Virtual Lab 1: Virtual Microscopy

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to accurately describe similarities and differences between varying cell types for a
better understanding of cells. The ability to identify different types of cells will help to build a foundation in
understanding future concepts which rely on rudimentary knowledge of cells and their functioning.
Lab Observations:
There are several observable similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells both have DNA, cytoplasm and ribosomes. Prokaryotic cells have a cell wall which is not
permeable and the only area of entry for nutrients, DNA and waste is through the permeable mesosome. In
contrast, Eukaryotic cells have a cell wall which is semi-permeable which means that it is selective of what may
enter and exit the cell. Eukaryotic cells also tend to be more complex as they have many structures that
prokaryotic do not have such as a mitochondria, lysosomes, and rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The
largest difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is that eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and prokaryotic
cells do not.
There are also several similar and different elements between plant and animal cells. One similarity between
plant and animal cells is that they have mitochondria. They also both have a nucleus. Lastly, they both have
smooth endoplasmic reticulum. One difference is that plant cells have a vacuole which is used to store water and
nutrients and is vital to a plants survival. Another difference is that plant cells have chloroplasts, which aid in
photosynthesis. Lastly, animal cells have lysosomes and plant cells have glyoxysomes.
Lab Answers:
A. Estimate the size of:
1. An E. Coli cell. 3 x 0.6 m
2 A mitochondrion. 4 x 0.8 m
3. A Red Blood cell. 8 m
4. A hepatitus virus. 45 nm
5. A water molecule. 275 pm
B. Observe the various Cell types and learn to distinguish between Bacterial cells, Plant cells (1, 2), and Animal cells (1, 2,
3)
1. Observe and describe three differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
2. Observe and describe three differences and three similarities between plant and animal cells.
C. Form a hypothesis
1. Hypothesize about how you might be able to sort a mixed population of cells into prokaryotes
and eukaryotes. Try to be practical, build on your understanding of the differences between the two cell classes.
To sort a mixed population of cells which are both prokaryote and eukaryote as well as plant and animal it
would be beneficial to first identify what type of cell wall is present. Selectively permeable walls will be
found in eukaryotic cells and a non-permeable cell wall will be present in prokaryotic cells.
2. Hypothesize about a means to separate out plant cells from a mixed population of eukaryotic
cells.
Once a cell is determined to be eukaryotic, we are left to separate cells as plant or animal cells. To
determine this, we must be familiar with the many organelles and functions of each cell. To identify a plant
cell, we must have chloroplasts and vacuoles present as these are required for a plant cell to function
properly and they will not be found in an animal cell.
Conclusions:
This was a very important first lab. Cells are a very vital aspect of biology and understanding them and
being able to distinguish differences among cells is vital to knowing theirs purposes and processes. Being able to
identify what makes a cell prokaryote or eukaryote is important because they both are present in the human body.

Being able to identify similarities and differences really make you have to know about which elements of a cell are
present in each type. Knowing the type of cell wall a cell contains and the basic elements that a cell will need to
function makes identifying similarities and differences among cells much easier. For example, if in the cell there is
mitochondria present this means that the cell is eukaryote because mitochondria are not present in prokaryote
cells. I found that this interactive work with the varying types of cells was very beneficial to aid my understanding
of the concepts presented. This lab was simple enough to break down the basic characteristic of each of these
types of cells but also created a foundation of knowledge that will be built on as I continue through this course and
lab assignments.

Virtual Lab 2: Cellular Processes

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to expand on the concepts identifies in the first lab on cells and expand upon
the functions and reproduction of cells within living organisms.
Lab Observations:
During the first part of the lab, I was able to experiment with the bacterial growth and I felt that this
demonstration really aided my learning because the growth is very visible and observable in its replication. In the
second part of the experiment I viewed cellular reproduction through the process of mitosis, meiosis and binary
fission. This was very beneficial to see how long the cell was in interphase, as I previously did not understand that
the time spent in this phase was comparatively longer than other phases that the cell goes through. I then viewed
cells go through three different processes: mitosis, meiosis, and binary fission. These three processes are
describes more in detail below in section B3.
I then learned about cellular respiration, which is necessary to provide energy for everyday activities. In
cellular respiration, the cell may harvest energy by breaking down molecules. Energy is also released through
cellular respiration. Cellular respiration requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis and cellular
respiration are important to life of plants, animals and humans and without one, or with an improper balance of the
two there could be detrimental impact on the earth and living organisms.
Lab Answers:
A. Bacterial Growth.
1. Estimate how long it takes for this population of bacteria to double. Hint- this population
doubles multiple times during the duration of this recording.
Based on my observations of the bacteria, it takes about 20 minutes for the bacteria population to double.
B. Cellular reproduction
1. Estimate the percentage of time that a constantly developing cell spends in interphase.
Approximately 80% of time in developing cells is spent in interphase.
2. In a random selection of 100 such cells, estimate the number that would be undergoing mitosis
at any given time.
Based on my observations in this section, I would say that about 50% of cells at all times are undergoing
mitosis, this is because certain cells are required to replicate more often than others.
3. In a couple of paragraphs describe the basic differences between mitosis, meiosis, and binary
fission.
There are many identifiable differences between mitosis, meiosis and binary fission. In prophase the
difference between mitosis and meiosis is that the chromatin fiber in mitosis will coil and fold tightly whereas with
prophase in meiosis the chromatin fibers coil into long thin fibers. Another difference in this stage is that in
meiosis there is a second prophase that must happen as well. In metaphase, mitosis will form two sister
chromatids whereas meiosis will form one tetrad. In anaphase of mitosis the sister chromatids do not separate but
in meiosis the tetrad will separate. Telophase is the last stage for mitosis whereas meiosis will go through a
second cycle before cytokinesis.

In regards to binary fission, this is a practice that is found in the reproduction of bacteria cells. This type of
reproduction is much simpler than mitosis and meiosis. In binary fission, the mesosome replicates and pushes the
two daughter cells apart and creates a cell wall between them.
C. Cellular metabolism
1. In a paragraph or two compare and contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
In cellular respiration oxygen and sugar is needed to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy. In
photosynthesis, sunlight water and carbon dioxide is needed to create oxygen and sugar. This means that cellular
respiration creates two of the three elements needed for photosynthesis and photosynthesis creates the two
needed elements for cellular respiration. The sun provides the necessary energy for photosynthesis and broken
down nutrients from food provides the energy for cellular respiration. Cellular respiration involves glycolysis, the
Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
2. Describe the ecological relationship between photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are vital for living organisms. They also play very important roles in
each others success. The elements needed to complete one are the elements produced by the other, so they are
vital to each other because one may not be possible without the other.
3. Hypothesize about what might happen if a large number of producers were suddenly removed from the biosphere. Where
might carbon accumulate if the ratio of number of producers to consumers was markedly reduced?
If a large number of producers were eliminated, this would mean that less photosynthesis would occur. The
oxygen produced through photosynthesis is vital to human life. With producers removed, there would be more
cellular respiration and not a comparable amount of photosynthesis to balance the elements. This would mean that
living organisms may die because of the lack of elements created through photosynthesis.
Conclusions:
This lab took the knowledge gained from our first virtual lab and expanded on the basic concepts. First I
observed bacterial growth and learned that bacteria can double in about 20 minutes through the process of binary
fission. This reproduction of a prokaryotic cell is very different than the process of eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic
cells also reproduce in two ways, through mitosis and meiosis. Through mitosis, a cell will reproduce to make a
sister cell in asexual reproduction whereas through meiosis will go through two cycles of sexual reproduction.
This lab also covered cellular metabolism by describing the ways that plant and animal cells create energy.
Animal cells create energy through the process of cellular respiration by taking oxygen and sugar from nutrient
ingested from food and turning these elements into carbon dioxide, water and energy (ATP). Plant cells on the
other hand use their chloroplast to complete photosynthesis which takes the carbon dioxide created by animal
cells along with water and sunlight (energy) to create oxygen and sugar. This lab exemplified the importance of
cells and their functions to our everyday life and existence and how without these cells and processes we living
organisms would cease to exist.

Virtual Lab 3: Genetics

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to work hands on in an interesting experiment in order to aid the learning of
concepts presented relating to genes and genetics.
Lab Observations:
In this lab I really enjoyed working with the interactive tools that the computer offered without actually
experimenting with real flies, Ive never been this grateful for technology. I really enjoyed the experiment, and how
the website allowed for exploration and also offered an explanation to each experiment and practice such as when
the site explained that the experimenter would use ether in order to subdue the flies so they could be viewed under
the microscope. I have had troubles with gene crossing concepts in the past, but actually found that conducting
this virtual lab added a lot of visual representation which made it a lot easier for me to understand the concepts
clearly. When I was able to breed two flies their offspring percentages were very easy for me to understand when I
saw them visually.

I then read about genetic disorders. The three types of genetic disorders are single gene disorders,
chromosomal abnormalities and multifactorial disorders. I read about each of these types and learned about
different diseases within each type.
Lab Answers:
A Phenotype and Genotype of Dragons. You do not have to be able to access the Dragon website to answer these
questions.
1. Define genotype and phenotype.
A genotype is an entire set of genes within a cell or organism. A phenotype is the expression of a particular
gene, produced through a combination of genetic make-up and environment.
2. What is an allele?
One of a pair of genes which controls a certain trait occupying the chromosome.
B. Drosophila Lab. Enter as a guest. Buy and then breed a mutant black bodied female with a wild type (i.e. standard) male.
1. Describe and explain the characteristic of the first generation (F1) of flies. Is the black bodied characteristic dominant or
recessive?
The first generation of flies bread came back with 611 male wild type flies (.5008) and 609 female wild type
flies (.4992). These results show that having a black body is a recessive gene.
2. Assume the black body females genotype to be bb and the wild type males genotype to be WW and fill in the following
Punnet square. Are your breeding results consistent with what you expect from this assumption and the logic of the Punnet
square?
W
W
b

Wb

Wb

Wb

Wb

Breeding results in the Punnet Square are consistent with the results of the cross. In order for a fly to have
a black body, they must display the wb, none of which were displayed in this cross.
3. Breed two of these F1 flies. To do this select a male and a female from the results of your first cross and put them in the
breeding jar. Describe and explain the characteristics of the second generation (F2) flies.
The second generation of flies came back with 454 (.3740) male wild-type flies, 448 (.3690) female wild-type
flies, 156 (.1285) male black-bodied flies and 156 (.1285) female black-bodied flies.
4. Use a Punnet square to predict the ratios of a cross between two Wb individuals. Is this consistent with your experimental
observations?
W
b
W

WW

Wb

Wb

bb

The findings of the second generation of flies are also consistent with the Punnet square. The bb
represents both the male and female black-bodied flies and together that represents 25% of the Punnet square
which makes this example an accurate one.
C. Genetic Disorders Library. Describe the three main classes of genetic disorders and give an example of each.
The three main classes of genetic disorders are single gene disorders, chromosomal abnormalities and
multifactorial disorders. One example of a single gene disorder is Huntington's disease, which means that any
person who has this faulty gene present will eventually have this disease. Down syndrome is chromosomal
abnormality where there is actually an extra copy of a gene present which causes abnormal protein production.

Multifactorial disorders are caused by a combination of genetics and environment, and one example is colon
cancer.
Conclusion:
This lab was very interesting, fun and educational. The online lab aided in learning and made the
experiment easy to understand and learn from. With the experiment, I was able to understand the concepts
presented a lot easier than with previous instances with the same concepts. I learned how different crosses result
with dominate and recessive traits. The crosses made a lot more sense to me because they were accurate in both
the Punnett square and the crosses resulted in the same outcomes. I also found that the genetic disorders were
very easy to understand and interesting to investigate. I did not know the cause of Down syndrome before this
experiment but have worked with many students with this condition so understanding its cause was enlightening.

Virtual Lab 4: Electrophoresis

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to delve into more challenging concepts in biology by using the information from previous
experiments. This lab taught about DNA and blood types and the unique characteristics that make up these complex
aspects of the human body.
Lab Observations:
In this lab I learned that electrophoresis is the way that scientists measure DNA strands. Using the gel,
electric currents pull the DNA to make the DNA visible to the naked eye. During the run a gel activity, I was
required to make the gel, set up the gel apparatus, load the DNA sample into the gel, hook up the electrical current
and run the gel and finally stain the gel and analyze the results. I estimated the results of the gel to be 6000 bp
(base pairs), 3500 bp and 1500 bp and these were correct.
It took me quite some time (and several different computers) to get the second experiment to work, so
maybe a more accessible program would be more beneficial. I began this experience by adding the plasmid
pBR322 to the simulator and selecting the restriction enzymes EcoR I, Ple I, Hinc II, and Bgl I for the corresponding
lanes. I found this lab to be the most difficult of the virtual labs because it was not very easy to use in general. I
think it is important to note that even though you may select the restrictive enzymes, you must hit the buttons
individually, and you must also turn on the UV light, which is not noted in the instructions otherwise all bands
appear to be travelling at the same rate which is not the case. I then watched the gels move and recorded their
movement and frequencies below.
In section C, I completed the blood type game. The most difficult part of this game (and in real life as I have
experienced) was putting the syringe in the patients arm. This was a helpful and fun to learn about different blood
types and the elements that make them up. I recorded my results from this experiment in the chart below.
Lab Answers:
A.
1. On what basis is electrophoresis able to separate molecules?
It separates the strands based on size, smaller strands move at faster rates.
2. What are the lengths of the three DNA bands that you produce in this lab?
I estimated the results of the gel to be 6000 bp (base pairs), 3500 bp and 1500 bp and these were correct.
B. Electrophoresis. Select the pBR322 plasmid (a circular piece of DNA used as a cloning vector) to analyze (menu in
upper left hand corner of the simulator). You will then see a diagram of the circular plasmid DNA along with the points along
the length of the plasmid where the various restriction enzymes (EcoR I, Ple I, Hinc II, and Bgl I) will cut the DNA. For
instance notice that the enzyme EcoR 1 only cuts the plasmid at one location at the top of the diagram, whereas the other
enzymes cut the plasmid at other places. To analyzes the DNA we cut it up with different enzymes and slowly piece together
an understanding of the entire sequence.
Load each lane as follows: lane 1 with Bgl 1; lane 2 with EcoR 1; lane 3 with Hinc II; lane 4 with Ple I; lane 5 with

predetermined molecular weight markers.

Run the gel and describe and explain the number of bands in lanes 2 and 4.
Lane two appears to be travelling at the slowest rate and has only one line present. Lane one appears to
have three strands where one is move fairly fast paced with two fairly far behind. Lane four has three strands with
two moving face and one large strand further behind, Lane three only hold two strands and they seem to be
intermediate speed. Lane two is by far the slowest of all.
C. Human Blood Types and Immune System
Complete the following Table
Blood Type

Genotype

Antibodies present

O+

OO

O-

OO

A+

AA, AO

A-

AA, AO

B+

BB, BO

B-

BB, BO

AB +

AB

AB -

AB

Antibody anti-A,
Antibody Anti-B
Antibody anti-A,
Antibody Anti-B
Antigen A, Antibody
Anti-B
Antigen A, Antibody
Anti-B
Antigen B, Antibody
anti-A
Antigen B, Antibody
anti-A
Antigen A, Antigen
B,
Antigen A, Antigen
B,

Can receive blood

from type(s)
O +, OOO+, A+, O-, AO- , AO+, B+, O-, BO-, BO+, A+, AB+, B+, A-,
B-, ABO-, A-, AB-

Conclusions:
This lab demonstrated much more complex concepts than the previous labs, but it did so gradually and
was easy to understand. I first learned the process of electrophoresis which is used to measure DNA strands. This
is a very complicated process but the step by step tutorial and interactions made the experiment challenging but
easy to understand with instructions. I really appreciated the way that part A was designed as it really was an
accurate simulation of the process (because I have done it in real life before) and that aided learning as well as
saved time and money on experiment costs. I think that this type of virtual experiment will become very useful you
schools (especially with budget cuts) and will also be a positive and informing learning experience for students.
Part B of the lab I found rather difficult to conduct. The website was not as organized as other labs and had
very difficult technical requirements which required a lot of time and effort prior to even beginning the experiment.
I was able to see the run of the gels clearly and watch them under the UV light, but this application was not very
easy to use and made observations difficult as it required refreshing and restarting the experiment many times. I
did still enjoy learning about this concept and I found it very interesting that the restriction enzymes moved at
different speeds across the gel.
The third part of the experiment was by far my favorite. I would recommend to other students to make sure
you have a detached mouse (rather than a finger-pad laptop mouse) because this will make the experiment a lot
easier to operate. This experiment was not only fun, but it made learning the concepts very easy. I really liked
making my own chart to compare the various blood-types and their inner components as this made them a lot
easier to distinguish from each other. I also enjoyed this because it can be applied to life as well. For example. I am
a type A+ and did not understand exactly what this meant, but now I know that it means that my parents

contributed AA or AO, I have Antigen A and Antibody Anti-B present in my blood and I can receive blood in case of
emergency from anyone who has the blood-types of : O+, A+, O-, or A-.