7/9/13

SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

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SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

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Brogan, R.J.

DOI: 10.1615/AtoZ.s.shell_and_tube_heat_exchangers

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General Description

Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers are one of the most popular types of exchanger due to the flexibility the designer has to

allow for a wide range of pressures and temperatures. There are two main categories of Shell and Tube exchanger:

1. those that are used in the petrochemical industry which tend to be covered by standards from TEMA, Tubular

Exchanger Manufacturers Association (see TEMA Standards);

2. those that are used in the power industry such as feedwater heaters and power plant condensers.

L
M

Regardless of the type of industry the exchanger is to be used in there are a number of common features (see Condensers

A shell and tube exchanger consists of a number of tubes mounted inside a cylindrical shell. Figure 1 illustrates a typical

unit that may be found in a petrochemical plant. Two fluids can exchange heat, one fluid flows over the outside of the

tubes while the second fluid flows through the tubes. The fluids can be single or two phase and can flow in a parallel or a

cross/counter flow arrangement.

R
S
SAFETY ASSESSMENT
SAFFMAN LENGTH
SALINE WATER RECLAMATION
SALT
SALT DILUTION METHOD FOR FILM
FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT

Figure 1. Shell and tube exchanger.

SALTATION
SALTING OUT
SAMPLING
SAMPLING METHODS, FOR DROPSIZE
MEASUREMENT

The shell and tube exchanger consists of four major parts:

Front Headerthis is where the fluid enters the tubeside of the exchanger. It is sometimes referred to as the Stationary
Header.

SAND BLASTING
SANDIA NATIONAL LABORATORY,
SNL
SATELLITES
SATURATED FLUID PROPERTIES
SATURATED SURFACES
SATURATED VOLUME
SATURATION PRESSURE
SATURATION TEMPERATURE
SAUTER MEAN DIAMETER

Rear Headerthis is where the tubeside fluid leaves the exchanger or where it is returned to the front header in
exchangers with multiple tubeside passes.
Tube bundlethis comprises of the tubes, tube sheets, baffles and tie rods etc. to hold the bundle together.
Shellthis contains the tube bundle.
The remainder of this section concentrates on exchangers that are covered by the TEMA Standard.

Shell and Tube Exchanger: Geometric Terminology

The main components of a shell and tube exchanger are shown in Figure 2 a, b and c and described in Table 1.

SCALE-UP OF PERFORATION PROCESS

SCALES OF TURBULENCE
SCALING
SCATTERING
SCATTERING AMPLITUDE
SCATTERING EFFICIENCY
SCATTERING INDICATRIX
SCATTERING OF RADIATION
SCATTERING PROBLEM FOR
CYLINDRICAL PARTICLES
SCHEIBEL EQUATION FOR DIFFUSION

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SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

IN LIQUIDS
SCHLIEREN INTERFEROMETRY
SCHLIEREN TECHNIQUE
SCHMIDT NUMBER
SCHMIDT, ERNST (1892-1975)
SCHUSTER-HAMAKER MODEL
SCHUSTER-SCHWARZCHILD
APPROXIMATION, FOR COMBINED
RADIATION AND CONDUCTION
SCRAPED SURFACE HEAT
EXCHANGERS
SCREEN SEPARATORS
SCREENS
SCREW ROTARY COMPRESSOR
SCREWS, PLASTICATING
SCROLL DISCHARGE CENTRIFUGE
SCRUBBERS
SEA WATER COMPOSITION
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
SECOND NORMAL STRESS
DIFFERENCE COEFFICIENT
SECONDARY FLOWS
SECONDARY RECOVERY PROCESSES
SEDIMENTATION
SEDIMENTING CENTRIFUGES
SEEPAGE
SEGMENTAL BAFFLES
SEGREGATION
SEIDER-TATE CORRELATION
SELECTIVE FROTH FLOTATION
SELF ORGANIZATION
SELF-SIMILAR HARDENING BEHAVIOR
SELF-SIMILARITY
SEMI-CONDUCTOR THERMOMETERS

Figure 2. Type BEM, CFU and AES exchangers. 1988 by Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association.

SEMI-SLUG FLOWS

Table 1. Shell and tube geometric terminology

SEMI-TRANSPARENT MEDIA
CONTAINING BUBBLES

1 Stationary (Front) HeadChannel 20

Slip-on Backing Flange

2 Stationary (Front) HeadBonnet 21

Floating Tubesheet Skirt

Floating Tubesheet Skirt

SEMIANNULAR FLOW
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE LASERS
SEMICONDUCTORS

Stationary (Front) Head Flange 22

Channel Cover

23

Stationary Head Nozzle

24

Packing

SENSIBLE HEAT STORAGE

Stationary Tubesheet

25

Packing Follower Ring

SEPARATED FLOW MODELS

Tubes

26

Lantern Ring

SEPARATED LIQUID FLOWS

Shell

27

Tie Rods and Spacers

Shell Cover

SEMITRANSPARENT MEDIA

SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYERS

28Transverse Baffles or Support Plates

10Shell FlangeStationary Head End29

SEPARATION OF EMULSIONS

Packing Box Flange

Impingement Baffle or Plate

11

Shell FlangeRear Head End

30

12

Shell Nozzle

31

Pass Partition

SEPARATION OF GAS AND SOLIDS

13

Shell Cover Flange

32

Vent Connection

SEPARATION OF LIQUIDS

14

Expansion Joint

33

Drain Connection

SEPARATION OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

15

Floating Tubesheet

34

Instrument Connection

SEPARATION OF PHASES IN GAS-

16

Floating Head Cover

35

Support Saddle

LIQUID FLOWS

17

Floating Head Flange

36

Lifting Lug

SEPARATION PROCESSES

18

Floating Head Backing Device

37

Support Bracket

19

Split Shear Ring

SEPARATION OF FLUID MIXTURES

SEPARATION, LIQUID/LIQUID

Longitudinal Baffle

SEPARATION, PARTICLES/LIQUID

Tema Designations

SERIES EXPANSIONS

The popularity of shell and tube exchangers has resulted in a standard nomenclature being developed for their

SESSILE DROPS AND BUBBLES

designation and use by the Tubular Exchanger Manufactures Association (TEMA). This nomenclature is defined in terms

SETTLING SLURRIES

letters and diagrams. The first letter describes the front header type, the second letter the shell type and the third letter the

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SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

SEVERE ACCIDENTS, IN NUCLEAR

rear header type. Figure 2 shows examples of a BEM, CFU, and AES exchangers while Figure 3 illustrates the full TEMA

REACTORS, CONTAINMENT OF

nomenclature.

SHADOWGRAPH TECHNIQUE
SHAPE MEMORY
SHAPE OF VAPOR FORMATIONS IN
EXPLOSIVE BOILING
SHAPE SELECTIVE CATALYSIS
SHEAR FLOW
SHEAR LAYER
SHEAR MODULUS
SHEAR STRESS
SHEAR STRESS MEASUREMENT
SHEAR STRESS VELOCITY
SHEAR THICKENING
SHEAR THICKENING FLUIDS
SHEAR THINNING FLUIDS
SHEAR VISCOSITY
SHEARING INTERFEROGRAM
SHEATH CHARACTERISTICS
SHEET SPLITTING, IN DROP
FORMATION
SHELL AND TUBE CONDENSERS
SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS
SHELL BOILER
SHELL PROGRESSIVE MODEL
SHELL-SIDE REFRIGERATION CHILLERS
SHELLS
SHERWOOD NUMBER
SHERWOOD, THOMAS KILGORE (19031976)
SHOCK TUBES

Figure 3. TEMA nomenclature. 1988 by Tubulare Exchanger Manufacturers Association.

SHOCK WAVE PROPAGATION

SHOCK WAVES

Many combinations of front header, shell and rear header can be made. The most common combinations for an E-Type

SHOCK WAVES, CONICAL

Shell are given in Table 2 but other combinations are also used.

SHORT ROUGHNESS STRIP

Table 2. Shell and tube geometric terminology

SHORT TIME LAPSE PHOTOGRAPHY

Fixed tubesheet exchangersU-tube exchangersFloating head exchangers

SHORT-TUBE VERTICAL EVAPORATOR

SHOT TOWERS
SHRINKING CORE MODEL
SI UNITS

AEL

AEU

AES

AEM

CEU

BES

AEN

DEU

BEL

SIDERITES

BEM

SIEVE, TRAY COLUMN

BEN

SILICA BASED NANOPOROUS

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
SILICA GEL

Essentially there are three main combinations

Fixed tubesheet exchangers

SILICON
SILICON CARBIDE
SILICON SOLAR CELLS

U-tube exchangers
Floating header exchangers

SILOS, GRANULAR FLOW FROM

SILVER

Fixed Tubesheet Exchanger (L, M, and N Type Rear Headers)

SILVER METHOD

In a fixed tubesheet exchanger, the tubesheet is welded to the shell. This results in a simple and economical construction and

SIMILARITY CONDITIONS

the tube bores can be cleaned mechanically or chemically. However, the outside surfaces of the tubes are inaccessible

SIMILARITY, THEORY OF

except to chemical cleaning.

SIMILITUDE
SIMPLEST APPROXIMATIONS OF
DOUBLE SPHERICAL HARMONICS
SIMPLEX ATOMIZER

If large temperature differences exist between the shell and tube materials, it may be necessary to incorporate an expansion
bellows in the shell, to eliminate excessive stresses caused by expansion. Such bellows are often a source of weakness and
failure in operation. In circumstances where the consequences of failure are particularly grave U-Tube or Floating Header
units are normally used.

SIMPLIFIED BOILING WATER REACTOR,

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SBWR

This is the cheapest of all removable bundle designs, but is generally slightly more expensive than a fixed tubesheet design

SIMULATING SUBSURFACE

at low pressures.

TEMPERATURE
SINCLAIR-LA MER AEROSOL
GENERATOR
SINGLET STATE

U-Tube Exchangers
In a U-Tube exchanger any of the front header types may be used and the rear header is normally a M-Type. The U-tubes
permit unlimited thermal expansion, the tube bundle can be removed for cleaning and small bundle to shell clearances can

SINGLET STATE LIFETIME

be achieved. However, since internal cleaning of the tubes by mechanical means is difficult, it is normal only to use this

SINGULARITIES, HYDRAULIC

type where the tube side fluids are clean.

RESISTANCE IN
SINTERING

Floating Head Exchanger (P, S, T and W Type Rear Headers)

SINUOUS JETS

In this type of exchanger the tubesheet at the Rear Header end is not welded to the shell but allowed to move or float. The

SIPHON CENTRIFUGE

tubesheet at the Front Header (tube side fluid inlet end) is of a larger diameter than the shell and is sealed in a similar

SKIMMER PIPE AND KNIFE

manner to that used in the fixed tubesheet design. The tubesheet at the rear header end of the shell is of slightly smaller

CENTRIFUGES

diameter than the shell, allowing the bundle to be pulled through the shell. The use of a floating head means that thermal

SKIN EFFECT

expansion can be allowed for and the tube bundle can be removed for cleaning. There are several rear header types that

SKIN FRICTION
SLAG FORMATION
SLIGHTLY DEFORMED POROUS
CIRCULAR CYLINDER

can be used but the S-Type Rear Head is the most popular. A floating head exchanger is suitable for the rigorous duties
associated with high temperatures and pressures but is more expensive (typically of order of 25% for carbon steel
construction) than the equivalent fixed tubesheet exchanger.
Considering each header and shell type in turn:

SLIGHTLY INCLINED SURFACEMOUNTED PRISMS

SLIP RATIO

A-Type front header

This type of header is easy to repair and replace. It also gives access to the tubes for cleaning or repair without having to

SLIT FLOW METERS

disturb the pipe work. It does however have two seals (one between the tube sheet and header and the other between the

SLIT FLOWS

header and the end plate). This increases the risk of leakage and the cost of the header over a B-Type Front Header.

SLOT-PERFORATED FLAT FINS

SLOW MOTION PHOTOGRAPHY

B-Type front header

SLUG FLOW

This is the cheapest type of front header. It also is more suitable than the A-Type Front Header for high pressure duties

SLUG FLOW, SOLID SUSPENSIONS

because the header has only one seal. A disadvantage is that to gain access to the tubes requires disturbance to the pipe

SLUG FREQUENCY
SLUG LENGTH
SLURRIES
SMALL ANCLE SCATTERING METHOD,
FOR DROPSIZE MEASUREMENT
SMELTING
SMOKE, AS AN AIR POLLUTANT

work in order to remove the header.

C-Type front header

This type of header is for high pressure applications (>100 bar). It does allow access to the tube without disturbing the
pipe work but is difficult to repair and replace because the tube bundle is an integral part of the header.

D-Type front header

This is the most expensive type of front header. It is for very high pressures (> 150 bar). It does allow access to the tubes

SMOKES

without disturbing the pipe work but is difficult to repair and replace because the tube bundle is an integral part of the

SNELL REFRACTION LAW

header.

SNL
SOAVE EQUATION

N-Type front header

SODA ASH

The advantage of this type of header is that the tubes can be accessed without disturbing the pipe work and it is cheaper

SODIUM

than an A-Type Front Header. However, they are difficult to maintain and replace as the header and tube sheet are an

SODIUM CARBONATE
SODIUM CHLORIDE
SODIUM COOLED NUCLEAR REACTOR

integral part of the shell.

Y-Type front header

Strictly speaking this is not a TEMA designated type but is generally recognized. It can be used as a front or rear header

SODIUM HYDROXIDE

and is used when the exchanger is to be used in a pipe line. It is cheaper than other types of headers as it reduces piping

SOFTENING OF WATER

costs. It is mainly used with single tube pass units although with suitable partitioning any odd number of passes can be

SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

allowed.

SOIL, THERMAL PROPERTIES

SOL
SOLAR AIR HEATERS
SOLAR CELLS
SOLAR COOKERS
SOLAR DRYING

E-Type shell
This is most commonly used shell type, suitable for most duties and applications. Other shell types only tend to be used
for special duties or applications.

F-Type shell
This is generally used when pure countercurrent flow is required in a two tube side pass unit. This is achieved by having

SOLAR ENERGY

two shells side passesthe two passes being separated by a longitudinal baffle. The main problem with this type of unit is

SOLAR ENERGY THERMAL

thermal and hydraulic leakage across this longitudinal baffle unless special precautions are taken.

CONVERSION
SOLAR PONDS
SOLAR RADIATION

G-Type shell
This is used for horizontal thermosyphon reboilers and applications where the shellside pressure drop needs to be kept

SOLAR RADIATION SPECTRUM

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SOLAR REFRIGERATION

small. This is achieved by splitting the shellside flow.

SOLAR SELECTIVE SURFACES

SOLAR SODIUM EVAPORATOR

H-Type shell

SOLAR STILLS

This is used for similar applications to G-Type Shell but tends to be used when larger units are required.

SOLAR WATER HEATERS

SOLENOIDAL FLOW
SOLID FUELS

J-Type shell
This tends to be used when the maximum allowable pressure drop is exceeded in an E-Type Shell even when double
segmental baffles are used. It is also used when tube vibration is a problem. The divided flow on the shellside reduces the

SOLID HOLDUP

flow velocities over the tubes and hence reduces the pressure drop and the likelihood of tube vibration. When there are

SOLID PROPELLANT

two inlet nozzles and one outlet nozzle this is sometimes referred to as an I-Type Shell.

SOLID STATE LASERS

SOLID-LIQUID-LIQUID FLOWS

K-Type shell

SOLIDIFICATION

This is used only for reboilers to provide a large disengagement space in order to minimize shellside liquid carry over.

SOLIDIFICATION CONSTANT
SOLIDOSITY
SOLIDS CONCENTRATION
SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS, BOILING HEAT
TRANSFER
SOLIDS SEPARATION
SOLIDS, THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF
SOLITARY WAVE
SOLITON

Alternatively a K-Type Shell may be used as a chiller. In this case the main process is to cool the tube side fluid by boiling
a fluid on the shellside.

X-Type shell
This is used if the maximum shellside pressure drop is exceeded by all other shell and baffle type combinations. The main
applications are shellside condensers and gas coolers.

L-Type rear header

This type of header is for use with fixed tubesheets only, since the tubesheet is welded to the shell and access to the
outside of the tubes is not possible. The main advantages of this type of header are that access can be gained to the inside

SOLUBILITY

of the tubes without having to remove any pipework and the bundle to shell clearances are small. The main disadvantage

SOLUBILITY OF GASES IN LIQUIDS

is that a bellows or an expansion roll are required to allow for large thermal expansions and this limits the permitted

SOLUBILITY OF SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS

operating temperature and pressure.

SOLUTE
SOLUTE DIFFUSION
SOLUTE FUNCTIONALITY
SOLUTION ALGORITHM

M-Type rear header

This type of header is similar to the L-Type Rear Header but it is slightly cheaper. However, the header has to be removed
to gain access to the inside of the tubes. Again, special measures have to be taken to cope with large thermal expansions
and this limits the permitted operating temperature and pressure.

SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS FOR ONE-DIMENSIONAL
RADIATIVE TRANSFER PROBLEMS
SOLVENT

N-Type rear header

The advantage of this type of header is that the tubes can be accessed without disturbing the pipe work. However, they
are difficult to maintain and replace since the header and tube sheet are an integral part of the shell.

SOLVENT EXTRACTION
SONIC OSCILLATOR

P-Type rear header

SONIC VELOCITY

This is an outside packed floating rear header. It is, in theory, a low cost floating head design which allows access to the

SONOCAPILLARY EFFECT

inside of the tubes for cleaning and also allows the bundle to be removed for cleaning. The main problems with this type

SOOT

of header are:

SORET AND DUFOUR EFFECTS ON

FREE CONVECTION
SORET EFFECT
SORPTION HEAT PUMPS

large bundle to shell clearances required in order to pull the bundle;

it is limited to low pressure nonhazardous fluids, because it is possible for the shellside fluid to leak via the packing
rings;

SOUND ABSORPTION
SOUND GENERATION
SOUND PROPAGATION

only small thermal expansions are permitted.

In practice it is not a low cost design, because the shell has to be rolled to small tolerances for the packing to be effective.

SOUR GASES
SOUTTER-ION PUMP

S-Type rear header

SPACE HEATING

This is a floating rear header with backing device. It is the most expensive of the floating head types but does allow the

SPACERS
SPACERS, EFFECT ON CHF
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
SPARSELY PACKED POROUS MEDIUM

bundle to be removed and unlimited thermal expansion is possible. It also has smaller shell to bundle clearances than the
other floating head types. However, it is difficult to dismantle for bundle pulling and the shell diameter and bundle to
shell clearances are larger than for fixed head type exchangers.

T-Type rear header

SPATIAL DISCRETIZATION SCHEMES

This is a pull through floating head. It is cheaper and easier to remove the bundle than with the S-Type Rear Header, but

SPATIAL-TEMPORAL CORRELATION

still allows for unlimited thermal expansion. It does, however, have the largest bundle to shell clearance of all the floating

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

head types and is more expensive than fixed header and U-tube types.

SPECIFIC WORK, IN TURBINES

SPECKLE METHOD

U-tube

SPECKLE PHOTOGRAPHY

This is the cheapest of all removable bundle designs, but is generally slightly more expensive than a fixed tubesheet design

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SPECTRA, EMISSION AND

at low pressures. However, it permits unlimited thermal expansion, allows the bundle to be removed to clean the outside

ABSORPTION

of the tubes, has the tightest bundle to shell clearances and is the simplest design. A disadvantage of the U-tube design is

SPECTRAL ANALYSIS

that it cannot normally have pure counterflow unless an F-Type Shell is used. Also, U-tube designs are limited to even

SPECTRAL DENSITY FUNCTION

numbers of tube passes.

SPECTRAL EMISSIVITY
SPECTRAL EXTINCTION METHOD
SPECTRAL RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF
DIESEL FUEL DROPLETS

W-Type rear header

This is a packed floating tubesheet with lantern ring. It is the cheapest of the floating head designs, allows for unlimited
thermal expansion and allows the tube bundle to be removed for cleaning. The main problems with this type of head are:

SPECTRAL RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF

DISPERSE SYSTEMS: THEORETICAL

the large bundle to shell clearances required to pull the bundle and;

MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL

CHARACTERIZATION
SPECTRAL RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF

the limitation to low pressure nonhazardous fluids (because it is possible for both the fluids to leak via the packing
rings).

SOME IMPORTANT MATERIALS:

EXPERIMENTAL DATA AND
THEORETICAL MODELS
SPECTROFLUORIMETRY

It is also possible for the shell and tube side fluids to become mixed if leakage occurs.

Geometric Options

SPECTROSCOPY
SPECULAR REFLECTION
SPEED OF LIGHT
SPEED OF SOUND

Tube diameter layout and pitch

Tubes may range in diameter from 12.7 mm (0.5 in) to 50.8 mm (2 in), but 19.05 mm (0.75 in) and 25.4 mm (1 in) are the
most common sizes. The tubes are laid out in triangular or square patterns in the tube sheets. See Figure 4.

SPENT FUEL
SPHERE, DRAG COEFFICIENT FOR
SPHERES, CONVECTIVE HEAT AND
MASS TRANSFER
SPHERES, DRAG AND LIFT
SPHERES, SOLID, DRAG ON
SPHERICITY
SPIRAL CLASSIFIER
SPIRAL HEAT EXCHANGERS
SPIRAL TUBES, USE IN BENSON

Figure 4. Tube layouts.

BOILERS
SPIROPYRAN
SPLATTERING, EFFECT ON JET
IMPINGEMENT
SPONTANEOUS CONDENSATION
SPRAY CHARACTERISTICS
SPRAY COLUMNS

The square layouts are required where it is necessary to get at the tube surface for mechanical cleaning. The triangular
arrangement allows more tubes in a given space. The tube pitch is the shortest center-to-center distance between tubes.
The tube spacing is given by the tube pitch/tube diameter ratio, which is normally 1.25 or 1.33. Since a square layout is
used for cleaning purposes, a minimum gap of 6.35 mm (0.25 in) is allowed between tubes.

Baffle types

SPRAY CONDENSERS

Baffles are installed on the shell side to give a higher heat-transfer rate due to increased turbulence and to support the

SPRAY COOLING

tubes thus reducing the chance of damage due to vibration. There are a number of different baffle types, which support

SPRAY DRYER

the tubes and promote flow across the tubes. Figure 5 shows the following baffle arrangements:

SPRAY DRYING
SPRAY EQUATION
SPRAY EVAPORATORS

Single Segmental (this is the most common),

Double Segmental (this is used to obtain a lower shellside velocity and pressure drop),

SPRAY FLOWS
SPRAY FORMATION

Disc and Doughnut.

SPRAY NOZZLES
SPRAY TOWERS
SPRAYERS
SPRAYING
SPRAYS
SPREADING OF LIQUIDS ON LIQUIDS
SPUTTERING
STABILITY
STABILITY CRITERIA
STABILITY OF EMULSIONS
STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES
STACKS, POLLUTION FROM
STAGGERED TUBE BANKS
STAGNANT FILM MODEL

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STAGNATION POINT
STAGNATION PRESSURE
STAGNATION TEMPERATURE
STANDARD CONDITIONS
STANTON GAUGE
STANTON NUMBER
STANTON, SIR THOMAS EDWARD
(1865-1931)
STARK BROADENING
STARK NUMBER
STARS, FUSION REACTIONS IN
STATIC HEAD
STATIC INSTABILITIES IN TWO-PHASE
SYSTEMS
STATIC MIXERS
STATIC REGENERATORS

Figure 5. Baffle arrangements.

STATIONARY PHASE, SP,

CHROMATOGRAPHY
STATISTICAL MECHANICS
STATISTICAL THEORY, OF TURBULENT

The center-to-center distance between baffles is called the baffle-pitch and this can be adjusted to vary the crossflow
velocity. In practice the baffle pitch is not normally greater than a distance equal to the inside diameter of the shell or

FLOW

closer than a distance equal to one-fifth the diameter or 50.8 mm (2 in) whichever is greater. In order to allow the fluid to

STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS

flow backwards and forwards across the tubes part of the baffle is cut away. The height of this part is referred to as the

STEAM ENGINES
STEAM GAS TURBINE UNITS

baffle-cut and is measured as a percentage of the shell diameter, e.g., 25 per cent baffle-cut. The size of the baffle-cut (or
baffle window) needs to be considered along with the baffle pitch. It is normal to size the baffle-cut and baffle pitch to
approximately equalize the velocities through the window and in crossflow, respectively.

STEAM GENERATORS, NUCLEAR

STEAM JET EJECTORS
STEAM JET REFRIGERATION

There are two main types of baffle which give longitudinal flow:
Orifice Baffle,

STEAM TABLES
STEAM TURBINE
STEAM-WATER SEPARATION

Rod Baffle.
In these types of baffle the turbulence is generated as the flow crosses the baffle.

STEEL AND TUBE CONDENSERS

STEELS
STEFAN'S LAW

Heat Transfer Enhancements Devices

There are three main types.

STEFAN, JOSEF (1835-1893)

STEFAN-BOLTZMANN CONSTANT

Special surfaces

STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW

These tend to be used to promote nucleate boiling when the temperature driving force is small.

STEFAN-MAXWELL EQUATIONS
STEPWISE HEAT RELEASE
STEREOSCOPIC IMAGING
STEWARTSON TYPE FLOW
STIELTJES' INTEGRAL
STIRRED TANK REACTOR

Tube inserts
These are normally wire wound inserts or twisted tapes. They are normally used with medium to high viscosity fluids to
improve heat transfer by increasing turbulence. There is also some evidence that they reduce fouling. In order to use these
most effectively the exchanger should be designed for their use. This usually entails increasing the shell diameter, reducing
the tube length and the number of tubeside passes in order to allow for the increased pressure loss characteristics of the
devices.

STIRRED TANKS
STIRRED VESSEL PHASE INVERSION

Extended surfaces

STOCHASTIC DIFFERENTIAL

These are used to increase the heat transfer area when a stream has a low heat transfer coefficient. The most common type

EQUATIONS

is "low fin tubing" where typically the fins are 1.5 mm high at 19 fins per inch. (See also Augmentation of Heat Transfer.)

STOCHASTIC PROCESS
STOICHIOMETRIC COMBUSTION

Selection Criteria

STOKES EQUATION

In many cases the only way of ensuring optimum selection is to do a full design based on several alternative geometries.

STOKES FLOW

In the first instance, however, several important decisions have to be made concerning:

STOKES LENGTH
STOKES PARADOX
STOKES PROBLEM

allocation of fluids to the shellside and tubeside;

selection of shell type;

STOKES SHIFT
STOKES STREAM FUNCTION
STOKES' LAW FOR SOLID SPHERES
AND SPHERICAL BUBBLES
STOKES-EINSTEIN EQUATION

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selection of front end header type;

selection of rear end header type;
selection of exchanger geometry.

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STOKES-EINSTEIN EQUATION, FOR
DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENTS IN

To a large extent these often depend on each other. For instance, the allocation of a dirty fluid to the shellside directly

LIQUIDS

affects the selection of exchanger tube layout.

STOMATAL CONTROL OF WATER

LOSS FROM PLANTS

Fluid allocation

STOPPING DISTANCE

When deciding which side to allocate the hot and cold fluids the following need to be taken into account, in order of

STORE'S FORMULA

priority.

STRAIN
STRAIN GAUGES
STRAIN RATE
STRANGE ATTRACTORS
STRATIFICATION, UNSTABLE AND

1. Consider any and every safety and reliability aspect and allocate fluids accordingly. Never allocate hazardous fluids
such they are contained by anything other than conventional bolted and gaskettedor weldedjoints.
2. Ensure that the allocation of fluids complies with established engineering practices, particularly those laid down in
customer specifications.

STABLE
STRATIFIED GAS-LIQUID FLOW
STRATIFIED WAVY FLOW
STRATOSPHERE

3. Having complied with the above, allocate the fluid likely to cause the most severe mechanical cleaning problems (if
any) to the tubeside.
4. If neither of the above are applicable, the allocation of the fluids should be decided only after running two alternative

STREAM ANALYSIS METHOD

designs and selecting the cheapest (this is time consuming if hand calculations are used but programs such as TASC

STREAM AVAILABILITY

from the Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Service (HTFS) make this a trivial task).

STREAM FUNCTION
STREAMLINE
STREAMLINE FLOW
STREAMLINED BODIES, FLOW OVER
STREAMLINES

Shell selection
E-type shells are the most common. If a single tube pass is used and provided there are more than three baffles, then near
counter-current flow is achieved. If two or more tube passes are used, then it is not possible to obtain pure countercurrent
flow and the log mean temperature difference must be corrected to allow for combined cocurrent and countercurrent flow
using an F-factor.

STREAMLINES, VISUALIZATION
STREAMTUBE
STRESS
STRESS IN SOLID MATERIALS

G-type shells and H shells are normally specified only for horizontal thermosyphon reboilers. J shells and X-type shells
should be selected if the allowable DP cannot be accommodated in a reasonable E-type design. For services requiring
multiple shells with removable bundles, F-type shells can offer significant savings and should always be considered
provided they are not prohibited by customer specifications

STRESS TENSOR
STRESS VECTOR

Front header selection

STRESS, NORMAL

The A-type front header is the standard for dirty tubeside fluids and the B-type is the standard for clean tubeside fluids.

STRESS, SHEAR

The A-type is also preferred by many operators regardless of the cleanliness of the tubeside fluid in case access to the tubes

STRETCHING SHEET

is required. Do not use other types unless the following considerations apply.

STRETCHING SURFACE

A C-type head with removable shell should be considered for hazardous tubeside fluids, heavy bundles or services

STRETCHING/STABILIZING EFFLUX

requiring frequent shellside cleaning. The N-type head is used when hazardous fluids are on the tubeside. A D-type head

FLUID FILMS

or a B-type head welded to the tubesheet is used for high pressure applications. Y-type heads are only normally used for

STROUHAL NUMBER

single tube-pass exchangers when they are installed in line with a pipeline.

STRUCTURED SURFACE
STUART NUMBER

Rear header selection

SUBCHANNEL ANALYSIS

For normal service a Fixed Header (L, M, N-types) can be used provided that there is no overstressing due to differential

SUBCHANNEL MIXING
SUBCOOLED TWISTED FLOW

expansion and the shellside will not require mechanical cleaning. If thermal expansion is likely a fixed header with a
bellows can be used provided that the shellside fluid is not hazardous, the shellside pressure does not exceed 35 bar (500
psia) and the shellside will not require mechanical cleaning.

SUBCOOLING
SUBCOOLING EFFECTS ON POOL

A U-tube unit can be used to overcome thermal expansion problems and allow the bundle to be removed for cleaning.

BOILING

However, countercurrent flow can only be achieved by using an F-type shell and mechanical cleaning of the tubeside can

SUBLAYER FENCE

be difficult.

SUBLIMATION

An S-type floating head should be used when thermal expansion needs to be allowed for and access to both sides of the

SUBMERGED COMBUSTION

exchanger is required from cleaning. Other rear head types would not normally be considered except for the special cases.

SUBMERGED COMBUSTION
EVAPORATORS

Selection of Exchanger Geometry

SUBMERGED JETS
SUBROUTINES
SUBSTITUTE NATURAL GAS (SNG)
SUBSURFACE BARRIER
SUBUNDAL FLOW

Tube outside diameter

For the process industry, 19.05 mm (3/4") tends to be the most common.

Tube wall thickness

Reference must be made to a recognized pressure vessel code to decide this.

SUCTION
SUCTION EFFECTS

Tube length

SULFUR

For a given surface area, the longer the tube length the cheaper the exchanger, although a long thin exchanger may not

SULFUR DIOXIDE

be feasible.

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SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE

Tube layout

SULFUR POLLUTION

45 or 90 degree layouts are chosen if mechanical cleaning is required, otherwise a 30 degree layout is often selected, because

SULFURIC ACID

it provides a higher heat transfer and hence smaller exchanger.

SUN, HEAT TRANSFER IN

SUPER-PHENIX
SUPERCAVITATION
SUPERCOMPUTING

Tube pitch
The smallest allowable pitch of 1.25 times the tube outside diameter is normally used unless there is a requirement to use a
larger pitch due to mechanical cleaning or tube end welding.

SUPERCONDUCTING MAGNETS
SUPERCONDUCTORS
SUPERCRITICAL HEAT TRANSFER
SUPERFICIAL VELOCITY
SUPERHEATING

Number of tube passes

This is usually one or an even number (not normally greater than 16). Increasing the number of passes increases the heat
transfer coefficient but care must be taken to ensure that the tube side v2 is not greater than about 10,000 kg/ms2.

Shell diameter

SUPERSATURATION

Standard pipe is normally used for shell diameters up to 610 mm (24"). Above this the shell is made from rolled plate.

SUPERSONIC EXTERNAL FLOW

Typically shell diameters range from 152 mm to 3000 mm (6" to 120").

SUPERSONIC FLOW
SUPERSONIC FLOW, IN NOZZLES

Baffle type

SUPERSONIC HETEROGENEOUS FLOW

Single segmental baffles are used by default but other types are considered if pressure drop constraints or vibration is a

SUPERSONIC JET

problem.

SUPERUNDAL FLOW
SUPPRESSION OF NUCLEATE BOILING
SURFACE ACTIVE SUBSTANCES

Baffle spacing
This is decided after trying to balance the desire for increased crossflow velocity and tube support (smaller baffle pitch) and
pressure drop constraints (larger baffle pitch). TEMA provides guidance on the maximum and minimum baffle pitch.

SURFACE ALLOYING OF METALS

SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSION

Baffle cut

SURFACE CONDENSERS

This depends on the baffle type but is typically 45% for single segmental baffles and 25% for double segmental baffles.

SURFACE DIFFUSION
SURFACE DIMPLES

Nozzles and impingement

SURFACE EFFECTS ON BOILING

For shellside nozzles the v2 should not be greater than about 9000 in kg/ms2. For tubeside nozzles the maximum v

SURFACE EFFICIENCY

should not exceed 2230 kg/ms2 for noncorrosive, nonabrasive single phase fluids and 740 kg/ms2 for other fluids.

SURFACE ENERGY

Impingement protection is always required for gases which are corrosive or abrasive, saturated vapors and two phases

SURFACE EXTENSIONS

mixtures. Shell or bundle entrance or exit areas should be designed such that a v2 of 5950 kg/ms2 is not exceeded.

SURFACE FLOW VISUALIZATION

SURFACE ROUGHNESS
SURFACE TENSION
SURFACE TENSION DEVICES
SURFACE TREATMENT
SURFACE, CIRCULAR
SURFACE, PERMEABLE

Materials of Construction
In general, shell and tube exchangers are made of metal, but for specialist applications (e.g., involving strong acids or
pharmaceuticals), other materials such as graphite, plastic and glass may be used.

Thermal Design
The thermal design of a shell and tube exchanger is an iterative process which is normally carried out using computer
programs from organizations such as the Heat transfer and Fluid Flow Service (HTFS) or Heat Transfer Research

SURFACTANT COLLECTORS

Incorporated (HTRI). However, it is important that the engineer understands the logic behind the calculation. In order to

SURFACTANTS

calculate the heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops, initial decisions must be made on the sides the fluids are

SURGE TANKS

allocated, the front and rear header type, shell type, baffle type, tube diameter and tube layout. The tube length, shell

SUSPENSION OF PARTICLES IN LIQUID

SUTHERLAND COEFFICIENT
SWEATING

diameter, baffle pitch and number of tube passes are also selected and these are normally the main items that are altered
during each iteration in order to maximize the overall heat transfer within specified allowable pressure drops.
The main steps in the calculation are given below together with calculation methods in the open literature:

SWEETENING OF GASES
SWIRL BURNERS
SWIRL FLOW DEVICES

1. Calculate the shellside flow distribution [Use Bell-Delaware Method, see Hewitt, Shires, and Bott (1994)].
2. Calculate the shellside heat transfer coefficient (Use Bell- Delaware Method)

SWIRLING FLOW
SWIRLING TAPES, FOR INCREASING
BURNOUT FLUX
SYMMETRIC TENSOR
SYMMETRY ANALYSIS OF SECOND-

3. Calculate tubeside heat transfer coefficient (see, for example, Tubes: Single Phase Heat Transfer In).
4. Calculate tubeside pressure drop (see, for example, Pressure Drop, Single Phase).
5. Calculate wall resistance and overall heat transfer coefficient (see Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient and Fouling).

GRADE FLOW
SYNCHROTON RADIATION
SYNOPTIC SCALE CIRCULATION, OF
ATMOSPHERE
SYNTHETIC ZEOLITES
T

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6. Calculate mean temperature difference (see Mean Temperature Difference).

7. Calculate area required.
8. Compare area required with area of assumed geometry and allowed tubeside and shellside pressure drop with
calculated values.

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U

9. Adjust assumed geometry and repeat calculations until Area required is achieved within the allowable pressure drops.

V
W
X
Y
Z

Books by E. A. D. Saunders [Saunders (1988)] and G. F. Hewitt, G. L. Shires, and T. R. Bott [Hewitt et al. (1994)] provides
a good overview of tubular thermal design methods and example calculations.

Mechanical Design
The mechanical design of a shell and tube heat exchanger provides information on items such as shell thickness, flange
thickness, etc. These are calculated using a pressure vessel design code such as the Boiler and Pressure Vessel code from
ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) and the British Master Pressure Vessel Standard, BS 5500. ASME is the
most commonly used code for heat exchangers and is in 11 sections. Section VIII (Confined Pressure Vessels) of the code is
the most applicable to heat exchangers but Sections IIMaterials and Section VNon Destructive Testing are also
relevant.
Both ASME and BS5500 are widely used and accepted throughout the world but some countries insist that their own
national codes are used. In order to try and simplify this the International Standards Organization is now attempting to
develop a new internationally recognized code but it is likely to be a some time before this is accepted.

References
1. TEMA Seventh Edition. (1988) Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association.
2. Saunders, E. A. D. (1988) Heat ExchangersSelection, Design and Construction, Longman Scientific and Technical.
3. Hewitt, G. F, Shires, G. L., and Bott, T. R. (1994) Process Heat Transfer, CRC Press.
4. Boiler and Pressure Vessel code, ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers).
5. British Master Pressure Vessel Standard, BS 5500.
Numbe r of vie ws: 45991

Article a dde d: 2 Fe bruary 2011

Article la st modifie d: 8 Fe brua ry 2011

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