REPORT ON TCP/IP NETWORKING

FUNDAMENTALS
By Apar Pant (42004)
Department of computer engineering
GBPUAT Pantnagar, UK,India
apar.incentive@gmail.com

Abstract This seminar will present TCP/IP

communications starting from Layer 2 up to Layer 4
(TCP/IP applications cover Layers 5-7). TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the
basic communication language or protocol of the Internet.
The document explains all the basic terminologies and
protocols used in the tcp/ip network model.
IPAddresses
DataLinkLayer
NetworkFrames
AddressResolutionProtocol
NetworkLayer
InternetProtocol
IPRouting
ICMPErrorReporting
TransportLayer
UserDatagramProtocol
TransmissionControlProtocol
SessionthroughApplicationLayers
DomainNameSystem
Final example tracing DNS transaction through a
router

original message. The lower layer, Internet Protocol,

handles the address part of each packet so that it gets
to the right destination.
Each gateway computer on the network checks this
address to see where to forward the message. Even
though some packets from the same message are
routed differently than others, they'll be reassembled
at the destination.
TCP/IP uses the client/server model of
communication in which a computer user (a client)
requests and is provided a service (such as sending a
Web page) by another computer (a server) in the
network. TCP/IP communication is primarily pointto-point, meaning each communication is from one
point (or hostcomputer) in the network to another
point or host computer.

OSI Seven Layer Model

I. INTRODUCTION

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol) is the basic communication language or
protocol of the Internet.
It can also be used as a communications protocol in a
private network (either an intranet or an extranet).
When you are set up with direct access to the
Internet, your computer is provided with a copy of
the TCP/IP program just as every other computer that
you may send messages to or get information from
also has a copy of TCP/IP.
TCP/IP is a two-layer program. The higher layer,
Transmission Control Protocol, manages the
assembling of a message or file into smaller packets
that are transmitted over the Internet and received by
a TCP layer that reassembles the packets into the

Definitions
Physical network - a collection of computers,
communications devices, wiring, etc. that
communicate directly with one another (e.g.,
Ethernet, Token Ring)

 Host - A computer, connected to a physical network,

that exchanges information with another computer
via TCP/IP
Gateway - A computer that interconnects two or
more physical networks and that routes TCP/IP
information among those networks (accurately
referred to as a router)
IP addresses
are unique, 32-bit addresses
correspond to connections, not hosts (generally,
move connection ==> change IP address)
are referenced by humans via dotted decimal (or
dotted quad) notation, one number per 8 bits (1 octet
or byte), e.g., 128.192.6.7
consist of three primary classes A, B, and C (class D
is for multicast) of the form [netid,hostid]

Class formats

Netid and hostid conventions:

Networkaddresseshavehostidwithallbits=0(e.g.,
128.192.0.0withnetmask=255.255.0.0and
128.192.6.0withnetmask=255.255.255.0)
Directedbroadcastaddresseshavehostidwithallbits
=1(e.g.,128.192.255.255with
netmask=255.255.0.0and128.192.54.255with
netmask=255.255.255.0)
"Limited"broadcasthasallbits=1(e.g.
255.255.255.255)
Loopbackaddress127.xxx.yyy.zzzusedforinternal
testing,notrafficgenerated(typically127.0.0.1)
IP network ranges by class:

Subnet Mask (netmask)

32-bit value
Generally used to subdivide (subnet) a given IP class
network into smaller (sub)networks
Netmask determines which portion of an IP address
is the network address and which is the host address
o An IP address bit is a network address bit if
the corresponding netmask bit is 1
o An IP address bit is a host address bit if the
corresponding netmask bit is 0
"Natural netmask" has all netid bit locations = 1 and
all hostid bit locations = 0
o (e.g., 255.0.0.0, 255.255.0.0, and
255.255.255.0 for class A, B, and C
networks, respectively)
Netmask example:

ClassA==>1.0.0.0126.0.0.0
ClassB==>128.xxx.0.0191.xxx.0.0
ClassC==>192.xxx.yyy.0223.xxx.yyy.0
ClassD==>224.xxx.yyy.zzz239.xxx.yyy.zzz
(multicastIP)
HostswithmultipleIPaddressesperinterfaceand/oron
multipleinterfacesarecalledmultihomedhosts.

Data Link Layer

Network Frames
The basic unit of a physical network is a frame
General form of a network frame

Network frame formats

 Ethernet frames
Version 2 format

Token Ring frames

IEEE 802 format

IEEE 802 format

Everyphysicalnetworkhasamaximumframesize
calledthemaximumtransferunit(MTU)
EthernetMTU1500bytes
TokenRingMTU4192bytes
Somephysicalnetworkshaveaminimumframesize
and must be padded (typically with bytes of
"zeroes") tothat sizewhentheactual datasizeis
smaller(Ethernethasaminimumframesizeof60
bytes)

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).

The address resolution protocol (ARP) is used to
associate physical network card addresses (MAC
addresses)withIPaddresses
EncapsulationofARPmessageinaphysicalframe

directedframebacktoARPrequestorfilling
initsMACaddressandstoringtheMAC
addressofthesenderinanARPtable(or
cache).
3. Optionally,allotherhostswithinthesame
broadcastdomainaddthesender'sMACand
IPaddressestoitsARPcache.
Ethernetexample:
Source IP address = 128.192.6.7 (80 C0 06 07) Source MAC
address = 00 00 C0 8D 9C FB Destination IP address =
128.192.6.193 (80 C0 06 C1) Destination MAC address = 00
00 1D E5 A3 B9

ARPmessageformat
1.

ARP Request

2. ARP Response

ARPprocess
1. ARPrequestorsendsabroadcastframewith
thedestinationIPaddress,itssourceIP
addressandMACaddress,askingforthe
destinationMACaddress.
2. HostwithdestinationIPaddresssendsa
IPaddress

MACaddress

TTL

128.192.6.111

00:00:C0:B8:A5:E3

155s

128.192.10.141

08:00:20:7C:7F:7E

246s

128.192.106.159 00:05:02:E6:48:41

626s

128.192.153.21

00:00:1B:16:F7:FF

332s

128.192.237.52

00:00:0C:4E:60:8F

185s

128.192.26.126

00:00:94:21:66:14

439s

ARP Table (or Cache)

TominimizebroadcastsduetoARPrequests,IP
hostsandgatewaysstoretablesofMACandIP
addresses(calledARPtablesorcashes)
Eachentryinthecachecontains(IPaddress,MAC
address,TimetoLive)
SampleARPcache:

 TheTimetoLive(TTL)fieldhaseitherafixedor
adjustablemaximum(usuallyaworkstationorrouter,
respectively)
TTLissettomaximumwhenARPrequestreceived,
notsetwhencommunicatingwithanotherhost
ToolstodisplayARPinfo(TTLusuallynot
displayed):
o arp(Windows9x/NT/2000)
o arp(Unix)
Network Layer
Internet Protocol
TheInternetProtocol(IP)isan:
o unreliable(deliverynotguaranteed)
o connectionless(packetsindependentofone
another)
o besteffort(attempttodeliverpackets)
o packetdeliverymechanism
Basicunitisthedatagram(upto65,535bytes)
EncapsulationofIPdatagraminaphysicalframe

IP Datagram format

NetworkMTUandfragmentation
o IPhostssenddatagramsuptotheMTUsize
ofthephysicalnetwork
o Routers*may*havetofragmentdatagrams
ifoutboundMTUsmallerthaninbound
framesize
Eachfragmenthastheformatofan
IPdatagram
Fragmentsreassembledat
receivinghost(maybeinefficient)
Higherprobabilityof
retransmission>losingone
fragmentlosesentiredatagram
IPOptions
o Looseandstrictsourceroutingusedto
routeadatagramalongaspecificpath
o Recordrouteusedtotracearoute
o Internettimestampusedtorecord
timestampsalongtheroute
IP Routing
Bothhostsandroutersparticipateinrouting
Directroutingtransmittingadatagramfromone
computerdirectlytoanotheronsamephysical
network
Indirectroutingdestinationhostnotonsame
network>datagramsenttoarouterfordelivery
RoutingbasedonIProutingtableoftheform
(netmask,netaddress,nexthop)
Routingalgorithm
o ExtractdestinationIPaddressipdestfrom
datagram
o Startingatthebeginningoftheroutingtable
(andforeachentry)
Calculatenetworkportionof
ipdest>ipnet=AND(netmask,
ipdest)
Ifipnetequalsnetaddress,send
datagramtonexthop
Ifipnetdoesnotequalnet
address,repeatstepsa.andb.for
nextentry
Ifnotableentrymatches,declarea
routingerror
Routingtableorder:

o Directlyconnectednetworks(DCN)
o Hostspecificroutes(HSR)
o Netspecificroutes(NSR)
o Defaultroute(DR)
Hostshaveminimalroutingtables(usuallytwo
entriesdirectlyconnectednetworkanddefault
route)

gatewaysconnectingautonomoussystems
ExteriorGatewayProtocol(EGP)
BorderGatewayProtocol(BGP)
OSPF&RIPusedatUGA
o OnlyFoundrycorerouterscommunicatevia
OSPF
o FoundryroutersbroadcastRIPsometimes
(don'tlisten)
o RIPturnedoffallotherrouters
o HostscanlistentoRIPbutmust*NOT*
broadcastRIP
ICMP Error Reporting

Routing Update Protocols

Routingupdateprotocolsareusedtomodifythe
routingtablesingateways
Autonomoussystemacollectionofnetworksand
gatewayscontrolledbyasingleauthority

Twogeneraltypesofupdateprotocols
o InteriorgatewayprotocolsUsedamong
gatewayswithinanautonomoussystem
RoutingInformationProtocol(RIP,
RIP2)
OpenShortestPathFirst(OSPF)
o ExteriorgatewayprotocolsUsedby

SinceIPnetworksareinherentlyunreliable,needa
mechanismforreportingIPdatagramdelivery
problems
InternetControlMessageProtocol(ICMP)usedto
reporterrors
o ICMP*required*implementationofany
TCP/IPsoftware
o Usuallyinitiatedbygateways,butcanalso
beinitiatedbyhosts
o ICMPmessagesaresentbacktosourceIP
host,notgateways
ICMPmessagesdeliveredjustlikeIP
datagrams
o ProblemsdeliveringICMPmessagesdo
*not*generateadditionalICMPmessages
o ICMPdoesnotspecifyhowtohandleerrors
ICMPMessageEncapsulation
o

ICMP Message format

 UDPMessageEncapsulation

TRANSPORT LAYER
TCP/IPapplicationsutilizeclient/servertechnology
toexchangeinformation
o SomehostscanofferanumberofTCP/IP
servicesconcurrently
o Somehostscanexecutemultipleclient
TCP/IPapplicationsconcurrently
o Somecanexecutebothclientandserver
applications
WhenTCP/IPclientandserverapplicationswantto
senddatatooneanother,theyneedamethodof
transportingthatdatatothecorrectapplication
Protocolportsareusedtodeterminewhich
applicationreceivesthedata
o positive16bitintegers
o wellknownportsassignedbycentral
authority(range12047)
o Userdefinedports(range2048orgreater)
o destinationportusedtospecifythe
applicationonthedestinationhosttoreceive
thedata(usuallyoneofthewellknownport
assignments)
o sourceportusedtospecifywherereplies
onthesourcehostaretobesent(generated
bythesourcehost)
Twomethodsoftransportingdata
o Connectionless,unreliabledelivery(User
DatagramProtocol)
o Connectionoriented,reliabledelivery
(TransmissionControlProtocol)

UDP Message format

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDPprovidesanunreliable,connectionlessdelivery
ApplicationprogramsusingUDPareresponsiblefor
messageloss,duplication,delay,outoforder
delivery,andlossofconnectivity
ExamplesofapplicationsthatuseUDPtransport
includeNetworkTimeProtocol(NTP),Sun's
NetworkFileSystem(NFS),andtheSimpleNetwork
ManagementProtocol(SNMP)
EachUDPmessageiscalledauserdatagram

UDPmessagesarestoredinqueuesondestinationhost,one
queueperdestinationport

destinationport
Ifreceiveracceptscall,aconnectionisestablished
betweenthecorrespondingclientandserver
applications
Informationistransferredbidirectionally
Connectionisclosed("callterminated")whenclient
orserverapplicationfinishedorwhencertain
communicationserrorsdetected
BufferedTransferApplicationssendbytestoTCP
softwarethatdeliversthestreamofbytesinexactly
theordersent(notnecessarilygroupedthesame
way)
FullduplexTransmissionBothhostscansendand
receivedataandcontrolinformationindependently

M Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCPprovidesreliable,endtoenddatatransmission
withflowcontrol
ExamplesofTCPapplicationsincludeTelnet,FTP,
WWW,POP,IMAP,etc.
BasicfeaturesofTCPtransmission:
o StreamedDataDatafromsenderto
receiverorganizedasastreamofbits
dividedinto8bitbytes(datastreamshave
noTCPimposedstructure)

Connection Oriented
Clienthost"calls"serverhostataspecific

TheunitoftransferinTCPiscalledasegment
TCPSegmentEncapsulation

TCP Segment Format

References
www.wikipedia.com
www.searchnetworking.techtarget.com
www.cisco.com
www.ibm.com