
2.jX
(10.24)
Thus the binomial frequency function in its limit approacbes a Gaussian

frequency function with
mean
standard deviation
f.1.
= np
= .JX ~ Jnpq,
(10.25)
where x ~ npq follows from IfL - xl fL and p ~ O. From Eq. (10.25)

we see that the moments of the limiting Gaussian frequency function are
the limits of the moments of the original binomial frequency function.
10.2.10. Properties oftbe Gaussian Frequency Function

Let us now interpret the frequency function given by Eq. (10.18), We
could refer to our original example of obtaining event A, x times when
a cboice between A or B is made n times; x then can vary from 0 to n
in integer values. It is easier, however, to consider the measurement with
a ruler of the length of a rod; we let the continuous random variable x
represent the result of one measurement. If the true length of the rod is XQ,
Eq. (l 0.18) specifies that a result between x and x + dx will be obtained
-...... .
....
III
III
.....
-.~
hw
X ... ...J
...... III III

. . . . . . III JIll . . . . - ........
III III JIll III

~
III
ma:~
.. ..-".
. . . . III III . .
III III . . . .
~
....
.~I"..-
III JIll JIll

. . . . . . . . . III JIll
...
III III . .
444
- --
10 EI e me nts from the Th eo ry of Statisti c s
.~
. . .. . . .~m~
....
III
JIll
III
III
..
::::::::~:~::::::.~:
-.~
- -
III
JIll
..........
..
'.r~
. . . . III JIll . .
.... III JIll III
I11III
I11III
......... -..........
....I11III
......
JIll . . . .
. . . . . . III JIll . .
~ . . . . . . . III JIll
".J
................
%.I".J
......
W.J
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
ru.J
-:<::::::::::::::::~~.::.
with a frequency
~~
f( x)dx
= '.
1 , exp
_~
2.I~
"'f'T
(J
Xo
~x
....
......
III
III
III
JIll
~I
III
~ .1
..
...
........-.. -...... ~.t
:<: ::::~;:::::~%::~
dx~
~:
(10.26(@ir@ii~
-
III
JIll
..
..
--.....
:'-~-:::::::::%~%~::::j
~ . . . . . . . . . .~
. X:. . . ~
..
...
III
III
..
III
. . . . . . .'-,
. ...
. . . .,)
One may also say that the probability that the measurement will ''yie1d~n!i!@!i$ji~
result x" between x and x + dx is given by Eq. (10.26)~ In simpler word${:~:~{:~~W~~~
..;
...
III
-.~~
JIll
....
III
III III
:-:
III III
JIll
III..
III III
JIll III III

. . . . . . . . . JIll . .
III
III
I11III
if N measurements are perlonned. a result between Xl and X2 is likely ~ni@Wi~

be obtained in n (Xl, X2) of these measurements~ where
.
.:){~~i;;mW~j
.. .. .. .. .... ....
.... ......
.
.................
.
....
.......
.
..................
.
.. . ........-....................
..............................
..
2
X2
1
Xo
x
.:::::::::~~~~~
..;.;~~~::
N
.........
....
-
n(xl, X2)
:!...-
N ~ F(Xl,X2) - - "
2rr
(f
exp
--
X1
~.-:
dx' .:::::::~:~:~:xy~~~
..............x:*. . .
,
cr
.. .' ...
....~...........
.. .. ~.~......~
....... ........
..
(10 27-.:_], .........
.
..........
..................:::~
~~.:.: .~~.~~ /.~~.
:<.~ ~.:.:.~.~~.6
.... .1' .......... ,.I)
~
as shown in Fig. 10 ~5.

<~~~~~~~~~W~~~
Note that in Eqs. (10.26) and (10.27) the standard deviation (f is detef:~)j@;:lJ.rmined by the conditions of the measurement The applicability of th~fU~~~~~t~g:
Gaussian distribution to the results obtained from such measurements lieSi:::::~~~~~:~~:~
... -............. ..,:......
in the fact that: (a) n, the number of (least) divisions of the ruler, is large~~~~~~~~;~=~~
........ ...... ..
and (b) the errors in ~easurement Ixo --' x I are s~a1I. as compared to x. :.)W~~~~~~~~~:
In Table 10~3 are gIven the values of I(x) and Its mtegral, F(c), for the~,::::~}~:~:?::::::
. . .normalized Gaussian function CEq. (10422)).
.- <:~:}~~~~~~:~:~~~
. .From Table 10.3, for example, we see that half of the measurements d({~}~~~~:~~~~~~~~
. .
yield a result x between
)~{:~:~:~:~~~~
.......-......... . .. . .. . .......
.....
..............
.............
.
.
.
.
........
...... ........... .. ... . ... ....
..
Xo - 0.690" < X < Xo + O~69(f
............
..
.-........ . . . . ....
...........
.. ... ...... . . . .. . -........
.................
.. -.
. .....
-........
. ...........
or that only 2.23% of the results may yield x, such that
.. . .... .. .. -.. ....
.......
.... -..
.. .........
... ....-..
........
..
.........
.
.
..........
..
x > Xo + 20".
..
.........
. . ........
-.. ...
.
....... -.
.........
.. ...... .
........
-. . .. --..
.... .. . . ..
,-
~~
.II
..
..
....
.... ....
.II
.II
..
.II
..
.II
..
.II
..
~ .II
--
........
~
.II
.....
.m
..m
,,'
"
"
Fl.
"
IF
"
IFF
"
= 0.3989
f(O)
1(1)
,,-
= f(-l} = 0.2420
1(2) = f( -2) = 0.0540
'-'
,.
I"
FE
..
.(
= 0.9974
"
..
..
..
.II
..
..
..
..
.II
..
..
..
..
.II
.....
.II
..
..
..
~.11
.~ . . . . . . _
.II . . ~ . . . . . .
.II
.II
..
..... _
.. ..
.II
.....
~
.II
~.11
..
..
.~
..
.....
.II
II
. . . . . . . ..
...
...
.........
...
...
...
...
........
.......
...
..
..
.
...
.....
..
.......
.
. .... . ....
...........
.......... . .
.. ..
.
.
....
.
I." ..... .......
......... ,
...... .
....... .
"
- .II...
.........
..
...
..
.II"
...
.
.. ..
......
...
..
.....
..
..
....
........
...
.........
...
I
I
........
........ .
........
I
I
I
I
I
I
...
....
.....
...
..
. . . . . ~ ..
I
....
...
.....
..
...
.II...
.......
..
. . . . . . . ..
I." .... ...
.I ...... ..
...
..
........
,
...
..
I
.. .
.... .
........
.II"
.II"
...
.. .. .. ..
.II . . . ~ . . . .
.II . . . . . _
I i
..
.... . ..
- ............ . . .... . ............
.
..........
.
.
..........
.
.... .
- ..........
.
..........
.........
.
...........
............
. . ............
.. . . . ..
..
..........
. . . .. . ... .. .
............
.
.
..........
.II" ... ....,.
...........
.. ...........
.
............
, ....
.
.
- .............
.
.........
.........
.
. .... . ... .

......II".... .................
.............
..........
.
.
.. ......... ....
.II.
.............
......... .. . .
..........
.............
....
.. .
.... ...........
.....
.
......
. ............ .. .
.......
. ......... .. .
.........
....... .
. . . .. .
.II" .. ...
--
F( -0.69,0.69) = 0.5000
I
..
...
F( -1, 1) = O~6826
F( - 2t 2) ::::: 0.9554
F(--3, 3)
..
F(-c~c) = f~~ f(x)dx
..
~ .II . . . . _
.. _
.II
_
_
_
..
..
~
..
IF
-~~
..
..
.II
..
.. .. .. .. ~
. . . . II1II . . . .
.II
..
...............
-_
......... .
~ .. .. .. ..
.II
.,
....
..
TABLE 10.3 Some Numerical Values of the Nonnalized

Gaussian Function
....
....
....
....
-.-.~~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
............
.II
...
...
-.
....
... ......
...
- -
...
~~
.....
.:.~
I
I
...... .
. . . . . . ...
...
.....
..
...... .
...
..
I." ...
I
...... .
...... ~
._ ..... _
~_. .
10.3 Estimation of Parameters and Fitting Df Data
445
As another example we see that a result x in the small interval 6.x about
XQ, will be obtained (0.3989)/(0.0540) = 7.4 times more frequently than
a result in the same small interval tD; about xo + m.
10.3. ESTIMATION OF PARAMETERS AND

FITTING OF DATA
In Section 10.1 the basic definitions were given; in Section 10.2, analytic
expressions for some frequency fimctions were obtained. We will now see
how statistics can be applied to the interpretation of a measurement or an
experiment.
We can consider one or more measurements to form a sample of a population that obeys a certain frequency function; we are then faced with one
of two estimation problems:
(a) Given the frequency function and its parameters, what is the
probability of obtaining from a measurement the result x?
(b) Given the result x of a measurement, what are the parameters of the
frequency function (or the frequency function itself)?
In physics we are usually faced with estimation of type (b), since a set
of experimental data are obtained, and it is then desired to reduce them to
a few parameters that should describe the whole population and therefore,
also any new measurement that may be performed.
There are several methods for obtairring "estimators" to an unknown
parameter. Some of these methods are almost subconsciously applied, but
most of them can be derived from the principle of "maximum likelihood"
introduced by R A. Fisher in 1920.
10.3.1. Maximum Likelihood

To apply this principle we must have knowledge of the nonnalized
frequency functions of the variables Xj that form the data,
f(x;, 8),
where 8 is the parameter to be estimated and upon which the frequency

function depends. We may then form the product of the frequency functions
for all observed variables,
.(.(Xl, X2,
X n ,
(J)
= f(x[, (J) f(X2, 8) ... f(x n , 8),
(10.28)
.............
---~-@
............
',' ..................~
:.:.:.:~~J:
. . . ... ...,:....:~
..__
@
......
.. '",. ::::::::~::::::
. . .. .. ... ....~
~
446
........ ~
........--~
.:
,J
~~
........
.... :::::::::~::::~~~
..............
,J
..
A ..
.of
..
~~
A..
.of
not a frequency function for the parameter fJ) . The theorem of maximu.ffli:~;~:~:~m
likelihood then states that the value of (J, f)*~ that maximizes L (for the:$e~}~~~~~~
of observed data) is the best estimator of (1:
><~~~~~~~~W
.. ....... .
.............. .
'.';':';':':':':':-:-:-:
.. " ............ .
, ,
B)
X 11 1
- O.
22!!!J
. . . . . . . . . . ]I
of
. . . . . . . ..
..........
"
'
.
.
. ........... "" .
...............,..............
.
................:.-::-.
. . .. .. -.
.. A ..M ..-"t
'
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
()
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jl
aC(x 1 ; X 2 -t
."
"
. . . . . . . ""' .. ..
'
(J ....
_ (}*
'
A."" ...............
III
......... _""..II ....
0110'
. . . ....
'"
......
II . .
"
.. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . ....
; III
till,
~.,/":
""
In practice, it is almost always convenient to work with the logarithm Qt~~~~~~~~ra

,.N'J SInce
h
W
1
f"'..
ill a1 b ,..
':-:-~'~:x:
w en
= og N IS maxImum, so w
so e t4..1.
.
'}}::::~~:a::::
As an ex.ample, we consider a set of n data Xi that obey a normal fre;.~>~~~~:~
quency function about a, with a standard deviation (1; let us seek the bC#W!)~
value for the parameter a:
>::::::~~~:?::::
..............
..........
. . . . ......... .
.AXx....
. .. .. .. .. .... ......
.. ...~.1"
.. .. A
(Xi, a) =
~;;::.=
Cf
2rr
a -Xi
exp
.--
......... A
.AA
....
.~
......
.A
......
A ......
.....................
'
.r
( 10 "29,.'..........
...:.;....:......
.
.. A
A . ..".r'."
...
J~"-
./M.,
. . . . "A
'F
. . . .. ... ..
.......
...............
x'
. . . ....A0
..
..........
......... ..
............
.
..........
.---...
"-A
.
..
..
.........
.---..
"-A
.......... . .
...
--.....---...
.
............
........
...
........
.., .......
..-.......
........
.---.....
........
... ..-......... . ..
...........
.......
..---.......
,............
. .. ..
.........
~.
.,
A.
........ ,
........ .
....
..
...
..
..
."
....... A
...
Then
.,r,
~A
......
' ....
. . . . . . . . .-_ . .
..... A
..
A
....... A
A -_.
__A
. . . . . . . A .--. . .
--
!(Xi, a)
....
(f
1~
--
2rr
-Xi
...
..---
":
:.:.;x..:..:;
(1 0 30)
. . . . III ~
III III .. ,
. III III .. III

I ' ,.. .~III
, , III .. III . . . .
'.
(1
'~.III~III
~111
.. , ... ..
....... .
..........
. .. .. .. .
...... .
..........
.........
...........
........
........
........
....... ..
....
...
.......
.........
......
.
.. .. . .....
........
.......
.
.......
..
.
.
..
.
..
........
.........
.......
.
......
........
.
......
...
.....
........
...... ..
........
.......
.......
........
.
........
.....
.
......
...
......
........
.
. ........
.. .. .. ..
.... ..
.......
..
......
......
........ ...
, ' III..~ III ... ... '
, ~
III III III
,
, . . . . III
. . . . . III . . .
, III . . . . . . ,
, ~ . . . . . III
, . . . . . . III .. ~
. . . . . . III .. ,
. . . . . III
, . . . . III
,
",
, .......
aw -oa
i=l
,
,
,
..
~~
III III ..
~ III III .. ~
. . . . . III III ..
~ III III III ~
~
~ ~ III ..
, .. ~ III
..

~ III III
III III ..
~ ~
~. ~~III ..
, .. ~ III
..
. . . . . III III
~ .. III III III ..
~
~ III III ..
, .. ~ III
..

.. III III ..
, III III III III
~ ~ ~ III .. .
,
~ ~ III
..

III III ..
and
-nlog
-_
A .... .
..... A .-- .....
= log/:.; =
,
,
....
i=l
. . . . . III
. . . . . III .. ,
III
III III .. ,
. . . . . . III
. . . . . . III .. ,
~
, ,, ,
",
,
,
...
,
,
,
1
. . . . . . . ..
,~
~
, ,
,
"
,,,
, ~
, ,,
,
"
,,
,
,,
, ,,
,
,,,
",
,
,
,
,
Setting (aW)/(CJa) = 0 leads to the estimator a*;

n
a*
Cf2
Xi
-
na*
_'i- _
(f 2
Xi
U2
",
=0
.
I
n-
,
,
,
. . . . III ... .J
.J
. . . . . . ..
.J
",
JII . . . .
JII . . .
.J
.J
. . . . . . ..
III ... .J
. . . . . . ...
"
.J
.......
..........
......."'-.._.,..
........
....
I
,"
"
,,,,
,,,
....
....
........""-_.,. .
........
, .........-.r,,
"''.'.:-
(10.31 ). :,::::::~~:~~:
........
..
..............
"."'
...
.
.
........
.....
.
.
', .....
... "' . . . .....
..... '
",
....... A A ,
, --;..,. A ..
,,
,
A .. ....
A .--,
, ...... A
' , --A
'"
"
.... ,
,
,
...
Thus if a set of measurements is distributed nonnally, the best estimatori:U~~~i.:
, , . r .....
for the true value of the parameter is the mean of the measurements (first:?~~~}'
...,.,. ..
1
.J
",
JII . . . .
......
1l n
*
x" ..
a -- -
. . . . . III ...
or
t !
"--'I
,~
........ . . ,
.... ......
--
,, ,
--,. ..... . ,
, , ,.........
-,
,.' ......'".r'.
. . :::::...........
.....~~~~:
.....
..
. . . ..
,
moment) ~
,,,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
.......
,
........
--
.........
....
.... .
"--A ...
A ....
, ,, . .. ........
,
,,
,
-_ . . . ....
, ....... A ,
, .--A ....
, ..........
,
--.... ....
,
,
..........
,
, ,
-, .......... ,
, ,
,
,
,,
,.--"". . .....
,
,
....
...
.......
......
......
...
..
,
.......
, , ....... . ,
.......
.
....,
, , ,.......
.. . ...
,
. ....
,.--. .
......
,.....
."
........
.....
.........
..-_.....
,
, '"
,,

,,,
, ,
, , '"
, ,
",-_
"
,;,-_
1D.3 Esrimation of Parameters and Fltting (If Dala
Similarly we may obtain the estimator.
(1*.
for
CT,
447
by differentiating
Eq. (10.30) with respect to (J
aw ~_'O+ t[(~)(a-Xi)]
2
cr
(ja
and setting
awlaa =
C1
0-
0 gives
>
( 10.32)
where, in Eq. (10.32), a should be replaced by its estimator a* given by
Eq. (10.31). Again we obtain the familiar re~mlt tbat lhe best estimator for
the standard dcviatio[] of the theoretical frequency function is given by the
second moment (about the mean) of the observed measurements.
The principle of maximum likelihood call be further extended to give the
variance SZ of the estimator ()-; that is. if the determination of estimators
()* is repeated, the values so oblained will have a standard deviation S,
where
a'w
s2--ao2
(10.33)
We may apply Eq. (10.33) to our sample of measurements that obeys a

normal frequency function, when::. W was given by Eq. (10.30). We obtain
a2 w
S2 = - 8a 2 =
II
Lcr
,
(12
Thus the standard deviation of the estimator will be
S~
.;n'
(10.34)
where fI is the number of measurements used for obtaining each estimalOr.

Equation (10.34) is a wellJmown result that we will oblain again when we
discuss the combination of errors in Section 10.4.
10.3.2. The LeastSquares Method

Until now we havc discussed tbe case where all n measurements are made
on the same physical quantity whose true vaJue is a. for example, the data of
.....
_--%-~~~~~~~~~m
...... -....
-'-."...._--*
-... .....-m
9.::
.
...... .- . -m
III . . . .
III III . . . .
- ........
-~~
III . . . . .
448
...
III
....
III . . . . . .
--.......
':':':'~.:''i'-:~
.. . .
........---~
......
-x
........
.. .
...........
..
. ......
-..............
-_..........
........
... %
.
.
.
...
--....... '.'...... . :::=:
...
III
....
III
... ... .. ..
...
-.J
w.-~
III
~. .
...
--
............
. .... -.. . . -~
'%
...............
- . . ..... ..
. . . . .... .
- - ...................~~
. .. .. .. -... ....-. I11III:-:
.
. ..........
..
- ......
-%:
.
.......
..
.
.
... . ... . X,
- ....................
~-
-..... -*
.II
.......
.....
JII
....
............ :
..
. . . . . I11III
.II
....
..
..
.II
.....
..
..
.II
.....
..
..
...
.II .... . .
.II .......
.II
.....
.II
....
..
-.....--x:
~
..
..
...
.II
.II
..
....
..
. . . . . . . . I11III
..
.II
..
..
. . . . . . . . . I11III
.....
..
. . . . . . . . . . I11III..
III
~
.II . . . . . . . . . - . . . .,;-.;-~ iii
..
.II
.....
....
....
I
l
l
1
I
..
.............'%
. . ......... ..Y...............
. ...... . .I'
. . . . . .... .
......
- . . . . . .....
I
l
I
.II
............-........
,J
--.'- .............
Y. . . . . . :=-:;
~
..
..............m-.r.r
..
'
- I ' ........... .......
..
.. ....
. . . . . II
..
. JIIi
III
. .........
..
. ... .. . . . ..J
...............
...........
.. .. ... .....
. .. . ."
. .... .....
...... oJ
.....
.. .. .. .....
.. .. :.-:.
..........
..
..........
.............
.. .. ....
.... .......
.. .. .. ...
.... . .....
............
............
...........
. . .. .......
1
I
..
.....
~m
......
III
.....
..
...
.......
..
~
~~~~------~------~-x
x,
.....
FIGURE 10.6 Least-squares fit of a two-dimensional curve to a set of data points obtain~4((~~1~~~~
for different values of x. Note that each data point has associated with it a different errOi:::::}~~~if~
................
as indicated by the flags; this is taken into account when fonning the least-squares sum~ .. ::~:~~%:
.................
..........
..........
. . .. ..... ..:.-:.
...........
. . . .. ....... . ..
...
. . . ..... ,......
. .......
..
. ....... ...
. .. . . . .. ...
. . . . . . . . . . .~ y
~
~
'
............ .r..
--
..~
.. .. ...
Eq. (10.29). However, consider now a set of measurements yielding valueshUiii!i1:~

Yl., Y2, ... ,Yn depending on another variable x ~ the corresponding tru~::>~~~~;?~;:
..............
values of y, which we designate by y, are assumed to be a function of x arid\{~~~~*;:
of one or more paranleters (l'l) common to the whole sample. Thus we write-<)~~;t;~
.......... .
.. .. .. ....
.
..
..
...
- . ..... ... ..
-...........
--jo--.......
......
35)- .........
. . .. ... .. ...
.....
~
. . . . . . . .~.
(1 0.
:-
,-
~~~~~-
..
~~~~.
..
..
~.
~
_
-~~-.
Further, each measurement Yi has associated with it a standard deviation~::(~~~~~~~~~~:

....
ai, which is not the same for each point_ This situation is shown in Fig~ 10.6>::/\~~~~~~~~
It is possible that the form of Eq. (10.35) is known or may be correctly-{~~:~:~:~
inferred from the physics of the process under investigation, in which case'~::\{~~~~~~~~~
the estimation is reduced to finding the best estimators for the parameters.:.\)~~~~~~~~
avo If, however, the fOI'Ill of Eq. (10.35) is not known, various functional..i:{~~~~~~~~~
relationships must be assumed, for example, a polynomial of order k~ W~'::.::}~~i~~~~~~~
then speak of fitting a curve to the data. Even though special techniques are.::\~~~~~~~~~~~
developed in Section 10.3.4 to ascertain which curve fits best~ the following~:i~\~~~~~~~~~~
......
discussion is generally applicable_
__::.:.::}~~~~~~~~
The method of least squares follows directly from the assumption tha~;ii~(~~i~~~~~
each individual measurement Yi is a member of a Gaussian population with:::.::\~~~~~~~
a mean given by the true value of Yh Y(Xi; a)J; for the standard deviation:i}~~~~;~~
of this Gaussian we use the experimental error (fi of each measurement<;:\~~~~~~~~~
Then in analogy to Eq. (10.29) we write for the frequency function of Yi<'::.:.:.?~~~;~~
"
~~~.
..
I
I
I
I
I
(Yi;
Xi;
a).) ~
exp -2
2n
--;::'==
C1i
. . . . . . .. .
....
. . . . .. .
I
......
~
I
~
........ .
~
,
...... .
'
,
I
'P'
. . . . . . .. .
......
........
( 10 36)
:'~~:::::~~~~~:
I
..
I
I
~
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
. . . . .. .
....
. . . . . . . .. .
I
,
I
I
......
......... .
. . . . . . .. .
...
I
. . . . . . . . .. .
.....
I
. . . . . . ..
....... .
'
...
......
....... ~
I
~
. . . . . ..
~
......... .
I
,
...... .
... "......
..."..
',"' ..............
...........
,"' .............
I
'
. . . . . . .. .
.....
,',~
"'~
',~
I
...........
.............
~ ~
,"'
,
...........
..........
. ....
.....
. . . . . ..
I~.
I ...........
. . . . . . . . . .. .
",.~
"
"~
',~~.,,"
I
. . . . . . .. .
.....
. . . . . . . .. .
.....
~
I
I
. . . . . . . . .. .
~~~
..
~~.
.....
."
~~~_
......
..
, ,
....
.... .
~
~
10.3 Estimation of Parameters and Fitting of Data
449
and in analogy with Eq. (10.28) we fonn the likelihood function

n
L(y! .. , Yn;
Xl'"
Xn;
a,d ==
IT fey;; xi; a"J.

i=!
We seek the estimators
ar
that maxllnize this fimction, or its logarithm W
= log.=-
tiog
(a J21r) - ~
j
;=1
t [YI -
Y;Xi; aA)Y
i=1
(10.37)
Since the values of aj are fixed by the measurement, the estimators

those values of a" that minimize the sum
ar are
(10.38)
that is, those that give the "least-squares sum." They are obtained by solving
the simultaneous equations
A.
= 1 to v.
10.3.3. Application of the Least-Squares Method to a

Linear Functional Dependence
The simplest case offimctional dependence y(x) is the linear one;
Y = ax
+ h.
If we assume that every measurement Yi has the same standard deviation

(statistical weight), we may obtain the estimators a* and b* that minimize
Eq. (10.38) in closed form.
Since O"t
minimize
= 0"2
= ... =
O"n
= 0", instead of Eq. (10.38) we need only
~=
2)Yi i=1
(a
+ bXj)]2.
(10.39)
-'" ....
.....
'"
.........
Jill
..
..
-...........
.
. .. .. .. ...
. .. ..,z..-
. . . . . . Jill . .
~ ... OIl . . . . .. . .
-. lli
450
. ~. . . . . . . . AI . .
..I
.... ..
.......
..
--.......
. . ........
. . . ...--,... ~rY.t...
..............ttI"....-:-:
......
JI
...........
JI
JI
"
..
..
At
...
..
..
..
oil.
........... :-:.
j-j.
.
-. .. .. .. ...... '".... ... ... -Yo
..I .. ..II ..
.Ii .. _
.JI
OIl .IN
III .JI..
...
......
II
...
__
JI
.....
.. ..
.....
. . . . . . . . II III . . . .
. . . . ..I III . . . . .
......
..
III
III
...
II1II
..
I ..
1IIi ..
'" . . . . . . .
... . . . .
OIl
...
..
..
..
..
. . . . -.... ".r..
.................
:-:.. ...
......
..............
. . .. ... ....
'" ...... .
...............
...............
.....................
- ................
................ ...
-.................
.....................
. ., ..............
... .. ... .. .. .. ...
..
................
, ..................
, .................
...............
....
.
.....--.........
.......
.
-;:<-:::~~::::
............
.
(10 40) . .. . . ... .. ..".I'.. .. .... .. .. .. .... .... ....
..
...............
.....
...................
...............
..................
....... --.... .
. ............ .
.........
.
......
..............
..
.
..............
.
.. .. .. . . . :,.:
.
.
.
.........
..
.. .... .. ... ....
..
.
................
...
..
.................
.. ..... .. ... ....... ..
....
...............
.. . . . ... ...
..............
.. . ..... ..
.............
.. .. .. . ..... ...
... .... .... ........... ...........
..............
.. .. .... .....
.
..
.................
.....
..
...............
......... .......
.. ... .. ......
.
..
............
.
...........
.
.............
.
.
.
.
.
.......
,..
.
. . . . .. .. . ..
. .. . .. .. ..... . ..
".I'oil ..
- - . . .. ... ... ... ........ ... .. ".I'
.1'.,
Hence
..
..
...
..
...
...
OIl
..
..
..
...
OIl
..
..
..
....
....
..1 . . . . .
. . . . . III .. . . . .
89<
III
........
.. . . . .
..,
III . . . . . . . . ,
aa = -2
'[Yi - (a
+ bxd]
..,!..
III
.......... .
. . . . . . 111 . . . . . . . . .
III 111 . . . . . . " } I
"
i=l
"
:'.'
1 . . . . . . . .
:.
a:R
8b = -2
..
.JIll . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .JI
. . . . . . . . . .JIll . .
..
.. . . . .
.JI
. . . . . . . . . .JIll . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .JIll . . . . . . .
"
' {[Yi - (a
+ bXj)]Xi} -= 0,
. . . . . . . . . . .JIll . . . . . . .
'~""'-."""'"
~
~
i=1
. . . . . . . . . .,i"
which after some manipulation leads to
. . . . 011
.......... .
...
...
,
,
...
* a
LX; LYi - 'Exi I:(XiYi)
_a,
ntxl~t;iL;i
!
,.
011
E
n LX. Xl E Xl
'.
'r,
II>
.....
..
......... .
-:.
. ..:,.:........
.......
,.........
(10.41
.. }. ..... ~.............
..
"'
LYi .L Xi
...
I
I
..
..
II
. . . . . . . . :,.:
....
...
I
I
............ .
I
I
.. . . . .
..
I
I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
,..,(XiYi) -
......
.....
.)
...
.. -... ..... ....
-.-.
. -.-.......
...............
~.......
..
............
........
.............
..
. . ... .. ....0...
: -: -:
~.-
....
'l/r. . . . . "'"
The standard deviations for the above estimators may be obtajned by a#.!!!i!~!~
extension of Eq. (10.33), which now yields a symmetric square matrix .............
:)}~:~~~:~~~:~
...............
........
..
.....
...............
...........
.
.....r....
..
................
.
,
.
.
.
2W
2
...
.
. ..........
...........
X
.
.
a
1 aM
.................
.
'
'l..:~ ......
(1042'-..........,. .
H
'.."".""',
"'"
. . . . . . . . . . . '.1.""... .
'.'
)...\.1
Ii
oaloaJL
....-
'
....: -
II
_.
II
20" 2 aa, 8a
....
..
...
...
I . . . . . . . . . . ...
-"':;:;::::::~~:::;~
................ .
IJ
~
. . .... .".I'. .. .~A
.................
. . . . . . . . . . JIll ..
. . . . . . . iii ....
The elements of the inverse matrix give the variance of the estimato~X~~~~~~~~~~~~
a*. A complete discussion of this error matrix is given in Section 1O,.4-{{~~~~~~~~~~~
suffice it to say here that the usually given expressions (Eqs. (10.43)) fo#~(~~~~~~~~~~~~
I
..
..
..
..
..
..
the standard deviation of the estimators (Eqs. (10.41) are the square root$//~~~~~~~~~~
1
of the diagonal elements of B- (see Eq. (10.63)). We then obtain
<><~~~~~~~~~
.. ......... .. .. .........
...
.................
............ ...
..........
. . . ... ..""......
.. . .... "' ........
.............
. . . .....".I'.1'... ....
. . . . ... .. .. ..
. ..... .. . '" .....................
. . .. .. '" .. .. .. .. ..
-J..:".. ............
......
.
.
........
.
(10 43 .... .... .. ..
............
.
".I'
.. . . . . . . .
. , . . .... . .
. ...... "'_z
III....
. ........ .
....
....AI
.............
....
..............
. ...........
..
................ ..
t:ra*
-= (H-l)aa
(f
A..
"x~
~,
_.
n Lxl- LXi LXi
Ub*
(H-l)bb =
Cf
Ai
III . . . .
III . . . . . . . . . III
.....
'" '"
..AI . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . III III

'" III .. III III ..
III . . III .. III ..
. . . . . . . III .. III .AI
. . . . . . III . .
~A ~
.~
...
I ........... ..
0\0"' . ... ..
. ..
. ..
. ..III: - :
_ ....
L xl - LXi LXi
...
. . . . . . . III . . . . ..
."
. . . . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . III
n
-,
Ai
.........
-,
...
~ ~ ~
. . . . II . . . . . . . . . .
II . . . . . . . .
'" . . . . . . . . III
. . . . '" II
"'..
. . . . III
.A
. . . . . . . ..r.~
'" .. III .. .. ..
..
..
'" . . . .
.. III
'" '" '".....
III ..
.~
~
'"
.. .. ..
III
...AI
. . . . . . . . . II ....
. . . . . . . . . . . . .I ..
'" '"
...~.
In case crt =1= 0'2 f= f:. Cfn , it is M and not:R that must be minimized~}~~~?J~
Clearly, such calculations are best done using computer programs.~,>@J.
fact, many packages and self-contained programs that are designed ~.4(i~~~m
x ..
handle these kinds of problems are available (both commercially ~~t~~~~~$
...............
..
.r
...
'
"
.
.
.
... .. ... .............
.
.. ........ ......
.......
.....
~~
...
,:.
4~~te that the second of the above equations is by no means equal to the first ~il~
multIplted by x;.
::::::~~~~$}
.
.......
:--;.;
..... .... ... ....
:,.:w.
.
m
,............
........
..
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
m
.
..
.....
.
..... ....m
.... .,.
..
.' .......
..........
. :;.;.x
,
...........
..
...~~~.
,
, ..
..
..
, .........
,
I ..
, ...... ~/..-:.
,:::~m"
.'....'. ........'..'..w.m;:;:;.
.':
.........
,,00
,.......
... . ..
, .......
10.3 Estimation of Parameters anp-Fitting of Data
451
through "shareware"). In this book, we default to MATLAB (see

Appendix B), which is in fact well suited for dealing with problems fonnulated in tenns of matrices. For the problem of linear (or, more generally,
polynomial) function fitting with equa,lly weighted data points, MA1LAB
provides the polyfit utility for exactly this purpose.
For more general problems. the reader is referred to /other textbooks
on the subject of data analysis . .for example, the problem of linear fitting
with unequally weighted data/points is discussed in Chapter Sof Numerical Methods for Physics, 2nd ed., by Alejandro Garcia (Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 2000). A program linreg for this task, is described
and the code is available online from the publisher as a MATLAB m-file,
as well as in the languages C++ and FORTRAN.
10.3.4. Goodness of Fit; the X 2 Distribution
We have seen how the least-squares method, as a consequence of the principle of maximum likelihood, may be used to fit a curve to a set of data.
Once the curve has been found. however, the necessity to ascertain quantitatively how good the fit is arises. This is important especially if the
functional dependence is not known, a poor fit might indicate the necessity for fitting with a curve of higher order, or a poor fit might indicate
inconsistencies in the data.
Similarly, we may wish to test whether a certain hypothesis is supported
by the data, in which case the goodness of the fit may establish the level of
confidence with which the hypothesis should be accepted.
Let us first suppose that we know the true functional relationship of y
to x, that is, y(x) = f(x); we may then fonn the least-squares sum
(10.38)
The range of M is 0 < M < +00 but we would be sW'Prised if JV( = 0
and would be equally surprised if M was extremely large. Thus we have
already a quantitative indication as to how well the data fit the known (or
assumed) curve y = f(x).
If a new set of data pertaining to the same experimental situation is
obtained. and Eq. (10.38) is again formed, a new value Jv( will result.
Clearly. if enough such measurements are repeated, each time yielding
a value for M, we will obtain the frequency function for M. Once the
... .. . .. .. ..--.
- ...............
.. . . . . ...... -... ... .
. . .. . .
........ ..............
. . .. . . .
.. .. . . .
.
.
. .. . .
...........
-
.
.
.
.. . . .
- . . ................
.
.
.
.
.. .... .
- - - ...................
. . .. . .
- . . . . .. .. . .
.
. . . ..........
..
- ....,.....
.... . ,. . .... .. .....-..
- .... ,. .........
..
~
..
.II
JI
........
..
..
JI!
........
..
.II
.II
..........
..
.II
.II
..........
....
....
....
....
452
....
....
. . . . . . ..
..
.II
.. .... .... . .
..
~
.II
.II
. . . . . . . . ..
..
..
..
.II
..
..
...... .JI
..
..
.II
....
..
..
..
.II
........
....
..
..
....
....
..
.II
.. . . ... . .
...
,.
If
...... ,. . .
frequency function is known, it is then easy to tell what the probability of~~~~~~~~~~
obtaining a specific 1\1 is. We may, for example, calculate ~at in 95% of.>}~~~~~~~~~
the cases:JY( < Mo; if then a specific set of data yields Ms 2: Mo, we know.j<~j(~~~~~~:
that such data should be obtained only in 5% of the experiments and can~~~~~~~~~:
. . .. ..
therefore be rejected.
.
':{<:}~:~~
............
Obtaining the frequency function for the least-squares sum in this way .~~~~~~~~~
. . . . . .. . .
is obviously impractical. Nevertheless, it is true that the distribution of>}~:~:~:~:~:~
M is independent of the curve y = f (x) and of CT;, and can therefore be)))~~~~~~~
calculated theoretically; it depends only on the number n of points that are\~~~~~~a
compared, and is called the X2 distribution (pronounced "chi-squared") .... ??)~~~;~~
.
.........
...
..
..
. ..
..~...4~4~4~
.........~
~
' .........~
' ........
.. ...... .-.
.....
......... .
..
':'.:.'.:.'.:.': .:.... ... ...
( 10 44)
exp( -M/2)
_
dM
2v / 2 r(v/2)
_ Jy((v/2)-1
(M) dM - .
..
(x ) d X
~~
.. .. ~~~~~.o;
~
'"
.. .01 .01
..r
-.t
..t
~ .01
. . . . . . . . " . . . . .- . . ..Jj
" .01 .01 .Jj-.Ii'
'.' ...oIJi. . l'...r

',',~
. . . . ,j. .Ji. . . . . .. .
.Jj.ol.Jj ~
where v is the number of Ic'degrees of freedom" of M. In tile present case.:::}}~~~~~~~~

..........
....r
.....
r ........
we set
.:.:.:.:.:
.
.
.
.. ...:.. :.. :.. ~
...............
...
.......... ..
'.'
. . . . . . . . . . . 001
.....
"'
fi 01 . . . . . . ...
.. ..
01 .. ... .. ..
oj
...... . .
. . . .. .. .. .. .. ..
...........................
01""" ""
................
...............
................
. . .. .. .. .. .. ....
v=n
oj
oj
.J..... .
....
.......................-~
Ii
_~
........
because this is the number of truly independent points being compared/i~r~~~~~~~~~~~

In Eq. (10.44) rex) is the '~gamnla function," which for positive intege~:>~(~~~~~~~;~
-....
"'' ' ' ' ..
.
1
_
......
5
arguments IS SImp y
:;::}}:::::::::::
... . . ... .. .. .....
.J
"j.llli . . . .
r(n) = (n -- I)!.
..
...
..
A
.. ... .. A ""
.. .. .. .. A
..
..
.. ... A
................. ..
- ..................
.... . .. . .... .. .... ........................"""".....
_
...
JI
.. "" ..
.. ... .. .. .. .. A
...............
................. . .
..
..
.. A
...
Consider next that y = f (x) is not known. but that a two-parametei~}~{~~~~~~~~~

curve is fitted to n data points . yielding estimators a* and b*. Then on:::<{~~~~~~~~~
forrris again the least-squares sum Musing y I(x; a*, b*) but now the~}~~~~~~~~
. . . . .... ...
frequency function for the Jy( values is given by Eq. (10.44) with the n>\}~~~~~~~~~
degrees of freedom reduced by the number of estimators obtained from the.,:)}~{=~~:~:
data, that is,
.'?}}~:~:~:~:
. ..........
. ... .. .. ..
.
.
.
,
"
.
.
--.,
........
.
2
V = n
. . .. .... .. .. .... ......
..
.. ... .. ..
......... A
"
,
,a ,
. . . . ...
. . . . . . . AI
AI . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . AI
"..
.,_,'~
.. AI . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . AI
IIIl. ."'. . . . ."'...
- ' . ' I . .. ..... IIIl. . . . . . . . ....
- ,
-- ,
~
"
"
......... . .
..
IIIl
The
distribution may also be used for comparing the frequency of'))J~~~~~~~
. . . ... ... . ..
occurrence of a class of events with the theoretical frequency (function). Le~<)~~~~~~~~~
2
X
us consider, for exanlple, 100 measurements of a radioactive sample, anq;/<~~~~~~~~~

divide the sample into seven classes, with mean value N = 85 counts/rn~6<)~i~~t~~
. . .. ..... .. . ... ...... *
................
..""
.................
.. .....
..
....
.
.
.
.....
.
..,.
..........
.
.
.
.
..
..
.
.
.
. ...............
. . .. .. "" . .. . .""
~
,.
5The general definition of the gamma function is
.............
.
............
..........
:X
..... .... .. .......

..... . . . ..
.,. .,............
....
.
.. .. .. .. . . . . .. ...
......... .. .. ... . . . ""
CIi
.....
..............
...
00
r(z) =
t z- 1 exp( -t) dt;
o
for more details see any text on advanced calculus.
""
x: .
..I=--:.
.....................
." ...... til...... ......
""x'"
.. ......
.. ....
JI
,.
..
,.
..........
..
.. .oi . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . tI ""......
.....
A .....
..
. . .... .... .tI .""..

"" ! ....
tI...
,.
11;.....
.. .....
tI
....
II;
.. . . .
.. ..
..
II ..
tI ""..... ,:..: ...
....
,.. .. ....
..
.. ..
. . . . . . III
JI
,.
..
..
..
....
..
..
..
...... II 0lIl . . . . II ...
:X
II . . . . . ..
. . . . . . II ....
~
.. .. .. ......
II
JI
......
............... .
~ ~.*..
...... t. ..
. ,.. .. .. . ......
. . . . . II..
:.:.:.:. . .
JI
......
..
....
II II"".....
......
.. .. .. ....i",
.
.........
,.
.'.......'. . . .AI..... .tiP.:!*....
..... '.'".*
J"ili..
...
. . . III
.. '"
..
" . " III

, .. ..
. . . . III . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . III
...... .
..':.:.:.:.:
:=::~.~::-h
................
. .. ......... ~.~.
;:x..
III ....
III ..
.. ..
.. ....
, ..
01 ..
.... ..... 11...
..
~.~
01 ..
..
..
; .. II
~~
LJI
10.3 Estimation af Parameters and Fitting 01 Data
453
TABLE lOA Observed and Expected Frequencies of the Results of 100 Measurements
of a Radioactive Sample
Class
0-75 75-79 79-83 83-87 87-91 91-95 95-00
OJ
15
II
ej
13
(ej - oj)l/e?
0.307
12
0.083
ConnlSlmin
15
15
15
18
12
16
16
13
14
15
Observed freq
Expected freq
0.062
0.25
0.077
0.067
x2
and approximately equal expected frequencies; the resulting frequency of

the experimental observations 01 in each class is given in Table lOA. Next
we obtain from the data the estimators for the parameters of a Gaussian
(1) 1* = N, (2) cr* =
and (3) the overall normalization, namely,
L OJ = .L ei; thus the degrees of freedom of X2 are four, corresponding
to seven classes less three estimators. From the Gaussian distribution we
calculate the expected frequencies ej for each class: they are also given in
Table lOA.
In complete analogy with the least-squares sum, Eq. (10.38), we form
the X2 sum
../N,
Note that X2 is now a discrete variable, since frequencies of classes are

compared; however, Eq. (10.44), which holds for a continuously variabIe X2, is valid provided the number of classes n ;::, 5 and the expected
frequencies ej 2: 5.
For this experiment we obtain
X2
= 0.846,
and we explained before that v = 4. From a table of the X2 distribution we

find that in 93% of the cases the X2 distribution would be larger than the
result obtained here. Thus one may suspect that the data are "too good" a
fit to the estimated Gaussian.
The X2 distribution of Eq. (10.44) for different degrees of freedom
is shown in Fig. 10.7. Tables of this distribution may be found in reference manuals, or easily calculated in any number of computer programs.
It should not be surprising that when the number of degrees of freedom
- ...
........-............. .. .---.. . . . .....
- .....................
.
- . .... .... . . . . . . . ..
. -... ... . . . .
- .... .... ....... . . . . . . . ..
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...............
-:"..9
.
...
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.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
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...................
... .... . . . . .. .
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.........- ............. .. .
. . . .
-~
454
....................... ..
III . . . . ~
~ ~
~
~ ~
. . . . . . . III II
~
... ... ... ~ III III II
. . . . . . . . . . III III II
~
... .. ... III . . ~ ~
~
~
.. .. ... III ~ ~
~
.. ... . . III ~ ~
.. .. ... III III ~

~
.. .. ... III . . ~ ~
. . ... .. ... ... . . .

. ... -.. .
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. ... .. .. .... .... .... ...
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- - . ..... -.. .......... ....................
- ......-.... ...... ........ ...... ........ .....
..... .
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......
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.
.
.
.
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.
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...
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.
.
.
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.
'~i
.
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.
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.
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.
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..........
.
.
.
.
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.
.
..........
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. .. .. . . .....
-..
...........
.....
...
. . ......
.. ......
.......
. ....
-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II . .
... ... ... .... III .... ....
...
...
...
...
~~
:~
~~
v=3
-.~.~.~~~
~~~~.~~
-v=4
~~~~
~~~~
.~
~ ~ ~ ~
~~.
~~~~
~.~
~
~ ~
v=6
~~
...
...
11
...
::::=;;::::
10
...
.... 1IiI::;;; ~
....
.
.....
..............
...
..
..
.
.
I
... ...
.....
~ ~
I~
~~~~~~
v=5
~~
~
~
~~
~~~~
.~.~
r=1
~.~
'\ ..3r..
II
~~~~~~
v- ~
I '
....
~~
III
\J,
-v=2
11
... ... . . III ~

... ... ... ~ ~ ~ II
. . . . . . . . . . . . . III II
~
~ ..................
II
-
... ... ... ~ ~ ~ II

. . . . . . . . . III . . II
12
...
...
~~
FIGURE 10.7 The frequency function for the distribution of X2 for different degrees >}~~~~~~~~~:~
of freedom. All curves are nonnalized to the same unit area. Note that for large v the X2 <}~~~~~~~~~~:I
. . . .. .. . . . . ..
disuibution approaches a Gaussian.
::::}~~~~~~~~~~~
......... ~. ~
... ... . .....................
..................
....... ................
..
....
.....
. . ..
~
...
~~
~I
...
......
.. ..
6
2
Increases v > 30, the X distribution approaches a Gaussian with mean/~j~~~~~t;~~~
..............
....... ............. .....
...........
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
...
.....
f.L = v - 1/2.
......... ....................
.....
..
.........
....
......... ...-..... ...... .
~
...
...
...
~~
~ ~
...
...
...
~ ~
....... .. ... .
....... . ..... . . .
....... ......... ...
- . . .
.. ... ....... ... ......
. . .....
. ...
- -..
.
...
...
.
.... . .............. . . ...
- ...
. . ... ... ..
... ...
- .
. .... ..... ... ... ........ .
.. . . ..... ... ..
- ....
-'..
... . . ...... .. ....
- . . .
.
-
10.4. ERRORS AND THEIR PROPAGATION
.. . .
~
~
~
~~~~I
~
~ ~
~
~ ~ ~
~~~
~ ~ ~
~
~~~~
~
.~
~~~
~ .~
...... . ..
~
10.4.1. Introduction
~~~~~
~ ~
~ ~
~
.~~~
~~~.
~~~~~
.~
'~i
~~
~
~.~~
~
~
~
~.~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~
When we perform a measurement of a physical quantity x, it can be(\~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
...
~
is the error of the measurement and consists of a systematic and a randoml:<}~~~~~~~~~~~

contribution. Suppose, now, that the measurement is repeated under the(}~~~~~~~~~~~~~.1
same conditions n times; then the results Xn will be distributed (in mostj(J~Jt~~~}~....,..
cases) normally about a mean x with a standard deviation u. The difference(:~~~:~~~:~~~:~:~~
. . . ...
between i and the true value x is then the systematic error, and the standar(fj~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
deviation cr of the Gaussian is a measure of the dispersion of the result.$<~~~~~~~;;;~~~~~
.......... ............ ..
due to the random error.
--:::>~:~~~~~~~~~
.......... ...
The object of the measurement, however" is the determination of th~(~:~~~~~?~~~~~
.....
unknown true value x; since this is not possible, we seek to find whethet>~~~~~~~~~~
x lies between certain limits~ or whether the true value x is distribute~(~~~~~~~~~~~
.......... ... .
~
................~
...... .....
.
.
..
..
-........
..
.
....
...
..::. ..........
.........
f1. :.=)~~~~~ill~~~
~~
. ....... . .. ..
.
. . ...
. . . ..
...
. . . . ...... ... ~
~
.Ii
6It is really the distribution of 2X 2 that approaches the Gaussian with mean
'(2v- 1) and unit standard deviation (R. A~ Fisherts approximation)~
...
.. >}~~~~~jj~~~
...........
...
. . ".*''':~
... . X;...... . .
.........
...... ....... ..... .
...
.
. . . . ..X
. ..h
......
...... ......
...
.. . ...
.
...
. . ..~m~. . .
:::::::;;:W~~
::.~
....
.........
..
%
..
.
....
.
.
..
..
.
....
.. .
.......
. ... . .
~
~
. . . . . .-~ A ..... .
......
. * ... . .

~.::::;
.r.r.
.
...
.. ........
".e...
~
~
~..
~
10.4 Errors and Their Propagation
455
about some mean x* with a standard deviation a*. Note that in a rigorous sense, this statement is incorrect, since the unknown true value
x is not distributed, but is fixed; what we mean is that the probability,
x = x", x > x"', etc., is given by the nonna! frequency function with
mean x and a = /-L2, the second moment of the measured data about their
meaux.
Thus, by repeating the measurement several times, it is possible in principle to circumvent the random errors because (a) a knowledge'of i and
a contains all possible information about the unknown true value x. and
(b) as n increases, the second moment should decrease as l/..fii and may
be made arbitrarily small. On the other hand, the systematic errors cannot be extracted from a set of identical measurements. They can either be
estimated by the observer or be judged from a performance of the same
measurement with a different technique. Therefore, it is unadvisable to
reduce the random errors much below the expected limits of the systematic
errors. In what follows we will discuss only the treatment of random errors
and work under the assumption that the results of the measurements follow
a normal distribution.
Until now we have considered the simple case where the unknown
value x is directly measured and an error ax can be associated with the
measurement; that is, the frequency function of x depends only on one
variable:
f(x) =
a
J21HIx
[I (X_X)2]
exp -2
--
(J
Most frequently, however, the unknown value x is not directly measured,

and we distinguish two cases:
(a) x is an explicit function of the quantities Yl, Y2, ... , Yn that are
measured and have with them associated errors ai, G2, ... , an. Namely,
(10.45)
and it is desired to find the estimator x* and its standard deviation ax.
(b) x is an implicit function of other unknown variables Ul, U2, ... , Urn,
and of the quantities Yl, Y2, ... , Yn that are measured and have with them
associated errors aI, a2, ... , an. Namely,
cjJ(x; U\, U2, .. , Unr; Yl, Y2, .. , YIl)
= 0,
(10.46)
, ....... . .
, ....... . .
... .. ... ...
,
,
, ........ ..
,
, , ........ ....
, .. .. .... ....
,
..
..II
..II
..
..... . .
....... .
..
..II
..
....
..
..... .
..
......
JI
, , ,....
456
..
...... . ..
...
...
....
JI
..II
...
.......
......... .
..J
..
. .
..iI
.....
,,,
, .. ..
,
..
JI
.. ..
, ... ..
_ , ,
, ,
, , ,....... . .
, .. ..
,
, , ,......
..... ... .
, .. ..
- , .. .. ....
,
..
, .. ..
,
,
.... . .
"....
,
.......
.... . ..
.... . . .
.... .
.. .
. ...
...... .
r,
,~.....
and it is desired to find the estimators x *, u u~, ... , u::.z andthe symmetric
error matrix (Jij(i, j = 1, ... , m + 1). Such an example was treated in
Section 10.3.3, and we know that at least m + 1 sets of measurements are
required to obtain the m + 1 estimators.
. ....
, ......
......
, , .... . .
. .. .. ..
,.....
, ...... ..
, .... ..
, , .... .
, ...... ,
. . . ..
, ...... ,
,
, , ......
.... . .. .
, ...... .
~
......
.l
......
.J
:II
..
..
.J
....
..
. ....
.. .. " . .
..I
....
...
...... .
'..I
,
I
....
..
....
..
.II
..
..
..
....
.l
..
..
.II
..
........
..
.II
..
..
..
..
..
.l
I
,
I
I
I
....
.II
..
.II
...
. .
...... ...
. .. . .
, , .... ...
, ...... .
. . .. ..
, , , .........
. .. ..
, ...... . .
, ....... ..
... . .... , , .... """
,
, . . .. ""'"
,
The techniques for obtaining the best estimators were discussed in

Section 10.3. In this section we will discuss how the random error of x
may be determined from knowledge of the errors of the independent variables Yn; this procedure is frequently referred to as the combination or the
propagation of the errors of the measured values Yn.
.J
....
..
....
,
.l
..
.l
,
,
,
. ..
..
.II
..
.l
....
..
.l
....
..
....
..
.J
.... ..
..
..!
JI
'-'"
,
,
"
III.
..... .
.......
.. '"
..
..
oi ""'"
.01 """ ,
.. ""'"
..
..
..
..
I , . . ..
'
.. .01 """
IIi ..
.. .01 """ ..
.. .01 iii """
.... """. .
......
, ...... """
, ........
..
. . . IIi ..
.... .01 .. ..
..
. . . ..
"
"
..
......
..
.01
iii
..
..
..
.01 """
..
,'
...
.oi.
.........
,
, ..............
. '"
I
,
,
..
..
..
"""
'". .III. .""" iii

, , , .. . .
I
.01
' . 0 1 .....
, .. ...01.01
'.01 .....
, .. .. 01 ..
' 01 ..
I
.......
III
, .. .. .01 .01
I
,
..
III ...
' .0101
..
. . . . . III III
.. .. """ .01
"
.01
, .. .01 01 ..
10.4.2. Propagation of Errors
III
....... .01
....
...........
..
..
.. .01 .01
III ...
...........
,,,.01001,
. , , . '" ... ...
I
..
....
.
......
.
.
..... .
..
Let us first assume x to be an explicit function of the measured Yn as
""
..
,,'
,
...01.01 ..
.01 ......
, , . . . 01 .. '
.
,,
, ,
, .. . ,. ,.
,,,
,.
,,-.,.,.
. , '-" '.01 ' . . . . .
, , .. .01 ... ...
,, ,.. .01 . . .,.. .
,
,.
,
..
.
,
, ,
, .......... .
.. .. .01 ... ...
,
, """
, ,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,,
,
,
, , ,
,
, ,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,,,
,
,
,
...... . . ,,
,
,
, .......... . .
, ............
, , ......... . .
,
, , ........ . .
,
... ....
,
, , ........ . .
,
discussed previously (Section (10.4.1)):
.......
""..
......
......
..
..
-
......
.
..... ...
....
... ...
.........
-......
... . ...
......
.........
..
... ......
.......
....... ...
(10.45)
... ......
........
.........
....... .....
.........
.........
.....
.........
.......
.... .
........
..........
........
..
......
..
.......
.
.
.......
...
..........
.............
.........
.......... .. ..
.........
......
........
......
........
...........
..........
.
By applying the maximum likelihood method, it can be shown that the

estimator x* is obtained by using the mean values, /.Ln, of the measured Yn
(provided? the Yn are distributed normally). Here the mean values J1..n are
...........
.............
...........
.........
.
........... ..
~
. .. .
........
. .. ... .
, .......
, , ....... . .
, ........... . .
. .. .... .... .
, .........
, .......... . .
~
obtained from r different measurements
Ii
......
..
....
...
, ........... . .
, , ............. . .
, ........... . .
, .......... . .
, , ............ . .
, , .......... ....
, ............ . .
, ........ . .
,
,
................
, .........
...........
...
, .......... ....
, ........... . .
, ........ . .
, .......... . .
, , ........ . .
, ........... . .
, ........ . .
, .......... ....
, ........ . .
,
, ........ . .
, ....... . .
, ........... . .
, ........ . .
, , ........ . .
,
....... ..
,
,
. , , ..........
. .. . . ... .
,
,
,
,
'" . ..........
..
,
,
. . .II .II
, , '" .........
.
.
. . .II .II
....... . .
....... . .
~
~
............
. ..
.Ii
.......
....
......... . .
..
........
.. ..
........
.
Thus
..........
...
....
....
....
....... .... . .
.......
.....
................
(10.47)
....
.II
':::::::::::
,
. . . . .II . . ..II
. . . . ..II . .
,
.. ..II ....
...
,
. . . . . . ..II
. . . . ..II ..II ..II
,
,
,
........ ..
........ ..
........ ..
,
, ........ . .
,
, ........ . .
, ........... . .
,
, ........ . .
Next we make a Taylor expansion of Eq. (10.45) about x*, through first
...
..II
..II
....
..II
..
....
.....
....
......
..
.Ii
..II
, ........ . .
, ........ ....
,
. ........ ....
, ........ ...
, ,
, , ........ . .
, ,
, ........ ...
,
,
, ............. ....
, ........ ...
!
!
, ,
"
, ,
, , ,
, ,
,
,
..
.........
...... . .
........ . .
.......
...... . .. .
order
.Ii
......
....
......
. .. .
........
......
..
...... .
"
......
..... .
.........
......
........... ....
......
, ,.......
"' ....... ....
, ....... . .
, ,
, ......... ..
, , ...... . .
, ......... . .
, , ..... .
..
, ........
.....
.
.
, ....... . .
, ...... . .
, . ,.. ...... ...
"."
... .... .
, .......
, ..... . .
, ......... . .
"."
... .... .
, .......
,
.... .
"
,
,
...... ...
.......
. "" ........ .
........
......
.......
"."
. . ... .
.........
"."."
.........
"."
........ .
,
.
tii
......
...,.,... . .
,'."".
, .........
, .........
"
7 Clearly if x is
. t
pOln x.
,
.
, ,, ,
,
, ,
, , ,
,
,
,
.01 ..... ...
'~."".
variabl~ aU measurements y~ are made so as to correspond to the same ' <)~~~~~

....... . .
, ....r. ..
': -:.:.J'~..~
.. ,' ....,.,r......
,
.
.
".,.
, ........
.
" .........,.. .
, , .....
,. . .. ...
, ...... . .
, .... ,.
, ...... . .
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
,
,
, ,
, ,
,, ,
,
, ,
,
..
...." .....
,. ....
, , .. .,.
... . .
.......
....... .....
........
....... . ..
......
......
......... .. .
....... ....
..........
.....
.
.......
......
........... ..
....
.
.....
..
.....
',,..... . .xt..
~
...........
........ . .
' . ....
" , ...... . .
,
...
, ........ _, _Ja
451
where [o<p/oYn]JL means evaluation of the derivative at the point about

which we expand-that is, (f-LI. f..L2 .. f..Ln)' We can now form the second moment of the distribution of the xi values as they result from the
observed Yn i values. The superscript i here refers to the r different sets of
measurements:
.
ax = -;:1 ~
~ (x - Xl)
2
;=1
~ t;=1 [(:<P)
(f..Ll - yD + ... + (:<P) (f-Ln - Y:JT
Yl JL
Yn
j
/1.
Equation (10.48) is the most general expression for the propagation of

errors. If we assume that the errors are uncorrelated, namely, 0'1} = 0 when
i =1= j, we can obtain the results for the simplest functional relationships:
(a) Addition
= YI + Y2 + ... + )'n
ax = Jar + aJ + ... + a
l;
(10.49)
(b) Subtraction
= Yl -
ax =
Jar + aJ.
(c) Multiplication
X
= YI
Y2
X ... X
Y2
Yn
(10.50)
.....-..
,.....-.......,
~
0.-
Q.)
I-'
'1:
.,/
II
:~... I-'"
...o
U
.......
<
.......
Cf'J
1-'.
n c=
'<!r'<
N
......
II
~
*'
r
'
"
'
~1~
~
~
Q.!t
~I
t-.J
",/
,-...,
1:
I;-.)
'-"
;...J
..
../
t-J
.......
:it9
II
11
5~
'1:
'--
.......
I
1:
......
./
J;..)
+.
..
..
"
_.
rn
......
_.
+
,.....-.......,
C"J
en
~~~
'-
../
...-...
.,.....
0
Ut
l,.!.)
'-"
,..-.."
Jo-ool
a..
Vi
N
..........
...-,
0"""""
U'l
.......
.......".,
459
Hence, from Eq. (10.48) or (10.49),
a*x = V!(an
1 )2
+ (a2)2 + ... + (an )2 = / n0"22 = ~.

n
n
n
In
(10.54)
Namely, the standard deviation of the mean of n measurements of a

Gaussian distribution is 0"/ In, where 0" is the standard deviation of the
individual measurements.
>
10.4.3. Example of Calculation of Error Propagation

AI; an example,
let us consider an experiment to determine Stefan's constant

b, from the relation
E = bT 4 ,
where the following values of E and T were obtained with the indicated
standard deviations:
T (K)
800(1 0.02)
1000(1 0.02)
1200(1 0.02)
(3.0 0.3) x 104
(8.0 0.8) x 104

(15.6 0.6)
104
We wish to calculate the estimator b* and its standard deviation abo

There are two ways to proceed in this case. We either may calculate
bj from each of the ~ee sets of measurements and then combine these
values to obtain b+ = bj, but weighing each bj according to its standard
deviation, or we may use least squares in the observed variables E and T4.
Note that a mean of T or E of the three listed measurements makes no
sense whatsoever since each measurement is made for a different T.
We will follow the first procedw-e, and we first obtain the error on T4
from the known error on T. For this we should use the general expression,
Eq. (10.48), but since = T4 is a function of only one variable,8 simple
differentiation gives the desired result directly
d
dT
= 4T 3
t:.
= 4 t:.T .
(10.55)
SIf we choose to write <p = TxT x TxT. we may not apply Eq. (10.51). since
these variables are correlated; use of Eq. (10.48) and CITT = CIt gives back the result of
Eq. (10.55).
..
JI
..
..
..
"
JI
...
JI
..
..
"'
"' ... . . III
...
.....
_-
..
...
:II
"'
..
. . . . .AI . . . . .i
JI
.l
. . . ..Ii ..Ii ..Ii

. . . . . . . . . ..Ii ...
.l
........
.......
.l
...
.........
.l
..I
..
..........
.
............. .
. . . . ..Ii..li . . ...
. . . . . . . . . .AI
..Ii ... . .
..Ii . . ...
AI ..
..Ii ..Ii ....
...
..
.II
...
, ............ .
..I
.J
10- 8
7.3 x
8.0 x 10- 8
7,,8 x 10- 8
0.13
0.13
0.06
iQi
i i
..I
.........
AI
...
...
.....
"' . . . . . .'
"' ...... . .
.II . . . . . . . .'
.II
"'
.II
"' . . ...
"' A . . . .'
.II ...... .
.II "' . . . . . .'
...
.. ..
...
.II
"'
.II
I
I
......
..III
.II
"'
..
:II
,
I
. . . . ..III ..III
..
"' ... ..All ...
. . . . . . ..III
..I
....
...
AI
....
..I
"' . . . .
...
_I~"'"'A
. "' "' .... .

. . "' ....... .
. ......... .
!IE
. . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . ...
- ,
I
.........
........ .
.........
.
. . . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . ..
~
I
........
. . . . . . . . ...
I
. . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . . . ...
....... . .
I
I
"
.........
I
I
. . . . . . . . . ....
. . . . . . . . ..
........
......... .
....
I~
...........
..
C1(E) 2
I
I
..............
I
I
'm
.........
...
..
...
........
......
.......
,~
..
. . . . . . . ..
........ ~
. . . . . . . . ...
......... ~
I
I
...
III . . . . . .
.........
III . . . . . .
.........
.......... .
...
.........
..
.........
........
......... .
.t ......... ,
. . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . ...
...
. . . . . . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . . . ..
I
. . . . . . . ....
~
......... ..
...
I
I
...
. . . . . . . . . ...
I
. . . . . . . . . . ..
~
. . . . . . . . . ...
..........
"' ...... .
,
..
.......... .
. . . . . . . . . ..
I
. . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . ..
........
we thus fonn Table 10.5, where
..
"' . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . ...
We note from Eq. (10.54) that it is easier to work with relative errors, and
"' . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . ...
.........
.. .
. . ...
........ .
"' . .
..... A
....
..II
. . . . . ..III
...........
.......... . .
It
iii ,
AI
....
- , ,, ................
,
. . . . . . . . . . ..III
0.08
0.08
0.04
...
....... .. ... .
.. .......
Ii
'II
..
. . . . . . ..Ii .... ...

.l
a(b)
. . . . . . . ..Ii ....... .
'f!
...
............ -
,
- ,......
ii'
..Ii
......
.l
Ii
. . . ..Ii ..Ii ...
......
. . . . . ...II
- ,
"'
...
. . . . ..Ii . . ....
.l
.......
...
1
2
..
. . . . . . ..Ii . . ...
un
..Ii . . . .
....
Set
of data
III
........
.l
0.41 x 1012
1.0 x 1012
12
2.0 x 10
. . . . . . ..Ii . . . .
..
..
..
'1
..
.....
. . . . . . . .AI . . III
; i
..
..
............
, ...... .
.
........
, ......... . .
- - . . .... .. ...
- . , ..... .
- .............
, ..............
.......... .. .,
..............
........... . .,
............... --
TABLE 10.5 An Example of a Calculation of Propagation of Errors

I,
.....
..
"'
.l
__
"
JI
JI
;;
..
. . . . . . . . . . . . III
iii
...
..... "' ..... ..

.............
- .....
"' ..... ...
- ............. ..
.l
' ,
... .AI . . .
.II . . . . . . .
"' . . . . . 01
JI
....
II
.....
"'
"' . . . .
....... .
JI
It
"'
'..!.",
JI
..!
Oil . . . . . . .
...
___
460
JI
........
..
since the errors in T and E are uncorrelated.

.:::~~~~~~~~~~~~
. .. .... .
For the best estimator of b, we will use the mean of the three measure- ::}~~;~;~~
ments but weighed in inverse proportion to the square of their standard </~~~~~~~
........-: .....
deviation (see Section 10.3.3). Thus
)~~:~:~~
. '" ... .
I
.:"'
..........
...
,
,
. . . . . . . . ....
. . . . . . . . ....
................... .
I
I
"
1
b:- "6(7.3 +8.0+4
........ . .
.......... .
.........
..........
.......... ....
......... ..
........
.......... . .
. . . . . . . . . . ....
I
. . . . . . . . . ..
I
7.8)
-8-8
10
= 7.75 X 10
-for a (b) we used Eq. (10.49),
. . . . ..
.II
I
~
...
....
....
. . . . ...
....
. . . . ...
.... A
....
I
........ .
...
.... A
. .... .. ... ...

, ..... .
, ......... . .
, ....... . .
I
..
. . . . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . . . ...
JlA . . . ...
A .. ...
,~.
..... ..
. . . . . . . . . ...
.........
. . . . ...
.... ~
..... A
,
,
"
I
"I
. . . . . . . . . ...
"
....
,
I
........
A ....
. . . . . A .. .
....
.....
A .. ... ...
IIA ...
~
,.
A . . . ...
.... A
.. ...
. . . . . . . ...
J
... A
.... .
,
-
...
......... . .
........ .
.........
.......... . .
......... .
......... .
. "''' ...... ..
.........
........
. "' ........ .
,,
,
..........
.II
..
.II
. . . . ...
..... .
" A . . . . ...
...... .
"
.......
...
,JJI ...... .
...... A
, ,, ,
,
,
~
or the convenient approximation
,
,
.......... ..
~
'Cr(b)
-
I
6
~--
I
I
(J(bl)
- .
+ -
- +4
"'
. . . . ...
"'
.......
...
"'
.......
..
.....
...
..........
.II
..
"'
"' ..... III ..
.II
"'
..... ..
"' . . . . . . . .
......... .
.II
"' . . . . . .
........ .
.II
= 0.043,
.II
..
. "' ...... .
,."' ... . . ...
, ,."'
. "'.......
...... . ... ...
,...
, ."' "'.......
...
, ,....
....
.
.
"' "'.......
.
.. "'"' "'.......
.......
. ..
, ,,...
....
.
.
.
, ............
.. "'"' .......
...............
, ,,............
, , ..........
. "'"' ....
..
..... .. .. .
.. "' .... . .
...........
........... -.
........
.II
..
01 . . . . . ...
.II "' . . . . .
. . . .II . . . . . ...
01 . . . . . . .
. . . . . . ..
..
,,,
,
.II
..
01 . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . ..
01 . . . . . . . . .
JI . . . . . . . .
01 . . . . . . . ...
,
,
...
..
.II
"'
. . . . ..
,
,
,
.11 . . . . . . . ...
, ,, .II . . . . . . . . . .
, , .. .II . . . . . . .
,
,
"
, , , '"
",
", ,
, ", ,
",
",
,,
, ,
,
~.
,,, ' ,, .. "'
,
, ,, ,
,
~
so that the final result is
........
.
........
.
.
....
.
.....
.
........
.
.......
.
.
......
.
......
.
.......
.
........
.
......
.
.......
.
.
.......
.
........
.
.......
.
......
...... .
.
......
.
.........
.
.......
.
.........
.
.
" ........
.....
.
1
'
..
.......
.
......
.
....
..
.... ...
..........
, ......
. ....?.
.....
. . .....
............
, , ,.
,,,
, , ,
,
10.4.4. Evaluation of the Error Matrix
....
~.
....
......
.
.......
.
' .....
.......
. .. ... . . . 1'...
,
,
, ,, , .
. . . . .I
" .~ " " .1'
'
. ...."'.0'"
..
'"
.....
I . ..
I~"'''::':.
In the two previous sections we have discussed the case where only i:':)~~~$~~
one unknown variable x was sought. We will now consider the random :?:~~~:x~
,,... .. .....
...... . .x.;
. ....
"' .... ..
........
.....
.
.
. '.. ......
........0
..
.
.". "h.l'
. ..
" ..........
.........
........1'%.
,'~ ......I. . . . .~.
. ' ,~ .....I.......,.
'.. "*
,,
,
,
,
,
'
......
..1
.t'..
.....%
rX.
,
'
1... . .
'
,
'.
.I.I.. ..I
'
','..........
:: ::::~~~~~~
... -:.:-~.~mh
,
.. '" .I
.II
.. _
461
errors when several unknown variables are simultaneously estimated or

measured.
When only one variable is measured, we know how to obtain from the
data the second moment about the mean
Ii
2
0"
= -1,",_
~ (x -
xd .
n i=l
If now p variables are simultaneously measured in an experiment, we

must form the p ( p + 1)/2 second moments about the mean; for example,
if we measure x, y, and Z, we must calculate the six expressions
ayy=;
O"zz = ... ;
(to.56)
(Txz
= ... = O"zx;
a yz
= ... =
a zy
(In this notation. the dimensionality of a quantity a pq is that of the product

pq. Hence.
has the same dimensions as au. We avoid the notation
a}p etc., because it misleads one to think that a xy , for example, is positive
definite.) If the distribution of the variables x, y, and z is normal, then
these six moments fonn the symmetric error matrix; if the variables are
uncorrelated, the matrix is diagonal.
Clearly, the error matrix must be known if it is desired to apply
Eq. (10.48). Consider, for example, that from the measured variables x, y,
and z we wish to obtain a new unknown u and its standard deviations aeu),
where
a;
u = (x, y, z).
(l0.57)
Then the values of al} that were obtained from the data with the help of
Eq. (10.56) are substituted in Eq. (10.48) along with the partial derivatives
of U, which are obtained from Eq. (l0.57).
Conversely, if the frequency function of the three variables x, y, and z,
and thus of u, is known,
feu) =
f[(x, y. x)]
.........
......... ..
.......
..
- .....................
- - .........
.... . . .."J
- ... . .....
- . . ...... .
....... ..
- ... ........J
........
..
..
- ........
.
......
........ ...
- ........
.
- ..........
.. .... .
..
. . .. ....
...
- . . .... ..
- . . .... ..
- . . ... .
.
- . . .....
...
.
- . . ... .
.. . . ..'" '".....
.... ..
.... '" ..
- ...... ..
- , , ......
...... '"'" .....
-
'
III
......
......... I
462
...
ill
..
..
ill
..
..
..
ill
..
..
..
it is possible to calculate theoretically the elements of the error matrix

through the usual expression
ill
...
ill
..... I
..
.....
..
ill
...
.ill
......
..
.ill
.ill
I
I
.. '" ...
... ..
, ..... .
. .. .. ..
,
...
ill
..
..
'"
..
....
'"
,
....
'" I
...
ill ...
I
I
...... .
. . ..
..... .
I
I
.......
..
.....
.......
I
.....
... .
..... . .
..... . .
I
..
I
I
'"
..
..
..
... . .
'''
,
'"
, ,
,
, ,
,
,,
I
...
...
....
'"
...
...
..
...
...
...
. "
. . . ...
. . ..
.........
"
"
'"
....
, ......
, , ., ......
'" ...
, , ,...
'" . .
"
..
, ... . ...
, ,.....
...
.
.....
.
'" ...
, , , "......
,. "" '". ......
,
.
, , ... ...
. . ...
. . . ...
'''
, .. . .'" . ..III
"
...
..
'"
.. ,
......
..
...
...
....
....
.;
. '" ...
"
'" ...
.....
"
.J
', "' .....,j

I
..
"'
I
I
'I
H.
Xn ,
Yl, Y2,
'"
..
......
..
..
..
.. .
'"
...
..
, , ,
1
...
tI ...
....
.. tI ...
"
01 ...
, , , " ........
, ' ', ' l

.. i t
tI l...
, .. JI ...
, , " JI......
...
.......
, .. tI ...
, ,
.. tI ...
.. JI ....
, , " tI ...
,
'JI'"
, " tI ...
, , JI .....
, " tI ...
,
, ...... ,
, , " ......
, , " tI
,
" tI ...
' l i t l ..
, ' ', ' t

.. I t
tI I..
" t I ...
, " tI ..
.....
....
.....
, .....
.
, .....
, , .. '"
~
,
, .. '"
,.~
..
'" ..01
,.~
.
........
.....
~
~
..
..I
'" ..01
....
..
'"
...
..I
ill
..
.....
II
..
..
....
..
II
..I
..
.....
..
..
, "~ ,
, ,,
,,
,
,
, ,,
,
,
,
,
,
. , Yn~ Zl, Z2, .. , Zn; Ba , (Jb, . , em)
..
....
..
..
..
... ,
,..
, .
.,
,..
,. ,
.,
,
, ,..
.,
, .,
, . ,
, .....
, .,
, .,
,. ,
, . ,

, ,..,
, .,
, ,..,
, ,
..,,
,.
,.,
,.,
, .,
,.
,.
".
, .,
,..,
,
, ..
, ,
, ",.,
, ,.,
, , .,
,
,..
~0
(10. 59)
,
,
,
,
..
.
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
..
., ,.,
,
, ,.
, .
, ,
,"
,,
,,
, ,
requiring the solution ofm coupled equations. Equation (10.41) is a simple

example of such a solution of Eq. (10.59). We note that the number of
independent data points taken, n, must be larger than or equal to m.
,
, ,
=- 0,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
, ,,
,,
,
, ,
, ,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
0; ,
............
---
where f is the frequency function of the measured variables and is usually

assumed to be a product of Gaussians. Then the estimators
8;, .... , (J~
are given by the values that simultaneously maximize ,c, namely"
....-.
..
,,
,
, o ....
,
, .... ,
~
,,, . . ,
, o, .. '" ,
, .. '" ,
!(Xn , Yn; ... , Zn; (}(J, 8b, ... , Om),
..
.... 01 ...
...
. . ...
I . . ..
...
...
I
I
= I(Xl, Yl, .. ~,Zl; (}a, Ob, .. ., em) !(X2, Y2, .. ,1.2; eat 8b'J .. ., 8m ) ~ ".
X
...
...
I
...
...
.....
..c(Xl, X2,
...
...
.... .,
....
.....
..... ......
. . .. .
I
...
.....
...
"'
.......
..
"' ...
........
. . . . . .I
..
. . . . . . ..
....... ..
In most practical applications, however, it is difficult to use Eq. (10.56)

or (10.58) . Equation (10.56) may not be usable because the unknown variables may not be measured directly (although they are measured implicitly);
also, extensive data are required to yield meaningful results, and the calculation is cumbersome. Equation (10.58) may not be usable because the
multidimensional integrals are frequently too difficult to calculate. Instead.,
the method of maximum likelihood provides an easy way for obtaining the
error matrix.
As already discussed in Section IOp3, if the set of data Xi, Yi., . ~ . , Zi
has been measured, and the estimators for the m unknown variables
(}a, ()b, . , Om are sought., we may fOIIll the likelihood function
..
..
.. ..
....
..
.... .
.... ..
I
I
etc.
..
ill
..
..
...
ill
I
I
= JL2(X., y),
..
....
..
..
.. . . .
. . . . . . ..
....
..
..
I
I
where
'"
..
.ill . . oJ
. . . . . . ..
....
......
~
...
'"
~ '" .. .
...... .
....... ..
I
I
.ill
....
...
....
'" ...
....
..
..I
lex, y, z)(/l-x - x)(/-Ly - y) dx dy dz,
..
....
or
..
ill
(10.58)
...
..I
..... ~
...
ill
'" . .
tjxy
..
..
j(x, y, z)xydx dy dz
ill
l4(x, y) =
..
46J
The elements of the error matrix can be obtained from the inverse of the
matrix
Hki
a2 w ]
athael o;,e; ,... ,0;"
'
(10.60)
where the second-order partial derivatives must be calculated at the values

of the estimators, and W = log.c. We have
O"k[
= (H)k/ '
where the rule for matrix inversion is

(H- 1) ..
= (_l)i+jDet (ji minor of H)
(10.61)
Det H
IJ
and the minor is the matrix resulting from H when the jth row and i th
column are removed; obviously, the inverse matrix does not exist unless
Det H =1= O.
We will now apply this method of obtaining the error matrix to the simple
example treated in Section 10.3.3. The measured variables are x and y, and
estimators aTe sought for the variables a and b; we assume that x is Imown
exactly and that y is distributed normally for each measurement, and related
to x through
y
= a +bx.
Using Eq. (10.37), we have
.c =
fl[ .l~exp I-~[Y; 1=1
(11
b)]2)]
y(x;;
a,
Yi - (a
2a,
2rr
and
W = log!,
= -"2 1og (2rr) -
LlogO'; 1=1
2"
+ bxd
(f'
;=1
]2
To simplify the calculations we assume 0'1 = 0'2 = ... = an. so that
a2w
- 8a 2
a2w
= 0'2;
:LXi
8a8b =~;
_ a2w _ 1>1
3b 2
0'2
Hence
H - 1-
0'2
[n
:LX;]
LXi L(x;)
(10.62)
. . . ... .
-..............-. ................ . z.........--
-
. :...:...
- - . . ... . . .. . . .
- -...
...-. .....
......
. IIIIIIX.......
. - .-..
.
..
. . . .-. ...... Z . -. -
- - ..
- ...................
Z-.- -- _
....
.. .. .
- ..........
.....................
......
..
.
.
................-.... .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . .
.....-............. .. . .. . .. . .. . .....
- ...............
. . . . ....
. ...... Z. .........
-. ..
- -........... - ...............
.-11
- . . . .. . . . . ....
- . . ... .. . . . . ....
. . ... . .... . . ....
- ---~--z----.-~... ...
....
I11III..
II
~
_... _---_.
-..
...
..
..
..
I11III
..
..
..
..
I11III
..
..
. . . . . . . . I11III,
....
464
~_
~-~
I ....... ~
..........
.
.
~-~
~
~
and
...
..
.. ..
......
..................... J
...
..
..
..II
.. ..
...
..
.. .. ..
..II
~
.... -
Det H
1
'2
=a
.............-II
~
. . . . . II . . . . . . II
II II ..II ..II ......

...
II . . ..II . . .... ....
... . . ..II . . . . . . ..II ~
II . . . . ..II . . ....
. . . . . II ..II . . . . . . . . . . .-~
-
...............-. . ...... ...

. .. . .... .... ........ ...
......... ...
... .
..
'..
...... ....
......-. .......
....... .... ..
...
..
..
...... .....
-...... ..
...
.
.
.....
-.--..
---....
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
- ....
.
.
.
... . ...
...
- ............ ..
...-.
.
..... --.....
......
.
-.
..
...
.. ..-..-..
.
.
.
..
..
.... . ..
.. -......
---- -- --
Thus
..II
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-11
..II
~ ~~~~
~
~ ~ ~
~ ~-~
~ ~
~ ~ ~
-~
~ ~ ~
~-~
~
~ ~ ~
~
~ ~
~ ~
~ ~
~
.~-~~.~~
~~~~
~
~~
~~
.~~~~~~
~ ~
~ ~
~
~~
~~
'.~~~~.~~
.~~~~
(10 ...63)
,
~ ~
~ ~
~~~
~.
~
~
~.
.. ..
--. .
~~~
.~~~~.~.
I
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~
~
which gives the results stated in Eq. (10~43); the indices v, J.L stand for .. <?~~~~~~~~~t
..
... -......
...........
...
..
. ..-.
-....
..
.
.
..
...
a or b ,.
...........
~ . . --...
......
.
...
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
..
....
..
...- .. -....--...
.
.
..
.
....
..
. .--.......
. . .. .. .
~
'.
~-
-. -..-..
.
.
......
...
....
-.. ..
.
........
.--..... -..........
......
...
......--.-....
.
.
..
.
........
.......-......... ..... ...-.......
.......
..
...--.-. -.
.......
.
.
..
........
..-.........
.
. ..-..~
. .
... ~ ....~~
..
. ..
..
~.
10.4.5. The Monte Carlo Method
-"~-.,,
~
~
~
~ ~
It is clear that the calculation of the propagation of errors may become . >~~~~~~~~~~~.
extremely involve~, especially when the frequency functions of the vari ... <W~~;~~~J:.
abIes cannot be ~pressed analytically and when interrnediate processes of ~~~~~~~.
... .. -.
statistical nature take place~ It is then preferable to use computer programs <)~~~~~~~
...... ..
based on the so-called "Monte Carlo" method4
... ::}~~;~~~~~~
-........
.....
.
........
.........
.
.
......
.....
By this technique, we follow a particular event through the sequence .....
..
..
....
..
..
..
of processes it may undergo. For each process, all possible outcomes are ...
..
.. .
~
~ ~
.............. ..
--
~~.
~~
~~.~~
~~~
'
'
'
'
~~~
~~
~~.~
~~~~~
~~~
~~~~
~.~~
~~.~~
.....
- --...
..
...
..
..
- ..
~
~ ~ ~
~
~~~~~
... .
~.~~
~~~~~
~
~ ~
weighed according to the frequency function and divided into x classes of

equal probability. Then, from a table of these classes~ one class is selected <~~~~~~~~?:
at random: for example, by looking up a table of x random numbers~ - )~~~~}:
The outcome of this process is incorporated in the progress of the event >'}i{~i:~~
. ..
until a new decision point is reached, when again random selection is ~.:~?~~~~~~i
made~ Thus t at the end of the sequence of all processes~ certain final con- - .~/~~~~~~~}
.
ditions will be reached from the initial conditions with which we started </~{{~~:~
....
and through the intermediary of the random choices made at each decision ~.\~~~~~~~~~.
-nt
--:
.:.:.;-;.;.:
pOI
~~.~~
~
~
~
~~~~~
~~.
~~
~~~~~
--I.~~~.~
.~
~.~~
.~~
-I
~~~
-I.~~~.
-I.~~~.
I~~~
~
-I.~~.~~
..
~~~.
...
We follow in this fashion several events, always starting with the same -:,::'~J~~~~r
initial conditions, but because of the random choices, the final conditions . ':.<=~~~~{
will be spread over some range. If enough events have been followed ::':\~~~~~i~~
through, we are able to find the frequency function of the combined process ... :.:\~~~~~~~
and of its parameters, namely, the mean and the standard deviation for the . ::/~~~~t
final conditions that result from a given set of initial conditions.
.:.::)g~~~~~
For more discussion, including examples with accompanying COffi- ..:. . . )g~~~~~
puter codes, the reader is referred to the material listed at the end of this .. -:":\~~t~
...' ...
-.....
ch apter.
: :~::::~~::~:i'!
..... .
. , ...
-I.~~
......
......
....
,~
......
....
......
...
-.
...........
......
......
.....
... .-.
......
...
.. '-...~
...
-~
"~"~"""
-~
.
.-~
, . . . . . . .
-~
.
I , ...
-~
I
I
I
I
......
,-~
........
.--:
.....
.-.
.....
..
-~
~..
,-~
,,~.~
-~
I~"._.'-
..........
..
........
.. .....
I~"_
,
'
I
I
,,~
I
...
...
.....
I
,
........ ~
... ~ ... ......... ~
,~
. . . . . . ..
........ .
....
-.~
_
...
,~~ . . .~"'. . . . ..J.~'"
10.5 The Statistics af Nuclear Counting
465
10.5. THE STATISTICS OF NUCLEAR COUNTING

In many experiments related to nuclear physics, we count the particles
or photons emitted in the decay of a nucleus. Usually only a very small
fraction of the total sample undergoes such decay. The decay of one nucleus
is a completely random phenomenon, yet from the number of counts in a
gi ven time interval, we may determine the decay probability of this species
of nuclei or unstable particles. We have already trulde use of these'concepts
in Chapters 8 and 9.
10.5.1. The Frequency Function for the

Number of Decays
We start with the assumption that the decay of one nucleus is purely random and the probability (unnonnalized) for decay in a time interval b.t is
proportional to tl! and some constant 1 with dimensions of inverse time9;
Pd
= )"tlt.
(10.64)
If we have a sample of N nuclei, since the presence of one nucleus does

not affect the decay of another, the probability that one nucleus out of the
sample of N nuclei will decay, in time M, is
P(1, ,it)
= )"N!1t.
00.65)
Equation (10.65) is completely analogous to Eg. (l 0.12) of Section 10.2.6,

which leads to the Poisson distribution; the only difference is that the
product Nt of Eg. (10.65) is the equivalent of the number of trials n
of Eg. (10.12). Consequently the probability (frequency function) for
obtaining n decays in a time interval t is
P(n,n
e- ANt (N J..t)n
= --...,----nt
(10.66)
The first moment of Eg. (10.66) (in the cliscrete unknown variable n), as
we know fromEq. (10.16), is
n = ANt.
(10.67)
9E. Schweidler, 1905; this assumption has been proven absolutely correct from the
agreement of experiment with the deductions following from Eq. (10.64) as developed in
the following paragraphs.
- . ,.............
.. -...
_.
~
_
-
.II
II
.II
.II
.II
....
II
.II
......
....
........
II
.II
:--:
..
....
..
..
. . . . . . . .. . .
..............
- ..........
........
..
- ...
...... ..
...
... ........
..
........
...
- ............... ..
............
..
.
.........
- . , . . ........ "'"
- . , ,. ,. . "'" . .
10 Elements from the Theorv of Statistics
.II
.II
...
..
..
JI
.l
..
..
...
JI
..
..
..
..
...... : - - :
........
..
. . . . . . ..
.II
...
....
.... :--:
'"'
'"' JI
..
'"'
....
II
II
. . . . . . . . . . . . II
II
II
....
II
..
,-
..
..
..
. . . . . . "'" .. JIll
.. ............ oil ,
- - I ' , .....................~
Since Ii/ t is the average number of decays per unit time (the average decay-/\}~~~~~;
rate), we find the physical significance of the constant parameter A. That>~}~~~~~~:
is, NA gives the average decay rate of the sample; N is the total number of:<}~~~~~~~
nuclei in the sample.
.::\\~~~~~~
Similarly~ the second moment about the mean of Eq. (lO.66), as we\~)t~~~
know from Eq. (10.17)"} is
:-.<{:~:~:~
............
(f
= ANt
= n.
..:...
...
II
...........
...........
. ..........
............... .
........ ..
,
II
...
,
- ,,
, , ,
......
..
.II.
. . . . . . . . ..
.II.
. . . . . . . . III
. . . . . . . . . . III
, . . . . . . . . III III
.II. . . . . . . . . III
. , ,,......
..
'" ''"" "'........
.
.
...
.........
.......
. . ....
"'''''
.......' '
.... . "' ''"" . "" ,
., ,......
I
. . . . . . ..
...
.
...
..
...
"",
..............
'" '" ....
"
.......
...
......... ...... .
.,
,,
,, ,, ,,
, ,
,
, , ,,
, ,
, ,
..
'"
,
...
'
"
. '" '" .,
............
Hence the very frequently used expression,
",
'" ''"" '" """",,

'"
'"
....... ...
...
.............
... ...... .
... .
.::::::::~~::::
(10
C1 = .,fn.
68) ,:........
. :. ......:..
........
.. ..."" . ...
......
Note~ however, that nit = NA is he theoretical average rate, which is})]~~~
usually unknown (unless A and
are precisely known for the sample:}}~:~
under consideration). The average rate that we measure, R = nit (counts:':'~')~i~~~~
. ...""
per unit time), will, in general. differ from the true rate N'A
njt"} but" :,:~)~~~~~~
if n is large, R will be distributed nonnally about NA. (See Eq. (lO.66a). <t~~~~
.::~::;:;~~~~:
below.. )
'.""""
........"".
...........
From the considerations of Section 10.2.9; it is clear that when the total :<}~;~;~
, , .. "" r.
number of observed counts n is large, Eq. (10.66) is well approximated by <~t~~~~~
a Gaussian with mean J1. = NAt and standard deviation cr = J NAt:
,<r~~~~~
.......... .
~
,
,
,,,
,
'"
, , .. '" '" "".t'
" i , ..................
,,,
P(n, t) ~
.
(NAt -- n)
'"
,,
, ,
,
"'
......
.......... .
... . .. .... .. ..
, .......... ..
'" '"
, ,
.II
..
.II
....
AI . .
.Ii
..
' , .......... .,>}~:~:
j2ii NAt exp -' 2N"it
(lO.66a)U@111
. ". "'.
.... "
,'~
,
"
II ............
. . . . 01..01 ...
,
II ........ II
,
, .III II ..l1li ...
exp
(n -n)2
-=
J21tn
'
............
. ........ ..... .
.III ........ ..oil

<III II .... ..oil
. . . .>II ... ....
........ ..
........ ..
,
, ....
, ,
~
..
........ .-
..
tI
..01
...
01
.oil
...
...
(10.66b) >':.......
;:::::::...
2n
Thus; unless we are dealing with very few counts"} Gaussian statistics may
.............
AI
, "'
,
,
........... ..
..
............ ....
....... ..
, , ......... ....
, , .......... ....
, , ....... ..
,
.II
.II . . ....
.II
...... ....
......
....
.II .... ....

........ ....
....... . .
.II
, ........ ..
, ,, , ...........
....... . . . .
"'
"'
..... . .
.......
be safely applied.
........... .
....... .. .
.........
Finally, we sununarize here some simple consequences of Eq. (10.64) ......
........
.. . .
... .......
. ......... .
......
. ..
for a single nucleus:
......
. ........
..
.....
. ....... .. .
,
"'
"' "'
.II
.II
...... ..
.II .... ....
..
.Ii ....
.II .... .Ii ....

II . . ....
...
........ .Ii ....
"'
.II
....
....
....
, "'
,
...
.... ....
,
,
........ ....
,
, , '"'
,
,
, , , , '"
...
......... . ....
.......
, , ............
..
.... ....
,.,. . . .II ......
....
,
......
... ....
....
......
....
(a) If the probability for decay in dt is
'"
......
...
........
. ...
......
.. ... .
........
......
.........
.
.....
.
.
........
.
, ..... . . .
, , . ......
'" .. ""'"
, ......... .. .
...... ."".. .
, ,,........
.....
, ........ . .
, ...... . .
, , , ......
"' ....... . ..
, ........ . .
, ,......
'" .
!
"
,
, ,
,
, ,
-II
....
,
,
,
..
(b) then the probability for not decaying (survival) in the time interval/);~~
............
from t = 0 to t = t is
.:::}~~~
......
........ .. .
,
, ,
......
.. .. ......
... '" '" '"...... .
oj
...
""
,r
, ' , ' .... rl....
, '"
, , , , '" '" "' """
, ,.
, ,,,
, , ,,
(for proof see Eq. (10.13)).
.... .
..'" ''"" '"."". ......'"

......
.
, , ,......
. '" . . '"
, , .."''".... .....
, . .."' "'......... .
,,...
.......
'" '" '"..""""'. .
, . "' .. . .
, , ,.."' '"...""... '"
...
"' .. . .
'" ....... '"
, ,......
...
'" ... ...
,,....
.,.....
'" '" '"""."'" '"
.
'" .. . .
, , ,.....
.
'" .. '" '"
...
'"...."'. .
"."'
,.....
.
'" "". .
, . '" . .
, ,.
. ''"" '".'"...""..'"
,.......
, . '" . .
,
........
....
'" III '"
.... .
,
,
,
'"
'" filii
'" '" 001.
, _ " , .. filii
.... .
,,
,
,
,
.....
.. '" "' ''"". ."".""..
. "' ...
.
. ....
......
..
,' .. II"'' '.....
...."'.
"".
.......
"'
......
""
-
, ,,
, ,
, ,, ,
,
,
,,
....... ....
10.5 The Statistics of Nuclear Counting
461
(c) The probability for decay in dt at time t is
= e-lr A dt.
Pd(t, dt)
(d) Tbe probability for decay in the time interval from t
NCt)
=1-
Ps(t)
= 1-
= 0 to t =
t is
e-J...I.
Note that only (c) is properly nonnalized, so that
00
Pd(t) dt
00
e- lt ).. dt
= 1.
Expressions (b) and (d) are, correctly, always <1 and reduce to 0 and 1,
respectively, as t approaChes infinity. As to expression (a), we must keep
in mind that it bolds only for At such that Af'l.t 1.
10.5.2. Behavior of Large Samples

Having obtained the frequency functions, we may now examine the behavior of the total sample. 10 From Eq. (10.67) we see that given a sample of
N nuclei, on the average, in a time interval f'l.t there will be
n = AN f'l.t
decays; that is, the total sample will be decreased by an amount
-AN
= NAM.
(10.69)
Equation (10.69) then leads to the differential equation for the number of
nuclei in the sample
dN
= -Adt
N(t)
= Noe-J...I,
with solution
(10.70)
where No is the nwnber of nuclei at time t

O. Frequently T = 1/A is used
for the exponent in Eq. (10.70); T is called the lifetime of that particular
species of nuclei and is the time in whicb the population of the sample is
IOThe principles and fonnulas in this section have already been used in Section 8.6.
. -. --..........
......... .......-. . ....
. --. .
......
-. ....-. ......
.........
.
.
............
.
.
.
.
...
.
....
.
-.
.................
- - .......
... . ... . -....
..................
... - .............. ..
- . ............
- . . ... . ... -. -....
.. .. .. .. .... ....... .... . ...
......-.
- - .................. .... .....
................
... ....... ....... . ............
.
.
.
...
...
.
.................
..
. . .........--............
- .. ...... .........-- . ... ... ... . . . ... .
. . . . . .... . ... ...
. ... . ... . ... ... ....
- - .. ..... ...............................
. . . .... -... ....
- .................
~~
............. ..Ii
....
.II
......
. . . . .-
. . . . . . . . . . . I11III
.II
...
...
..
...
...
468
...
.II
...
....
..
....
......
.II
reduced to 37% (lie) of its original value. The half-life
.II
........
...........
.II
...
..I
....
.....
..
...
.II
.......
...
.II
...
...
..
.II
....
...
...
..
.II
...
..
...
...
.II
...
...
...
'tl/2
= r Ine 2
...
...
.II
.II
....
... _
.....
...
.II
_
......
..
.II
........... I
~
~
.II
.... .... ... ...
= O.693r
. . .. ... .. . .... ... ...

-. . .... - . ... ... - ... -.
......
- . . . ...
- .....
. .. .....
-
.II
...
....
...
...
.II
....
~ ~
~
-.~~
~.
~~~~~ ~
~
~~.~-
.~~
~~~
-~.~
~ ~
~~.~
~-
-~~.
~~~~~I
gives the time in which the population of the sample is reduced to half its_ ::}:::::::::::::~
... . ....
.
original value. Using Eq. (10~70) we find, for the decay rate as a function :>{~:~:~:~:~:~:
.. .. ..
me th
-..
...
. . . .. . . . . .
, at
.......... --.
Ofti
................
........ ..... . .
-
~~.~
~~-~III
~.~~~.~
. ....... .
~
. . . ..
... ..
..
...................
.
.
.
..
...
... ... ...
. . .. ... .......
... ... ...
- ......
..........
... .....
.....................
~
dN
,
...
........
................
..
.
.
.
.............
= R(t) - -AN(t) =
( 10.71) ..............
..............
.. ..
.....
........
dt
. . . ..
..
which has the same time dependence as . . (10.70). Experimentally we :~~~~~~~~~~
usually measure R (t) and obtain a curve as shown in Fig. (10.8); from such a <t~~~~~~~~~~~
plot A. may be obtained. If the sample contains two or more different specie~ . <t~~~~~~~~~~~
....................
of nuclei with different decay constants AI, A2, .. , the time dependence <\}:~~~~~~~~
of the decay rate is no longer the simple exponential ofEq. (10.71); instead <t~l~~~~~~~~
.................
.
.
.
.
..
..
.
.
. . ..................
. . . . . . . ....... .
dN
t
-At
t
A]tl2
-A2 1
::::::~:::.=;~~~~~~~~:
t
1
e
2
e
.....
.,
0
.............
."'J.
R ( ) - A N,0
. ..............
...............
.................
....... .. .. . ... ....
dt
. . .. ..
~
_on
~~,,",,". ~
...
...............
...........
......
................
.................
.................
... ... ... ...
.. ..
... J
~ ~
... ...
. . . . .~
..........
,,~""~
~
.....
.........
... ... ~
... ... ~
...
~
... ...
~ ~
. .. ... .. . ...
..............
.
.. .. . . .........
.................
.
.. .. ... .. .. . . ..
If, however, AI A2, then for small t (that is, t r-..J 1/AI) R (t) is dominated ..............
...........
............
..... .... .. ........ ... ........
by the first tenrl; for large t (for example, t -.J 1/A2), R (t) is dominated by --............................ .....-.. .-.
. ........ -- .
- . ..
-..
- . ....
. .. .. . --- ....
- - ....
- ............... --- .. ......
.... .-......... . --.
.....
- ....
....
.. .. .. . ..
- ....... -....
. .. .. . .
............---
....... - -.....
-
- ........
....
..
- ....
....
- ........
.
.
.
.
- - ....... . - .. ........ - 0.75
. ....
..
- . ..... - -.
- ..... - - .
- ....
..
- ........
- - .........-- .. .. .. .. - - - ....
..........
- - ....
- .. ........... . ..... -- .....
- ...
0.50
- . .....
.
.
.
- - . ...... Q)
....
- - .......
>
-I
-
............... ---
.
.
.
.
1U
.. .. ~- ....
Q)
............ ... . .. ...
1
..............
.
.
.. ... .. .
0:
.
. ........... .....
I
.. .. .. .... .. .. ..... . .
.........
I
0.25
...........
........... .. .. ...... ....
......
.. .. .. .....
.. . .
I
.....
.
..........
.
.
.
....
.....
......... ........ .........." "..
I
.
.
....
.....
.
.
.
.
"
.
.
.
..
.....
.
I
1
. ...... .. .. ..........
.
.
.
.
.
.....
".
.
.
.
..
.....
I
.. ...... "
............
. . . .. ......
...... ........ .
.. ..........
............
" ".
...
.
.. .. .... ..
.
.
.
.
o~------~--~----~--------~--~----~------~....
............
....
..
2T112
3T1/2
41"112
T112 -r
.....
.
............
.
.
..
....
.
.....
........... ...
.....
.....
.
.. .........
" .
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
. - ...........
. . .. . . ..
Elapsed time
........
.
".
..
.
.
..
.
....... .. .... .....
..... . .
FIGURE 10.8 Exponential decay of a sample of radioactive nuclei. The ab sci ssa I"s .::::::
.. ..::~~X~~~~~~~~
....
.....
..
..
........ .
............
...... ...
.....
.... X..... ~
calibrated in units of the half-life of the sample; the lifetime is also indicated.
.......
............. ....
.
.....
.. .
......... ........ ....
..
. . .........:..:."
..
.. ..
.:::::::::~~:.*::~:
...
.
...
.........
~ ~
.
.
.
...
"':..0:
....
... ...
J
~
...
...
... ...
...
... ...
...
-~~.~
~
~
...
...
... ...
...
...
~ ~
~
~
~
~
~
...
... ...
.~
~
III
~
III
III
~ ~ ~
~ ~
~
~
~ ~
~~-.~
~
~ ~ ~
-.~
~
~ ~ ~ III
~ ~ ~
~~~~.
~~~~.~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~.~~.~
~ ~ ~
~ ~
~~~~.~
.~
~ ~
~
~ ~
~~~~.~
~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~
~...
~ ~ ~
~ ~
~
~ ~
~~-.~
-.~
-.~
~ ~
~
~ ~ ~ ~
.~
~~-.~
~ ~
~
~
~
~
~ ~
~
~~~-.~
~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~~~.~
~ ~ ~
~ ~
..
~ ~
~ ~
--
~ ~ ~
-----
~~-.~
~~-.~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
..
.
~
...
~
~
...
...
...
...
... ...
~ ...
...
...
..
...
...
...
...
...
...
... ~
...
... ~
~""
~
~.... ~ ~
~
... ~.... ~ ~
~
~
~
.
...........
~ ~
...
...
~ ~
...
...
.. ..... y " ~
~
...
~ ~ ~
~
...
...
*~ ,,~
~.
...
~...
~
.
. .
~
...
...
~ ~
~
...
~ ~
...
~ ~
...
....... *""
. . m. .
. . . ......"* ..
.-~
...~
X"~
~
...
.....
%
::::::::~~%~M::
. .......
.
~
.~
...
.:.:.:.
............ . ill
..fi:'.
-
...
~,,~
10.5 The Statistics of Nuclear Counting
469
300
200
1\
j\~
100
--
50
K
"",
--....
c,
i?:'
.s;
r--
r-- r-- -<-
10
\,
\
12
Time (hr)
FIGURE 10.9 The decay curve for a sample containing two species of radioactive nuclei.
each decaying with a different lifetime. Note that the composite decay curve a is the sum
of curves b and c.
the second term. This is shown in Fig. 10.9, which gives the decay curves
on a semilogarithmic plot. See also Section 8.6.3, in particular Fig. 8.37.
Another situation of interest arises when nuclei of species A decay into
species B with a constanUA ~ nuclei B, however. decay in tum into species
C with a constant AB. Let, at time t = 0, the number of nuclei of species
A be No and that of species B be 0.
Then the number of nuclei of species A as a function of time is still
given by Eq. (10.70), N A = Noe- AA1 However, for the number of nuclei
of species B, the following differential equation holds:
dNB
dt
- - = +AANA
- ABNiJ.
The solution of this first-order linear differential equation is straight"

forward, and with the initial condition N B (J = 0) = 0, we have
NB
AT
lVO
AA
[-AAf
e
- e -A81] .
AB - AA
(10.72)
..... ---
". ............
..
0IIII
'III
,
_
..
III
...
.. .. .. III .. III III

.. JIll III III .. III
.. .. III III III .. III
III .. III
III
... .............
' ...................................,y
-.- ..
.......
-~-~-
. . . . . III . . . . . III _ _ . , .
. . . . of . . . . . . . . til III
. . . . . . . . . . III III lit ..
. . . . . III .. III . . . . . . III
"
. . . . . . . . . . . 0lIl
,
.,
..
..,
....
..
.. JIll III III JIll III

MIll .III III II1II II1II III
III MIl III III JIll III

. . . . . . . . . III MIl III .. .00II III
..
..
. . . . . . . . . III III OIl III III
..
. ...iIIII 0II IMIl..III0lIl......

III JIll III
"
.,
.. ..
. . . . . . . . . . . II1II0lIl..
III oil III III .. JIll
..
III
....
,
....
........ 0lIl...
._
............... ..
e that Eq. (10.72) always gives N B > 0, as it must be, irrespective )}~~~~~~~~~~:~:.. :~:~,
vhether AA > AB or AB > AA. Equation (10.72) correctly reduces to <~~{~~~~~~~~~~: ~~~~
~ 0 for t = 0 and t = 00. The two limiting cases for the decay rate >j~~~~~~~~~~~: ~~~;
n B to C can also be obtained from Eq. (10472) if we take into account : ~~>~~~~~~~~~~~~~; ~~~:
, R Be (t) ~ N BAB.
'\ ThUS
<-:.:.:-:~:~:-::::
:.>
. :::::::::::::::. :- ::~
..........
III III III III .. ...
. . . . .III MIll III OIl ..

. . . . . . . . III
.oil .00II .00II
...t III . . . .00II .00II III
..
Ii Ai JIll
..iI
!JIII'
._,,'
Ii
iii
. . . . . . . . . III ..
. . . . . . MIll .. AIII,,/'IJ. - ,
1IIl
",.."AI ............. .
.,. ............
_JI
..,
"
"
." .............
If..... . .
..""".,..............
.. " ............... _,
...... JIII......
.. .
.. "
-........ .......
......... ... ',.."
for AS
"
III"
.. J.
. . . . If If If If
.".,..
.. - . . . .
JI
. . . . If If If If
...
A ""
JIll III: JIll
..
.,,_.,
" ... III III JIll JIll

_
..
"
. . . . . . . . II1IIII1II . . . ,
"
" ... If JIll If JIf If
.. "
AA
"
"
. . . . . . . III
..
..
................
IIIIJ111 . . . . .
III
"
JI.,
..
...............
for AA AB
~ ~ ~ ~
~~~ . . . . . . . .~
...............
r.JII1I.
. . . . . . . . II .. II.~
II II 01,.-
.1 I
.' ......"'.. II................. ..r"_....

......".11.................
.
II II . . . . . .
. . . . II II II
~
I
.~
~ .....
........
. . . . . 1:..-.-,
.. II II II II.. II ......
:.
. . . . . . . . II II
~~:.-::
I
I
.'."
..................................
.
..
............
... .... .... .... ............... ..- ... ''
". .... ."."."
.. .. ...... . -.'
.......................
.......... ...-..
'
.
.
..
..
..
..
.
,
.
.
.
..
..
..
..
.
.
.. ... .........
~....~
-.'- .., ,
...
..
.
..
..
.
.......... .... ..........
... '
................ .............. . .. ,,
......................
.-... '
. ....... ..... .........
. . . .. ...-. .. . ..- ...
...............
.
.. ... .. .. .. ..........
.. -.
.r
"'
:
......
..........
... ... ... ...-............. ...... '
...
5.3. Testing of the Distribution of Radioactive Decay;

the Distribntion of the Time Intervals between
Counts
..........
....... . ......
.
..-.
.........
. .... ...
....
.. .
.
..
.. ..
oW. '
.. .
s frequently desirable to test whether a sample of counting data does.. <i~~~~~~f:~~~~ ~i::
.eed come fronl the decay of radioactive nuclei., that is, that it follows the .>j~~~~~~@
~~:;
. .. .. ... .. .. .....
~
-",
..
quency function of Eq. (10.66). A very sensitive test can be devised if

plot the distribution of the time intervals between successive decays, or
~ry second, third, etc., decay. This method was applied to the distribution
the arrival times of cosmic rays in Section 9.4.2.
/}~~~~~~~~~. dr:
,"'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~::
........,....
<~~~~iii~~~i ~~~~:,
:~~~~~~~~~~~~g
. ............. .~~~~;
.. .
First we obtain the distribution of the time intervals between two succes- )}~:~:~:~:
. . . . .. ....;:~:~,
.. .
'e decays. Let t 0 when a decay occurs; we then seek the probability >}~~~~~~~~:
~:~~~::
-....
It no decay occurs until t = t, but a decay occurs within dt at t - t. This ,<~~:~:~:~.
"~:~~'
........
. . . .. . .. .
)bability is given by Eq. (10.66) with n = 0, multiplied by Eq. (10.65); '.>~:~:~:~::: . ::~::',
11
..::::::::::::::,
.=:::
.............
.....
.
.
..
..
.
nely,
...............
.......... :.:. 1-:....
.. ,
............. I-:....
.............
.. -. . ...
( 10.73)
... ....
...
.~
...,
........
.~
".,
....
.... ....
III
........
III
~'
...........
........
.......
.:II
...
..
III
...
nation (10.73) indicates that the shortest time intervals between two
mts are much more frequent than the longer ones; this is true for any
zdom events!! since they obey Eq. (10.64) and is sbown in Fig. 9.22.
Next we consider the distribution of the time intervals between every
:ond, third, etc . , mth count In practice this arises when the counts from
~ output of a "scaling circuit" are recorded. Consider, therefore, a circuit
ring one output count for every m input count.. If the true rate is r; then
~ output rate R is related to r by
JIII.a.~
............ ....." . ,,
...........
....
........ -.
... ,
.... . ... .
....
...........
.......... I-~ :.
.. .............
..............
,
......... - ....
..
.............. ,.,._.... '
................................. . .O/"..... '
......................................... .. ...,
. ,
............................. . ..... ,
. . .. .... . ..
.
. ,,
..........
...
. .. .... . . .
. . .... .... .. .. . ,
. . .. .... ... .. ....,
. . . . . .III .. ......
. . . . .III .. ..
. . . . . JIll ... III
I ......
--"
..
.............
....
JIll
_....,
~
...
.
...
JIll
..
...
....
JIll
..
..
.j
..
..
.........
.;a
..
...,
'"'
~"~
. . . . III
III
-.... .
...........
.:II
..
...........
.:II
..
..
~ ~
............
'"'
111_
. . . . . . . . . *. . ,'
'"'
. . . . .. .1. . ,
................
....
III
..
.:II.~
..
..
..
.:II
..............
.:II
'"'
..
'"'
..
....
-......:ol .
......
..... .. -.
.... .. - . -...
.
..
.
..
.. ....-. ...
..
..
..
.
........ . ..-.
............... .. .. --..... :",.-.....
... ........ . ... ..
..
..
.
.
..
.
.
.
..... ....
... ......
..
..
.
..
.
.
.. .... .. . -... .........
.......
... .. . ..
..
.. ............ ..--. ......
.............. ........ . .....
..... .. . .... .... .
...............
......
..
.. ........ . ... ._......
....
.... .. .. .....- ........
......................
.... -".'
N"A = r = Rm.
.......
.........
....... . . . .... ...'"... .
'
.............
. . .. ,
.
.....
....
.............. .-:-:.
-".'
..
-:-: :;
1Compare this equation with the probability for the decay of a single nucleus~ as given '::j~~~:
~<
:.
.
... ........... ..... . ..
.
... :::
;ection lO.5.1(c).
'/~:~::
..
.. ..
... .....
.....,.............
.. ...:~ ... ....
.......
.. . .........
..
.............
. .. ........--. ... ......
.........
--.. ...-.... ..
......
... .. ..
.......
.r... .. .
.
..
.
..
.
..
..
.
......... .. .......... ... .
.' .............
...... .
........
..
... .... -.... ......
.......
.........
.. .... .......... ..... ..
.......
. .. .. .... ..
.......
.. .. ..
......
.. .....
..........
. ...... .-....'....:~ ....... . ... .
.III
..
....
III III
III .... ....
III .III
........ III
....
III ....
.... ....
.... ........
........
.. .II1II ..
..
"
,
.....
" ,,
" '"' ,
. , ,
..
'"'
..
'"'
,,
,
,
,
,,
,,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,,
'
,
,
,
,
" ,
, ii'
,,~
"'"
'
,
,
'
,
" ,
,
,'
,
,
,
,
,
,
'
'.'
,~.
.. .. ..
..
IIIi
01
...
..
,
,
,
,
..
,
,
,
'
10.5 The Statistics oi Nuclear Counting
411
0 when an output pulse arrives, and let Qm (t) be the probability

other output pulse arrives in the time interval t; qm(t) dt will then
e probability that this other output pulse arrives at t (between t and
t).
other output pulse will arrive if the input counts n 2: m, so that
-
0000
Qm(t)
=L
P(n, t)
n~m
(rt)lle- rr
n!
n~m
= 1 _ "~I (rtte- rt
~
11=
n.I '
(10.74)
re the last equality follows from the normalization of Eq. (10.66)

00
LP(n,t)=l.
n=O
bY considering the sample space of Fig. 10.10 we see that the set of
+ dt), so that any sample-space point
ging to Qm(t + dt) but not to Qm(t) represents an output count
een t and t + dt. Thus
s Qm(t) is a subset of Qm(t
10.10
Sample space indicating the domain Qrn (t), which contains all points
landing to the anival of an output coont in the time interval from 0 to I after the
us cOllnt. 'This domain forms a subset of Qm (t + dt), which cOlltains all points
londing to the arrival of the output count in the time interval from 0 to t + dl. The
of the ontput count at t is qrn (t) = Qm (t + dt) - Qm (I).
.II
.II
...
.II
.....
.....
.II
...
I
.II . . . .
~
. . . ....
I
.II
.II
I
I
.II . . . .
. . . ..
.II . . . .
. . . ..
. . . . ..
.II
...
.II
... .
.II
.II . . . .
.II . . . . .
. . . . ....
.II
... I
.II . . . .
.II
... I
. . . ..
I
~
I
I
472
I
~
I
I
I
I
I
~
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
.II
......
. . . ..
~
I
.......
I
I
.II
or
.II
... I
.....
... _
... ..
I
I
I
I
I
I
~
I
I
I
I
I
.II
.II
...
.. ~
.II
.II
.II
~
_
J
~
... ~
.. ..
.II
.II
J
I
. . . ..
.II
.II
..
....
_
. . . ..
...... _
I
I
.II
.II
~
.II
...
I
.II
...
.......
.II
...
~
. . . . ..
. . . . ..
. . ..
. . . . ..
. . . . . ..
. . . . ..
. . . . . ..
- I........ .
I
Taking the derivative ofEq. (10.74)
. . . . ..
. . . . . ...
I
. . . ..
. . . . . . ...
I
. . . . ..
I
I
I
I
- I.. .II"... .
I
...
I
I
I
I
n=O
I
I
I
I
n!
nl
I
I
\.
= .-
qm(t)
r(rt)ne-n
___________"_h"_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..
I
I
......
I
I
~
~
1
1
_.. . . . - - - - - r
n!
....... .
. . . . . . ...
........ .
1
. . . . . . . ..
1
........ .
1
. . . . . . ...
1
....... .
1
. . . . . . . ..
~
. . . . . ..
1
. . . . . . . . ...
1
....... .
1
. . . . . . ...
~
........
1
1
. . . . . . . ...
1
,
1
,
1
1
1
,
ii' ,
........ ~
. . . . . . . ..
........ ~
. . . . . . . . ...
........ ~
. . . . . . ...
.......
1
. . . . . . . ...
1
,
(n - I)!
...... . .
~
....... ,
. . . . . . . . ..
(rt)n-le-rt
......... ,
......... ..
III III ... ,
,
,
n=l
..
,I,
I
=r
...... .
. . . . . . . . ..
.... _
.. .
.?..'
n=m-l
...
.
. . . . ..
....
.
. . . ..
. . . . . ..
. . . . ..
......
.
. . . . ..
. . . . ..
. . . . ....
......
.
. . . . . ..
. . . . . ..
. . ....
. . . . . . ..
. . . ..
...... _
n=m-l
..
1
1
1
1
1
1
~
,
........ ~
. . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . . . ..
........ . .
. . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . .~
..
By replacing in the second sum n by I = n - 1., we see that only the last ::,:i\~~~~~
term of the first sum survives, so that
.,>}~~~~:
,"
.....,r ..
.......
1
1
1
1
.........
.........
1
,
,
,
.........
.....
'
..
.......... '
.....
..
......... ,
. . . . . . . ..
......... ,
1
~
......... ..
1
........ .
1
. . . . . . . . ..
,
,
1
.........
...
:,</~~~.-:~~
: :~:::: :~~:::~:
....
..
. . . . . . . . ..
........ .
...
(10 .75)
. . . . . . . . ...
....
..
~
. . . . . . ..
1
. . . . . . . . ..
,
,
Equation (10.75) correctly reduces to Eq. (10.73) for m = 1 (since r

NA). For m ::: 2, Eq. (10.75) has a maximum at dqm(t)/dt = 0, or
........
1
1
. . . . . . . . .. .
.....
...
....... .
......... .
,""
..........
~
. . . . . . . . ..
........ .
. . . . . . . . ..
1
1
1
......... .
.....
...
......... .
....
..
......... .
1
~
.....
...
~
~
1
~
. . . . . . . . ..
1
,
,
1
........
.......... .
....
...
........ ~
1
. . . . . . . . ...
,
1
......... ~
1
~
.......
.I ....
1
. . . . . . . . . . ..
........ .
. . . . . . . . ..
~
. . . . . ..
~
1
1
1
I." ....... ..
1
1
~
. . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . ..
1
1
I." ...... ..
1
1
1
1
~
. . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . ..
....... .
Hence t = (m - l)jr and for large m, t ~ m/r = 1/ R. Thus we see that ::<~~~~~~~~~
the most probable time interval is not the shortest one, but.instead approa-' '::\:~:~:~:~:
ches the mean time interval between output counts 1/ R; that is, the scaling ,::,(~~~~~~~~~
circuit regularizes the counts. Equation (10.75) is shown in Fig4 10.11 for '<:}~:~:~
1
.......
I." ......
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.......... .
. . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . ..
1
. . . . . . . ..
1
........ .
1
. . . . . . . . . . ..
~
. . . . . . ..
1
. . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . ..
1
.......
.
~
. . . . . . ..
1
. . . . . . . . ..
~
. . . . . . . ..
1
. . . . . . . . ..
~
. . . . . . ....
1
. . . . . . . . . ..
~
......... .
1
. . . . . . . . . ..
....... .
1
. . . . . . . . ..
~
. . . . . . . ..
1
. . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . ..
~
~
1
1
1
1
1
........ .
. . . . . . . . ..
........
~
~
...
. . . . . . . ..
1
1
. . . . . . . . ...
1
. . . . . . . . ..
1
1
. . . . . . . ..
1
~
...... .
1
1
. . . . . . . ...
1
~
. . . . . . . ..
1
,
.. ...
...
...... .
..
.......
~
...... .
...
1
1
1
1
1
,
........ .
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
,
1
,
........ .
..... .
. . . . . . ...
~
. . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . ..
,
..... .
1 . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . . ..
~
~
........ .
1
. . . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . . . . ..
~
. . . . . . . .. .
~
..... .
~
. . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . ..
rt
....
....... .
1
. . . . . . . . ..
1
....... .
1
.......
JII . .
1
~
. . . . . . . ..
1
. . . . . . . . ..
1
. . . . . . . . ..
1
. . . . . . ..
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . ....
1
. . . . . . . . . ..
1
. . . . . . . ..
~
. . . . . . . . ..
1
~
. . . . . . . ..
1
. . . . . . . . . . . ..
1
~
....... .
1
.......... .
1
. . . . . . . . . . ..
~
. . . . . . . . . ..
1
.......... .
~
....... .
1
~
......... ..
......
I." .... ..
........ .
...... .
. . . . . . . . . . . ..
...... .
1
1
. . . . . . . ..
1
~
. . . . . . ..
1
~
.......
JII . .
1
~
. . . . . . ..
I
...... .
1
~
. . . . . . . . ..
,
1
......... .
1
..........
........
~
...... .
..
. . . . . .. . .
FIGURE 10.11 The probability qm (t) that the mth count will follow any original count<:~:~~~~~~~
at the !iD1e interval t. Note that the abscissa is calibrated in units of rt where r is the,i::'}~~~~:~:~
unsealed rate of events; for m large the curves approach a Gaussian with mean {rt) = m>j~~~~~~~
or (t) = m/r.
:::::'::~:~:~::::~
. . . . . . . .. . .
. . . . . . . .. . .
..........
....... .
. . . . . . . .. .
....... .
.......
....... .
. . . . . . .. .
...... .
.......
. . . . . . .. .
...... .
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
'
1
1
1
1
1
'
' ,
1
1
1
,
1
1
,
1
~
~
1
1
1
1
...
.
.......
...
...
.........
..... . ..
. . . . . . .. .
..
...
.......
..
......
..
y.
........
.....
..
. .....X
...
........
...
...
...
..........
~
..
. . . . . . . .. .
1
1
..
..
..
..
.. :I:~~";":.*.
1
........
:: ::::~:~:.%..*:.r...:%.
'_._...........
1
.....
10.6 ReferenCIlS> 473
different values of m. Comparison of these curves with experimental data

has been presented in Section 9.4.2.
10.6. REFERENCES
There are many texts, both elementary and advanced, on the subject of
statistics, data fitting, treatment of errors, and computational modeling. The
references given below were consulted for the preparation of this chapter.
L Lyons. A Practical Guide to Daia Analysisfor Physical Science Students. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Cambridge. UK, 1994. A succint guide with plenty of examples.
J. R. Taylor, An Introduction to Error Analysis. secocd ed . University Science Books. Sausalito. CA.
1997. A thorough treatment with applications to the physical sciences.
B. P. Roe. Probability and Statistics in ExperimenJal Physics. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. J992. A slightly
more advanced and mathematical text.
P. G Hoel. Introduction Ie Mathematical Statistics. Wtley. New York, 1958. The presentation of
Sections 10.1 and 10.2 follows Hoel closely.
A. L. Garcia, Nwnerical Methodsfor Physics. second ed . Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs. NJ. 2000.
A general text including chapters on data analysis and Monte Carlo techniques. with plenty of
coding examples in MAlLAB. FORTRAN. and C++.
H. GouldandJ. Tobochnik,Anlntroduction to Computer Simulation Methods: Applications to Physical
Systems. second ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading. MA. 1996. A text devoted to simulations. with
extensive use of Monte Carlo methods. wilh programming examples in BASIC. FORTRAN, C,
and PASCAL
APPENDIX
Students
We gratefully acknowledge the many students who have contributed the

data used to illustrate these experiments.
Students from the University of Rochester:
R. Armstrong, class of 1994

D. Boyd, class of 1963
C. Border, class of 1994
M. Dobbins. class of 1994
R. Dockerty, class of 1962
P. D'Onofrio, class of 1962
K. Douglass, class of 1964
E. Glover, class of 1961
R. Harris, class of 1%3
E. Holroyd, class of 1966
M. Klein, class of 1962
D. Kohler. class of 1962
W. Lama, class of 1966

T. Londergan, class of 1965
E. May, class of 1962
S. McColl. class of 1962
T. Middleton, class of 1994
R. Nebel, class of 1962
P. Nichols. class of 1963
D. Owen, class of 1963
D. Peters, class of 1962
S. Pieper, class of 1965
W. Rakreungdet, class of 2000
J. Reed, class of 1961
475
..
(j
o
o
w
'"
r....c '-t t..-4
t:r1
~S1~
~~~
o 0
~~
('")
('1;1
~
00
C/:I
n ......
p;l
~
tf.I
en w
rI'J
jotete.I
0He)
~~
~
t""I'-ttQ w....,
~
~
~
~
...
00 00 ('tI
(1
~
!"1
... .... n ~
er
at
VI
00
t:::S
~
(")
~
0
53
....
!'1 ........
C':I
rn
Cef.J
00
til
H)
til
n
~
til
0 ~ en
~ 1-+..
\0
...,...., \0 ~
\0 \0 .e;:..
.....
0
~ ~
...... 0\ C1\
,......,N \Ot-...)
,
1
\ 0 0 0'\
0 \ 0 tv
tv I--'
.....
\0
\0
~
APPENDIX
A Short Guide to MATLAB
The experiments described in this book can be analyzed with any of a

wide number of computer programs. AU that is needed is the ability to sort
and plot data, and basic statistical analysis. We have chosen to illustrate
the analyses using MATLAB.Although it is a very sophisticated package,
a relatively inexpensive student edition that is more than adequate for all
of our illustrations is available.
This appendix collects some information that should help you navigate your way through MATLAB. The MATLAB User's Guide is a very
useful reference, but there is much more in there than you will need for
these experiments. Also remember that you can get help online from
http://www.mathworks.com.This site includes a long, searchable list of
frequently asked questions, and it is likely that yours is among them. This
site also offers you acce..<;s to programs donated by other users, which you
can download and use or modify yourself.
477
........
..... '" '" .... "'" ,
'" ""A""'=-:
""'....
. . ...
..... . ..
'" '" '"A....
... JI""''''''
'" '" ......
....
.... ...
... """.""' A_,.
.... .
. ".
"''" ' "'' "' ....
=-:..
..
......
.
.
.
..
..
....
..........
.
, .".,,"
.. ,,.JlJI""'
.....
.......
...
""'
.....
,.
, . ..
, ..
.......
.. .. . '" '"""'......
.. . . ...
, .. .....
""',..
....
...........
- - . . . . .. .. '" III""'_=-:
........ .... ... . ... '""'''"""......
..................'''"""
.. .. .. .. . . '" '""'"............'"

......
.
.. .. .. .. '" '""'"'""........
................''""
......
. .. .. . '" '"""'......
. .. .... .... '" "'"'"" .... .... ....
. .. .. .. .. '" '""'""'"............
.. .. .... ... ''"" .."'" .... .... ....
{.-r """,....,..........
an~~r::::::::~::::~
""
..
11
..
__
,I
'"
'"
""
....
MIl
..
,,""
.,
. ' . .""'' ' '....'''''....J
.,
478
B A Short Guide to MATLAB
...
'"
'" "'" A
. . . . . . " ' '"

>'''
,,""
"
"
"
"."
"
. ".IIIA_
"
"
"
B.1. A MATLAB REVIEW
"
..
'"
'"
JI
'"
MATLAB commands
,.AI
"
key
..
. . . . . "' "' . . . . III ..
'" '"
"
"
The following is a brief summary of

procedures .
_::::
....
'"
,I
..
....
..
, . . . . . . . ..
'"
'"
"'"
.f..... '" ...
......
"'"
..
..
..II .. Ai
. . . '" III lit lit lit

. . . . . III . . . . . . . II
~ '" '" ... III III lit
III ... III III lit
~ '" "' . . . . . . II:
-:;.{
......
..
..
III . . . . . . ,
'" ... III III lit
.. '" '" III III lit .
~
.. '" III A III III
.. '" .......... lit ,

'" ... III III lit

'" '" ... III lit .
'"
...
III
III
III
Input Modes. Commands can be executed one by one in the command.. <>}~~~~~~~~.
line mode in MATLAB or you can write a program consisting of the,>}~~~~~~~~~~~;
appropriate command lines in a convenient word processor such as note$~<t~~~~~~~~~~
in Windows or emacs on a Unix system, and store it as a file with the u.m"</}~~~~~~
extension such as programname.ffi.
. '~<f~;~;~;;~
........ ..
Data Input. Lists of data points are usually input as one-dimensional<:)~~~~~:~~:
.......... .
matrices (vectors). You can do this in a command line within MATLAB: )~~~~~~:;
........ .---.
..............
........
. . . .....
..
'" .... ... III lit
. . . . . . . III . . . . . .
....
II . . . . . . . . .
'"
...
.
........
............
.
.........
..........
...
.
..........
...
..
...........
............
...........
............
.- .
....
..
...............
.............. .-.
.,
...
~ ,
....... .
.
........
.............
,
........
....... .-....
x=[l 2 345 6];
Ii
Ii . . . . . . . ,
~ Ii ~ . - .
Ii
Ii
...
.-~
y=[O.l 0.2 0.3 0.4];
...
.-~
...... .-.
~
~
Ii
.-.
...
...
............. .
~
Ii . . . . . . . . . -..
. . . . . ..01 . . . . . . . ..
. . . . ..01 ..01 . . . . .-~
.. .. .. ..
....... ",I'M .-~
(The semicolon at the end of the line is not necessary, but if you do not<t~~~~~~:~~~~
include it~ then MATLAB will echo values.) You can also store data ui:<t~~~~~~~~~~
..........
ASCII columns in a file with the" .dat" extension, such as mydata.dat. I~\}~~i~~~~~~~
the x data are in the first column and the y data are in the second column.?<~~~~~~~~~~
of your AScn file, then you would use the following commands to load it/{~~~~~~~~~~~~~
. . . . .--- --nt
0
1\K A'TLAB
son
;.:.:~~~~:.-:~:~
1 0 Y ur IVu-\.
ses 1 .
::::::::::~:::::::~:
.........----.......
---....
--.....
.
........
_
......
.. .......------.
....
--..
.....
..
.........
--...
.
.
.
.
-....
...
--load mydata.dat
.........
.......
. . . .. ------.........
---.........
.... ... -- ...
x=mydata ( : ,1) ;
. .........
. . . . - -..
--....
.
.
.
.
- --..... ---....
.....
.. .. .. .....
-y=myda ta ( : 2) j
......
-------......
.......
....
..........
.. . .........-..--------.......
~
oM _ _ _ ..
oM _
.....oM- ...- _
..~
.. I
oM _ ... _ ..~
oM _ _ _ ..~
_ _ -~
..
oM _ _ _ ..
. . . . . .. oM _
___
. . .oM"'
oM _ _ _ ..
~
~
~ .. ..oMoM__ ____ ....

~
----~
......
...........----... -..
oM _ _ _ ..~
Simple Arithmetic. To get an online list of simple functions, type he~p.<~\~~~~~~~~~~~~

elfun. Fornlatting for simple calculations with numbers is straightforward;(}~~~~~~~~~~i
Addition is a+b. subtraction is a-b, multiplication is a*b, division is a/b:~~)jj~~~~~~~~~~
and raising to a power is a~b. Scientific functions include:
. )\~~~~~ili~~~~
..........
-----........
. ............ -----.....
....
....---.........
---....
.....
.................
. ..................
. . ..............
a bs(x) for absolute value
...... ..... . .
.................
. .......
..................
.......... ..
. ..................
..
round(x) to round to the nearest integer
................
...............
...............
......................
.................
real(x) to take the real part of a complex number
.............
..
.....................
................
.. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. . .
...............
""
sign(x) to find the sign (it returns + 17 -1, or 0)
..................
. . . . . .X. .. -.. .
.. .. ......
. .....
.
log(x) for the nanlrallogarithm
.
.
.
.
.
................ . .
.. . . . ... . . .
log10(x) for the logarithm to base 10
.................
................
...............
.........
.............
s qrt(x) to find the square root
..............
.............
..............
........... . .
.
----~
oM _ _ _ _ ~
.II . . . . II . . . . ~
. . . . ~ . . . . . . .01
~
Ii
.. ... ~ .. .. .. .01
. . . . . . . ..
~
~
~....I
Ii . . . . . . . . .01
"
"
. . . . . . . ...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .01
Ii . . . . . . . . .01
..
Ii
.. ..01 .. .. .. .... ..
"
..
.. .. .. ....
..01 .. .. .. .... ..
.. ... .01
.. .. .01 ..
..
..
.. ... .. y .. ... ..
. . . . . . .I ..01 . . . . . . . ...
... ...
... ..
...
...
. . . . JI..oI . . . . ..
.. . . .
JI . ..01... . . . ...
..
. . . . . . ..01 . . . . . . . ...
~
...
.01
.. ..
...
..oI~
.01 . . . . . . "" ,.
.01 .. .. .. ..
.01..............01-/
. . . . . . . . . . . . ..01................-/
.oI.r
" ..... -............. .......r
. ' ~ .oI.............
,.
,.
,.
.........
.....
.....
.............
...,.,.
..........
""
x'."""
. . ."'".
....
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B.l A MAnAB Review
479
as well as the familiar trigonometric and hyperbolic functions and their

inverses, sin (x), cos(xl, tan(x}, asin(x), acos(x}, atan(x), sinhlx~, cosh(x},
tanh(x}, and so on.
Vector Construction. The easiest way to create a vector with regularly
spaced elements is with the command
X
= (start: increment: last)
where start is the first element of a vector, last is the last element, and
increment is the step size between the elements. For example, x=(O:O.l :1l
creates the vector
x =[0 0.1 0.20.30.4 0.5 0.6 07 O.B 0.9 1.0]

(The parentheses U( )" are optional, or they could be replaced
with brackets "[ )".) This is also equivalent to using the function
linspace(start,/ast,number), where number is the number of entries in the
vector. If you would like to define a vector where the increments are logarithmic, i.e., separated by a constant factor instead of a constant difference,
use logspace(start,/ast,number).
Array Arithmetic. To get an online list of matrix functions. type help
elmal. For operations between a scalar and an array. addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division of an array by a scalar look just like simple
arithmetic, and the operation applies to every member of the array.
For operations between two arrays of the same length. addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division apply on an element-by-element basis,
but the syntax for multiplication and division is different than that for simple arithmetic. Multiplication is written a.*b and division is aJb, where a
and b are vectors of the same length. (Multiplication and division without
the dot correspond to normal matrix multiplication and division.)
Data Analysis. There are some simple MATLAB functions for calculating often-used quantities for analyzing a vector X of data values:
length(xl returns the number of elements in the vector

sum (x) adds all the elements in the vector
mean(xl averages all the elements.in the vector
std(x) finds the standard deviation of the elements.
Note that std(x) is equivalent to sqrt(sumj(x-mean(x)).~2)/(length(x)-1 I).

The command [n,x]=hist(y,nb) takes a vector y of data values, calculates
a histogram with nb equally spaced b.ins, and returns vectors n and x, which
give the frequencies and midpoints, respectively, of the binned data.
.......
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480
BASh ort Guide to MATLAB
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Least-Squares Fitting. The theory of the least-squares method j'~clis-if!i!!!i!j

cussed, along with reference to MATLAB~ in Section 10.3.3.
: <>~~~~~~~~
. . .......
When the data points are equally weighted~ all of the operations nee.. ?~~~~~~~
essary to fit a polynomial to a set of (x,V) data points are- included in the :~~~~~~~~
conunand p=polyfit(x,y,m)., where m is the order of the polynomial. A fit to ><~~~~i~~~~
a straight line is therefore p=potyfit(x,y,l). The vector p holds the best-fit -_ ~~~~i~~j
..
values in order of decreasing polynomial order~ For example, if m=2, then }>~~~~~~~i~;
2
you are fitting to a quadratic function ax + bx + c and polyfit returns ~~~~~~~
,',. . . . .'.,
.......
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p-[8,b,c1.
.::::::::~~.=;:~:
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............
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The values of the fitted function can be computed for a set of x values ~~~~}
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x1 using the command yl:::;palyvat(prxl)~ (If you want to compute the fitted ;:;(I~I~I~l~j
function at the data points., just use something like yfit:::;polyvaHpj"x).)
<):~:~~~~:
If the data points are not equally weighted, then you can use Garcia~s ))W~~~~~:
function linreg to fit to a line. Note that you can retrieve this code from the-. ..<}J~~~~~~~
' ... r ............... A'TLAB
'"l.T b t
...
,
.
.
.
,
~
vve
S1
e..
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:::::::::~~~~~~:
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... r ......
Nonlinear Least-Squares Fitting. If you cannot express the function Ji~~J~j
you want to fit as a polynomial, then you cannot use polyfit or linreg. If the . ~~~~~~~
function is still linear in the fitting parameters, though, you can use matrix .})[~~~~J~~
techniques to solve the equations. However, it maybe simpler just to resort .. :.>~~~~~~~)
2
to numerical techniques to minimize X directly. You are forced into this :i.:/~~~~~i(
situation if the function is nonlinear in the fitting parameters anyway. For -<}~~~~~~i~~~
x 1
example, if you want to fit some decay data to y = Ae-- / , then you can -:i~)J~~~~~~~
instead fit a straight line to log y = log A - X/A, but if there is a background :-<>~~~~~?~
X A
tenll~ as in y - Ae- / + B., then you must use numerical techniques.
-.:i\}~~~~~~~~
2
Defining the X function in MATLAB is quite straightforward, and there_<i:)}~~~~(
is a MATLAB function called fminsearch, which will do all the hard work : >/:~:~:i:~
of finding the values of the parameters that minimize the X 2 function. (See,- .: )}~~~~(
for example~ Section 8.6.2~)
. .::~:t~:~~~:
...... .
Simple Plots. There are several simple variations on the piot command -i>~~~~~~?
that will give you everything you need for these experiments. If you really .:.:.<:~:~:~:~
want to do more, see the next section of this appendix.
:.~<~~~~~~~~
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p(ot(y) plots the column values of y versus index. It autoscales the

axes. Points are connected by solid lines.
plot(x,y) plots vector y (vertical) versus vector X (horizontal) on an
autoscaled plot. Points are connected by solid lines.
plot{x,y,' linetype') allows you to specify the type of line that
connects the points of the type of symbol that is printed on a data
point. For "linetype'" use " . . ," ":.," '"' .. -," or "-." for solid, dotted,
...
......
.
. . . . . . ..
..... .
........
..
III . . .
.......
~
..... .
..
III . . . . ..
.. III
......
III . . .
B.2 Making Fancy Plots in MATLAB
481
dashed, or dot-dash lines, respectively, or use ".," "0," "x," "+,"

or "*,, for the corresponding plot symbol.
bar(y) draws a bar graph of the elements of y versus index.
bar(x,y) draws a bar graph ofy at the locations specified by
vector x.
stairs(y) and stairs(x,y) draw "starrstep" histogram plots.
You can plot more than one set of data, or data and a fit, by specifying more than one set of vectors in plot. For example, plot(x,y,'o',x,yfit,'-')
plots "data" vector y versus X as little circles, and then overplots the
"fit" vector yfit as a solid line through the points. Another way to overlay plots is to hold a plot and then just repeat the plot command with
new vectors. When you are finished collecting overlays, use the command
hold off.
Simple labels are put on the graph using the commands
xlabelr label on the x-axis)
ylabel(' label on the y-axis')
title('title for your plot')

text(x,y,' some text') puts some text at point (x,y)
legend( 'string 7', 'string2: ... ) labels different sets of data added to
the same plot
To print your plot on the default printer, use print Printing to files or to
other printers will depend on which system you are using to run MATLAB.
Consult the online help or the User's Manual for details.
B.2. MAKING FANCY PLOTS IN MAT LAB
It is simple to make MATLAIl plots with the default ~haracteristics. Sometimes, however, that is not quite what you want~/especially if you are
-.---/
preparing a formal lab report.
You can also, of course, consult the Mathworks Web page help directly
for some hints. For example. if you want to know how to add Greek characters to your plot, click "Tech Support Solution Search" on the Web page,
and search for keywords "Greek AND plot" You will find "492 How can I
place Greek characters in my plot?" in the search results list. Clicking on
this solution tells you not only how to do it, but also tells you how to get
an m-file, which will make a chart for you that shows the mappings for all
the various Greek letters and symbols.
en
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o
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en
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......
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APPENDIX
Laser Safety
Laser radiation can be dangerous, and in particular it can result in serious

and permanent damage to the eye. Thus it is important to be aware of the
hazards inv01ved and to follow the rules for safe use-a1fi]operation oflasers.
Explicit rules and standards are given in publication ANSI Z136.+-1986
of the American National Standards Institute (1430 Broadway, New York,
NY 10018).
The damage a laser can cause depends on the level of the emitted power
for CW lasers and on a combination of power and energy for pulsed lasers.
The energy per unit area is a better measure of the hazard from direct
irradiation. The most serious danger, however, from laboratory lasers in
the visible and near infrared (i.e., Nd:YAG) is that they can be focused by
the eyeball onto the retina where they will create a permanent blind spot.
This is particularly serious for infrared lasers where the beam is invisible.
Thus protective IR absorbing glasses (typically of optical density 4) must
always be worn in rooms where IR lasers or beams are present.
Lasers with power below 1 mW are classified as Class 1 lasers. At
this power level the exposure in the time it takes for the eye to "blink,"
483
. ........
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.
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484
C La ser Safety
'"
'"
..
approximately 0.25 s., is considered safe~ The ReNe laser used in this
laboratory is a Class 1 laser. Still one should never stare directly into
the beam, or let a specularly reflected ray enter the eye. No eyeg~es
are needed but one must use common sense and remain alert The fasers
installed in commercial scanners to which the public is exposed are Class 1
devices. One advantage of the HeNe is that the beam is clearly visible
so one is aware of stray beams. Stray beams result from reflection off the
various optical elements and other smooth surfaces; they should be blocked
'"
....
..
..
..II
..II
..
..
...
,
,
,
,
...
...
...
'
of
or minimized.
Lasers with more than 1-roW power are generally classified as Class
4 devices, as are most pulsed lasers. Nd:YAG and argon-ion lasers can
..
,
,
easily deliver several watts of power. Such lasers will cause pennanent ......
.....
.
.......
eye damage instantaneously before one is aware of it. In the case of Class ........
.......
..... ...
.
4 lasers only qualified trained personnel can enter the laser room, which .........
.....
.
........ .
. . ...... .
must be kept locked with appropriate signs indicating laser operation. The
......
..
......
nitrogen pulsed laser emits in the ultraviolet at A ~ 337 nrn. UV is invisible ....... .
......
....
...
but can be absorbed by plexigJass, so that ordinary safety glasses are not ........ .
effective; certain materials (i.e . ~ a business card) will fluoresce and can ....... .
.......
.
........
.
be used to locate the beam. Similarly, IR beams are located with special .........
..
.......
....
.
........
..
..
..
......
fluorescent cards andJor with IR viewers.
.. . .. . . .
..
..
...................
The need for obeying safety rules and procedures around lasers is a real ..........
one, and not a "bureaucratic whim. ,., Never look into a laser beam! be aware '. <)~~~~~~~~
of the stray beams'J and wear glasses when required. Do not let others be . }~~~j~?~~
exposed to your laser.
,i/~~~~~~~~~
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APPEND I X 0
Radioactivity and
Radiation Safety
,
c
In a series of experiments on quantum physics, the student comes in
CQnlaCI with radioactive sources, either while studying the properties of
the nucleus itself or when using the sources to obtain energetic beams
of alpha or beta particles or gamma radiation. As is well known, radiation can be harmful to humans, and therefore precautions must be
taken against undue exposure to it, and in the handling of radioactive
materials.
In addition to the naturally occurnng radioisotopes (which have long
Lifetimes), a great variety of isotopes have been produced artificially and
many of them can be purchased,Acanvenienl table of radioisotopes, many
of which, like 60Co, 22Na. and ! 37CS, arc quite standard for training, testing.
and caJibralion purposes, is available onUne from the Particle Data Group
(pDG) at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory:
hnp:llpdg.lbl.govI2000/sourcesrppbook.pdf
."
....... -..........
. ..... ..
~
..
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..II
II .
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~
..II II ..II
..II II
.. ..II ..II . . .
. . . . . . . ..II
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.'
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. . . ..II ..II ..II
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. . . ..II ..II ..II ..II
..II ..II
..II
.. ..II
. . . ..II
..II
Radioactivity and Radiation Safety
..II
A A ..
II .... ,
,.
..II ......
. . . . ..II II
..II
..II ...... .
..II . . ..II
486
}(}~~~~~~~
The table gives the type and energy of the radiatiofl as well as the half-life,
with separate information for the different decay schemes, of each radioisotope. Much more detailed information is available from the National
Nuclear Data Center (NNDC) at Brookhaven National Laboratory. This
inforlnation includes level and decay schemes, radiations emitted, and
thorough documentation on using the various online programs made
available to the user:
t
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In the handling of radioactive materials the following regulations should >?~~~~~~~~

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1. Wear a film badge when using radioisotopes~

2. Refrain from eating and smoking while using radioisotopes.
3. Check hands for activity after completing work with
radioisotopes (use the appropriate detector, that is, for alphas,
betas, etc.).
4. Use gloves when danger of contamination exists;,
5. Use tongs for handling strong samples (but only if you can do so
safely).
6.. In case of a spill, wash it off immediately.
7. Report all accidents and mishaps connected with radioisotopes.
8. Do not take radioactive sources out of the laboratory.
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Radiation is
1 to living organisms because by ionization it ::\{~~~~~~~~
....... .
destroys individual cells, and also because it may induce genetic changes., -;(~~~~~~~~~~
It seems established that low levels of radiation do not produce permanent <r~~~~~~~~
.......... .
injmy, but the effect is assumed to be cumulative. Agenetic change, on the ,:((~~~~~~~
other hand~ can be produced by low-level radiation as well as by high-level ~;:}i~~~~~~~
radiation, but it should not be forgotten that human beings have always -;:}~:~:~:~:~
.........
been exposed to cosmic rays and natural radioisotopes4
-}~~~~~~~~~~i
In all establishments where some potential radiation hazard might pre- _- <~r~~~~~~
vail there must exist an agency (the health pbysics group) that is responsible -,}~~~l~~~~~~
for personnel and area monitoring, and for source custody. The health :<:~:~~~~:~
physics groups keeps a record of radioactive sources and other hazards" :)~~~~~;~~
.... ...
and of radiation accidents, and in general helps in the enforcement of safe- ,::':):~~:~~~
, . .r... .r...
procedures. It should be clear, however, that the sole responsibility for <~~~f:~;;~g~
enforcement of proper practices rests with the individual who has been' :\~f:~~~~~
........ .
granted the privilege to work with a radioactive source. The aversion of <~~~~~~~~~~
many scientists to observe strict rules is a common phenomenon,. but it <~~~~~~;;
must not be imitated by the student.
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D Radioactivity and Radiation Safety
487
Two peculiar aspects of harm from radiation need special mention and
warning: (a) radiation is neither visible nor painful; hence one may not be
aware of having been exposed unless proper detectors are used; and (b) in
general it is too late to do anything after Doe has been exposed.
Excluding nuclear reactors and particle accelerators, the most serious
radiation hazards come from X-ray Illachinesand from taking internally a
small amount of radioactive material from a source used in a laboratory.
The PDG publishes online an excellent summary of the units and conversion factors for radiation and radiation doses, as well as recommended
exposure limits and radiation protection procedures:
http://pdg.lbl;Wlv/2000/radiorppbook.pdf
Finally, we conclude wio{some remarks about radiation shielding. This
is important not only for Mrsonnel protection, but also to reduce backgrounds in an experiment in \vhich the primary radiation from a source is
not meant to be detected.
The purpose of shielding is to attenual.e the radiation beam. If the beam
consists of charged particles, they do lose energy as they cross matter,
and if the shield is sufficiently thick the beam will be completely stopped.
Since the energy loss is proportional to the number of atomic electrons Z
of the shielding material, low-Z materials have a larger stopping power
per (nucleon) gram. On the other hand, the higber the density, the higher
the stopping power per unit length of shielding.
The attenuation of a gamma-ray beam, however, is different; no gradual energy loss occurs, but there exists a finite probability (cross section)
for an interaction. Interactions (electromagnetic) of a gamma-ray beam
with matter are either the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, or pair
production, depending on the energy of the beam. As. explained in detail
in Chapter 8 through a series of such processes a fraction of the beam
becomes completely absorbed in the material used for shielding. Since the
interaction probability is proportional to the amount of material present,
we have
dI
-= IK,
dx
hence
where x is the length of the shield, K = IlL = u,pNo is the absorption

coefficient, and L is the radiation length (L = 0.51 em for lead).
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Radioia ctivity and Radiation Safety
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,If the beam consists of particles with strong interactions, such as neutrons
or protons, the fonnalism is similar, but now K = 1/ A., where A is the mean
free path, where Ap can be roughly taken as 60 glcm2
Despite these considerations, still the best shielding against a radioactive
source is distance; since the inverse square law holds, keeping at a lO-m
distance dilutes the flux over the value it had at contact with the
(assuming -an extent of 5 em) by .a factor of 40,000; for gamma r"""",, s such
attenuation is equivalent to shielding by 7 em of lead.
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,
APPENDIX
Optical Detection
Techniques
If we are going to do experiments with light. we have to learn how to

measure it There are several properties of Light that can be measured, for
example, its intensity, wavelength, or degree of polarization. In this section
we discuss ways to measure the intensity. either as energy per unit time or
number of pholons per unit time.
In order to work with intensity quantitatively. we need to convert it
to a vollage level that can be recorded or digitized or so on. However. the

simplest option . namely photogrnpruc fi lm, stiUlets you distinguish "dark"
from "light" and bas some advantages. We discuss it first
E.!. PHOTOGRAPIDC FILM

Photographic film uses light and chemical reactions to record light
intensity. It of course has some obvious drawbacks. For ellample. jl1S hard
...
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490
E Optical Detection Techniques
..
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.. .
.......
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..............
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to convert this record into a voltage, although film-scanning machines are'/}}~~~~~~

built for this purpose. Another disadvantage is that it is inconvenient to :}~{~~~~~~~~~~
record large amounts of data this way, unless some fast and efficient scan-.>~{~~~~~~~~~~
ning method is available. On the other hand, film has some great advantages \\?l~~~~~~~~
..........
...............
.
.
.
.
..................
.
.
.
..
...
as we11.
.................
.. . . . . ... ... ..~
First of all, film is economicaL You can record light intensit}vbver )}):~;~:~:~:
. . . . .... .. ..
quite a large area for very little money. Astronomers, for example, photo- )\/~~~~~~~~~~
graph large sections of star fields on a single photographic plate, giving an iU)~~~~~~~~~~
accurate and reliable record, all for only a few dollars (in filnl) per picLure . }}}~~~~:~~
Secondly, film gives you data that you can easily relate to. Distances ><~~~~~~~~~~:
.............
between images are true, at least to the extent of your focusing device and .:::>}~~~~~~~:
you can remeasure or check them easily. There can be an abundance of data <>t~~~~~~~~
on a single photograph., and you can always go back to the same picture if~?~J~~~~~~~~~
.>~:)~~~~~~~~:
. . ........ .
YOU want to recheck things.
Most importantly, however, fihn has outstanding position resolution, ;~/{~~~~~~~~;
especially for its price. This resolution is limited by the grain size of the ~~~~~~~~~~:
film, and 10 ~m is simple to achieve while 111m is routine with a little care. .:~~~~:~:~~~
. . . .. .. .. . . ..
What is more, this resolution can be achieved simultaneous! y over many' ~~~~~~~;~~~
. . . . .. .r......
centimeters of distance. This is almost impossible to achieve with direct'::::::::::;~;:;:~;~
........-. ...........
electronic means, and can be quite important to astronomers measuring" ;}t~~;;~;;~~
star maps and to optical spectroscopists measuring precise wavelengths9 .}{~~i~~~~~~~~~
. . . .. ...
An important trade-off is between resolution and speed. A film like .~~>~}~~~~~~~
Kodak Tech-Pan can be used routinely for l-,....m resolution or smaller, but<?}~~~~~~~~~:
........... . .
it takes a lot of photons to convert a grain. Thus, such a film is limited to <~~t~~~~~~t
cases of rather large light intensity or where you can afford long exposure.~~~~~~~~~~~;
times. Somewhat faster films, like Kodak Pan-X, are much faster, and still .:~;~:~:~:~:
............
give resolutions perfectly suitable for most applications.
.<}~~~~~~~~~~
............. .
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E.2. PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBES
....
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I
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The photomultiplier tube (sometime. shortened to Uphototube'~ or PMT) .<{~i~~~~~:'

. . ............
is probably the oldest device for converting optical photons directly into.:<j~~~~~~~:'
electrical signals. It does this with very high efficiency and is very reliable, .~~~~~~~~:
Some can detect single photons and easily distinguish the signal fronl back- (J~~~~;~~~:
ground noise. Others are made to measure beams of light Photomultiplier?(;;~;;~~~
tubes have been in development for more than 50 years, and have evolved :~i};~~~;~~~~
into lots of varieties, some of which are quite sophisticated. The basic <)~~~;~~~:
. .... ......
operation, though, is simple.
::):~;i;~:~;;~:
............
.
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E.2P-hotomultiplier Tubes
491
The photomultiplier tube is based on two effects, both of which involve

the emission of electrons from t)le surrace of materials. The first is the
photoelectric effect, where a PfotO'!l is absorbed by an electron on the
material surface. The electron thev emerges With some small kinetic energy;
thus a photon is "converted" in~ electron. The second effect is that
when an electron of some moderate>enetgy >strikes a surface, a number
of electrons are emitted (llis process is called "secondary emission.")
Secondary emission is used to multiply <the jnitial electron mto a large
number of secondary electrons. All of this takes place on surfaces enclosed
within an evacuated glass tube, hence, the name photomultiplier tube.
A schematic photomultiplier tube is shown in Fig: Rl. The photoelectric
effect acts at the front surface, or face. of the PMT, and there one photon is
converted into one electron (with a certaiiJ.efflciency less than I). There is a
potential difference of '" 100--300 V betw~n~eface and the first "stage" of
the tube, and this accelerates the electron.'WheIiiliis 100.::.300 eV electron
strikes the first stage. it emits more elf:cttQnS, which are accelerated to
the next stage, and so on. These materirusthilfactai stag~s are called
"dynodes" since they act both as acceptors ofeledtohs (i.d., anodes) and
emitters of electrons (i.e., cathodes). After several (usUaUy between 6 and
14) stages. a significant number of electrons emerge'm place of the incident
photon. Electrical connections are made with the outside world by pins that
penetrate the glass envelope on the end.
.
The front window of the PMT is made of glass or some other transparent
material. A thin layer of some optically actiV'ematerial is evaporated on
the inner surface of the window. This layer, called the photocathode. is
semitransparent and is usually brownish in color. If the tube breaks and
air fills the inside, the photocathode oxidizes away arid the brownish color
disappears. In this case. the photomultiplier tube will never work again.
~m~O_W__________G_la_~__~_v_a_lo_p_e__________,
Anode out
Photon
,
'e
Dynodes
Photocathode
Connectlon pins
FIGURE E.l How a photomultiplier tube works. The connection pins are used to supply
high voltage to the individual dynodes, and to extract the anode output.
... ---,..
.......... ."'"
, ..........
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492
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....
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A photon incident on the window penetrates it if it can. In faet, glass

window tubes become very inefficient in the near UV because photons with
wavelengths below 350 run are quickly absorbed in ordinary glass. Special
uv transmitting glass is available on some photomultiplier tubes, and this
can extend the range down to 250 nm or so. To get further into tt,.e UV,
special windows made of quartz or CaF2 are necessary, and the d~tes
become very ex.pensive.
If the photon penetrates the windo~"t it reaches the photocathode and has'
a chance to eject an electron through the photoelectric effect Recall that
in the photoelectric effect, a photon of energy hv gives rise to an electron
of kinetic energy T given by
,J
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..
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where t/J i~ called the "work function;' and representt; the energy needed:.: >t~~~~~~~~~~
to remove the electron from the surface. Several different materials are .;:)~~~~~:~~~~
... . ..
.. ............
used for photocathodes, but all are designed to have work functions small :<~?~~~~~~~~~1
enough so that optical photons can eject electrons. It is in fact J-lard to find >~~J~~~~~~~~~~:
................
materials for which 4J is less than ~2 e V, so photomultipliers become quite }{~~~~~~~~~~~~
insensitive at the red end of the visible spectrum.
~~~~~~~~~~~
....
The probability that -an incident photon ejects an electron from the _'::>}~:~:~:~:~:
photocathode is called the "quantum efficiency" or QE~ It is clearly a )}}~~~~~~~~~~
function of wavelength )." tending to zero for both A :s UV and A 2: red. :~{(~~~~~~~~~~~
It is also a function of window and photocathode material for the same :.<\~~~~~~~~~~~
reasons. Figure B.2, taken from the Burle photomultiplier tube handbook" .}(\~~~~~~~~~~
shows the '.'spectral sensitivity" S (in
for various combinations .<{~}~~~~~~~~~~
of windows and photocathodes. Manufacturers tend to quote S rather .. ~~~~~~~~~~~
than QE since it is closer to what th~ PMTs actually measure. By shin-.: :>~}~~~~~~~~~~~
ing so much light energy per unit time (P) on the face of the PMT., anef' '~<{~~~~~~~~~i~
............. . .
measuring the current (I) of electrons coming off the photocathode, they <{~~~~~~~~~~~~~
, , .......... . .
deterullne
. ::::::::::::::::::::
.........
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,.. .. A A . , . .
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.. ............-. . ............
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. . .. .. .. .. ....
................ ..
.............
. . .. .. .. .. .. ...
. . . . .. .. .. .. .. ..
"
s=
I
P
Nelectron >':.,,~ / t
Nphoton X h 1) / t
= Nele~~n
Nphoton
x A '" = QE
he / e
.. ... ... . . _
... ...
1~24 '
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au
.. ..
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.. .. .. J~
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II .. .. .. .. J- ... II .. .. .. .. ..
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.. II .. .. .. .. ..
..
.. .. .. .. .. .. J--
II
II .. .. .. .. J-II .. .. .. .. ..
II .. .. .. .. ..
where S is written in
and A is in nanometers. Curves of constant ))f~~~~~~~@
.............. .
QE are drawn in on Fig. E.2. Typical quantum efficiencies are maximum ./I~~~~~~~~~~~~
in the blue region and range upward of 25% or so.
: <)~~~~~~~~~~~~
Now lees return to Fig. E.l and see how the photomultiplier tube am:pli- . <~J~~~~~~~~~~
fies the signal. The incident photon has ejected an electron with something.<~>~~~~~~~~~~~
.............. ..
r
.
..............
.
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.
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.
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E.2 Photomultiplier Tubes
493
1()()
-----
:t:::
>
iii
c
0
"';~~
--
10
"Ul
~\\(\e
't-0'oq---
--
ell
(5
1l
ct
~-
500
600
Wavelength-Nanometers
700
FIGURE E.2 Spectral sensitivity ("absolute responsibility'l and quantum efficiency (QE)
for some photomultiplier tube windows and ph'otocathodes. From the Burle photomultiplier
tube handbook. available online at http://www.burle.com/.
like an electronvolt of kinetic energy. This electron is accelerated to the

first dynode and strikes it The dynodes are constructed out of materials
that give a significant mean number of electrons out for each that strikes
the surface. This multiplication factor 0 is a strong function of the incident
electron energy, and is roughly linear with energy up to a few hundred
electron volts or so for most materials used in PMTs.
There is clearly some randomness associated with the operation of a
photomultiplier. The quantum efficiency, for example, only represents the
probability that a photon will actually eject an electron. The result is that
the output voltage pulse corresponding to an input light signal will have
random fluctuations about a mean value. We therefore frequently talk in
tenus of the "mean number of photoelectrons" NpE that correspond to a
particular signaL
Assuming that Poisson statistics dominate, this number will dominate the
size of the fluctuations, since the number of electrons ejected in subsequent
.' .__z., ........

..' ."'-ill
l1li... ... ...
..........
., .. .. .. . ..
.........
..
~
l1li
ill
ill
ill
ill
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III
....
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III
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stages will be larger" That is, the fractional ffilS width of the signal fluctu- )~{;~:~:::~:~
ations should be given by .JNPE/ NpE = l.JNpE. This call be particularly ){~~~~~~~~~
important if the signal corresponds to a very low light level, i.e., a small ~<{~~~~~~~~~
value of NpE. In this case, there is a probability e- NpE that there will be no .:<}~~~~~~~~
photoelectrons ejected and the signal will go unobserved.
r
\it~@~@
The gain g of a photomultiplier tube is the number of eleclrOll~t the <{:~;~:~:~~~
back (Le., at the anode) for a single incident photon. So, for an n-stage <~{~}~~~~~~~~
........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
,
.
............
. . ............. . .
tube,
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....
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......
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. . . . . . . . . . OIl ...
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.~
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..
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..
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...
...
...
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Ii . . . . . . . . . . . ..
where we tacitly assume that 0 is the same at each stage; i.e., all dynodes \~)~~~;~~~~~
are identical and the potential difference across each stage is the same. If 0 <\i~~~~~i~
.. .. ".II!'" ... ...
is proportional to V, then these assumptions predict that g is proportional :<}~~~~~~~~

to V n. Thus if you want to keep the gain constant to 1% in a 10-stage : <ti~~~~~~~.
photomultiplier tube, you must keep the voltage constant to 0.1 0/0. This is )<~~~~~~~~i:
not particularly easy to do.
'.::::::;::~~:~::::
The accelerating voltage is usually applied to the individual stages by <)~~~~~~~~~
a single external high-voltage DC power supply, and a multilevel voltage.' }}~~~~~~~~~
divider. The voltage divider has output taps connected to each stage through .}}~~~~~~~~
the pins into the tube. This is connected to the circuit that extracts the <~t~~~~~~)
.... ,. ..
signal from the anode. The extraction cireui t and voltage divider string are ~~~~~~~~~~:
housed together in the photomultiplier tube "base," and their design will :::\~~J~~~~~~~
........ .
vary depending on the application. The base is usually some sort of closed <~~{i~~~~~~~~
box with a socket that attaches to the tube pins. Two examples of base ~}}~~~~~~~~~
.............
circuits, taken from the Phllips photomultiplier tube handbook, are shown )~:}~:~:~:~:
...........
in Fig. E.3. If the signal is more or less continuous, and, for example, a '~,<\~~~~~}
........ .
meter reads the current off the anode to ground, you must use the negative <:}~:~=~:i:~
.......... .
high~voltage configuration so that the anode is at (or near) ground. If the }~~~~~~~
output is pulse-like, such as when Uflashes~' of light,. or perhaps individual .:)~~}~~~~~~~
......... .
photons, are detected inteIIIllttently, then it is usually best to use the positive ~~~~~~~~~~
high-voltage configuration since that leaves the photocathode at ground. ~:',{)~~~~~~
In this case, an RC voltage divider at the anode output allows fast pulses ':::/~~~~~~~~~
to reach the counter, but the capacitor protects the downstream electronics . :'i\~~~~~~~~~~
from the bigh DC voltage.
.... :~~~~~:
.............
........... ..
1
01 . . . . . . 01 ..
'"
. ,
........
III
..
.......
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. ..
............
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.. .
..............
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..
.........
.
.........
, ..........
.......... . .
, ,,
, , ,
,,,
,
, ,
,
' ,
,
, ,
IThese assumptions are almost always wrong. We are using them just to illustrate the ~~~~i~~
general performance of the PMT. For actual gain calculations, you must know the specific .:::/::~~a?
characteristics of the PMT.
:::~:::~:~~:~::
......... . .
.... 01 ...... 01
. . . 4'" ... 01
, , . . . . . III! 01
. . . iii ......... .
, ,
, . . . 4 .. iii .. ..
, ,
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.
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..........
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. - ........ .
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E.2 Photomultiplier Tubes
Vh\
0-.---------------__
0
,--,--:-
495
(+)
----- .,------........,.-.......
-----+--;- - - - - - - --+..,---;-..-'
(_)Q4_ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~!!L _______

..
FIGURE E.3 1YPical photomultiplier base circuits. The upper figure shows connections
for a positive high-voltage configuration, while the lower shows negative high voltage.
No matter what circuit is used, either those in Fig. E.3 or otherwise, you
must choose the resistor values carefully. Although \he stage voltages only
depend on the relative resistor values, you must make sure the average
current passing through the divider string is much larger than the signals
passing through the PMT. Otherwise, the electrons in the multiplier will
draw current through the resistors and change the voltage drop across the
stage. Even if this is a small change, it can affect the gain by a lot since the
gain depends on voltage to a large power.
On the other hand, you cannot make the resistors arbitrarily small so
the divider current gets very large, because this would require a large and
expensive high-current, high-voltage DC power supply. What is more,
the power dissipated in the divider string, i.e., /2 R, gets to be enormous,
making things very hot. Trade-offs must be made, and always keep your
eye on the gain.
. ............
. ...... --. . -.
..
- ..........
.. ...........
..........
...........
............ .
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..
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......
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-
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............
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............
496
JII
..
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.....
..
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...
..
E.3. PHOTODIODES
.II
.....
..
.II
.....
..
.II
.....
..
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.........
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.....
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.........
.II
.....
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........
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..
.......
..
.......
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........
..
Photodiodes are an alternative to photomultipliers. Both turn light directly

into electrical signals., but there are distinct differences. _First~ let's learn
how photodiodes work.
Recall our discussion about diodes in Section 3.1.4. A piece
bulk --)~~~~~~~~:
silicon is essentially an insuIator~ Only therrnally excited electro~an ~:~~~:~:~~
move to the upper~ empty energy band to conduct electricity, and there are ){~~~~~~~
few of them at room temperature~ By adding n- or p~type dopants, lots more . <t~~~~~~~
charge carriers can be created, and it is a much better conductor. A piece of ~<)~~~~~
silicon doped n on one end and p on the other, a pn junction. only conducts .><~~]~~i]~
............ .
in one direction. If a "reverse" voltage is applied~ only a tiny current flows, .<?~~~~~~~{
........ ...
due to the small number of thennally excited electrons.
~~~~~~~~:
............ . .
A photodiode uses light (photons) to excite more electrons than those :\(i~~~~~~~
excited thelmally~ This is possible if the photon energy is larger than the i~~~~~~i:
band gap. Thus, the "reverse'" voltage current would increase if you shine . /~~~~J~~~~~j~
light on the diode~ This is the principle of the photodiode~
:?)J~~&~i~~
The actual mechanism is a bit more complicated~ because of how excited :~./~~~~~j~~~
electrons actually conduct So, for example, for a given applied voltage, . >\~~~~~~~~1:
the output current is not very linear with intensity. That is, if you double :)}~:~:~:~:~
the light intensity, the output current does not change by quite a factor of 2 - :\{~~~~~?~
(over the ~'noise~' from the thellnal electrons). Furthennore, a photodiode -<i>~~~~~~~~~~
can work if there is no applied voltage, reverse or othenvise. This all means _::}}~~~?~~
that you must calibrate your photodiode response if you want a quantitative -: :\\~~~~~~~~
measure of the light intensity.
.:\{~~~~~~~~~
A popular fOIm of photoruode puts a large region of pure, or "intrinsic:~ --..}}~~~~)
silicon in between the p and n ends. This increases the active area and )<:~:~:~:~:
... -..
decreases the thennal noise current. These photodiodes are called p-i-n or -.::}~~~~~~i~~~
" m"diodes
_.: ....
<.:.:~:~:~:.:
..
P
Now let's look at a clear advantage that photodiodes have over photo- -:\}~~~~~~~
tubes. The energy gap in silicon is 1~ 1 eV, so photons with wavelengths -..:~}~:~:~:~:
up to ~1.1 lJ.-m can be detected~ This is well past red and into the IR. -:'it~l~~~~~~
Photomultiplier tubes become inefficient at around 600 nm (see Fig~ E.2) :.::/~~i~~i~~
or so because of the work function of the photocathode. The band gap . :i\~~~~~~~~
of germanium (another popular semiconductor) is 0.72 eV, so germanium <i/~~~~~~(
photodiodes reach A ~ 2 iLm. So, if you need to detect red light, you .::.:.\~~~~~~~~
probably want to use a photodiode, and not a photomultiplier U1be~
:::i\~~~~~?
Another big advantage of photodiodes over photomultiplier tubes is cost.. :i:\~~~~~~~~
A pllotomultiplier tube with voltage divider CirCuitry1 bigh-voltage supply, :.:.:.(~~~~~~~~
~
.II
.II
.. ~
..
... _
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..
....
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..
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..
..
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.....
.
......
....
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.
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............
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..
......
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......
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.....
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..........
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I
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.
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,
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.
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,
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. . . . . . . . . ...
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. . . . . . ...
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,
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..
. . . . . . . ...
.......
,~
...
"~..." '. . . .- ,
.II
..
E.3 Photadiodes
497
and mechanical assemblies can easily cost upward of $2000. A photodiode

costs around $1, and is very easy and cheap to instrument.
Photo diodes can also be made with very small active areas (say 50 !-lm
across). This along with their low cost makes "photodiode arrays" practical. These are lines of photodiodes, separately instrumented, that measure
photon position along the array. Such things are frequently used in spectrographic instruments. A typical example might be 102425 !-lm x 2.5 rom
photodiodes arranged linearly in a single housing with readout capability,
as discussed in Section 5.5. The cost for such a device is typically less than
a thousand dollars.
Of course, photomultipliers have some advantages over photodiodes.
The biggest is the relative signal-to-noise ratio. A microwatt of incident
light power gives around a l-IJ.,A signal in a photodiode, but around 1 A
in a photomultiplier tube. This big enhancement in signal is due to the
large gain (~106 or more). TheIIDally excited electrons are plentiful in
a photodiode, but rarely does such an electron spontaneously jump off the
photocathode in a photomultiplier. Therefore, the noise is a lot larger in a
photodiode. Thus, the signal-to-noise ratio is much worse in a photodiode.
So, if you need to detect very low light intensities ("photon counting"
for example), you probably want to use a photomultiplier tube, and not a
photodiode.
Photomultipliers also give a more linear response, particularly if care
is given to the base design. Some of these relative advantages and disadvantages are shown in Table E.l. Another advantage of photodiodes
is that they work in high magnetic fields. Photomultiplier tubes rely on
electrons with ~1O(}-300 eV energy to follow the electric field lines to
the dynodes. A few-gauss magnetic field disturbs the trajectories enough
to render the PMT useless. In most cases, magnetic shielding solves
the problem, but sometimes this is impractical and photodiodes are used
instead.
TABLE E.!
Photomultiplier Tubes Versus Photodiodes
If you are
interested in ...
Low cost
Red sensitivity
Low intensity
Linearity
Then your choice should likely be

Photodiode
Photomultiplier
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APPENDIX
Constants
Table F.I of fundamental constants is taken from the "Review of particle

properties," published in Phys. Rev. D 50 (1994). The uncertainties in the
values are very small and can be neglected for the experiments in this book.
TABLE El
Fundamental Constants
Quantity
Speed of light in vacuum
Planck's constant
Symbol
c
h
fi./2rr
Electron charge
e
he
Vacnum permittivity
Vacuum penneability
EO
f.l.o
0.51099906 MeV/c 2
938.27231 MeV/c 2
1875.61339 MeV/c2
931.49432 MeVk 2
tne
Deuteron mass
Atomic ma.,s urnt
md
Rydberg cOl!rgy
Bohr magneton
Nuclear rnagneton
Avogadro constant
Boltzmann constant
hcR oo
f.l.B = en/ 2me
mp
NO
k
299792458 mls
6.6260755 x 10- 34 J S
65821220x 10- 22 MeV s
1.60217733 x 10- 19 C
1.97327053 x 10- 13 MeV m
8.854187817 x 10- 12 F/m
4Jl' x 10- 7 N/A2
Electron mass
Proton mass
ILN
Value
= en./2mp
13.6056981 eV
5.78838263xl0- 11 MeVrr
3.15245166xlO- 14 MeVrr
6.0221367 x 1023 atoms/mole
1.380658 x 10- 23 11K
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APPENDIX
Exercises
The following exercises may be used.

1. The following table lists data points for the decay rate (in counts/s)
of a radioactive source:
Time
Rate
Time
Rate
(s)
(s-t)
(5)
(s-l)
3.02
2.61
0.6
18.4
2.0
0.8
1.2
10.6
2.4
8.04
1.6
6.10
2.8
3.0
2.08
1.50
Time
(5)
Rate
(5- 1 )
3.6
1.72
1.61
4.0
4.2
4.3
1.57
1.85
a. Plot the data using an appropriate set of axes, and detennine over
what range of times the rate obeys the decay law R = Roe- 1/r .
b. Estimate the value of Ro from the plot.
c. Estimate the value of r from the plot
d. Estimate the value of the rate you expect at t = 6 s.
2. An experiment determines the gravitational acceleration g by
measuring the period T of a pendulum. The pendulum has an adjustable
501
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A researcher measures the following data points in some arbitrary units.
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amplitude Vo and angular frequency (j)"
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a. Calculate the gain g and phase shift t/J for the output voltage
relative to the input voltage.
b. Plot g and as a function of w/wQ where ala = 1/ RC . For each
of these functions, use the combination of linear or logarithmic
axes for g and for tP that you think are most appropriate.
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One of these data points is obviously wrong~ Which one?

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246
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G Exercises
503
Let the input voltage Vin be a sinusoidally varying function with

amplitude Vo and angular frequency ru.
a. Calculate the gain g and phase shift rp for the output voltage
relative to the input voltage.
b. Plot g and as a function of rujruo where ruo = Rj L. For each of
these functions, use the combination of linear or logarithmic axes
for g and for that you think are most appropriate.
S. Consider the following not-sa-simple circuit:

R
a. What is the gain g for very low frequencies ru? What is the gain
for very high frequencies? Remember that capacitors act like
dead shorts and open circuits at high and low frequencies.
respectively. and inductors behave Injust the opposite
way.
b. At what frequency do you suppose the gain of this circuit is
maximized?
c. Using the rules for impedance and the generalized voltage
divider, detennine the gain geru) for this circuit and show that
your answers to (a) and (b) are correct
6. Suppose that you wish to detect a rapidly varying voltage signal.
However, the signal is superimposed on a large DC voltage level that
would damage your voltmeter if it were in contact with it. You would like
to build a simple passive circuit that allows only the high-frequency signal
to pass through.
a. Sketch a circuit using only a resistor R and a capacitor C that
would do the job for you. Indicate the points at which you
measure the input and output voltages.
-- .
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. . . .. . .. . ......... . . .... . . ...
...........
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............
.....
504
G Exercises
,jI
..
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.
.
..
..
.
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.
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b. Show that the magnitude of the output voltage equals the

magnitude of the input voltage, multiplied by
. . . . . . . . . . ..II ..
..
..
.....
..
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....... .
.II . . . . . . . .
........... .
.II . . . . . . . .
where w is the (angular) frequency of the signal.

c. Suppose that R = 1 kQ and the signal frequency is 1 MHz = ~
6
10 /8. Suggest a value for the capacitor C.
.II
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......
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. . . . . . . .,j
. . . . . . .,j .,j .,j .,j
..
. . .,j .,j ..
.,j .,j .,j .,j ,
7. An electromagnet is designed so that a 5-V potential difference drives .}(~i~~~~J~~:

100 A through the coils4 The magnet is an effective inductor with an induc- .)\J~~~~~J~
tance L of 10 MHz. Your laboratory is short on space, so you put the DC. >{;~~~~~~~~
power supply across the room with the power cables along the walL You. >}~~~~~~~~~
notice that the meter on the power supply must be set to 6 V in order to get <{:~~~~~~~~~:
5 V at the magnet. On the other hand, you are nowhere near the limit of .:~\}~~~~~~~@
the supply, so it is happy to give you the power you need.
<)~~~~~~~~i~
........ ......
Is there any reason for you to be concerned? Where did that volt go~ <Y~~~~~~~~i~~
and what are the implications? If there is something to be concerned about, . ::}~:i~~:~~~~~~
.
..................
"........ .... .
suggest a so1ution..
::::::~~~~~:~~~~~~:
8. You are given a low-voltage, high-current power supply to use for an )~}~~~~~~~;~~~
.......... -.....
experiment~ The manual switch on the power supply is broken. (The power /}~~~~~~~~~~~~~
supply is kind of old~ and it looks like someone accidently hit the switch_>/~~~r~~?~
with a hammer and broke it off.) You replace the switch with something -}}l~~~~~~?~
you found around the lab, and it works the first time, but never again.>\~~~~~~~~~~
Vlhen you take it apart, the contacts seem to be welded together, and you >~/J~~~~~~~~~
............. .
know it wasn't that way when you put it in. What happened? (Hint: Recall <~I~~~~~~~~~~
that the voltage drop across an inductor is L di fdt, and assume the switch- ->{i~~~~~~~~~~
............ . .
disconnects the circuit over 1 ms or SO~)
- >}~:~:~~~:~{:
. ............... . .
9. The following table is from the Tektronix Corp. 1994 catalog .:~~/~~~~~~~i~~~
............. .
selection guide for some of their oscilloscopes:
--:~>~~~~~~~~~~~~~
............. . .
. . . .r . , j . , j '
...............
...,
~
.. .........1'" .....
.,.
...............
.. ..
................
, ............. ....
.....................
.......
.... .......
.................
-
Model
Bandwidth
2232
2221A
2212
2201
Sample rate
II
100 MHz
100 MS/s
100 MHz
100 MS/s
20 MS/s
60 MHz
20 MHz
10 MS/s
TIme bases
Resolution
8 bits
8 bits
8 bits
8 blOts
"
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Single
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Sl"ngle
.
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You are looking at the output of a wavefOIIIl generator on one of these:<{~~~~~~~~~

oscilloscopes. The generator is set to give a 2-V sine wave output. If the))~~~~~&~~
sine-wave period is set at 1 ILS~ the scope indeed shows a 2-V amplittlde.:>{~~~~~~~~
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-
G Exercises
505
However, if the period is 20 ns, the amplitude is I V. Assuming the

oscilloscope is not broken, which one are you using?
10. You wanL to measure the energies of various photons emitted in a
nuclear decay. The energies vary from 80 keV to 2.5 MeV, but you want to
measure two particular lines that are separated by 1 keV. If you do this by
digitizing the output of your energy detector, at least bow many bits does
your ADC need to have?
11. Pulses emitted randomly by a detector are studied on 1m oscilloscope: The vertical sensiti vity is 100 mVldiv and the sweep rate is 20 nsJdiv.
The bandwidth of the scope is 400 MHz. The start of the sweep precedes
the trigger point by 10 ns, and the input irupedence is 50 n.
a Estimate the pulse risetime. What could you say about the
risetime if the bandwidth were 40 MHz?
b. Estimate the trigger level.
c. These pulses are fed into a charge-integrating ADC, also with
50 Q input impedence. The integration gate into the ADC is
100 ns long and precedes the pulses by 10 ns. Sketch the
spectrum shape digitized by the ADC. Label the horizontal axis.
assuming ~ pC of integrated charge corresponds to one channel.
d. The ADC can digitize, be read out by the computer, and reset in
100 !is. Estimate the number of counts in the spectrum after
100 s if the average pulse rate is 1 kHz. What is the number of
counts if the rate is 1 MHz?
12. A detector system measures the photon emission rate of a weak light
source. The photons are emitted randomly. The system measures a rate of
10 kHz, but the associated electronics requires 10 !is to register a photon.
and the system will not respond during that time. What is the true rate at
which the detector observes photons?
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. ..........
.
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. .. ......
-
-- -
G Exercises
506
....
AI
.......
...
..II
........
~
~
~
resisto~ith
13. You measure the following voltages across some

a U)ii!i!i!i!;
three-digit DMM. As far as you know, nothing is changing so all the <t?~~~~3
measurements are supposed to be of the same quantity VR.
<}{~~~~~:
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.
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. <):1~~~~~:
............ .
~
2.31
2.27
2.22
2.25
2.30
2.29
a. Deterlnine the best value of VR from the mean of the

measurements.
b. What systematic uncertainty would yon assign to the
measurements?
c. Assuming the fluctuations are random, deterrnine the random
uncertainty from the standard deviation.
d. Somebody comes along and tells you that the true value of VR is
2.23. What can you conclude?
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.... ....
14. (From G L. Squires, Practical Physics, third ed., Cambridge. :\tt~~~~~~:

(1985).) In the following examples, q is a given function of the independent . /?m~~~I~i~
measured quantities x and y. Calculate the value of q and its uncertainty <}~~~~~~~~~
Dq, assuming the uncertainties are all independent and random, from the .. <)~~~~~~~
given values and uncertainties for x and y.
. <}~~~~~~~:
........ ..
,
a4
b.
c.
d.
q
q
q
q
...........
.,. .......
. .
.
.111III
, '.
.. .
~
<{;~:~:~:~:~
........ .
= x for x = 25 14
- x - 2y for x ~ 100 3 and y = 45 2.
= x In y1 for x = 10.00 0.06 and y = 100 2.
== 1 - x for x =- 50 2.
':~<?~~~~~~~~~
. '~\\i~~~~~~~~
., ....... .
.<{~~~~~~~(
........ .
....... ...
........
........
, ,,
, ,
~
15. Police use radar guns to catch speeders. The guns measure the fre- ':'::\~~~i~~~~~~~
quency f of radio waves reflected off of cars moving with speed v. This >/~~i~~~~i~~
differs from the emitted frequency 10 because of the Doppler effect
)}~~1~~~1~~
,
,
.......
..
.......
.......
.
........
..
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.
........
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.
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.
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"
. . . . . . . JI
JI . . . . . . . .
,
, , ,,
, ,~
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,
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,
, ,
,,, "
, , ,, ,
v
/=/0 1-c
JI
.....
......
.II
,~.JI
JI
.....
for a car moving away at speed v. What fractional uncertainty must the . >~}~~~~~~~
....... .
radar guns achieve to measure a car's speed to 1 mph?
.:</i~~~~~
16. The period T of a pendulum is related to its length L by the relation' ::,:.:.(~~~~~~~~
....... ..
.........
,
.....
..
.......
.......
.
.
........
. ....
.
.......
..
......
.
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.
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.
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.
L
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.......
.
T - 2]X
,
........
.
......
.
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.
.
.
.....
.
.
.
.......
.
g
........
.
.........
.
........
.
.......
.
.
...... ..
.......
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Suppose you are measuring g ::\)i~~~~@~
........ .
, ,,
,,,
, ,
"
,
"
.
.
"~
,
,,,
0' . . . . . . . .
"
....-
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ol-- . . . .
0'''
...... .
,
,
., ,,,
,
,
',
, ,
, ,,,,
"
, ......
J--.
from the period and length of a particular pendulum~ You have measured ',:)}~~~~~~~
.............. .
-... .
... .
.........
....... . .
,
, ....
,', '"
, ,' . "
, ,' ............................ .
, ,
,
,',
,',' , .................. .
, ,
."
,
'
"
, . . . . . . . . . . . 01
"
. . . 001 . . . . .
, ,
, ,
, , . . . 01 ..... .-01'"
...............
...............
............. .
...
. ..................... .
.........
......... . .
...........
.........
.......
.
.......
.
.
.........
.
........ . .
,,
, ,
,
. . . 0I ..... ...
oM . . . . .
...
.... .. .
...
.
.......
.........
. . . 0I ..... - -
"
,
, ,
, ....
, ,
,
"
--
oM . . .
--
, ' ," _. "oI"""J/I .JIj.->
G Exercises
507
the length of the pendulum to be 1.13250.0014 m. You independently

measure the period to within an uncertainty of 0.06%, that is, DT IT
6 X 10-4. What is the fractional uncertainty (i.e., % uncertainty) in g,
asswning that the uncertainties in Land T are independent and random?
17. You have a rod of some metal and you are changing its temperature
T. A sensitive gauge measures the deviation of the rod from its nominal
length I = 1.500000 m. Assuming the rod expands linearly with temperature, you want to detennine the coefficient of linear expansion o!. i.e. the
change in length per Kelvin, and the actual length 10 before any temperature change is applied. The measurements of the length deviation III as a
function of the temperature change II T are as follows:
L',.T(K)
/:;./ (>,-m)
LlT(K)
0.8
l.0
1.2
70
110
2.2
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.4
1.6
1.8
130
100
130
L',./ (\J.m)
L',.T(K)
/:;./ ( .... m)
llO
3.6
3.8
4.2
4.4
130
170
160
150
120
130
160
5.0
190
160
Plot the points and draw three straight lines through them:
The line that best seems to go through the points.
The line with the largest reasonable slope.
The line with the smallest possible slope.
Use your own estimates by eye to determine these lines. (Do not use a fitting
program.) Use the slopes and the intercepts of these lines to determine
Ci DO! and 10 Mo.
18. For the previous problem. use the method of least squares to fit the
data for III as a function of llT to a straight line. Use the fitted slope and
the uncertainty to determine the coefficient of linear expansion Ci. Also
calculate the uncertainty DO!. AIe hand estimates just as good as a fitting
program? What are the relative advantages or disadvantages?
19. Suppose you wish to measure the gravitational acceleration g by
using something like the "Galileo" experiment That is, you drop an object
from some height h and you know that the distance it falls in a time t is
given by tgt 2. For a given experimental run, the fractional uncertainty in
his Dhl h = 4% and the fractional uncertainty in t is otlt = 1.5%. Find
the fractional uncertainty in g from these data, assuming the uncertainties
are random and uncorrelated.
20. You want to measure the value of an inductor L. First, you measure
the voltage V across a resistor R when 1.21 O.04 rnA flows through it and
\0
..
)o-oL
00
H-
.,
(D
)atl
+
II
o
o
......
\0
G Exercises
509
881 8 s by Bondarenko et al., JET? Lett. 28, 303 (1978),

937 18 s by Byrne et ar., Phys. Lett. B 92, 274(1980), and
887.6 3.0 s by Mampe et al.. Phys. Rev. Lett. 63,593 (1989).
Which, if any, of the measurements of r are consistent with the result
for A? Which, if any, of the measurements of r are inconsistent with the
result for A? Explain your answers. A plot may help.
23. The ''weighted average" of a set of numbers is
(7.1 )
where the "weights" Wi
== I/O},
a. Prove that this definition for the weighted average is the value
that minimizes X 2 .
b. Use propagation of errors to derive the uncertainty in the
weighted average.
24. Let's suppose you have some peculiar dice which each have 10
faces. The faces are numbered from 0 to 9. You throw eight of these dice at
a time and record which numbers land face down on the table. You repeat
this procedure (i.e., throwing the dice) 50 times.
a. For how many throws do you expect there to be exactly three
dice landing with either face 1 or face 5 landing face down?
b. What is the average number of dice you expect to land with
either face 1 or face 5 down, for any particular throw? What is
the standard deviation uncertainty in this number?
c. Use the Poisson approximation to calculate the same number
as in (a).
d. Use the Gaussian approximation to calculate the same number
as in (a).
25. A radioactive source emits equaUy in all directions, so that the intensityfalls off like 1/r2 wherer is tbedistance to the source. You are equipped
with a detector that counts only radioactivity from the source, and nothing
else. At r = I m, the detector measures 100 counts in 10 s.
a. What is the count rate, and its uncertainty, in counts per second?
b. What do you expect for tbefractional uncertainty in the count
rate if you count for 100 s instead of 1O?
. . ......
.II
...
....
.II
. . . . ..
.. .
.II
.II
.II
.II
.II
...
.II
...
.II
.II
.II
.....
.II
.II
.II
G Exercises
.II
510
.II
...
.II
.II
. . . .....
...
- ..... .
- -... ........
.. .
. ...
- - . ...
...
I
.II
...
.II
.II
.II
-.~~
.II
...
.II
...
.II
.II
.II
.II . .
c. Based on the originallO-s measurement, predict the number of

counts you should observe~ and its u,ncertainty, if the detecto~
moved to a distance of 2 m and you count for 1 min.
.II
.II
.II
a. What is the count rate (in countsls) and its uncertainty when the
source is near the Geiger counter?
h. What is the count rate (in countsls) and its uncertainty when the
source is far away?
c. What is the net count rate (in counts/s) and its uncertainty due to
the source alone?
d. Suppose you want to reduce the uncertainties by a factor of 10.
How long must you run the experiment?
.....
...
III
,
I
III III
,
I
....
I
I
I
I
..
.
I
I
...
.
,
I
..
III
III
III
I
I
III
I
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
III
III
..,j
I
,
...... ,
I
III III
,
...
I
I
I
I
I
III
III ...
III
III III
III ... ~
...
III ...
...
III I
I
~
I
I
III
I
I
.....
..
...
III ..
III ...
~
III ....
I
III III
~
III III ..
I
...
III ...
III
III ...
III III
III ...
III
I
I
I
,
I
,
,
III
III
III
~
III ..
~
III
I
III
~
III III
I
...
III
~
III
~
III III
III III
I
I
III
I
I
I
III
I
I
..
...
.
I
I
III
III
III
I
,
,
,
.....
..
III
III ... ...
I
~
III III ...
I
.....
III
, ~ III ...
I
III III III

I
~
III III ...
I
.....
I
,
I
...........""
.....
',',
I
I
I
...
..... . .
I
I
...
III ...
III ...
III III
III ...
27. An experimenter is trying to deterrnine the value of "absolute zero"

in degrees Celsius using a pressure bulb and a Celsius thelffiometer. She
assumes that the pressure in the bulb is proportional to the absolute temperature. That is., the pressure is zero at absolute zero. She makes five
measurements of the temperature at five different pressures:
......
~
III I
III III ...
I
I
,
III ... ..
I
I
III ... III

, , III ... ..
, ~ . . . III ...
I
~
III ....
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Use a straight line fit to determine the value of absolute zero, and its
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28~ Fit the following (x, y) values
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26.. Suppose you are using a Geiger counter to measure the decay rateof a radioactive source. With the source near the detector. you detect 100
counts in 25 s. To measure the background count rate, you take the source
very far away and observe 25 counts in 25 s. Random counting uncertainties
doITIlnate.
85
41
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29. The following results come from a study of the relationship between ,:i?JJ~
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G Exercises
511
year of college. In each case, the first number of the parr is the high school
average, and the second is the college average.
78,65
80,56
87,71
80,60
82,67
80,66
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a. Draw a scatterplot of the college average against the high school

average.
b. Evaluate the correlation coefficient. Would you conclude there is
a strong correlation between the grades students get in high
school and the grades they get in their first year of college?
30. Using the data in Table 2.1, draw a scatterplot of electrical

conductivity versus thermal conductivity for various metals. (Electrical
conductivity is the inverse of electrical resistivity.) Calculate the linear
correlation coefficient.
31. Graph the ratio of the Poisson distribution to the Gaussian distribution for mean values f.L = 2 and for f.L = 20. Use thls to discuss where the
Gaussian approximation to the Poisson distribution is applicable. Repeat
the exercise, but compare the Gaussian approximation directly to the
binomial distribution with p =
32. Consider blackbody radiation.
t.
a. Show that the wavelength at which the intensity of a blackbody

radiator is the greatest is given by "Wien's displacement law":
2.9 x 10-3
Amax (m) =
T (K)
Him: You will need to solve an equation like xe X j(e X - 1) = A

for some value A. If A
I then this is trivial to solve, but you
can be more exact using MA1LAB. In MATLAB you would use
the "function" fzero to find the place where
f(x) = A(e X - 1) - xe x crosses zero.
b. Stars are essentially blackbody radiators. Our sun is a "yellow"
star because its spectrum peaks in the yellow portion of the
visible light. Estimate the surface temperature of the sun.
33. A particular transition in atomic neon emits a photon with wavelength ).. = 632.8 run.
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512
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G Exercises
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a. Calculate the energy E of this photon.

b. Calculate the frequency v of this photon.
c. An optical physicist tells you the "line width~' of this transition is
b 1J = 2 GHz. What is the line width .6. E in terms of energy?
d. Use the Heisenberg uncertainty principle to estimate the lifetime
ill of the state that emitted the photon~
e. How far would a photon travel during this lifetime?
f. Suppose the neon is contained in a narrow rube 50 em long, with
mirrors at each end to reflect the light back and forth and "trap'" it
in the tube. What is the nominal umode number" for 632.8-nm
photons, that is, the nwnber of half-wavelengths that fit in the
tube?
g. What is the spacing in frequency benveen the nominal mode
number m, and the wavelength corresponding to the mode m + I?
h. Compare the mode spacing OV (part G) with the line width Llv.
i. What is this problem describing?
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34. Estimate the "transit time" for a typical photomul~plier tube. That )I~I~i~~I~~
..............r- ......
is, how much time elapses between the photon eJecting an electron from '. ~~~~~~~~
the photocathode and the pulse emerging from the anode? Assume the, . }{~~~~~~~~
....... .
photomultiplier has 10 stages and 2000 V between cathode and anode, :}(}~~~~~~~
divided equally among all stages, and that the dynodes are each separated <~~?~~~~~~~~~:
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35. Some high-quality photomultipliers can detect the signal from a .<iY~~~~~~~~~i
single photoelectron, and cleanly separate it from the background noise. )~{~~~~~~~~~
.. . ... .. ..
Such a PMT is located some distance away from a pulsed light source, so \i(}~~~J{
that on the average, the PMT detects {NpE} photoelectrons. If (NpE) 1 <>~~~~~~~~~~:'
....... .
and No pulses are delivered.. show that the number of pulses detected by ::\~~}~~~~~~;:
the photomultiplier is given by (NPE) No
..~i;\~~~~~~~~~~:
36. A photomultiplier tube observes a flash of green light from an Ar+ ::,<~}I~~~~~~~~
laser. (Assume the photons have wavelength A = 500 nm4) The photomul- <ii<J~~~~~~~
tiplier is a lO-stage tube, with a RbCsSb photocathode1 The voltages are )f)ff~~~~~
set so that the first stage has a secondary emission factor 01 = S~ while the :i~:~:~
other 9 stages each have 8 = 2.5. The laser delivers some huge number of. ))~~~~~~~
....... . .
photons to a diffusing system, which isotropica11y radiates the light, an4 /)~~~~~~~~
only a small fraction of them randomly reach the photomultiplier. On the.. <{~~~;~;~
average, 250 photons impinge on the window for each flash of the laser. ::i<~~~~~f.~~~~
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output of the photomultiplier tube, per laser flash?
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G Exercises
513
b. Assume these electrons come out in a rectangular pulse 20 ns

wide. What is the height of the voltage pulse as measured across
a 50-Q resistor?
c. You make a histogram of these pulse heights. What is the
standard deviation of the distribution 'displayed in the histogram?
d. Suppose the photomultiplier tube is moved four times farther
away from the source. For any given pulse of the laser, what is
'
the probability that no photons are detected?
37. A Geiger counter is a device that counts radioactive decays, typically
used to find out whether something is radioactive. A particular Geiger
counter measures 8.173 background counts per second; i.e., this is the rate
when there are no known radioactive sources near it. Your lab partner hands
you a piece of material and asks you whether it is radioactive. You place it
next to the Geiger counter for 30 s and it registers a total of 253 counts.
a. What do you tell your lab partner?

b. What do you do next?
38. The Tortoise and the Hare have a signal-to-noise problem. A very
weak signal sits on top of an enormous background. They are told to determine the signal rate with a fractional uncertainty of 25%. and they decide
to solve the problem independently. The Tortoise dives into it and takes
data with the setup. and he determines the answer after running the apparatus for a week. The Hare figures she is not only faster than the Tortoise,
but smarter lOa, so she spends two days reducing the background in the
apparatus to zero, without affecting the signaL She then gets the answer
after running the improved setup for one hour. (The Hare really is a lot
smarter than the Tortoise, at least this time.)
Assuming Poisson statistics,
a. What is the signal rate?
b. What is the Tortoise's background rate?
39. Consider the passive filters shown in Fig. 3.11.
a. Determine the gain as a function of w = 211: v for each filter.
b. Plot the gain as a function of w/we for the three low-pass filters.
Define the critical frequency We using the simplest combination
of the two components in the circuit, that is, we = 1/ R C,
we = l/.../LC, or we = R / L. It is probably bestto plot all three
on the same set of log-log axes,
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c. Do the same as (b) for tbehigh-pass filters.

d~ Can you identify relative advantages and disadvantages for the
different combinations of low ..pass and high-pass filters?
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a. How does this circuit behave at high frequency?

h. How does this circuit behave at low frequency?
c. Calculate the gain g = IVout / Yin l as a function of frequency.
What is the behavior for intemlediate frequencies!
d. Give an example of where this sort of filter would be usefuL
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41. A particle detector gives pulses that are 50 m V high when measured
as a voltage drop across a 50-Q resistor. The pulse rises and falls in a time
span of 100 ns or less. Unfortunately, there are lots of noisy motors in the.
laboratory and the ground is not well isolated. The result is that a 1O-mV,
60-Hz sine wave is also present across the resistor, and adds linearly with
the pulses.
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where gO = 1/fJ and a 1 is the internal amplifier gain, fJ is the

feedback fraction, and a{3 l.
b. You measure Q with such an amplifier, with fJ = 0.01. The
temperature in lhe tab fluctuates by SOF while you make the
measurement, and the spedtication sheet for the opamp tells you
that its gain varies between 2.2 x 104 and 2.7 x 104 over this
temperature range. What is the fractional uncertainty in~Q due to
this temperature fluctuation'?
43. A 22Na radioactive source emits 0.511- and 1.27-MeV y-rays. You
have a detector placed some distance away. You observe a rate of 0.511Me V photons to be 2.5 x 10 3Is, and of 1.27-Me V photons to be 103Is, with
just air between the source illld the detector. Calculate the rate you expect
for each y-ray if a 1/2-in.-thick piece of iron is placed between the source
and the detector. Repeat the calculation for a 2-in.-thick lead brick.
44. Aradioactive source is situated near a particle detector. The detector
counts at a rate of 104 /s, completely dominaled by the source, A2-cm-thick
slab of aluminum (density 2.7 gmlcm 3 ) is lhen placed between the source
and the detector. The radiation from the source must pass through the slab
to be detected.
a. Assuming the source emits only I-MeV photons, estimate the
count rate after the slab is inserted.
h, Assuming lhe source emits only l-MeV electrons, estimate the
count rate after the slab is inserted.
45. Consider a small rectangular surface far away from a source. The
surface is nonna! to the direction to the source, and subtends an angle a
horizontally and f3 vertically. Show that the solid angle subtended is given
bya{3,
46. A photomultiplier tube with a 2-in. active diameter photocathode is
located 1 ill away from a blue light source. The face of the PMT is nonnal
to the direction of light. The light source isotropically emits 105 photons/so
Assuming a quantum efficiency of 20%, what is the count rate observed by
the photomultiplier?
47. Two scintillation detectors separated by 3 m can measure the "timeof-flight" for a particle crossing both of them to a precision of O.20 us.
Each detector can also measure the differential energy loss dEl dx =
constantl fJ2, fJ = vic, to 10%. For a particle with a velocity of 80% the
speed of light (i.e., fJ
0.8), how many individual detectors are needed
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48. A Cerenkov detector is sensitive to particles that move faster than
the speed of light in some medium, i.e., particles with p > 1/ n't where n
is the index of refraction of the medium. When a particle crosses such a
detector, it produces an average number of detected photons . given by
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the detector~ no photons are observed for 31 out of 19,761 events. When
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n as detennined from these data? What is peculiar about this value? (You
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Index
Ahsorption coefficient, 300-301

AC circuits, 93-96
ADC. See Analog-to-digital
converter
Airy equation, 190
Alpha particles, 306, 324, 325[,
351-354
Amplifiers, operational, 119--120
Analog-to-digital converter (ADC),
113
Angular momentum, addition of,
40, 226f, 228
Atomic structure. See specific
particles, effects
Atomic vapors, 1-13
Autocollimation. 27
Avalanche detectors, 347
Avogadro's number, 300
Babinet's principle, 184

Barrnerseries, 2, 25,29-33,235.
235f
Band theory, 49-54, 72
Bandpass filters, 103, 122, 133
Barium. 355
Barrier-layer detector, 345
Beams, atomic. See qJecific types,
techniques
Beams, laser. See Lasers
Bernoulli distribution, 433-434
Berry's phase, 210--213, 213f
Besse] functions, 58, 190
Beta decay. 20
Bifurcations, 133, 137-138
Binomial distribution, 433-436.
443
Birefringent materials, 203
Bismuth, 66, 68
Blackhody radiator, 511
Bloch magnetic susceptibility, 267
Bohm-Aharonov effect, 211
Bohr magneton, 216
Bobr model, 10,21,22
Bohr, N., 20
Boltzmann constant, 47, 124, 125,
l31
Boltzmann distribution, 48, 73, 154
Boltzmann, L., 45
Boron, 101
517
.,
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Bose-Einstein statistics, 45
Bragg curve., 305, 353, 354f

BremsstrahlWlg, 304, 316-319
Brewster angle, 161, 161f~ 162
Bridge circuit, 276-278, 289
Brillouin surfaces, 52
Brownian motion, 5
Cherenkov detector, 516

Circuit theory, 89-104, 116-119
Circular apertures, 191 f, 188-191
Coaxial cables, 104 107
Coincidence experiments, 367-418
Combinatorial analysis, 430--431
Compton, A., 370
Compton scattering, 313-314.,
369-385
experimental design~ 375-378
K-N formula and, 313
shifts in, 371
wavelength and, 371
Computer interfaces, 147-149
Conduction bands, 54, 72-74
Confocal resonator, 158
Conservation laws, 20
Constant deviation instruments, 33
Coulomb-barrier effects, 298
Coulomb force, 20, 21
Coulomb potential, 34n15., 218
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Crystals. See Semiconductors,
52-56
Current density, 55
CWTent, electric, 90
Cyclotron, 64
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Diftraction, 164,179
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prism and, 30
resolving power and, 217
specroscopy. See Spectroscopy
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See also specific effects,
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Digital multimeters, 110
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142
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calculation of, 185

circular aperture and, 188-191
Digitizers, 113-115
Diodes, 99-102
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Degrees of freedo~ 452, 453
Delay curve, 414
Delta rays, 305
114
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Dead time, 115, 332., 333
180~
1
I
gratings and,
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DAC. See Digital-to-analog

converter
Darlington pair~ 59n7
Data analysis, 149,445-453
DC power supplies, 108-109
dEldx curve, 349, 353
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particles
Cbi-square distribution, 451-454
I
I
Capacitance., 93, 95
Capacitors, 93-98
Cavity, 151. See Lasers
Cesium, 360
Chaos, 133--143
Charged particles, 10. See specific
I
I
Crosssection,define~298-299
-'
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.
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I
-'
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Crimping, 107
,.
I
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, ..........
Index
chaos and, 143

circuits willi, 139-144
current through, 80
I -V characteristic of, 139
oscilloscope traces, 130
p-njunctions,78,100,345
properties of, 78
recombination regime, 79
reverse bias on, 10 1
semiconductors and, 78, 100
symbol for, 100
Dirac theory, 39, 224n
Direction cosines, 186
Dopants, 101
Doppler effects, 161, 245n, 387
Eddy currents, 57
Einstein, A., 153
Electric current, 90
Electric-dipole transition, 221,
222n9
Electric field, 2
Electric potential, 90
Electrical conductivity, 511
Electrical resistance, 55
eddy current technique, 57
metals and, 54
physics of, 56
temperature and, 63
Electromagnetic cascade, 320
Electromagnetic radiation, 312
Electron spin resonance (ESR)
spectrometry, 254, 283-290
Electrons, 4~3, 254-292, 322f
angular momentum of, 220
bremsstrahlung, 316-320
charge on, 1, 4, 10
coupling of, 40--43
519
current and, 90
drift velocity, 55
energies of. See Energy levels,
atomic
excited states, 20
fractional charge, 10
ground state, 20
holes, 54, 76, 347-348
ions and, 319, 320f
magnetic moment of, 224-228
matter and, 298-319
mean free path, 63
one-dimensional problem, 50
orbits of, 218, 367
positrons and, 319, 320f
radiation length, 319
reduced mass, 233
scattering angle of, 316
semiconductors and, 72
solids and, 45-88
thermal motion, 123
wells and, 50
Energy levels, atomic, 20, 49,
152-154,203,227,254,337,
353. See also specific particles
Error analysis, 454-464
ESR. See Electron spin resonance
Estimation of parameters, 445-453
Exponential growth, 134
Extrinsic carriers, 72
f-number, 190
Fabry-Perot apparatus, 172-177,
217,239, 239f, 241
Far-field amplitude, 188
Farad, unit, 93
Faraday effect, 201, 203, 205f,
207f,210
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tndex
Faraday"s law, 57
Gage number~ 105n
Feather's rule, 378

Feedback, negative, 119
Feigenbaum, M.; 137
Feigenbaum number., 138, 143,
144
Gain curve, 157

Gain functioll, 125
Gamma function, 452
Gamma rays, 328f, 336, 337, 339,
Ferrrii constant, 406

Fermi-Dirac statistics; 45-49
FerIni distribution, 73
Fermi energy, 47,. 53f, 73-75
Fermi particles, 47
409--421
angular correlation of, 411-413,

417f, 419-421
anisotropy, 412, 418
attenuation of beam, 487
coincidence rate, 412
Ferreri weak interaction, 406

Fermi;s golden rule, 258
Filter circuit, 104
Fine structure, 36-39
floating tenninals, 108
~uofescence,247,248f
coincidence circuit, 416

decay scheme" 338, 339
,
,
electron-positron pairs, 298

gamma-gamma correlation,
'
,
,
409-411,415-419
low-energy, 371
Fourier analysis, 133, 316

Fourier optics, 180, 198
Fourier transfonn, 95, 188, 198
Frank-Hertz experiment, I, 10-19

apparatus for, 2, 12, 14, 15
beam current, 17f
excitation potential., 16
ion current, 19
oscilloscope display of, 17
preferred elements for, 13
wiring diagram fOf" 15

Fraunhofer diffraction, 180
Free-electron gas, 72
Free induction decay, 271
Free radicals, 284
Free spectral range, 157
Frequency bifurcations, 133-138
Frequency filters, 102-104
Frequency functions, 431- 445
Fresnel di ffraction, 180
,.
,
I
pulse-height spectrum of, 375

recoil effects, 387
spectra, 378
Gaseous ionization detectors,
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320-333
Gaussian approximation, 509
Gaussian distribution, 132, 436,
439
as limiting case, 439 ,442
binomial frequency function,
433
moments of, 434- 438
normal distribution and, 455
properties of, 443
Gauss's law, 302
Geiger counter, 320-333, 510
cylindrical, 321f
dead time of, 332, 333
plateau region, 329.. 331
,
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Goodness of fit, 451-454
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Index
Gratings, 25, 180. See also

Diffraction
Ground, electric, 90
Ground state, 11
Gyromagnetic ratio, 255
Hadronic particles, 10
Half-life, 354
Hall coefficient, 65, 66, 70
Hall effect, 63-70
Hamiltonian operator, 51
He liurn , 20, 160, 160f
Helmo1tz coils, 275, 286
Hermite polynorrilals, 158
hfs. See H yperfine structure
High-field magnets, 85
High-pass filter. 122
High-resolution filters. 177
Holes, electron. 54, 72, 75
Huygens-Fresne1 principle, 185
Hydrogen, 20, 235f
Balmer series of, 29
hydrogen-deuterium shift, 234
orbits in, 22
spectra of, 20
Hyperfine structure (hfs), 215-216,
Impurities, 72. 74. 101

Indium, 356-359
Inductance,defined,99
Inductors, 98-100, 141
Input registers, 115
Insulators, 53
Interferometry, 167, 172. See
'
specific types
Intrinsic carriers, 72, 74
Inverse matrix, 450
Ion current, 16
Ionization chamber, 321, 323-326,
344
Ionization potential, 13, 14, 18

Isotope shift, 215n, 228,232, 234f
Jarrell-Ash spectrometer, 235f
Johnson noise, 122, 125, 126f, 129
Junctions, 75-78. See
Semiconductors
Kimball-Slater spacing, 52
Klein-Nishina fonnula, 313, 374,
384,385
Klystron, 286
Knock-on electrons, 305
228-238
Doppler effect, 238
isotope shift, 228, 232
of mercury. 238
of rubidium, 246-247
Image-forming detectors, 296
Image plane, 199
lmpedance,95
characteristic, 106
coaxial cable, 104
521
Lande g factor, 225

Larmor precession., 260
Lasers, 151-177
beam profile, 165-167
cavity, 155
collimation ofbearn, 164
defined, 170
Fabry-Perot interferometer,
172-177
HeNe laser, 159-162
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Index
,' ,
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Lasers (continued)
interferometers and, 172
lasing medium,. 154
Michelson interlerometer, 168
principle of operation, 152-156

properties of beams, 156
safety, 483-484
spatial filtering, 201
telescope, 164
See also specific parameters,
effects
Latches, 115
Lattices, 52, 389. See also Crystals
LCR circuit, 99
Least-squares method, 29,
447-451~480
Lifetime., of nuclei., 467

Light, 201--210. See also specific
effects, instruments
Linear devices~ 99
Linear functional dependence,
449-451
Load buffering, 122
Lock-in amplifier, 144 146, 208
Logistic map, 133-138
Longitudinal nl0des; 156
Lorentz transfOIIIlation, 374, 390
Low temperature approximation,
74
Lyman series, 24
Magic tee circuit, 286, 289f

Magnetic-dipole transitions, 252,
magnetic resonance, 251--293

optics and, 200
refractive indices, 203
spectral lines and, 221f
spin and, 256f
Malthus theory, 134
Marginal oscillator circuit, 276,
light,. 201
magnetic moment, 219f, 261f
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Mean free path, 7, 70

Meissner effect, 83
Mercury, 42f, 33-43, 43f, 232f.,
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Metals, resistivity, 54, 56, 72

Meters, types of, 109
Michelson interferometer; 167,
168f, 171
Microscope, parallax errors, 5
Microwave cavity, 289
Millikan oil drop experiment,
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Monte Carlo method, 464
Mossbauer effect, 385-399
Multiple-beam interferometer, 217
Multiple scattering, 310-311
Muons, 404-409
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Magnetic fields
anomalous effects, 229n
281--282
MATLAB programs, 132, 149,
342, 358, 451 t 477, 482, 511
Maximum likelihood methods,
237
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Neon, 160, 160f

Neutrinos, 404, 405
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
01 ..
01 .. 01
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Neutrons, 296, 355, 508

n-pjunctions, 76,345, 346f
Noise, 102, 1l9, 146
Johnson noise, 1-22
Nyquist noise, 122
rejection, 146
spatial filtering, 20 1
temperature and, 124
Nonlinear components, 133
Nonlinear methods. 480
Nonnal distribution. See Gaussian
distribution
Nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR). 146.267.283
bridge circuit, 277-279
detection of, 277-279
ESR. See E lectroo spin
resonance
free induction decay, 270--273
line width, 266--267
marginal oscillator circuit,
281- 282
protons and, 278f, 280(, 273-282
pulsed, 270-273, 279-281
Rabi experiments, 254
spin and. See ESR; Spin
transverse relaxation time, 267
Nuclear magnelOn, 229
Nuclear resonance radiation, 389,
390
Nucleus, atomic
decay of, 409, 410(, 465-467
electron-pDsitron pairs, 298
half-life, 354-363
mean free path. 298
moments. 230, 230(, 262-273
NMR. See Nuclear magnetic
resonance
nuc1e:ons. 229n
spin and, 229~ 2S6(>{:: ,_,,_, .

statistics for, 465-473< :-_: ":"C-: :' ,
See also specific parlideS/ :' - ,

effect.r
Null me:thods, 264

Nyquist noise. 122
Occupied states, 73
Ohm's law. 54, 55. 64, J04
Oil drop method. See Millikan oil
drop experiment
Operational amplifiers. 121 f,
119-121
Optical detection _teclmiques,
489-498
Optical experiments, 179-2 13
Optical fiber, 21lf
Optical spectroSCQPY, 20
Organic free radicals, 2&4
Organic scintil1ators. 334
Orthogonal triads. 211
Oscilloscopes, 110-113.117
bandwidth, t 13
digital. 116
Fourier analysis, 133
ion current, 16
lockin amplifier. 208
Output coupler, 159
p-njunction, 75, 79.100-101.345

p-n-pjunction,77
p-n-p tnmsistor, 77. 102
Pair production, 312. 314
Paraelectric materials, 268
Parallel circuitry, 91
Paramagnetism, 268, 284
Parameter estimation. 445-453
...
.. ..
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524
Index
.Ii
Pashen-Back effect, 228

Pauli principle, 41
peak-to-total ratio, 378
Period doubling, 137, 142n
Pennutations, 430
Phase space, 46n
Phase transitions, 98, 144 146.
210-213
Phonons, emission of, 389
Photo diodes , l66f, 165-167,
496-498
Photoelectric effect, 312
Photofraction,378
Photographic film, 489
Photomultiplier tube; 490-497
quantum efficiency, 492
spectral sensitivity. 492
transit time for, 512
Photons,152,245,295,312,343
Pinhole, 190, 191
Planck's constant, 21, 152
Plastic scintillators, 334
Pockels effect, 203
Poincare, H., 135
Poisson approximation, 509
Poisson distribution, 357, 436
Poisson statistics, 493
Polarization, 153, 179,180,201,
202,205,210
Polonium, 298
Population growth, 134
Population inversion, 154, 160
Positronium, 419
Positrons, 312
Power supplies, 108-109
Poynting vector, 373
..
..
..
..
types
Paschen series, 24
..
Particles, 50, 295-365. See specific
Prism spectrometers, 25
Probability theory, 423-427
Proportional counter, 327
Protons, 273-283~ 278f~ 280f, 283f
Pulse-height spectrum, 337
Pulse transmission, 105
....
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Quadrupole transitions, 36
Quality factor, defined, 277
..
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..
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Quantization, defined, 1
ill
Quantum efficiency, 492

Quantum electrodynamics, 21
Quantum number, 22, 203
Quarks, charge on, 10
..
..
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Rabi frequency, 273

Radiation, 36
absorption of, 10, 153
blackbody, 511
diffraction of. See Diffraction
discrete, 10
electromagnetic, 312
electrons and, 318
energy of. See Energy levels,
.
atonnc
photons and, 312
quanta of, 20
radioactivity and, 323-363,
..
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spectral analysis . See
Spectroscopy
standing waves, 156
use of, 296
waves. See Waves
See also specific effects, types,
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Index
Radiofreqllency field, 260--262

Random events, 401-409
Random variables, 428
Random walks, 123
Range, of particle, 308
Rayleigh range, 158
Recombination regime, 79
Recursion methods, 438
Reflection coefficient, 106
Reflection grating spectrometer,
25,26
Refractive indices, 25, 203
Relative phase, 97
Relativistic particles, 304
ReI axation, of moments, 262-267
Resistivity. See Electrical
resistance
Resonance, 99,141,264.
284, 390
Resonant frequency, 141
Rotation. of fields, 259-262
Rubidium, 218, 243-246
Russell-Saunders coupling, 40
Rutherford cross-section, 310
Rutherford experiments, 367
Rydberg constant, 22, 29
Sample space, 424-426

Saturation spectroscopy, 243,245,
262-265
Scanning spectrometers, 177
Scattering experiments, 367-421,
See specific types, effects
Schrodinger equation, 20, 34, 233
energy eigenvalues, 50--51
hydrogen-like atom, 34
stationary states, 218
Scintillation counter, 333-344
525
Selection rules, 35-36, 222, 226,

252
Seli-absorption,237
Semiconductors, 71-81
bulk detectors, 345
diodes. See Diodes
dopants, 72, 74, 101
electrons and, 72
energy bands and, 72
extrinsic carriers, 72
Fermi level, 75
Hall effect, 63--70
holes, 54, 72, 76
impurities, 72, 74, ]01
junctions, 75-78
properties of, 71-78
valence band, 53, 72
See also specific types
Sensitive volume, 349
Series circuits, 91
Shockley array, 52
Signal analyzer, 142
Signal-to-noise ratio, 419
Silver, 363-364
Single-mode fiber, 212
Slater-Kimball spacing, 52
Slits, diffraction in, 180--184
Snell's law, 162
Sodium, 33-43, 53, 54
Solder, use of, 107
Solenoid, 59
Solid angle, defined, 368
Solid-state detectors, 344-353
Solid-state materials. 46
Spatial filtering, 201
Spectroscopy, 2, 146, 147~ 177
crossover ]jnes, 245
diffraction. See Diffraction
gratings, 25-28, 198
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
Spectroscopy (continued)
hfs. See Hyperfine structure
- , , .. ...
- , , .. .. ..
, , ..
- , ..
,
,
, , ..
high-resolution., 215-250
line width, 237f, 236-238
magnetic fields., 221 f
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
,,,
,,,
,, ,
Temperature
,
,
self-absorption in, 237f

sensitivity,493
spectral lines, 215, 221f, 228.,

236 237f
i
See also specific types)

elements
Spherical wavelets, 185
Spin, 39
ESR . See Electron spin
resonance
magnetic field and~ 256f
NMR. See Nuclear magnetic
..
..
M
..
MM.
, , ,
, ,
'~'M.
,
conductivity and, 511

intrinsic carriers,. 74
low temperature approximation,
,...
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, ,
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noise and, 125, 512

resistivity and; 63, 105
viscosity and, 7
Thermocouples, 16
Thermodynamic properties, 45
Thomas precession, 2240
Thomson cross-section, 313, 314f,
372
..
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Tirne-dependentpert~bation,257
"
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Time-to-amplitude converter, 406

Time-to-analog converter, 114
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Transistors, 99-102
.....
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, ,
,,
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Transverse modes., 158
..
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nucleus, 256f
III
...
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selection rules, 35-36
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photomultiplier tube, 493f
..
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..
.. III III
Index
III
.
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.
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526
..
III
III
. . . . III
.II
III .II
..
......
......
......
..
spin-lattice effects, 265

spinning sample technique,
Uncertainty principle, 267, 387nl1
267
statistics and, 45
Stability analysis, 135n
Standing waves, 156, 289,. 432
Stationary states, 218
Statistical mechanics, 45
Statistics, theory of, 423-473
Stefan cOl1stant~ 459
Stellar spectra, 36
Stem-Gerlach experiment,
220n
Stirling's formula, 443
Stokes equation, 3, 7, lOn8
Superconductors., 81-88
Sweep generator, 111
..
01
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4
01
01
01
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, 01 01 ..
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01
..
01
01
01
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..
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,
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, ,
I ...... .
, ,
,
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,
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,
,
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,
208
01
01
01
01 01
,
01 . . .
,
01 01
01 ..
01
01
,,,
,
, ,
"ariance,defined~432
..
Vapors., atomic, 1
-
Viscosity, 7
Voltage divider, 92, 94f, 96f
,
,
,
,
Waves, 22
anti symmetric, 45
diffraction of. See Diffraction
generation of, 109-111, 116, 128
Verdet constant, 204; 204f, 207,
,~..
,
,
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~~~
Index
phase. 187
radiation and. Set Radiation
recording of. 11 4
wave function. 211
See also specific parameters,
types
Wien displacemenllaw. 51 I
Work function, 13, 492
Xrays.372
Xenonmethane counter, 392
YBco. supelWl;idqc1,o( 10",

85-88 .
.
Young IWbslit ~Xpenmenl,
193f
Zeeman effect, 203,
215--228
magnetic resonance, 254
mercury and, 238-242f
MOssbauer effect. 396
nonnal,223
"$z1

Modern Physics: Experilvients

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What are some of the main topics covered in the book?

What are some of the main topics covered in the book?

What experiments are described related to quantization?

What experiments are described related to quantization?

EXPERIlVIENTS IN

Senior Publishing Editor

Senim Project MaDlLSl=!'

ctun'les Laudd', lr.

Celllui Imaging Pvt Ltd.

The MI!l'l~Vail Book ManoCacturin.g GnlUp

TIlis book is printed on add-flC(; paper.

Copyright 2003, Elsevit ScieDcc (USA).

All rl,hts [cs~rved.

elccuonic ormtA;bnniea1, in~ludlng phoaoccpy. (ec;ortIing. or any infOllliution storagc:; nnd

84 Theobald'~ Road, London WCIX

htql :lI~vww , acatl~mjc pI":Ss.com

Attp;lfwww, ~...ap ,CQJ"

Lib;"ruy of Con~ Caro1og CanI Nmnbc:i. 2002117796

Book Number: C}.12-489851-3

PRIN1'E.O IN THE UNITED STATE'S OF AMERICA

E ls ~1t11J1 1'oii 1rtrrpOs }.!OV

To the memory of my father

Preface from the First Edition

2.1. SoIid Materials and Band Structure

The Prank-Hertz Experiment

Experiment on the Resistivity of Metals

Electronics and Dara Acquisition

3.1. Elements of Circuit Theory

3.8. Lock-In Dete.ction

3.9. Compu1e.t Interfaces

4. L The Principle of Laser Operation

4-.2. Properties of Laser Beams

4.3. The HeNe La~er

5.3. Calculation of the Diflr.tCtion PaUem

5.8. Berry's Phase

6.6. Saturation Absorption Spec:tro~copy or Rubidium

TIle Zooman Effect

l\{agnetic Resonance Experiments

7.4. ExperimenlII.l Observation 0 r the NllcieM Magnetic

8 Particle Detectors and Radioactive Decay

Scattering and Coincidence Experiments

9.3. M(\~bah~r Efte~l

9.4. Detection of Cosmic Rays

10 Elements from the 171e01}, of Statistics

A Short Guide to MATlAB

B_1. A MATI..AB Review

B.2. Making Fancy Plots in MATLAB

Radioactivity and Radiation Safety

Optical DefectiDn Techniques

E.l. Pbo\.Ographic Film

e5rlend this approach ro upper revel courses.

We iltegraleful to many of our colleagues for their help Olod suppOI1. In

Preface from the First Edition

rt is generally accepted thai training in the sciences, especi:llly at the

undergraduare level, is nOI c:ompler.e without it fair QlUounl of Jabof'll1ury

ill widely varying, Ilelds of physics. ~

Prefa c e tmm tile First Edition

The present texlis-an outgrowth of such a laboratory course giveo by the

Pre fac e frolll tile first 'diticn