ICLARM CONFERENCEPROCEEDINGSNO.

"'"

,.

"::::'

,c..
~,"

S H2O 7

~ep.6
I

ISSN 0115-4435

"
1J~ .\1

'

:;'-:~

t~

,"

.,.>

.,

-'"

"'-

Small

Boat Design

Editedby Johanna M. Reinhart

~ ,. -4.

II;:.
IICL~.
t
>

INTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR LIVING AQUATIC RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

.-

"--

--

...-

Small Boat Design

Small Boat Design

/

The Proceedings of the ICLARM Conference on Small Boat

Design, Noumea, New Caledonia, October 27-28, 1975

Edited by

Johanna M. Reinhart
//

INTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR LIVING AQUATIC RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

MANILA, PHILIPPINES

DEC

4 1979

Small Boat Design

Proceedings of the ICLARM Conference

on Small Boat Design
Noumea, New Caledonia, October 27-28, 1975
Edited by J. M. REINHART

Copyright 1979 by
The International Center for Living Aquatic Resources
Management. Manila, Philippines
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
No part of this publication may be reproduced
in any form without written permission
from the publisher.
Printed in Manila, Philippines

correct citation:
Reinhart, J.M., Editor. 1979. Proceedings of the ICLARM
Conference on Small Boat Design. ICLARM Conference
Proceedings No. 1. International Center for Living
Aquatic Resources Management. Manila. 79 pp.

ISSN 0115-4435

ERRATA
Small Boat Design
Proceedings of the ICLARM Conference
on Small Boat Design. ICLARM Conference
Proceedings No. 2. International Center for Living
Aquatic Resources Management, Manila. 79 p.

PAGE 56
In paragraph 3, the last sentence should read:
''The Sandra Ann (official number 516414) w& built in 1953 by Teruo Funai, 1443 Kealia
Drive, Honolulu, Hawaii 96817."

PAGE 58
In paragraph 2, the last 3 sentences should read:
"A GM 3-53 diesel weighs 1,090 Ib and costs about US$12,51)0 in Honolulu. A GM 6-71
diesel weighs 2,740 Ib and costs about US$16,000 in Honolulu. With a smaller engine, the sea
endurance and radius of opemtions should increase significantly."
In paragraph 3, the last sentence should read:
''The technique of midwater handlining for tuna with squid (ikashibi fishing) as practiced
in Hawaii has been described by Yuen (19791."

PAGE 59
In paragraph I , the third sentence should read:
"A bucket of nehu weighs about 7 Ib 2 3 4 Ib."
In paragraph 2, the following sentence should be added after line 9.
"If possible, however, even small skipjack tuna fishing vessels should be capable of a speed of
10 to 12 knots, because those speeds are often neededp intercept fast moving schools."
In paragraph 5, lines 8 and 9 should read:
"Of higher speeds may be desirable but may not be essential because of higher costs, higher
fuel consumption,"

PAGE 60
In paragraph 4, the last 3 lines should read:
"are probably in the range of US$2.500-3.000 per running f t with theengine and US$2,0002,500 per running ft without the engine."

PAGE 61
The following citation should be added to the reference list:
Yuen, Heeny S. H. 1979. A night handline fishery for tunas in Hawaii. Mar. Fish. Rev. 41
(81: 7-14.

APOLOGIA
In this publication, ICLARM failed to credit the
South Pacific Commission for cosponsoring and helping
organize the Conference.
ICLARM regrets the unintentional omission. The
title page (ii) should read:
Proceedings of the ICLARM/SPC Conference on
Small Boat Design, Noumea, New Caledonia, October 27-28,1975.
The information page (iv) should read as follows:

Small Boat Design

Proceedings of the ICLARM/SPC Conference

on Small Boat Design
Noumea, New Caledonia, October 27-28, 1975
Edited by J. M. REINHART

Copyright 1979 by
The International Center for Living Aquatic Resources
Management. Manila, Philippines
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
No part of this publication may be reproduced
in any form without written permission
from the publisher.
Printed in Manila, Philippines

correct citation:
Reinhart, J.M., Editor. 1979. Proceedings of the ICLARMISPC
Conference on Small Boat Design. ICLARM Conference
Proceedings No. 1. International Center for Living
Aquatic Resources Management. Manila. 79 pp.

ISSN 01154435

Preface
Historically the Pacific Islander easily satisfied the
protein requirements of his subsistence economy by fishing from his outrigger canoe within the lagoons and along
the edges of the reefs that surrounded his island. For
centuries the traditional outrigger was eminently wellsuited to this task. However, after the Second World War,
island populations began increasing dramatically and
their island economies began to change from a subsistence to a monetary orientation. The traditional forms
of fishing could no longer meet the islands' growing
demand for food. Although vast stocks of fish remained
virtually untouched in the ocean beyond the reef, the
Pacific Islands became fish importers. For example, by
1974 Western Samoa was importing over US$l million
in canned fsh annually, and fish imports in Fiji account
for almost 10%of all imported food products.
The process of change has occurred so quickly that the
traditional outrigger canoe, rather than evolving, has been
displaced. As a substitute, one western design after another has been introduced by various national and international development programs; and each in its time has
been touted as the answer to the requirements of small
fishing craft design in the Pacific. These boats were
designed to move fishermen in the least amount of time
to previously inaccessible fishing grounds beyond the reef.
Size and speed were the design factors most often emphasized. None of these introduced hulls proved completely
satisfactory; in fact, many were immediate and near-total
failures that, for the Pacific Islander, involved too great a
jump in either technology, investment cost, or work requirements.
To the staff of the International Center for Living
Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM), the history
of the Pacific Island fisheries development provided a
classic example of how direct transfers of technology

developed from a nation to other areas of the world can

go wrong. Together with the South Pacific Commission
(SPC) in Noumea, New Caledonia, ICLARM proposed t o
organize a conference that would (1) review the results
of past fishery development programs based upon introduced boat designs and (2) provide a forum for discussion
for which the fishery officers from the countries and
territories of the South Pacific could be brought together
with naval architects and with representatives from the
marine industry. Although the SPC convenes a yearly
meeting among the region's fisheries officers, this was
the first conference in which members of the marine
industry were invited specifically t o discuss boat and
engine designs applicable to the requirements of the
Pacific Islander.
The Conference on Small Boat Design was held in
Noumea, New Caledonia, on October 27-28, 1975. Its
goal was to develop basic guidelines and recommendations
for the development of small-scale fishing craft for future
fisheries programs. Because of the diversity of opinion
on the requirements for an optimal small-boat design, it
was recognized that no single design is adaptable for use
throughout the entire Pacific Basin. Boats must be
designed not only for specific types of fisheries and sea
conditions, but also for the technological and financial
capabilities of the various island groups.
At its conclusion, the conference recommended the
design and construction of new small-scale fishing craft
be, above all, energy-conscious. The selection of boat
designs and marine engines should be based on the least
input of petroleum products. In any fisheries program
the propulsion system should be selected only after its
reliability and ease of maintenance are determined and
the ready supply and availability of spare parts ascertained.
Consideration should be given t o standardizing both the

engine model and horsepower range to simplify the

stocking of spare parts.
As a component of the regional fisheries development
program, thought also should be given to forming a consultative design group that could advise the Pacific Island
governments on implementing small-scale fishery develop-

ment programs. This group, in conjunction with ongoing

fishery programs, would test combinations of hulls and
propulsion systems applicable to the South Pacific.

STEPHEN
R~ITERBUSH

Opening Remarks
boats from the native canoes. But for a number of reasons
there has generally been a substitution rather than an
evolution; the canoe has been abandoned for a variety of
plank, plywood, fiberglass, and aluminum craft, powered
by an equal variety of propulsion systems.
I do not wish to criticize the small boat introductions
that have been successful in meeting the needs of island
people, but again, it is those schemes which have failed to
meet the needs of islanders that have prompted us t o
convene this conference.
We have therefore gathered together an impressive
group of knowledgeable people to reassess the small-boat
needs of Pacific Islanders in 1975; we hope to encourage
frank, objective discussion based on the following
premises:
1. There is no one small-boat design that is the
final answer to the varied needs of Pacific Island
fishermen.
2. The operational terms of reference for Pacific
Island fishermen are changing with such things as
the increased price of fuel and manufactured items,
making previously acceptable systems no longer
tenable.
3. There is a strong argument in favor of critically
discussing the relative merits of various boat/propulsion systems available (or being developed), and
working toward providing an optimal system for
any given set of socio-cultural, economic, or operational circumstances faced by Pacific Island
fishermen.
4. Individuals with various points of view can contribute to the best solution or solutions so that some
degree of consensus can be obtained.
It is envisaged that this conference will elucidate the
problems facing the artisanal Pacific Island fishermen

It is said that a significant discovery was made in

1973. In coastal Asia, an authority from an international
organization observed an artisanal fisherman-a single
man out in a canoe, fishing with a hook and line. It was
recognized that he could make a substantial contribution
to the world food problem, and since then the artisanal
fisherman has received more and more attention.
This conference is held in recognition of the importance and needs of artisanal fishermen in the Pacific
Islands. Past history of the Pacific could be briefly
summed up as follows: Exploration, Exploitation, Expatriation, Examination and Explanations as t o why
imported fisheries schemes have not worked.
We do not wish to ignore the progress made by many
dedicated people working in aquatic resources in the
Pacific, but my experience in the past 22 years in the
region is that the schemes which were unsuccessful are
those you hear the most about. The slow, steady progress
that has been made by some people is too often overshadowed by the "instant expert" from outside problems
and too often sails over the horizon, leaving the debris of
yet another unsuccessful scheme.
In the area of small-boat development, the Pacific
Islanders have had more than their share of entrepreneurial schemes. It seems time to take stock of a rapidly
changing world now reaching the most remote Pacific
Islanders to see if there is not "a better way" for the
small boat fishermen in the Pacific, a way that is economically and culturally compatible with the Pacific Islander's
life-style.
The evolution of small boats in the Pacific has taken a
curious course. The Pacific Islanders' basis of existence
relates directly to their superb skill as boatbuilders, seamen, and navigators. With such a rich heritage of the sea,
one might expect t o see an evolution of present-day small

vii

viii
today, and that potential, viable solutions to these problems can be proposed. Too often conferences are not as
effective as they might be, because they culminate in
sound proposals and resolutions which fail to be translated
into effective action.

The sponsors of this conference intend that the collective input of the participants will result in an action program which will make more efficient and effective small
boats available to Pacific Islanders who need them.

G . D.F. BETHAM

Contents

The Honorable G.D.F. Betham

FISHERIES
DEVELOPMENTIN THE SOUTHPACIFIC
Small Boats for Pacific Islanders: A Perspective and Plan of Action.

PHIL~PHELFRICH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Guidelines for Selecting Boat Design and Motors for Small-Scale Fisheries
Programs in Isolated Island Communities. STEPHEN RITTERBUSH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Pacific Island Small Boat Development: A Distributor's Viewpoint.
ANDYJONES

................................................

10

An Assessment of the Ponape Dory Project. STEPHEN ~ E R B u S H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Cultural Aspects of Economic Development Efforts in Ponape.
~ W E L L S A N T.O. S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
BOATS DESIGNED FOR SMALL-SCALE PACIFIC FISHERIES

Ongoing Projects
Boats Designed for a Village Fishery in Western Samoa. OYVINDGULBRANDSEN

ANDARLLDOVERAA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Boats of the SPC Outer Reef Fisheries Project. REGINALD EGINTON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Proposed Designs
Small Fishing Boat Designs for Use in the South Pacific Region: Displacement
and Medium Speed Fishing Boats. JOHN FYSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1

Design and Construction of the ICLARM Experimental Small Fishing Boat .

GLENFREDHOLM
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Plywood Boats for Offshore Fisheries. DAVIDEYRES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
A New Use for an Old Idea: A Small Multi-purpose Hawaiian Style Fishing
Boat for Developing Fisheries in Island Areas . ROBERT T . B. IVERSEN. . . . . . . . . 54

Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic and Its Application to Boatbuilding. RON SHAFER. . . . . 62

MARINE ENGINESFOR SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES

Factors to Consider in Selecting Power Units for Small Fishing Boats.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
BRIANFALCONER
Air-Cooled Gasoline Engines. J . H. COOK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

The Modem Outboard as Applied to the Fishing Industry . BRIANSTAFFORD. . . . . . 71

Drive Requirements for Small Fishing Craft: The Jet Unit as Compared to
Direct Drive . T . R . HITCHCOCK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

Small Boats for Pacific Islanders:

A Perspective and Plan of Action

The International Center for Living Aquatic

Resources Management, MCC P. 0.Box 1501
Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines

The cultural heritage of the Pacific islanders is closely

tied to the sea. They initially migrated across this vast
ocean to all of the major island groups and later utilized
their superbly constructed canoes for hrther travel over
great distances between island groups.
The development of large sailing canoes, coupled with
remarkable navigational skills and feats of seamanship,
attest to the extraordinary mastery of the marine realm
by Pacific peoples. Variations and refinements of the
basic wooden hull sailing craft with outriggers and
movable masts evolved in various island groups. All were
extremely well adapted to the sea and wind conditions
of the Pacific.
Many of these traditional craft are still in use today in
some of the more remote Pacific islands, and a few old
men still possess some of the navigational skills passed
down through generations of mariners. Unfortunately,
these traditional craft are being abandoned by many of
the islanders for a variety of manufactured boats, and
the skills of boat construction, sailing, and navigation
that evolved over the centuries are being lost. Any con-

'present address: Office o f Research Administration, University of Hawaii, 2540 Maile Way, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, U.S.A.

siderations of fishing craft designs for the Pacific

islanders should certainly take into account their
heritage in the sea and the craft which played such an
important role in their migrations and in their daily lives.
The Pacific was explored, settled, fought over, and
resettled by the Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, British,
French, Russians, Americans, and others during the past
400 years. Each introduced their own boats, marine
technologies, and traditions. In recent years, foreign
commercial fishing interests and international development agencies have come to the Pacific Islands, each
organization seeking t o introduce modifications, innovations, and refinements to provide for the fishing craft
needs of islanders. As a result, boats in the Pacific
Islands are as varied today in design and construction as
any place in the world, a fact which has not been to the
benefit of islanders.
Unlike other areas of the world, there has not generally been a modification of the traditional canoe t o the
fishing craft frequently used today. Some canoes have
been adapted t o accommodate outboard motors but a
more general trend has been to abandon the traditional
hull and sail and replace them with a great variety of
designs, construction materials, and propulsion systems
from other areas of the world.

2/Proceedings of the ZCLARM Conference on Small Boat Design

A notable example of an attempt to modify a
traditional craft for present-day use occurred in Western
Samoa. Two canoe hulls were joined together with
timbers, a plywood platform was constructed, and an
outboard motor was attached to produce a modern version of the "alia" double canoe used by early Polynesians in travelling great distances. This existing craft
was utiized in Samoa for nearshore fishing, and was an
attractive alternative t o new construction.
In assessing the status of small boats utilized by
Pacific islanders for their present-day fishing needs, one
gets the impression that there has not been a gradual
evolution from their traditional craft but rather that the
islanders have acted in an entirely opportunistic manner
in adopting boats to meet their needs.
Ideally, small boats and propulsion systems should be
specially designed and selected to meet the intended use
patterns, the sea conditions of the region, and the economic and social needs of the local people.
In many areas of the world, technical innovations and
modifications gradually changed the traditional design
and construction of small fishing craft. Those aspects of
the prototype boat which were beneficial were incorporated with modern propulsion systems, materials, and
fishing gear. For reasons not clearly understood, the
Pacific islander has abandoned his traditional craft and
substituted modern materials such as plywood, planks,
aluminum, ferroconcrete, and fiberglass with a variety of
hull designs ranging from modified Japanese sampans t o
Oregon dories. Power supplies for these craft are just as
varied; high-technology outboard engines are being
widely adopted, probably because of their high performance, compactness, and ease of operation.
Theoretically, an optimum hull design/propulsion
system for each type of small-scale fishery operation in
the Pacific could be utilized in achieving maximum
efficiency and productivity. However, several factors
including economic constraints prevent this. In addition,
the best propulsion systems may be too technologically
complex for efficient maintenance in some geographical
regions.
An optimal hull design/propulsion system should at
least be considered by the commercial enterprises and
government agencies responsible for determining what
equipment is made available for use by the small-scale
fisheries of a given region. In the past, the choice of
boats and propulsion systems was often restricted and
related to availability from a number of local suppliers.
Selection of their stock was probably based upon
business considerations rather than on a conscious effort
to provide the Pacific fisherman with a means of increasing his productivity while utilizing the most efficient
system available.

Small boat construction and maintenance programs in

the Pacific have been sponsored by several island governments and/or regional and international agencies. These
programs have been in addition to those of small-scale
entrepreneurs (the island or village boatbuilders) who are
probably responsible for building a majority of the boats
used in the Pacific Islands today. In fact, many of the
present-day island boatbuilders obtained training in such
programs.
Noteworthy among boatbuilding courses in the
Pacific were those offered from 1930 to 1939 by the
government-subsidized School of Boat Building and
Maintenance on Kwato Island in Papua New Guinea. The
School was conducted by Mr. Arthur N. Swinfield, an
Australian naval architect who later published the twovolume "Boatbuilding Guide" in conjunction with the
South Pacific Commission. This publication presents
step-by-step instructions for the construction of a 26-ft
multipurpose boat.
In 1960, a 2-yr course in boatbuilding, repairs, and
engine installation and maintenance began at Auki,
Malaita, in the Solomon Islands to train Pacific islanders.
This endeavor was organized by the South Pacific Commission in cooperation with the United Nations Bureau
of Technical Assistance and the Government of the
British Solomon Islands Protectorate. The Auki school,
under the direction of Mr. C.R. Fisher, initially concentrated on the construction of the 25-ft craft designed by
Swinfield, but also constructed a 52-ft patrol vessel. In
1963, an additional course was inaugurated in Nouville,
New Caledonia, for French-speaking trainees. This
course began with the construction of 8-ft skiffs, but
later engaged in the construction of 25-ft vessels. Both
the Auki and Nouville courses have made a substantial
contribution in the training of boatbuilders throughout
the Pacific Islands.
In Micronesia, the renovation of the old Japanese
shipyard at Malakal, Palau, made it possible to build and
maintain wooden boats up to 125 feet long. The program of boatbuilding gained momentum under the
direction of Mr. Peter Wilson by the acquisition of a
master boatbuilder, Mr. Kiyoshi Matsumoto, who had
experience in the construction of a variety of small boats.
He was particularly experienced with the Japanese
sampan hull, which is relatively easy t o construct of its
hard-chine configuration. The same basic design can be
used for boats 20 t o 100 ft long, which is an added
advantage. In the first 3 years of its operation, the Palau
installation constructed more than 75 boats, from 8-ft
skiffs t o a 75-ft commercial tuna sampan. This program
also served an important training function.
A modest boatbuilding program was pursued in the
Cook Islands by Messrs. Ron Powell and Iopa Marsters,

Small Boats for Pacific zslanders/3

and three fishing crafts were completed, but recent

reports indicate they were not being fully utilized for
fishing.
One of the notable efforts in small-boat construction
in the Pacific has been the fleet of fast bonito boats
operating out of Tahiti in French Polynesia. These boats
are largely single-purpose boats utilizing the rapid trolling
method with mother-of-pearl shell lures for capturing
small surface-schooling tuna. They are high performance boats that operate in local waters, supplying a high
value commodity to a restricted market in Papeete,
Tahiti.
Perhaps the best known introduction of a small
fishing craft to the Pacific Islands is exemplified by the
efforts of Mr. Barry Fisher, fisherman and entrepreneur
from the northwestern United States. Mr. Fisher's
"Oregon Dory" was introduced in programs that
involved construction, maintenance, training, and
cooperative operational activities in three Pacific
territories: Ponape in the Caroline Islands, American
Samoa, and the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. Each program encountered special problems, some of which
will be analyzed in other workshop papers.
The dory program in American Samoa has probably
been the most successful, providing a means by which
Samoans have made a substantial contribution to the

local protein requirements with demersal and pelagic

species in nearshore waters.
These are descriptions of a few of the many efforts to
provide modern boats which would permit Pacific
islanders to exploit the resources of their nearshore
waters. The success of these efforts is difficult to assess;
some have resulted in increased productivity for only a
limited period of time. Almost all of these programs
have encountered problems relating to the funding of
boat construction and operation, with loans and their
repayment and repossession of equipment being particularly troublesome. Few have provided an economically
viable enterprise that was also compatible with the
local cultural norms.
A significant number of small boats for Pacific
islanders have had their origin in the construction
centers of Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand, and North
America. These boats are often "off-the-shelf' models
that are generally designed and constructed for the
recreation-oriented market in developed countries,
and do not adequately answer the needs of Pacific
islanders.
Thus, it was considered opportune to gather knowledgeable persons together to reassess the small-boat
needs of Pacific islanders in 1975.

Guidelines for Selecting Boat Design

and Motors for Small-Scale Fisheries
Programs in Isolated Island Communities

The International Center for Living Aquatic

Resources Management, MCC P. 0.Box 1501
Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines

Introduction
Since 1969 small-scale fisheries programs in the South
Pacific have been initiated in Western Samoa, the Gilbert
and Ellice Islands, the Cook Islands, Fiji, and Ponape. In
addition to these programs, numerous small boats
designed for coastal fishing off Australia, New Zealand,
and the United States have been introduced on an individual basis to the Pacific Islands. The main purpose for
their introduction was to provide an improved fishing
platform that would enable the village-level fisherman to
reach fishing areas previously inaccessible to him, and to
allow him to utilize new types of fishing gear and
methods technology.
Although each of these development projects may
have been successful to some degree, each was also beset
with numerous problems, especially in the areas of boat
design and propulsion systems. Some of the problem
areas were common to two or more of the projects. This
paper will briefly discuss some of the major problems
and will suggest general guidelines for selecting suitable

'pre,nt address: P. 0.Box 61, Tufts University Branch,

Medford, Massachusetts 02153, U.S.A.

boat designs and motors for future small-scale fisheries

programs in isolated island communities.
Experience has shown that no single, ideal design is
appropriate for use in the entire Pacific region. Designs
must suit both the financial capabilities of the different
island areas, as well as the types of fishing methods for
which the craft will be used. With the startling rise of
fuel prices in the past 2 years, boats that demand a large
input of petrochemicals in their construction, or power
sources that require large quantities of gasoline for daily
operation, are no longer economical to construct or
operate. Rising fuel costs will likely place additional
constraints on the types of boat designs that can be
introduced in the future. Designs are now required that
give the best performance for the least input of horsepower. Serious thought must be given to a return to hull
shapes which are easily driven and power sources that
are both reliable to operate and simple to repair and
maintain with only a limited knowledge of mechanics.
The selection of a boat design and motor should
depend mainly on the type of fishery in which the craft
is t o be used. The second most important criterion is
cost. In previous programs, either government or development bank loans were required to provide the initial
capital for the purchase of boats and motors. In many

Boat Design and Motor selectionls

instances, however, it was not uncommon for costs of

boat operation to exceed the value of the average daily
catch. The local fishermen's inability to catch enough
to repay their loans was a major problem in all projects,
and in some instances, the primary reason for their
failure.
Determination of Construction Costs
Although the design of a boat will depend primarily
upon the fishery and the typical sea conditions in which
the boat will operate, its cost should be governed by: (1)
the anticipated earning power of the boat, including
operating costs, (2) its anticipated life span, and (3)
available loans and rates of interest.
To calculate the anticipated earning power of a boat,
one must estimate and project the local market price of
fish, the average anticipated catch, the amount of fish
that local custom decrees be given to either the church
or to the village chief, and the number of fishing trips.
The western concept of a commercial fisherman, such as
found in Japan or the industrialized western nations, is
largely alien to most Pacific cultures. Therefore, estimates of the average number of fishing trips per year
must be reduced accordingly. In many previous programs
it was found that the rural village fisherman would not
fish consistently even at the height of the fishing season,
because of cultural preferences and constraints. In addition, allowance must be made for repairs and the extremely long shipping time required for spare parts to reach
many of the more remote areas of the Pacific.
A reasonable approximation of an anticipated yearly
catch can be made by multiplying average daily catch in
pounds by the*estimated number of trips per year. This
estimate is then multiplied by the average local price of
fish. The result yields hypothetical yearly earnings of a
boat operating at the village level.
After both operating and maintenance costs and
approximate shares for both owner and crew are deducted, a net yearly figure remains that can be applied
toward repaying the loan on the boat and motor. Multiplying this repayment figure by the estimated life span
of the boat and motor yields a total investment figure
that the rural small-scale fisherman can apply toward
repaying a development loan. This figure will determine
the costs in selecting a boat design, the construction
materials to be used, and the selection of an appropriate
power source.
These steps can be outlined as follows:
1. d
= estimated average daily catch (in pounds)
2. t
= estimated number of trips per year
d x t = y (anticipated yearly catch in pounds)
= local market price of fish
3. p
y x p = h (hypothetical yearly earnings)

4. m
5. s

= maintenance and operating costs

= share of catch (in dollars and fish)

distributed to crew
(h - s) - m = n (net yearly earnings to be used for
loan repayment)
6. 1
= anticipated life span of boat
n x 1 = i (total investment figure)
For each of the six variables involved, certain factors
must be considered when data for these calculations are
collected. The average daily catch varies from island
group to island group, but from data acquired from
previous fisheries programs, this figure appears to range
between 150-100 lb/l-day trip on the village level. Since
reliable data are rarely available, a preliminary assessment
should be made of the fihing villages where the project
is to be implemented to determine the volume of fish
that are currently captured with l o c d y available craft
and gear.
A major constraint in the Samoan culture was that
for any substantial increase in catch made on additional
trips, the fisherman was expected to distribute the surplus to his matai (chief), to other members of his family,
or to the church. Thus, once a village fisherman caught
enough to meet his immediate obligations, he was
reluctant to go on additional trips. Consequently, for the
Samoa program a more realistic figure of 80-100 days of
fishing was used for the calculations.
The local market price of fish in many South Pacific
countries is determined not so much by species as it is
by size or method of fishing for pelagic fish (e.g., skipjack and yellowfin tuna, Pacific dolphin) as opposed to
bottom fish (e.g., snapper). Daily operating costs depend
primarily on the type of power system used, while the
shares earned by the owner and crew vary with local
customs.
An example of the type of village-level economic
analysis described above can be made for three separate
fishery development programs currently in operation in
the South Pacific: in Western Samoa; in American
Samoa; and on the island of Ponape in the Eastern
Caroline Islands, Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
Ponape and American Samoa Dory Projects
The Ponape and American Samoa dory projects are
similar in many respects, having been developed from
the same conceptual base: the need for a highly mobile
fishing platform that would allow small-scale fishermen
to get to and from previously inaccessible outer reef
fishing areas in the least amount of time, and allow them
to utilize more technologically sophisticated types of
fishing gear. Both projects were based on the local construction and operation of an Oregon-type dory. Data
from records mahitained in Kolonia, Ponape, and Pago

6/hceedings of the ZCLARM Conference on Small Boat Design

Pago, American Samoa, since the inception of these two

projects make possible the calculation of the average
catch rate, the ex-vesselprice of fish in the two territories,
and the operating and maintenance costs borne by local
fishermen over the past 5 years. From these data the
dory's earning capabilities estimated before the projects'
inception can be compared.
In both projects the original estimates called for a
dory fisherman to land 300400 lb of fish per trip and to
make an average of 180-200 fishing trips per year. Both
estimates proved to be overly optimistic. Initial operating
costs of the dories were approximately ~ ~ $ 1 2per'
trip, but due to the dramatic increases in the price of
gasoline in early 1974, expenses have now risen to 2%
times this amount. The price for fish paid to the fisherman in both American Samoa and Ponape averages
between $0.40-0.60 per lb. Boat crews in both territories
receive approximately 40% of the landed catch, either in
cash or fish. After deducting operating and maintenance
expenses from this subtotal, the owner claims what he
deems appropriate as his own share, using the remainder
to repay his initial loan investment.
With the above figures, it is possible to calculate the
hypothetical earnings of a typical dory and the total
investment figure that was anticipated before the
inception of the project.
d
t

= 3001b
= 190 trips (average of 180-200 trips

per year)
d x t = y = 57,000 lb per year
= $0.50 per lb (average price)
p
Thus, the hypothetical yearly earnings of the dory
were conservatively calculated to be:
= $0.50 x 57,000 lb per year = $28,500
h
pel year
Maintenance and operating costs (m) were $12 per
trip x 190 trips per year or approximately $2280 per year.
The crew's share, assuming a crew of two or three
men per boat, was 40% of the hypothetical yearly earnings, $14,800 remains to cover the owner's share and his
loan repayment obligation.
Using these figures, it should have been a relatively
simple task for the village fisherman/boat owner to
repay his initial investment of $5500 for a dory within
at least the first year and a half of operation, even after
deducting a major portion of this amount for his own
support. However, most of the initial estimates regarding
the number of trips per year, the catch rates, and the
operating costs proved to be unrealistic.
From 1973 to 1974, actual landed catch rates ranged
between 120-180 lb per trip in Ponape (see Ritterbush,

'

All figures in US dollars.

"An Assessment of the Ponape Dory Project") to 200225 lb per trip in American Samoa. The actual number
of trips made per year ranged between 80-100 in American Samoa and 90-110 in Ponape. Moreover, operating
costs in both areas rose to $30 or more per trip, and the
total cost of the dory rose fiom $5500 to $8200 fiom
1971 (when the first project was initiated in American
Samoa) to the present.
Using these figures, the actual return from an average
dory can be calculated for both the American Samoa
and Ponape dory projects during the last 4 years.
AMERICAN SAMOA

d
t

= 225 lb of fish per trip

= 90 trips per year (average of 80-100

trips per year)

d x t = y=20,2501b
= $0.50 per lb
p
y x p = h = $10,125
m
= $30 per trip x 90 trips per year
= $2700 per year
s
= 40%of$10,125
= $4050
(h - s) - m = n = $3375 for the net yearly
earnings of a dory
If the boat owner retained only 12-15% of these
earnings for his own yearly support, and no unforeseen
major repairs were required, an annual surplus of $1350
could be applied to the repayment of the loan. At this
rate, it would require more than 6 years to amortize the
present cost of a dory.
PONAPE

Loan repayment data for Ponape are similar to those

of American Samoa. However, Ponape compares
somewhat less favorably when the decline in the average
catch per trip between 1973 and 1974 is considered.
In 1973 the dory fleet averaged 180 lb per trip.
= 180lboffish
d
= 100 trips per year (average of 90-1 10
t
trips per year)
d x t = y = 18,000lbper year
= $0.50
p
y x p = h = $900 per year
Yearly maintenance and operating costs (m) were
about the same in Ponape as in American Samoa, $2700.
The crew's share (s) was 40% of the hypothetical yearly
earnings, approximately $3600. Deducting maintenance
and operating costs and the crew's share from the hypothetical yearly earnings left $2700 that the boat owner
could apply toward his own support and repayment of
the loan.

Boat Design and Motor Selection/7

In 1974 when the average landed catch of a typical
dory declined to only 120 lb per trip, the yearly earnings
dropped to about $6000. Using the same figure for
operating and maintenance costs and the same 40%
figure to calculate the crew's share, the amount available
for loan repayment was reduced to cnly $900. At that
rate it would take longer than 9 years to repay the
initial loan of $8200.
WESTERN SAMOA

In contrast, Western Samoa has adopted an approach

to small-scale fisheries development in which the introduced technology appears to be both financially and
conceptually within the capabilities of the fishermen.
The Fisheries Division of Western Samoa estimates that
the traditional Samoan double-hulled fishing craft, the
alia, can be constructed for $390 (US$1.30=WS$1.00).
The 20-hp outboard required to drive the alia can be
purchased for $520 with an additional $65 required for
fishing gear. This entails a total investment of $975
without the owner's receiving any personal remuneration.
Records maintained by the Fisheries Division over the
past 6 years indicate that the typical village fisherman
make two trips per week, or about 100 trips per year,
and lands an average catch of 800-100 lb of fish per trip.
Fish sells for about $0.40 per lb. Using these figures the
approximate earning power can be calculated:
d
= 90 lb of fish (average of 80-100 lb
per trip)
t
= 100 trips per year
d,x t = y = 900 lb per year
p
= $40
y x p = h=$3600
After deducting $975 per year for maintenance and
operating costs (m), and crew and owner shares of 40%
and 15% (s=$1980) respectively, from the hypothetical
yearly earnings, a total of $645 remains that can be
applied toward repaying the initial loan. At this rate it is
feasible that an initial investment of $975 can be repaid
within a 2-year period.
Under the new boatbuilding scheme initiated by the
government in which the Fisheries Division subsidizes all
labor costs, an 18-ft, open V-bottom fishing craft can be
produced for $520 and a 28-ft open V-bottom boat can
be produced for $885 (see Gulbrandsen, "Boats for
Village Fishery in Western Samoa"). By purchasing
motors in bulk, the price of each unit can be reduced by
$65. The cost of boat, motor, and gear brings the total
investment of the fisherman to approximately $1040
to $1400, depending on the type of boat he selects. At
the present level of catch, it appears that these investment costs rest well within the financial capabilities of
the rural village economy and can be amortized within

2 or 3 years without placing a large economic burden

on the community.
Boat Construction
Unlike many countries in Southeast Asia, the fishing
craft of the Pacific Islands have not evolved in a manner
that allows them to be easily adapted to modem technology (e.g., motors or fishing gear). In many areas of
the Pacific, both the indigenous skills of boat building
and fishing have declined with increasing western
influence. The Samoans and Tongans once constructed
some of the largest seagoing craft in the Pacific (e.g., the
alia), which now have all but vanished.
Any development of small-scale, village-level capture
fisheries in the Pacific must be based on the design,
development, and construction of a suitable, easily maintained small boat and power source. Boats are needed
which are easily constructed and seaworthy, and which
give the greatest amount of speed froin the least amount
of horsepower.
Due to high inter-island and island-mainland freight
costs, it should be more economical, and more beneficial
in terms of employment and the development of local
skills, to construct boats from imported material (and
local materials if available) rather than import the
finished craft.
Selection of appropriate construction materials for
the proposed craft is of vital importance. In general, a
lack of hardwood trees, lumber-production facilities,
and a lack of skilled shipwrights precludes the use of
planks for most island areas. Western Samoa is currently
an exception. A lack of shipyards and metal shops in
most islands preclude both the construction and repair
of steel or aluminum-hulled boats, although, Fiji, Tahiti,
and Guam are exceptions. Ferroconcrete construction is
currently unsuitable for small-scale fishing craft because
of constraints on hull size and a minimum weight per
surface of hull.
Fiberglass is a practical medium with which to work
providing that proper humidity and temperature can be
maintained when storing the matting, roving, and resin.
Because of the high initial outlay required to prepare a
mold, a minimum number of fiberglass boats must be
constructed to defray the initial investment costs.
Marine plywood, although not an ideal material, is
another alternative that can be used in village-level projects. It is easily worked out and requires no specialized
shipwright techniques. Plywood is moderately cheap in
terms of both cost and bulk-freight rates, and is easily
stored. In addition, it can be used to construct most
parts of a boat (hull, deck; ribs), and with epoxy-type
finishes, it can be rendered impervious to rot and shipworm. However, there are drawbacks to this material.

8lProceedings o f the ICLARM Conference on S m l l Boat Design

It must be imported, incurring shipping costs in addition

to the original purchase cost; it tends to warp in a
tropical climate and thus cannot be ordered in large
quantities or stored for long periods; and because of its
utility to other groups in the community, marine
plywood tends to be stolen and used for other purposes.
Motor Selection
For small-scale, village-level fisheries, the selection of
an appropriate power source can be limited to four
choices: low horsepower diesel engines, automotivetype gasoline engines, small air-cooled gasoline engines,
and outboard motors. Each has its own distinct advantages and disadvantages.
Although the diesel may offer the greatest reliability
and longest operating life, it costs nearly twice as much
as a gasoline engine of the same horsepower. This results
in a higher initial investment cost that must be amortized
over the life of the boat. However, because of the
difference in prices of diesel fuel and gasoline, diesel
engines are substantially less expensive to operate. The
lack of an electrical system on the diesel engine also
eliminates a major problem encountered with other
motor types-corrosion and short-circuiting of the
ignition system. A minor drawback to the use of a diesel
is the high engine weight to horsepower ratio. Not only
is a heavier diesel engine required to deliver the same
horsepower output as a gasoline engine, but the added
engine weight also reduces the catch load a small boat
can safely carry. Because of the high initial cost of a
diesel, this engine should be used only if the anticipated
catch returns are high enough and the life of the boat is
long enough to warrant the initial expense.
In comparison, automotive-type gasoline inboard
engines are relatively inexpensive to purchase. Also,
because of the wide familiarity of many island people
with these engines, they are easy to maintain and service.
In the Ponape Dory Project, for example, many spare
parts that were normally unavailable for other types of
imported motors were readily available from the local
automotive dealer. In almost all island groups, mechanics
are available who understand the operation of an automobile engine. However, this engine type suffers from
two serious disadvantages: (1) its electrical and ignition
system is very susceptible to saltwater corrosion (a major
problem in many of the boat projects), and (2) in the
100-250 hp range, this engine has a rather large fuel cost.
As an example, the dories constructed in Ponape are
fitted with automotive gasoline engines that have been
adapted for marine use. At the current cost of gasoline,
daily operating expenses average more than $30, and
these will rise even higher since continual worldwide

price increases for petroleum products are anticipated. .

Although the air-cooled gasoline engine is used
extensively throughout Southeast Asia, it has only
recently been introduced into the Pacific. It is substantially lower in price than either the diesel or automotive-type gasoline engine. In fact, it is perhaps the
only alternative that compares favorably to the outboard
motor in terms of price. Both this engine and the
outboard can be used to power the smaller dugout
outrigger or canoe-type fishing craft. It can be used as an
auxiliary power source for sailing craft as well. In addition
to its low purchase price, the air-cooled gasoline engine
is inexpensive to operate since it is adaptable for use
with either gasoline or kerosene. The engine is constructed with a minimum of moving parts and easy to
maintain. In addition, it is lightweight; it can easily be
removed from the boat and transported to the nearest
repair facility.
There are, however, several disadvantages to the aircooled engine. It has not been specifically designed and
constructed for use under highly corrosive saltwater conditions, although manufacturers have taken precautions
to provide special protection to some of the more vulnerabIe parts of the engine, such as the magneto. In the
Philippines where these engines are used extensively, the
average life expectancy of a motor is more than 5 years.
The air-cooled gasoline engine is manufactured only in
,
limiting the size of the boat in
the 3-16 h p ~ a n g e thus
which it can be effectively used. Because this engine
requires a straight shaft and through-the-hull fitting, the
propeller is in a fixed position beneath the keel of the
boat and is more susceptible'to damage by submerged
objects. A hull design that utilizes this type of motor
will require the addition of a keel to protect the
propeller, which in turn, will increase the draft required
for safe operation.
Outboard engines provide a number of advantages not
offered by other motor types. The initial purchase price
for an outboard motor is low, and it requires a relatively
low level of technical skill for oper&ion. Presently, the
outboard is the best alternative to the air-cooled gasoline
engine for use in small-scale development programs when
the cost of a boat and motor must be kept as low as
possible. Unlike the air-cooled gasoline engine, outboards
allow fishing boats to be beached in shallow waters, and
they are easily removed and transported for repair and
security purposes.
Using the outboard, however, has several drawbacks.
It is an engine manufactured primarily for recreational,
rather than continuous, intensive, commercial use. It can
be difficult to maintain and repair without comprehensive
training. Spare parts for outboard motors are unavailable in many island areas and supply of these parts by

Boat Design and Motor ~election/9

manufacturers' representatives has been less than

adequate in the past.
Conclusion
Any future small-scale fisheries development effort in
the South Pacific should build upon the experience of
previous programs, and the social and economic conditions of the rural communities where the project is to
be implemented should be ascertained simultaneously.
Before initiating any program, differentiation should be
made between subsistence and small-scale fishery operations. If a fishery is at the subsistence level where the
catch rates of the rural fisherman support only his
immediate or extended family, any technology to be
introduced should involve as little cost as possible. An
example would be the purchase of an outboard motor or
modified fishing gear for use with a traditional outrigger
canoe. The most important fact to consider is whether
or not the recipient of the assistance, the rural fisherman,
is forced to assume an inordinately large financial burden
that is totally alien to his cultural and economiclifestyle.
On the small-scale level where catch rates are higher
and marketing systems are more fully developed, the
economic assistance provided to the fisherman can be on
a larger scale. Assistance can be provided not only for
engines which require a higher initial investment (the
diesel engine), but also for the development and construction of boats that will extend the rural fisherman's
range of operations. The development of boats for any
small-scale fisheries project should be based on an easilydriven and easily-maintained hull that is capable of
achieving its design speed with the least input of horsepower.
The selection of both the power source and the
materials for boat construction will always involve a
compromise. The two questions that must be answered
in any project are: (1) Can the craft be easily maintained and repaired? (2) What are the costs and avail-

ability of the materials and spare parts?

Providing the small-scale boat with an auxiliary form
of power (e.g., sail) should also be considered. As the
fisherman's range of operations is extended with the
introduction of new boats and power sources, the
chances of his becoming stranded and lost at sea increase
dramatically. At present, most Pacific Island nations and
territories are not capable of mounting emergency search
and rescue operations.
Power sources must be reliable and easily maintained
and repaired. The cost of fuel will probably become even
more prohibitive in the future. A serious effort must be
made to keep operating costs at a minimum. Because of
a low initial purchase price, either the air-cooled gasoline
engine or the outboard is applicable to development
efforts directed to either a subsistence or small-scale
village fishery. However, for a successful project, these
two types of engines require a readily available supply of
spare parts and an active training program in motor
maintenance and repair. For a small-scale fishery in areas
where catch rates are higher, the economic base broader,
and the local fishermen capable of working with more
sophisticated technology, the diesel engine is probably
the best choice due to its reliability and low maintenance
requirements. Because of its relatively high purchase
price, it must first be ascertained whether or not the
.existing or anticipated catch rates and the life of the
boats to be used in the project warrant the initial
investment.
Small-scale fisheries development is fundamentally a
process of education followed by change. The transfer
of technology in the development process must be
effected in a gradual and systematic manner, and at a
rate that is acceptable, both economically and culturally,
to the small-scale fisherman. To do otherwise is counterproductive and wasteful in terms of both money and
human resources.

Pacific Island Small Boat Development:

A Distributor's Viewpoint

Mc Wayne Marine Supply

1125 Ala Moana Boulevard
Honolulu, Hawaii 9681 4, U.S.A.

Introduction
The transition by islanders from sail and paddle t o
modern power sources for propulsion has been inevitable.
As individual income has increased and more information
about power boats has reached the islands over the past
few years, increasing numbers of islanders have turned
to modern propulsion systems. Because of low cost and
comparative ease of repairs, the most popular form of
propulsion has been the outboard motor.
In the lower horsepower range, both price and technical knowledge are presently within reach of most
islanders. It is estimated that the total motor population
of Micronesia, as an example, is approximately 8,000
units in a population of only 100,000 people (excluding
Guam).
The majority of those engines sold in all of the island
areas are 40 h p and under, with the 25-hp and 40-hp
models being the most prevalent. Above 40 h p the
motor count drops dramatically. Exceptions exist such
as in Palau in Micronesia, but the dominance of small
horsepower engines basically holds constant throughout
the Basin. Experience gained from participation in
various development programs established during the last
decade has demonstrated the two-cycle outboard t o be

favored as perhaps the best form of marine propulsion

for immediate and near future needs.
This paper considers criteria which govern choice and
maintenance of boats in the Pacific Basin, as seen from a
commercial boat distributor's viewpoint.

Propulsion Systems
The use of motorized fishing craft in the Pacific Basin
is controlled by three factors: the cost of the engine in
relation to income levels in any island area, repair and
maintenance source, and availability of spare parts.
Cost-Ability to Purchase. Currently the larger
horsepower outboard, inboard/outboard engines are too
expensive and complex to maintain and repair. For the
average islander a diesel, however. operates much less
expensively than a four-cycle or two-cycle gasoline
engine of equivalent horsepower. A cost comparison
of a single 40-hp diesel and a small 40-hp Johnson
reveals the greatest problem with the diesel to be the
initial purchase price. A 40-hp diesel has an initial
cost of approximately US$3,000, while a 40-hp outboard costs only about US$817. However, the major
argument in favor of a diesel is in the direct operatifig
costs. For an equivalent number of hours, the 40-hp

Small Bolrt Development / 11

outboard costs approximately US$9 more per day to

operate than a 40-hp diesel. The same economics would
apply when comparing a single 8-hp diesel to twin 40-hp
outboards.
Further calculations, however, using a 20-day month
as an operational factor, indicate that it would take 1year
to amortize the difference in the cost of the diesel.
Further, smaller horsepower diesels are functional only
in a displacement hull with top speeds of 12-13 knots.
With outboards wedded to planing hulls, a fisherman
can theoretically get to and from fishing grounds
faster and more economically.
Regardless of the power comparison, the economic
restrictions remain the same, and most Pacific islanders
have limited resources to expend on propulsion systems.
Local economics must be the guiding factor for any
program involving the purchase of modern marine
engine.
Availability of Trained Repair Personnel. Even in the
more developed countries, when an outboard engine is
subjected to heavy saltwater use, the life span of the
engine is considerably decreased while malfunction due
to corrosion is increased. In the Pacific Basin where
preventive maintenance is not common practice, engine
life and trouble-free operation is of even shorter duration.
Marine operations, whether an individual, cooperative,
or governmental effort, can be successful only if the
equipment remains operational.
Wherever a particular type of motor is found in quantity, qualified repair personnel are generally available, too.
In recent years, McWayne has provided on-the-job training to approximately 75 islanders who were, in most
cases, funded by various government programs and
agencies. Other trainees were sponsored by importlexport
companies and churches, and in several cases individuals
attended on their own initiative.
The number of trainees from a given area was directly
related to the number of engines in that area. For
example, on the island of Truk where outboards are used
extensively, there is no lack of%repair personnel. The
greatest shortage of trained personnel in outboard motor
occurs where there is only a limited number of motors.
This requires many programs to train personnel specifically for the advanced technical repairs required to
keep the units operable. Thus, the success of an entire
program can revolve around one mechanic. To alleviate
this dependence on a single individual, a marine program
should therefore ensure that one or more backup
mechanics are available.
Even where there is an adequate number of mechanics,
the quality of their training is sometimes questionable.
This problem is not so much due to lack of talent, but
rather a lack of updating. A 1968 training course does

not provide adequate knowledge for proper repairs on a

1975 engine.
Continuous training is necessary merely to keep
existing service personnel technically aware of innovations. Repair schools offered by international motor
companies, distributors, and domestic factories should be
utilized when possible. Updated training material is
available in cassette form, such as the cassette sight and
sound instruction systems offered by both Johnson and
Evinrude. In addition, numerous periodicals, repair
manuals, and trouble-shooting booklets serve as information sources.
Parts Availability. Parts availability in the Pacific Basin
is directly related to the numbers of an engine type in
use. In Truk, for example, there are an estimated 2,000
engines of which approximately 50%are 25 hp and 30%
are 40-hp engines. Parts orders shipped to both government and commercial concerns are mostly for replacement parts for these two horsepower models, and complaints of parts shortages for these engine types are
infrequent. However, for the 100 or less small marine
diesels in Truk, replacement parts remain a pioblem.
Thus, with a smaller number of motors, the appropriate parts are less readily available and there is greater
difficulty in obtaining quick and efficient repairs. This
applies to the general situation throughout the Pacific
Basin. It is recommended that any new grass roots marine
program should use propulsion units already established
so as to eliminate these problems.
The difficulty in maintaining an adequate parts supply
for a small number of engines is enormous. A supplier is
almost obligated to stock enough parts for one or more
total replacement engines to ensure that all needs are
met. Despite such a stock, until a history of breakage
develops (i.e., the identification of repetitive problem
areas), a program invariably finds itself short of important replacement items.
In addition to replacement parts, another consideration is the availability of special repair tools. Every
manufacturer offers special tools to expedite repairs.
The use of improper tools can hinder efficient and
effective repairs as badly as the lack of parts or technical
skill. A few programs have a comprehensive inventory
system for their back-up parts, but most do not. It is
important to establish a documentation system to identify chronic problem areas of shortages and surpluses.
Unless every part is made available to complete a job,
even a single and inexpensive part can keep a $5,000
motor inoperable for a month or more. Also, the more
parts a propulsion unit requires, the more stocking problems that will occur. An example would be a comparison
of a 70-hp Johnson outboard and a Volvo MD21 75-hp
diesel; the outboard has 746 parts, whereas the diesel

12/&oceedings o f the ICLARM Conferenceon Small Boat Design

has approximately 1,250, or over 67% more individual

parts.
Individual Maintenance. Motors used commercially
have a much shorter warranty period than those used for
pleasure. Although most marine engines are designed to
handle all water conditions, heavy commercial use and
saltwater conditions greatly tax marine propulsion units.
Fifty percent of the engine failures observed in the
Pacific Basin have originated from owner negligence and
lack of maintenance. Training owners on the proper care
of engines should be automatic. Discussions with import/
export companies selling to individuals have emphasized
the provision of such courses in engine care and preventive maintenance in every island community.
Boat Designs
As with the selection of propulsion systems, boats
designed for use inthepacific Basin are restricted primarily
by the income levels of the island communities. Is it
possible to design and produce the perfect small boat for
fisheries development that will fit the needs of all Pacific
Basin island communities?
Assuming that economic requirements can be met, it
appears that a design compromise is the answer. Past and
present fisheries programs have shown that most Pacific
Island fishermen do not spend continuous days at sea
like their Korean or Japanese counterparts. Instead, they
prefer to fish on a daily basis for perhaps 3 or 4 days per
week. Time and economic development may change
these habits, but currently the type, size, and cost of the
boats used are dictated by existing social attitudes. The
typical islander, therefore, cannot afford a $10,000 boat
and motor from present income sources whether from
"1and'"obs or from offshore "casual" fishing.
Cost Restrictions. Most hulls used in the Pacific Basin
are locally built, since those boats produced in the U.S.
are generally produced wooden boats. Furthermore, by
work boat standards, most small pleasure boats are
equipped with extraneous, unusable features. In addition,
freight costs can add as much as the original cost of the
boat when delivered from a foreign source. Unless local
income levels rise dramatically, the extensive use of massproduced U.S. boats is impossible.
A small boat of acceptable hull design must, therefore,
be produced in island communities themselves. The goal
would be to produce alocally built boat in a short period
of time from a lasting and easily repairable material.
Material. Fiberglass is considered to be the best base
material. Once a mold is available, hulls can be built
quickly, maintenance is minimal, and repairs are easier
than for any other type of material. The problem is to
produce an efficient, highquality mold and to develop

the technical skills to produce "low cost" fiberglass

boats quickly.
Design. A wide range of opinion exists on the subject
of boat design. Several observations are presented:
A deep V planing hull rides much better in rough
water but is expensive to operate, since high horsepower
propulsion is needed to plane. With insufficieiit horsepower a deep V is relegated to $he displacement hull
(nonplaning) category.
A flat bottom skiff bearing even heavy loads can
reach planing speeds with only a minimum of horsepower.
Also, the shallow draft characteristics of a flat bottom
offer more versatility of operation in shallow, protected lagoon waters. A flat bottom skiff is also quite
stable. Characteristics, however, of flat bottom skiffs,
make these boats inappropriate for use in rough open
seas.
The answer rests in a compromise-a shallow, semi-V
favoring a flat bottom design. The ride would be less
comfortable than that offered by the deep-V in rough
open seas, but operational costs would outweigh crew
discomfort. Other design factors to be considered in the
design are minimum weight with maximum strength and
simplicity of construction.
Hardware and Accessories
Selection of boats and motors is one problem in developing fisheries programs. Proper selection of hardware
and accessories is another critical problem.
The marine industry is not as well coordinated as are
some others, such as the automotive industry. Many
suppliers are prone to peak and trou*. merchandise
availability according to season. Thus, while it is sometimes difficult to obtain merchandise in the summer, the
situation then reverses and the same items become readily available in winter. The solution, therefore, is to
stock adequate quantities of identified, high demand
items.
Many manufacturers direct their production to the
competitive price market and focus their product on
freshwater pleasure boats. These accessories are made
from such materials as Zaemac dye cast and plastic.
Experience has shown that cutting hardware costs at
the expense of quality is a mistake. For example, brass
or chrome/brass hardware is mandatory for saltwater
conditions. In addition, it is necessary to select products
from manufacturers that honor warranties and provide
adequate technical information.
In small boat construction, hardware and accessories
can be grouped into five major categories: deck hardware, steering, lights, gas tanks, and electrical components. The goal is to buy equipment that will be as
trouble-free as possible. As with motors, poor main-

Small Boat ~ e v e l o ~ m e n t l l 3

tenance can ruin even the best quality equipment. A

mechanical steering assembly that is not greased
regularly can result in a frozen cable' at any temperature under heavy use in saltwater conditions.
Logistical Problems
Some of the logistical pro6lems of supply are freight,
communication/order information, discounts, shipping
sources, and payment terms.
Freight. Water freight into the Pacific Basin is unreliable and sporadic. Two shipping lines servingMicronesia,
as an example, have gone out of business during the last
7 years (Mille and Transpacific Lines).
Shipping companies cannot afford to give good continuous service to areas which do not create a sufficient
volume of freight, and communities of the Pacific Basin
simply do not offer the kind of volume shipped to or
from, for example, Singapore, Japan, or the U.S. Water

freight is directed to large volumes, and shipping by sealed

container load to protect goods against water and theft
is ideal but not always possible.
For smaller shipments, air freight is recommended. A
schedule attached to this paper shows some comparative
air and water freight costs to various parts of the Pacific
Basin from Hawaii and the U.S. mainland. The various
costs of shipping a 40-hp outboard motor valued at
US$900 are estimated in this table. The charge to ship
this motor from Honolulu to Pago Pago by air freight is
only 13% of the cost of the motor, while the charge
from Los Angeles to Pago Pago is 28%of cost, with a
delivery time of 3 days.
The same shipment by water height from both
Honolulu and Los Angeles is only 5% of the motor's cost,
but with a delivery time of 6 to 8 weeks. Thus, if the
need for the equipment justified air freight charges, the
additional cost would be well worth the expense. For
parts replacement, the suitability o'f air freight is even

Table 1. Comparative costs of shipping freight by air and sea in the Pacific. Prices are current as of November 1975 and based on shipping a 202-lb, 25 cu ft, 40 E 76 motor costing $899. Frequency of planes and/or ships is 3-5 days in all cases.
From/to

a~onolulu
b ~ o Angeles
s

Via air freight

% of cost

Via surface
(sea)

% of cost

Frequency/
arrival time

210.08
$1.04 per lb
272.70
$1.35 per lb
121.20
60# per lb
256.54
$1.27 per lb.
228.26
$1.13 per lb
337.34
$1.67 per lb
331.28
$1.64 per lb
624.18
$2.09 per lb
204.02
$1.01 per lb
321.18
$1.59 per lb
270.68
$1.34 per lb
361.58
$1.79 per lb

$90.04
10%
once a month
444 per lb.
8 weeks
$90.04
10%
once a month
44d per Ib
8 weeks
349.03
5%
once a month
254 per lb
26 da
$49.03
5%
twice a month
254 per lb
7 da
$62.20
7%
once a month
30d per lb
26 da
$64.48
7%
once a month
32d per lb
30 da
No surface information is available to this area.
This land is government controlled.
Ditto
$57.80
29d per lb
$60.09
304 per Ib
$65.40
33d per lb
$65.40
334 per Ib

6%

272.70
$1.35 per lb
383.80
$1.90 per lb

$152.01
75d per lb
$152.01
754 per lb

17%

7%
7%
7%

17%

once a month
6 da
once a month
9 da
once a month
33 or 63 da
twice a month
varies depending on feeder
vessel
once a month
21 da
once a month
21 da

Au/surface

Difference

14/&oceedings o f the ZCLARM Conference on Small Boat Design

more obvious and is recommended.

Communication/Ordering Information. The most
serious problem that distributors encounter in the Pacific
Basin has been one of communication, that is, when
items have been ordered by improper names. The time
required for proper descriptions via correspondence is
uneconomical in terms of operation for'both the project
and the distributor.
Discounts. A distributor normally strives for a profit
of 20.25%. This profit margin is derived from selling in
volume to commercial outlets and resale dealers who
buy in quantity. Since one- or two-item sales at full discount are uneconomical, and large volume sales are
profitable to the distributor, it is felt that if the volume
is large enough, an additional discount bonus is valid. In
many cases, if the volume is large enough, the buyer is
entitled to buy directly from the manufacturer.

.Thus, in boatbuilding projects where the volume is

great, the project may qualify as an OEM account
(Original Equipment Manufacturer Account). Otherwise,
when a limited quantity of multiple pieces of equipment
is desired, purchasing through a distributor is recommended. At the same time, some distributors may treat a
fisheries program as a commercial account with a smaller
than maximum discount.
Payment T e r n . Open accounts tend to discourage
distributors. After the distributor has paid the manufacturer, each month of nonpayment by the buyer results
in a 1% loss (not including warehousing, overhead, and
other costs). Today's market dictates that prompt
payment is worth money. Thus, when establishing terms,
if the client pays promptly, most suppliers will give
better service.

An Assessment of the Ponape Dory Project

The International Center for Living Aquatic

Resources Management, MCC P. 0.Box 1501
Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines

Introduction
The Ponape Dory Project has been in existence for
almost 3 years. It was begun in August 1972 with a
Federal Office of Economic Opportunity grant of
US$150,000. The initial grant was for a 2-year period
during which seven Oregon-type dories were to be constructed.
The three objectives of the project were:
(1) to develop a program that would train Ponapeans
to build, equip, and operate small, highly mobile,
open fishing craft without assistance;
(2) to initiate a training program in boat handling
and motor maintenance and repair; and
(3) to institute a similar training and demonstration
program in the fishing methods deemed most
applicable to Ponapean waters in an effort to
exploit the full potential of the dory as a fishing
platform.
This program was designed t o provide the foundation for
a practical ongoing commercial fishery in Ponape. Even
though there is a small subsistence fishery that utilizes
'present address: P. 0. Box 61, Tufts University Branch,
Medford, Massachusetts 02153. U.S.A.

locally built plywood boats and outboard engines

operating out of Kolonia in conjunction with the Ponape
Fisherman's Cooperative, the Dory Project can be considered as the only real attempt made to date to develop
a commercial fishery in Ponape.
Although this project has met certain aspects of its
proposed goals-most notably the construction, outfitting, and operation of dories by Ponapeans-the fact
remains that the dory fishery, as it is presently operating,
has not developed as a self-sustaining, economically
viable enterprise.
Of the 15 dories constructed by the project to date
(seven in the initial stage and eight in the second phase),
only three dories are actively fishing on a continuous
basis. Currently, the Ponape Community Action Agency
(CAA), the parent agency of the Ponape Dory Project, is
subsidizing the boat shop with approximately US$70,000
per year.
Thus in this report, both the major problem areas of
the Dory Project and its achievements will be discussed
for the benefit of future fishery programs W a r to the
Ponape Project. The major problem areas encountered
by the Ponape Dory Project fall into three distinct categories: (1) ongoing maintenance and repair of dories
and engines, (2) loan repayments, and (3) fishing tech-

161~roceedin~s
of theICLARMConference on Small Boat Design
niques.
While the project has been in operation, it has been
constrained by two major problems over which it has
had little or no control and which have seriously affected
the fmancial operation of the project. When the project
was initiated in August 1972, it was impossible to anticipate the massive repercussions that worldwide inflation
and the dramatic increase in the price of gasoline would
bring. Since 1973, gasoline prices in Ponape have more
than doubled, drastically affecting the daily operation of
the dories. The original construction cost of a fully
equipped dory was US$5,500. The second group of eight
dories was estimated to cost US$7,000 each. However,
subsequent inflation boosted this price to US$8,200 as
of August 1974; and the price undoubtedly has increased
in the past year. This represents more than a 49%
increase in the construction costs of the dory during the
past 2% years.
Inflation has even more severely affected a similarly
run dory project initiated by the Government of the
Gilbert and Ellice Islands where the most recently constructed dories eventually cost A$11,200 (approximately
US$l 5,000).
Ongoing Maintenance and Repair
The Ponape Dory Project is 24 ft 6 in long and is constructed of mahogany frames covered with %-in grade AA
marine plywood. The dories utilize a 155 hp, model 250,
six-cylinder Ford engine converted for marine use and
coupled with a two-stage Hamilton jet.
The first objective of the project has been almost
completely met. The dories constructed in Ponape are of
high quality and superior workmanship. The Ponapeans
who were trained to build and equip the dories have
become skilled craftsmen. Dories constructed more than
2 years ago are still in operation.
The same situation does not exist for the installation,
maintenance, and repair of engines. Only as late as a year
ago, the engine workshop on the Dory Boat Works was
in extremely poor shape. However, this situation appears
to have been remedied recently with the hiring of a new
mechanic who is reputed to be possibly the best in
Ponape. His skill is clearly evident in that motor repair
(other than the lag time required for the delivery of
spare parts) no longer appears to be a major problem.
However, daily maintenance operations are still a
persistent problem. Maintenance costs on the boat are
estimated by the Ponape Dory Works to run approximately US$60 per month and remain a problem despite
the maintenance and repair policy instituted by the
Ponape Dory Works at the initiation of the project. This
policy was:
1. All parts and labor on necessary repairs not occur-

ring through negligence would be covered by the

Community Action Agency for the first 90 days
of boat operation.
Thereafter, parts would be supplied free for the
next 90 days, but labor would be charged.
After 180 days, parts, maintenance, and labor
would be charged for in their entirety.
The monthly maintenance costs appear to be the
direct result of problems encountered with the dory
engines and with the continual need to replace motor
parts. The mechanical problems of the Ford 155 hp
engine most frequently encountered by the project
mechanic were:
(1) Many of the Ford engines have cracked exhaust
manifolds. This problem is possibly the result of engine
racing at excessive rpm. The manufacturer recommends
that the jets be run at approximately 3,500 rpm; but in
trials, engine speeds of 3,700 to 4,500 rpm were often
noted. On flat bottom dories, the high engine rpm appear
to result directly f ~ o minability of the Hamilton jet unit
to function efficiently in short, steep, choppy seas and
on turns. Under these sea conditions the intake unit of
the jet is unable to supply the required volume of water
to the propulsion system. As a result, air pockets are
formed, causing the motor to race excessively and overheat; these conditions possibly result in the cracked
manifolds.
(2) On the Ford engine, the starters are placed so
low on the motor block that they are almost in the bilge
of the dory. During the heavy rains that frequently
occur in Ponape, the starters are often submerged in the
bilge water and are eventually lost through rust.
(3) The dory utilizes 40-gal aluminum gas tanks that
are custom-made on the U.S. mainland and shipped intact
to Ponape. Approximately six tanks from the last shipment are useless due to poor welding of tank seams by
the supplier. These tanks have corroded and the seams
have split. The project has been forced to absorb the
cost of the entire shipment. Another problem resulting
from the gas tanks is that the welded tank seams pull
apart as a result of the constant pounding of the flat
bottomed dories in short, steep, choppy waters.
(4) In many dories, the electrical system shows signs
of advanced corrosion in the wiring, especially in areas
near the bilge. Apparently, this is the result of a lack of
daily maintenance.
(5) Initially, the original seven dories had hydraulic
steering systems. Unfortunately, the rams on these steering systems tended to jam. To simplify boat maintenance
and operation, the manager of the Dory Works replaced
the entire hydraulic system with a simple cable steering
mechanism.
(6) A constant problem with the dory engines is

Ponape Doly project/ 17

overheating. This is probably the result of insufficiently

ventilated motor covers.
(7) The outdrive unit of the Hamilton jet is constructed of aluminum. At the outset of the project, the
dories developed extensive corrosion problems on the
outdrive units as a result of electrolysis. This problem
has been remedied by placing zinc plates on the outside
of the hull. However, some of the dory operators have
been negligent in replacing the zinc plates, and the
aluminum outdrive units continue to corrode.
(8) In the engine workshop of the Dory Works, there
is a box filled with engine parts that have been replaced
from the first 10 dories. If the parts in this box are to be
taken as any indication, the weak links in the engine are
primarily the starters and the generator, and in some
cases the carburetor.
(9) The hydraulic line pulling systems placed on
several dories in the first phase of the project have never
been utilized and consequently have been abandoned,
and in some cases removed.
The question has been raised as to why gasoline
engines were initially selected for use in the dories.
Although many shortcomings are involved in utilizing
gasoline engines for a project of this type, a major advantage is that this motor is basically an automobile engine
that has been moclified for marine use. A number of
mechanics are located on Ponape as well as other Pacific
Islands (such as the present mechanic employed by the
Dory Project) who have had wide experience working on
automobile engines and require no extensive training for
the dory engine. The Ford dealer on Ponape presently
carries a line of appropriate spare parts. A former
situation of a severe backlog of spare parts due to delay
in reordering practices and poor management has been
solved to some extent, but there is still a 3-month time
lag from the moment parts are ordered until they arrive
on Ponape.
Another problem is the lack of follow-up on the initial
motor maintenance training and trouble-shooting program. Initially, only 30 hours of training were given to
each new boat owner. This training included boat
handling, engine starting and trouble-shooting, and
minor maintenance and repair.
In the case of most of the dory owners, this was the
first time that they handled anything larger than an
outboard motor. Thus, the introduction of the dories
caused an extremely large jump in technology transfer.
This particular training program should have been one
of the foundations of the entire Dory Project; yet the
initial session was the only training in motor maintenance
that the dory owners ever received. Although the facilities for doing so presently exist, and although the services of an exceedingly capable mechanic are available,

no follow-up maintenance and repair training programs

have been organized.
Many of the problems regarding engine maintenance
and repair could have been alleviated by simple preventive
maintenance measures. Thus, any future programs should
provide for long-term and sustained training programs in
these particular areas.
Loan Repayments

Discussions were held with the Economic Development Loan Officer responsible for loans made to dory
owners by the Trust Territory Government. Of the 15
dories constructed by the Ponape Dory Project, two are
currently owned outright by the Community Action
Agency; one belongs to the Office of Marine Resources;
two have been repossessed by the Government for nonpayment of loans and are kept at Marine Resources; two
belong to government employees (a high school principal
and a doctor) who paid for the dories from their government salaries and are only casual weekend fishermen;
one dory was lost at sea off Guam; and one dory is used
primarily on one of the outer islands. The remaining six
dories have loans outstanding through the governmentsponsored Production Development Loan Program. The
boat owner most up to date in repayment is still 2
months behind; the next best is 5 months behind. All
others are 11 to 15 months in arrears on payments. Out
of a total loan of US$5,500, the largest sum that has
been repaid to date on any dory is US$1,400 (Table I).
No set standards have been made for repossession of the
dories when an owner has fallen in arrears on his payments. Although the Marda and the Lisa have been
repossessed, the Suana-15 months in arrears-is still in
operation; apparently not one payment has been made
to date.
According to the Economic Development Loan
Officer, the primary excuse for nonpayment of loans is
that not enough fish are caught to cover the operational
cost of the dory and payment of the crew, as well as the
monthly loan repayment. However, he is not of the
opinion that this excuse is in fact always the case, since
even the most effective dory in the fleet, the Luck, is still
5 months in arrears on its loan payments.
Other owners have complained that the Dory Works
does not provide sufficient help in maintaining and
repairing the dory engines. The fishermen believe there is
evidence that when a dory is experiencing mechanical
problems, the crew is hesitant to go beyond the outer
reef to the primary fishing grounds.
The fishermen's preference for trolling for skipjack
tuna rather than on diversifying the fishery by incorporating other techniques (such as bottom handlining) is
one of the main reasons the dory owners are not making

18/Proceedings of theICLARMConference on Small Boat Design

Table 1. Loans for financing dories obtained from governmentsponsored Production Development Loan Program, April 24,
1975.

Dory
Lisa
Luck
Suana
Marda
Y. Fin
Anatoki
(Marine Resources
Nekton No. 3)
Marlin

Months in
arrears

Loan balance

$5,000.00~
5,600.00
5,550.00
5,550.00~
5,550.00
5,000.00~

11
5
15
12
2
0

$4,196.31
4,749.86
5,550.00
5,402.35
4,351.24
0

5,550.00~

Original loan

a~epossessed
b~aidoff by insurance company after destruction
%ought by Marine Resources

money. Even during the off-season for skipjack, the dory

fishermen still persist in trolling. This method of fishing
uses an inordinate amount of fuel. With gasoline presently
selling for US$0.62 per gallon, operating expenses for
the dories have risen from US$12.50 per day in 1972 to
more than an estimated US$30 per day. The present
catch rates from trolling are not enough to cover this
expense as well as payment of the crew and the monthly
loan repayment.
The financing of the boats is for 3 years at 3% interest
with a 6-month grace period before the first payment is
due. The monthly payments have ranged from US$150
per month for the first seven dories to US$210 per month
for the second set of eight dories. Apparently, the original purpose of the period was to give each dory owner
an opportunity to learn the operation of his boat, to
improve his fishing techniques, and to establish hjmsel f
economically.
Since the project has already been in operation for 2%
years, it appears that the grace period has not proved to
be an incentive for the dory owners to make their loan
payments on time. It is apparent that the dory owners
feel little or no pressure to meet their loan responsibilities
after this 6-month period expires.
The failure in the loan repayment system is that many
of the fishermen have had little or no experience with
systems of credit. A solution to this problem would be
to require both a downpayment and immediate monthly
loan repayments. The fisherman should be required to
put some of his owmequity into the dory; mere particicipation by the individual fisherman in the construction
and outfitting of the dory is not sufficient.
An excellent sample of a fisheries development program which required equity participation is one initiated
in early 1970 in Western Samoa. The government there

provided outboard motors on credit; but each village

wishing to participate in the project was required to
construct its own fishing craft fiom locally available
material as part of its equity contribution.

Fishing Techniques
Neither catch rates nor the number of trips per boat
came close to the levels anticipated in the original project
proposal (Table 2). The number of trips per month is
approximately one-half of what was initially projected.
The two main problem areas apparently were a general
failure to train the fishermen to use the proper methods
for the appropriate seasonal fishing, and a general failure
to maintain the fishing activities of each dory for a
sustained period of time.
Trolling, as mentioned, is by far the preferred method
of fishing used by the dory fishermen in Ponape.
Although bottom fishing is more economical in terms of
fuel costs, very few fishermen consistently utilize this
method even during the off-season for skipjack when it
probably would prove profitable to do so. During the
early training stages of the Dory Project, the initial
bottom fishing trials showed considerable promise. In
three successive nights of bottom fishing in April 1973,
900 lb of fish were landed the first night, 1,200 lb the
second night; and 700 lb the third night. The few boat
owners that go bottom fishing at present are not successful, primarily because they are not fishing at night in
areas that are deep enough water beyond the main reef
and away from the main population at Kolonia. The
initial bottom fishing trails were camed out on the outer
reef edge in 40 to 120 fathoms of water, mainly off the
southwest tip of the island. Other successful trials were
conducted along the outer reef on the northeast side of
the main channel near Kolonia.
When the Dory Project was begun, training courses in
appropriate fishing methods applicable to the waters
surrounding Ponape were an integral part of the program.
However, these training programs were only 2 weeks
long. Various methods of trolling and bottom handlining
were demonstrated to the dory owners. When these
initial training demonstration courses were completed
for the first six dory owners, the program was discontinued by the project. To date, there has been no followup program. A sustained and ongoing fishermen's training program in suitable bottom fishing methods for deep
water reefs species is greatly needed. A major problem
with this fishery at present is an overdependence on a
one-species (i.e., skipjack) seasonal fishery. There is a
great need to diversify the methods of the dory fishing
fleet.
The other serious sociocultural problem is that
fishermen will not fish for more than 3 or 4 days in

IMTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR Llwns

Mum RESOURCES MA)IA~NEIU~
LIBRARY

Ponape Dory Project/ 19

Table 2. Average tuna catch per trip for the first nine boats in the Ponape dory fleet, March 1973-June 1974. Data from catch statistics
forms submitted by dory owners in the Ponape Fishermen's Cooperative Association and the Department of Natural Resources. Analysis
concentrates on skipjack since prices paid for skipjack and bottom fish at the Ponape Co-op were not differentiated on the data forms
and because 82%of the dory trips between March 1973 and June 1974 were for skipjack.
Limwehtu

Lisa Anatoki

Marlin

Luck

Marda

Sea Queen

Suana

Yellowfin

Totals

Total no. trips

Tuna catch (Ib)
No. reef trips
Avg. no. fishermen
Avg. no. tripslmo
Avg. catch/mo
Avg. no. reef tripslmo
No. months fished
Avg, catch per trip
Avg. catchlfisherman

succession. As in many areas of the Pacific, fishing

activity is sustained only long enough to earn sufficient
cash to meet a family's immediate needs or to pay off
local village obligations. Once these responsibilities are
met, it is not unusual for fishing activities to be discontinued for up to as much as a week at a time until cash
reserves are again depleted. The concept of a "commercial" fisherman, as is known in the United States or
Japan, is alien to their culture.
Originally, it was anticipated that the dories would
carry trained, permanent crews. Currently, none of the
dories has a permanent crew, unless it is entirely a family
operation. Dory owners have found it difficult t o maintain permanent crews, and at present they normally
select crews on a short-term basis only. A general consensus of opinion among the management personnel of
the Dory Project is that the most successful boats are
those operated on a family basis. A similar situation was
true for the Dory Project in American Samoa. It thus
appears that family operations provide a cohesion which
does not otherwise exist.
The dories were designed to hold a total catch of
greater than 1 ton. From March 1972 to June 1974 (the
period for which catch data are available), the most any
one boat caught in a single month while making no less
than four trips is a little more than 1 % tons. Catches by
the dories initially increased from an average 103 lb per
trip to a peak average of 237 lb in October 1973 (Fig. 1).
Thereafter, catches fell considerably. The initial increases
in dory catch rates can probably be attributed to two
factors: existence of the fishermen's training program,
and the onset of the 1973 skipjack season during the
summer months. Catches dramatically declined irnmediately after the skipjack left the Ponape area. To help
subsidize the fleet during this period, the CAA allowed
boat owners to purchase gasoline for dory operations on
credit. Until this credit subsidy was stopped in early 1974,

the boat owners managed to incur a US$10,000 debt t o

the CAA in fuel purchases.
In July 1974, the CAA instituted a new policy. Fuel
purchases were no longer allowed on credit. Dory owners
were expected to buy their own fuel supplies and simultaneously pay off the US$10,000 debt. This was accomplished by deducting 10%of the total purchase price of
each catch landed and sold at the Ponape Co-op and by
applying it toward payment of past bills owed to the
CAA. The initiation of this new fuel repayment policy
placed an additional financial burden on the fishermen,
making it difficult for them to meet the payments for
the dory loans, the crew's wages, and the boat's operations. This may be just one more reason why the volume
of the catch landed by the dory fleet at Kolonia declined.
Faced with this further 10% deduction on their catch
earnings, the fishermen apparently felt that their operations were even more unprofitable than before .the
initiation of this policy. It appears that at present, this
policy is no longer in operation.
Another major setback for the Dory Project was that

Fig. 1. Average catch per trip by month for the first nine boats in
the Ponape dory fleet, March 1973-June 1974.

2OI~roceedin~s
of the ICLARM Conference on Small Boat Design
the number of skipjack found off Ponape during the
summer of 1974 was smaller than had been anticipated.
High catch rates did not materialize during this period
and thus earnings fell even further.
Catch and Effort Analysis
The Lisa and the Luck also made the greatest number
of trips per month (Table 2). Differences in the fishing
skills of the crews of the various dories were quite
apparent. For example, the Luck made 40% fewer trips
than the Lisa, but caught only 15% less than the Lisa in
terms of total catch, Although the Lisa registered the
largest total catch in pounds during the period of study,
the Luck had an average catch per month and per trip
that was considerably greater than any other boat in the
dory fleet. The Luck also had the highest catch per
effort in the dory fleet with 70.1 lb per fisherman per
trip. In fishing efficiency, the only other boat with a
similar catch per effort was the Marlin with 66 lb per
fisherman per trip. As would be expected, catches were
strongly correlated with the number of trips per month;
total landings (in pounds) of fish increased as the
number of trips increased.
In the original proposal for the Ponape Dory Project,
it was anticipated that the fishermen would fish approximately 200 nights per year. However, the dories were
averaging only 8 to 12 trips per month, one-half of the
number of fishing trips predicted (Table 2). In terms of
maximizing the revenues for each dory, it should be
noted that the number of fishermen on any particular
trip apparently had no significant impact on the total
tuna catch landed. This result is not too surprising, given
the method used to catch skipjack. To maximize the
individual fisherman's share on future trolling trips, only
the minimum number of fishermen necessary (probably
two fishermen and one helmsman) should be carried
aboard each dory. More than two fishermen per dory
only reduces the total share received per trip. Because
the dory is designed for both trolling and bottom-fishing,
the optimum crew size will vary with the type of fishing
being undertaken. Each dory owner should maintain
flexibility in varying the number of crew; a small crew
should be used for trolling, while a larger crew should be
used for evening bottom fishing.

Dory Performance
While in Ponape, I made several short trips in both a
flat bottom dory and a modified V-bottom dory to
ascertain their performance capabilities. Due to heavy
seas on the outer reef, the dories were run only in the
channel area inside the reef near Kolonia. Currently the
flat bottom dory is being used by the Office of Marine

Resources, while the modified V-bottom dory is owned

by the Community Action Agency. Both dories are
powered by a Ford Model 250 C.I.D. six-cylinder engine
equipped with marine conversion at 155 hp and coupled
to a two-stage Hamilton jet. According to personnel at
both offices, the performance of each dory was considered typical of other dories in'the fleet.
As stated in the original proposal, the dories were
expected t o achieve an estimated maximum speed of 28
mph at 3,800 rpm. Both the flat bottom and modified
V-bottom dories performed far below this predicted
speed. The Marine Resources dory, the Nekton No. 3,
formerly the Anatoki, is one of the original flat bottom
dories utilizing the Hamilton jet. In tests with this dory,
the maximum speed was approximately 19 mph. The
engine tended to race occasionally due to the slight chop
in the inner reef, and the hull was unable t o reach a planing position even when running at maximum speed.
After the initial phase of the Ponape Dory Project,
the dories were redesigned and constructed with a
modified V-bottom t o attain better performance with
the Hamilton jet, especially in the short, steep, choppy
seas around Ponape. The CAA owns one of the new
modified V-bottom dories. This boat is also powered by
a Ford marine engine connected to a Hamilton jet.
In test runs, it performed somewhat better than the
flat bottom dory, attaining a top speed of approximately
21 mph and showing no engine racing. Even so, the Vbottom dory was still unable to reach a planing position
running at a top speed of 3,700 rpm.
Similarly designed dories in the American Samoa
Dory Project were powered by a 135-hp gasoline VolvoPenta with inboard-outboard drive. These dories were
able to attain a top speed of approximately 28 mph.
Although the American Samoa Dory utilized 13% less
horsepower than the Ponape V-bottom dory, it was able
t o achieve approximately 25% more speed. Translated
into savings on fuel expenses, it is apparent that the
American Samoa Dory is approximately 25 to 30% less
expensive to operate than the Ponape Dory.
Thus, a major problem appears to be that the jet drive
unit mounted on the Ponape Dory was incompatible
with the dory design. Landed in Ponape, the Hamilton
jet unit costs approximately US$800 each. Its use was to
allow the dories to travel in waters which were too
shallow for either outboard or conventional through-thehull straight shaft propeller driven boats. It was believed
that the jets were a necessity in Ponape due to the
extensive surrounding outer reef. However, a trade-off
must be considered when the high initial investment
required to purchase a Hamilton jet is compared to the
cost of a conventional straight-shaft direct inboard drive.
Every effort should be made to reduce the cost of the

Ponape Dory ~rojectl21

dory to a level that can easily be afforded by the Ponape

fishermen. Conventional through-the-hull direct-drive
units can be installed for only a frxtion of the cost of a
jet unit. Utilization of a jet unit should be considered
only in areas where it is absolutely essential that either
wide expanses of shallow reef be crossed on a continuous
basis or where boats must be beached daily.
The boatbuilders, the e n a e mechanics, and the
manager of the Ponape Dory Works generally agree that
the price of the dory was far beyond the means of the
average Ponape fisherman and that the price of any
future desia introduced into Ponape should be in the
range of US$2,000-$3,000. This figure was based on the
cost of a locally constructed plywood boat (approximately US$600-$800) and a 25-hp outboard (US$800),
with the consensus that the local fisherman would be
willing to pay a slightly higher price for a more seaworthy
and reliable design, capable of outer-reef fishing in all
but the most serious weather conditions. Even so, the
ability of the fisherman to afford a fully outfitted
fishing craft costing between US$2,000-$3,000 may be
questionable. The apparent repayment rate for the locally
constructed fishing boats is not much better than that of
the dories.
Serious consideration should be given to scaling down
the design of the dories presently being constructed at
the Ponape Dory Works. Although the dory is designed
to carry a catch load of llh to 1% tons, to date, daily
catch rates have fallen far below this design capacity.
The maximum fish load presently required for the Ponape
fishery is apparently no greater than 800 to 1,000 lb
(Table 2). Further consideration should be given to constructing a boat with a hull that can easily be driven at a
top speed of 14 to 15 mph, that is no greater than 18 to
20 ft long, and is capable of carrying a maximum fish
load of 800. The power source should be not only
reliable,but also economical in terms of fuel consumption.
A 1974 report on the Ponape Dory Project stated
that if the mechanical problems the project was encountering were corrected and that if the price of fuel were
lowered, the project could begin operating on a financially sound basis. The first point has been rectified
somewhat with the hiring of a new mechanic. However,

the price of fuel has not been reduced, nor can it be

expected to be lowered in the foreseeable future. Given
the present catch rates and the high operating expenses
required to run the dory, the Ponape fishermen are
faced with an inordinately large financial burden.
One major problem area with the Ponape project was
a lack of ongoing sustained training programs for fishing
techniques applicable for use in the dory, use and operation of the dory, and maintenance and repair of dory
engines. In most instances, initial training programs were
discontinued after the opening phases of the project.
Although seriously needed, no follow-up occurred in this
area, especially in fishing techniques and motor maintenance.
The original estimates of catch rates (upon which the
economic feasibility of the Dory Project was based)
proved to be highly optimistic not as to the general
availability of fish, but in regard to the fishermen's performance. In particular, the projected plan called for
200 fishing trips per year. On the average,,the actual performance came to less than half this number. The dories
averaged only 5 to 12 trips per month (Table 2).
Another major problem was the almost total dependence of the fishermen on a seasonal skipjack fishery and
their unwillingness to adopt fishing techniques other
than trolling. It was not uncommon for the dories to continue trolling for skipjack during the off-season. The consequent catch rates were so low that they were inadequate to cover the operatingexpenses, the crew payments,
and the loan repayments.
The choice ofjet-power for the dory propulsion system
seems to have been a mistake. The incompability of the
jet system with the dory design has resulted in poor
speed, high engine rpm, and consequently poor fuel
economy and high operating expenses. The carrying
capacity as designed for the dories is far too great for the
present landed catch rates.
It appears that the dories are overdesigned and uneconomical for the type of artisanal fishery operation
required for Ponape. They are too great a technological
jump from the fishing craft previously utilized by the
Ponapeans. Thus, a scaled-down design capable of outerreef fishing should be seriously considered.

Cultural Aspects of Economic Development

Efforts in Ponape

Ponape Community Action Agency

Kolonia, Ponape
Eastern Caroline Islands 96941
Trust Territory o f the Pacific Islands

The traditional fishing techniques commonly used by

Ponape Islanders are gillnetting and the use of the poisonous vine. Trolling for skipjack, bottom handline fishing
for other reef and lagoon fish, and skindiving with spear
gun were introduced into Ponape by the Japanese and
people from other island areas in the Pacific.
For the 20 years of the American administration,
Ponapeans have used small 18-ft boats powered by
outboard engines for fishing. The adoption and use of
this type of fishing equipment has been extensive and is
quite easy for a Ponapean fisherman to handle. Beginning
in 1972, the Oregon dory was introduced with a higher
horsepower engine and a jet drive propulsion system.
Though the dory is quite easy to handle, several components exist which Ponapean fishermen, who often are
not mechanics, must learn to operate and maintain. In
addition the dory is equipped for several types of fishery
operations which are not commonly performed with the
small 18-ft boats. As indicated in Ritterbush (this volume) . . . "the introduction of the dories caused an
extremely large jump in technology transfer."
From a cultural perspective, Ponapeans are commonly
known for being too gentle and generous. Most
Ponapeans would say "let it be done as it is, or let those
in command or who have been to school take care of it

for us. We wait to see what happens. If it is good or productive, we'll join in later, otherwise not." The initiative
towards development is somewhat limited if not totally
lacking. Our people have lived under four different
foreign administrations-Spanish, German, Japanese, and
now American. Older Ponapeans have been influenced
one way or another under these different administrations.
One influence has been religious teachings which have
stuck in the minds of many Ponapeans and have become
an integral part of their behavior. An example of this
influence is found in the Bible, Matthew 6:34: "Therefore do not be anxious about tomorrow, for tomorrow
will be anxious for itself. Let the day's own trouble be
sufficient for the day." This Biblical statement, as implanted in the minds of many of our old folks, has
resulted in what may be the best termed as "short-term,
goal-oriented people," thus creating a stumbling block to
future development in Ponape.
Ponapeans are accustomed to working for short
periods or only long enough to gain what they want for
the day, for an occasion, or for a feast. Once they have
achieved such a short-term goal, they feel satisfied and
relax. The concept of the long-range goal is, in many
Ponapean minds, limited, if not totally lacking. The idea
of working in a shop or in one area for 8 hours or 24

Cultural Aspects of ~ e v e b p m e n t / 2 3

hours per day to earn a living is not that important, nor

is it a part of Ponapean work habits.
Ponape has an integrated society where everyone
knows everybody. If a man dies in a community, everyone in that community attends the funeral which lasts
for at least 3 days. If one is an employee of the government of business, or if any important work has been
scheduled when someone dies, both work and plans must
be delayed so that everyone can attend community
affairs. If one does not attend, the rest of the people
will consider the individual disrespectful, unloving and
nonconforming- to the values of the community. This
social factor does affect a fisherman's time.
Ponapeans do not concentrate on one type of work
to earn a living. Previously, four basic items were necessary for a Ponapean to be referred to as a "man to be
honored": (I) house, (2) yam, (3) kava, and (4) pig. As
new material things are being continuously introduced,
i.e., cars and outboard motors, these are being added to
this list.
When a fisherman acquires a new boat for small-scale
commercial fishing, he does not divorce himself completely from these four items. If he goes fishing 5 days a week
and obtains enough money to buy food and other necessities for his family for the next few weeks, then normally
he will stop fishing to work on his yam and Ms kava, to
feed his pig, or maintain his house. This attitude affects
his fishing time. Conversely, if he had fuhed and made
more money, he might spend the money to build a new
house or to buy a car, while disregarding his obligation
to repay his loan.
An important facet of the Ponapean system of life is
to maintain a harmonious family, and to do so, certain
family obligations must be observed. For example, if one
person from a family is employed, he is obligated to
divide his wages among the members of his family to
enable them to buy necessities. The effect of this is that
the wage earner does not often have enough surplus
either to deposit in a bank to earn interest or to invest in
other business ventures that have economic potential.
Most Ponapeans have developed the attitude that the
Government can take care of their affairs. For example,
if one is indebted to the Government or any other institution, he is inclined to believe that the Government or
the institution is rich and therefore would not come after
him for the debt. In one instance, a dory boat owner was
asked what he would do if he could not make enough
money by fishing to repay hisloan. He said, "I don't care
if I do not make enough money to pay for the loan
because it is Government money, and the Government is
supposed to help the people."
Ponapeans want to think of the present and get what
they want now, not in the future. If they set out on a

business venture, they like to see immediate results. The

concept of deferred gratification is limited in the minds
of many Ponapeans, particularly the elderly whom the
young do respect.
The Trust Territory Government's loan requirements
and their administration are perhaps not stiff enough to
encourage the average Ponapean to meet his monthly
payments. Also, orientation and follow-up services are
inadequate for the people who have received economic
development loans. As a result, the purpose of the economic development project is defeated when the person
finds himself unable to pay back the loan because he is
not producing. When he does produce, he often fmds
there is no market for his products and thus is discouraged and stops the operation of his business. Additionally, when he does make money, he tends to spend it on
other things which he does not already have.
Generosity is a Ponapean characteristic. If, for example, one has $100 budgeted as a monthly installment for
a repayment loan, and a relative or friend asks for help
to buy some rice or kerosene for his family, the Ponapean
would naturally respond favorably to him. The Ponapean
would assist, in this case, even if an insuficient amount
of money, or nothing at aU, remains to pay toward the
loan for that month.
Traditionally, our economy had been mainly one of
subsistence. A monetary economy is a foreign concept
which is, however, finding its way into our present lifestyle. It is not easy to completely and immediately
divorce ourselves from a subsistence economy to adapt
to the newly introduced c& economy, because our way
of life depends on both systems.
Thus, if a Ponapean goes to an honored feast or funeral, he does not needmoney to contribute to these affairs.
He must have yam, pig, and kava as his main contributions, and money becomes secondary. Perhaps the next
generation will adopt the cash economy as their primary
way of life as opposed to the combined subsistence and
cash economy that we live with today.
When considering any economic development venture
in Ponape, one must consider these cultural aspects of
our people. To devise positive remedies, perhaps the most
important matter one should consider is the availability
of an efficient orientation program and follow-up services
throughout the term of the project. When a Ponapean
realizes that after a certain period of time, he may earn a
certain amount of money from an investment, that is
the time that the majority will join in. This will break
the barrier of the "let's wait and see" or "let the government take care of it" attitude. Only when the concept
and purpose of development efforts are completely
understood will the average Ponapean realize and accept
such ideas as long-term goals or planning for the future.

Boats Designed for A Village Fishery

in Western Samoa
@VIND

GULBRANDSEN
AND ARILDOVERAA

FA OIDANIDA Village Fisheries

Development Project
Apia, Western Samoa

Introduction
A survey conducted throughout Western Samoa in
December 1974 showed the following number of fishing
craft and engines:
Fishing Craft

Local Name

1,130 Small outrigger canoes

140 Bonito canoes
10 Western-type boats
83 Outboard motors, 6-40 hp

paopao
va'aalo
va'aafi
alia

The paopao is unsuitable for use in the open sea and

only the larger va'aalo can be fitted with outboard
motors. The alias are always used with an engine as are
most of the va'aafi. The number of fishing craft, either
paddled or mechanized, used outside the reef is thus
about 170 compared with 1,130 paopaos, which are used
primarily for inshore fishing. This emphasizes the heavy
reliance on the lagoon fishery in Western Samoa. The
only resource capable of sustaining increased catches,
howsver, is situated outside the reef, mainly skipjack
tuna and bottom fish at the 60-150 fathom (1 10-274 m)
depth. Presently Western Samoa is annually importing

more than US$1 million in tinned fish and there is a

need to expand local production of fresh fish to counteract this heavy drain on foreign exchange. The Government has, in its Five-Year Development Plan 1975-1979,
put the main emphasis on strengthening the economic
foundation of the outer villages. The Fisheries Division
within the Department of Agriculture has prepared a
village Fisheries Development Project with an aid input
of US$408,000 from the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) channelled through FAO.
Boat development within this project falls into three
phases: (1) Support to viable fishing units using traditional craft and outboard engines, (2) Introduction of new
boats, and (3) Expansion of boatbuilding.
The motorization of traditional craft began 6 to 7
years ago. Several setbacks occurred at the start, partly
due to difficulties in keeping the engines running and
partly through an undue reliance on village fisheries cooperatives. The fisherman often had to wait 6 months
for spare parts and there was also a lack of trained mechanics. The Fisheries Division in 1973 established an
outboard engine repair shop with the assistance of the
Japanese Overseas Volunteers Organization (JOCV) and
in late 1974 the Government placed a bulk order for 50

Boats for Village ~ishe&fi

outboard engines of 20 hp with spare parts. This had the
advantage of reducing the price from WS$400 to
~ ~ $ 3 5 0per
' engine and at the same time facilitating
the spare-part supply through standardization. These 50
engines arrived in February 1975 and were sold out
within 2 weeks, indicating a tremendous demand on the
part of the village fishermen for further motorization.
Records show that a typical fishing unit consists of a
traditional craft with outboard motor, employs two to
three men, makes 100 trips per year (two per week) and
has an average catch of 80-100 lb (36-46 kg) per trip. The
yearly catch is approximately 4 tons per unit, valued at
WS$2,500. The investment cost for a traditional fishing
unit is about WS$400 for the alia, WS$410 for the engine,
and WS$100 for fishing gear. The total investment is,
therefore, around WS$900 (approximately US$l,l25).
In early 1975 the Government established an "Agriculture Store" where fishing gear, engines, and spare
parts are sold with only a 5% duty. l'hi's has been of
major assistance to the village fishermen and has removed
one of the major obstacles to development in the pastessential gear and equipment were not available or were
available only at high cost.

Fig. 1. Type A boat: a 28-ft, single-hull, diesel boat with removable propeller for shallow draft.

Introduction of New Boat Designs

CHOICE OF BOAT TYPES

The motorization of existing local craft was the first

logical step in the development of the village fishery outside the reef. These craft, although excellent for their
original purpose, do not always perform well with an outboard motor and new boat types were required for a
further expansion of the fishery. After 1 year of building
and testing various types of boats ranging from 18 ft to
28 ft (5.5-8.5 m), the choice had been narrowed down
to two types.
Type A : 28-ft (8.5 m) single-hull, V-bottom
boat with a 20-lip inboard engine. Cost
of boat and engine is WS$2,500. Maximum speed is 9.5 knots (Fig. 1).
Type B : 28-ft (8.5 m) a catamaran with 25-hp
outboard engine and a 5-hp spare
engine. Cost of boat and engines is
WS$1,420. Maximum speed is 13 knots
(Fig. 2).
Extensive fishing trials proved that the smaller boats
of 18-20 ft (5.6-6.1 m) were more hampered by weather
and proved inferior for bottom handlining. Type A is an
inboard engine version of a 28-ft outboard powered boat.
The long and slender hull has proven to be easily driven
for medium speed in the region of 9-10 knots. This speed

Fig. 2. Type B boat: a 28-ft alia with 25-hp outboard engine.

is considered essential for catching skipjack which often

move in fast-running schools. A faster boat, such as used
in Tahiti with a speed of around 25 knots, is of course
advantageous when chasing tuna schools, but the power
requirements increase out of proportion and it is also
difficult to maintain the high speed of a planing-type
boat in the average sea conditions around Samoa. A speed
of 9-10 knots can be maintained economically and relatively comfortably with a 20-hp inboard engine, in a hull
specially designed for this "medium-speed." The main
feature of such a hull is a sharp bow, lengthlbeam ratio
of 4-5, and a flat transom stern. A planing-type hull of
lengthlbeam ratio of 3 is uneconomical to operate below
a speed of 15 knots.
Experiments were made with an inboard petrol engine
of an air-cooled, industrial type installed in a 23-ft (7 m)
boat. Although the basic engine is very cheap, we found
that by the time a gear, propeller shaft, propeller, and a
rudder had been added, together with the extra work
involved in preparing an engine bed and skegs, the total
cost was about the same as an outboard motor. We found

26/&oceedings of the ICLARM Conference on SmcrNBoat Design

the electric ignition system of this engine more vulnerable
to humidity and spray than the sealed CDI ignition system
of a modem outboard engine. A marine diesel engine of
moderate horsepower was therefore selected for the
inboard powered boat. So far four boats of Type A have
been delivered.
Type B is a catamaran and represents a further development of the local-type alia, with very much improved
seaworthiness. The local alias are made from hollowedout tree trunks and the heavy weight and low freeboard
make them very wet in an average sea condition. The new
alia is made of marine plywood and, although longer than
most local catamarans, is considerably lighter. The distance from the bow to the deck is long enough to avoid
most slamming in a head sea. Trials with an alia of 19 ft
(5.8 m) showed that length is important, especially for
the performance in head sea and the 28-ft version proved
superior. Compared with a 28-ft single hull boat, the alia
is about 2 knots faster with a 25-hp engine and the movements are more acceptableto the local fishermen who are
used to outrigger canoes. The position of the engine between the two hulls reduces the risk of getting the
trolling lines caught in the propeller, and the greater beam
reduces the chance of tangles when using bottom lines.
The alia is fitted out with four fishing reels of a local
manufacture which reduces the effort in hauling up fish
from 100 fathoms (183 m) or deeper. The 28-ft alia has
proven very popular with the local fishermen and so far
10 have been delivered since May 1976 with 20 more on
order.
CHOICE OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

When the boatbuilding program started in 1975,

local timber was used as much as possible. The boats were
builtwitha 12-mmplankingand seam batten construction.
It soon proved necessary to use Dynel sheathing t o above
the waterline due to the shrinkage and swelling opening
up the seams. With Dynel sheathing and epoxy resin, the
construction method has proven satisfactory. Due to
scarcity of local timber that would take pressure treatment, it became necessary to look for alternatives, and
from the beginning of 1976 we have imported pressuretreated plywood from Papua New Guinea. This plywood
has proven superior for planking and not much more
expensive, taking into account the saving in labor. We
consider it essential to use pressure treatment, and not just
specify marine plywood. A boat belonging to the Fisheries Division built of nontreated marine plywood required extensive repairs due to rot damage after only 4
years of service.
Aluminum is probably the ideal material for small
boats used in a village fishery where they are subject to
knocking against coral heads and dragging up the beaches.

FRP would require extensive protection to avoid damage

to the Gel coat and thereby possible future deterioration.
We are planning to build the two hulls of the alia in aluminum to evaluate this material versus the present
wooden construction.
CHOICE OF ENGINE

Boat construction in the village is feasible only when

using relatively simple boats powered with outboard
engines. The proper installation of a diesel engine requires
care and should be done by an experienced marine mechanic. The inboard powered boat is much more difficult
to build. Is it worth it? What will be the yearly operating
costs of a 28-ft boat with an outboard engine compared
to a diesel? Although the diesel has a more efficient
propeller, it is also 250 kg heavier. We have found that
with the same load the 28-ft with a 25-hp outboard is 3
knots faster than the 28-ft diesel-powered boat.
The diesel-powered boat is about WS$291 lower in
annual costs than the outboard (Table 1). This must be
balanced against the considerably higher investment cost
of the diesel (Table 2) and the inconvenience of not being
Table 1. Comparison of annual costs of operating outboard and
diesel-poweredfishing boats in Western Samoa.
Item

Annual costs (WS$)

Diesel
Outboard

Depreciation of boat over 5 years at 8%

interest
207
Depreciation of engine (outboard-2
years, diesel-5 years)
330
Fuel costs, 600 hlyear, % speed
(outboard-1.8 gal/h at $0.62/gal
diesel-0.9 gallh at $0.52/gal)
670
Maintenance and repair of boat
30
Maintenance 'and repair of engine
60
Repair and replacement of fishing gear
80
1,200
Wages, in cash or f&, 4 men

28 1
40
60
80
1,200

Total yearly costs

2,316

2,577

325
330

Table 2. Investment costs of outboard and diesel-powered fishing boats in Western Samoa.
Item
Cost of boat with accessories
including engine installation
Cost of engine and accessories
Total cost
a~ncludes5-hp spare engine.

Investment cost (WS$)

Outboard
Diesel

830,
590

1,300
1,200

1,420

2,500

Boats for Village ~ i s h e r ~ / 2 7

able to remove the engine easily and transport it t o an

experienced mechanic when breakdown occurs. Breakdowns of diesel engines occur less frequently than with
outboards, but are usually more serious, and repairs in a
village might be difficult. In Western Samoa a bus leaves
from almost every village each day, and an outboard
engine can be transported quickly to one of the two
workshops of the Fisheries Division. Although a diesel
engine is preferable when fishermen are operating out of
a protected port with the service facilities, for a village
fishery there is no clearcut advantage of one over the
other. In June 1976 the Government started t o provide
petrol mixed with outboard motor oil to registered fishermen at 5% duty. This has cut down the cost of fuel from
WS$0.90 to WS$0.62 per gallon.
Boatbuilding Project
In the middle of 1976 a new boatyard was completed
outside Apia and at present employs 16 men, mostly exleper patients. Two alias and one diesel boat are built
simultaneously using jigs. The construction time for a
28-ft alia, using four men, is 8 working days.
The cost of the alia is nearly 40% less than that of a
28-ft diesel (Table 3). The boats are sold fully equipped
through a hire purchase scheme whereby the fisherman
pays $150 in deposit for the 28-ft alia with a repayment
period of 18 months. If the fisherman repays the loan
within 9 months, a 20% rebate in the sale price is made.
The deposit for the diesel boat is $200 and repayment is
made over 3 years.
A pilot project for building the alia in the villages
rather than at the central boatyard was started in the
middle of 1976. Two 28-ft alias were built by the fishermen themselves with supervision from an experienced
boatbuilder. The results were encouraging, but much organization and supervision were required in the initial stages.
As the boatbuilding program expands, boat construction
will be introduced in other districts.
The boat construction program is financed by FAO/
DANIDA Village Fisheries Development Project which

Table 3. Comparative costs of constructing a 28-ft alia and a

28-ft diesel boat in Western Samoa.
28-ft alia
Timber
Paint and glue
Bronze fastenings
Dyne1 sheathing
Miscellaneous
Total Materials:
Labor, overhead and profit
Boat Price Only:
Engine
Spare engine, 5 hp
Fishing gear and equipment

28-ft diesel boat

650
830
1,290
4 10 (25 hp) 1,200 (20 hp)
180
250
250

Total (Fully equipped boat) WS$1,670

WS$2,740

plans t o introduce 120 new boats within 2 years. Repayments on loans go into a revolving fund in the Development Bank which will be used t o finance future boat
construction. The boatyard established near Apia will
operate as an independent company along commercial
lines. The project also includes a fish marketing scheme
which will bring fresh fish into the main population
centers and thereby reduce the present large dependency
on imported canned fish. Fishing by a demonstration
team belonging to the Fisheries Division shows that the
28-ft boat can catch 20,000 Ib (9091 kg) of fish per year,
mainly from bottom handlining. At an average price of
$0.25 per lb ($0.55/kg) this corresponds to gross earnings
of WS$5,000. The yearly earnings necessary t o cover all
costs including repayment of the loan for the 18-ft boat
is WS$2,600, based on 100 trips per year. There should
therefore be an ample margin to permit fast repayment.
of the loans. However, according t o traditional customs
a considerable quantity of fish is given away, which is
good for the nutrition of the village population but not
for loan repayment. This does not, however, materially
detract from achieving the main objectives of the project
such as reduced import, better nutrition, and higher employment in rural areas.

Boats of the SPC Outer Reef

Fisheries Project

Outer Reef Artisanal Fisheries Project

B. P. 5, Noumea Cedex, New Caledonia

Two boats have been used to date on the SPC Outer

Reef Artisanal Fishing Project. They are an aluminum
boat named Nonnan Kirk and a plywood boat named
Mdele.
The N o m n Kirk was designed and built in New
Zealand. It has a hard chine hull of 24 ft, a beam of 9 ft
6 in, and a draught of approximately 9 in. The vessel is
powered by a Nissan model SD33 sixcylinder diesel
engine of 52 hp at 2600 rpm (the maximum revolutions
obtainable) although the engine has an intermittent
rating of 72 hp at 3200 rpm. The information leaflet
for this engine gives the horsepower as 92 at 4000 rpm.
Designed as a planing hull, the vessel, at top speed,
becomes a displacement hull with the disadvantages of
both types.
The Norman Kirk is constructed of aluminum. This
has advantages as it requires virtually no maintenance
and is not subject to attack. However, there are also
disadvantages. If repairs are necessary (except small ones
which can be made by riveting) special welding equipment and operators are required. Even small structural
alterations and modifications are difficult to carry out,
as all the dissimilar metals used (including nuts and bolts)
must be insulated from the hull. Otherwise serious
electrolysis occurs even above the waterline.

The vessel has a large workspace aft; has good stowage

for ropes, anchors, and other equipment, in the forepeak;
and carries 100 gallons of fuel giving approximately 35
hours of steaming. The insulation of the fish boxes is
good; they have adequate stowage space and are positioned fore and aft on either side. More room to fish
would be available if the boxes were athwartships; then
another electric reel could be fitted forward, and handlining would be more comfortable if one were standing
at the gunwale rail rather than squatting on the boxes as
at present.
The vessel is too slow to be used for trolling for tuna,
especially skipjack. This is a serious disadvantage as skipjack and mackerel tuna are excellent bait for deepwater
fishing, and alternative bait in some areas is not plentiful.
The high freeboard aft makes landing large fish and
sharks difficult. In addition, with the straight sides aft,
there is no flare and the wire fishing line tends to drag
over and cut into the aluminum chine piece.
Due to the shallow draught, the large flat underwater
section aft (no propeller, skeg or rudder) and the lack of
any keel, the vessel yaws badly at anchor. It also tends
to be easily swung by any breeze, irrespective of the tide
or current. This is a big disadvantage when line fishing
in deepwater as the lines on one side of the vessel are

Outer Reef Fisheries ~rojectl't9

swept under the chine.

The foredeck is adequate for handling the anchor and
warp but the anchor warp fairlead could be improved.
The vessel has two electric fishing reels operated from
a bank of 12-volt batteries charged by the main engine.
The electric reels are very efficient, particularly in deepwater (i.e., over 100 fathoms); however, it is difficult to
keep the batteries charged during a night's fishing due t o
the method used t o drive the jet unit.
The jet unit is driven directly from the engine. The
manufacturers of the jet unit, in listing its advantages,
state: "Full steering response at all speeds and direction
of travel, including the stationary position". This is a
distinct disadvantage with the Nonnan Kirk or any fishing
vessel. A helmsman is required to steer the vessel at all
times when the engine is running, even at anchor-a
rather soul-destroying occupation.
The vessel is difficult t o steer and in a moderate following sea it is almost impossible to handle, swinging through
an arc of 180 degrees. The boat rides down at the head
and it would require about 1000 lb of ballast to correct
this. Unfortunately with the aluminum hull, it is not
simply a matter of placing metal ingots in the bilges,
because of the electrolysis set up between the two
different metals. The ballast would therefore need t o be
totally insulated from the hull. Concrete would not be
dense enough to give the required weight in the space
available in the bilges.
The visibility from the steering position in a head sea
is inadequate, especially at night, and an efficient windscreen wiper is required.
There is no self-draining cockpit although two small
apertures located in the stern of the hull can be opened,
when the vessel is at full speed, to drain the cockpit. At
other times the water drains forward and empties into
the bilges through numerous unsealed openings in the
cockpit deck.
This vessel is of excellent construction and makes a
good, stable working platform, but trim and propulsion
problems make it a difficult boat to handle, with poor
performance.
The Manulele is a 24-ft plywood Pago Pago style dory
powered by a Lees .Ford Falcon gasoline engine of 200
cubic ihches with a 12-hour rating of 56 hp at 2800 rpm,
driving a Hamilton Model 750 jet unit. The vessel has a
top speed of 13 knots at 3200 rpm.
This vessel is in some respects better designed for
deepwater line fishing than the Norman Kirk. It has a
lower freeboard aft and more flare on the sides which
are distinct advantages. It has the speed to troll for tuna
although the jet unit creates a great deal of turbulence at
the stern, necessitating the use of very long trolling lines
t o correct this problem.

The absence of a keel, combined with the flat underwater hull section aft, tends to make the vessel yaw badly
at anchor, as with the Norman Kirk. The foredeck is
entirely inadequate to handle the anchor and warps. The
vessel is fitted with two hand reels for deepwater fishing.
The Manulele has the same problems with the jet drive
as the Norman Kirk. It is difficult to steer unless the
engine revolutions are kept above 2600 per minute. It
does not have a self-draining cockpit but there is a plug
which can be removed at speed to drain the bilges.
Whether the Manulele could be altered economically t o
correct the design faults is problematical.
A more powerful engine is needed if the boat is t o
reach its design speed. A diesel of at least 150 shaft
horsepower driving 'a conventional propeller would be
required. Weight then becomes a problem if the engine is
installed amidships. The boat would tend to ride deeper
at the bow unless drastic changes to the hull were made.
A Vee drive would perhaps be the easiest solution with
the engine installed at the stern, although fishing space
would be reduced in the after cockpit. A great deal of
alteration would be necessary t o fit a propeller drive but
the vessel's handling would be improved if a keel were
fitted also.
The project has just taken delivery of another Pago
Pago-built dory. This vessel is powered by a Chrysler
Nissan diesel of the same horsepower as the Nonnan
Kirk's engine, but drives a conventional propeller. The
vessel's top speed is 13 knots at 3000 rpm and the cruising speed is 9.5 knots at 2600 rpm.
Although only three short trolling trips for tuna were
made in the new dory, the advantages of the propeller
drive were obvious: a much cleaner wake, easier steering,
and better maneuverability at all speeds.
The Manulele could be converted to a propeller drive
with much less trouble than the Norman Kirk, but the
plywood bottom has serious athwartship cracks. T o
repair these cracks without strengthening and altering the
shape of the frames to take the plywood skin would
require the advice of a competent shipwright or boat
designer.
Experience with the two vessels used by the project
to date show the basic requirements for a vessel that is
capable of both deepwater handling and trolling for tuna:
1. Speed : A minimum of 10 knots is needed. However, if the vessel is not to be used for skipjack
fishing, then speed is not such a critical factor
unless the fishing grounds are a considerable
distance from the base.
2. Weighing Anchor: Weighing anchor, when fishing
in depths up to 200 fathoms, presents problems,
although one can stream and then float the
anchor with the aid of a large float. Retrieving

30/F?oceedings o f the ICLARM Conference on Small Boat Design

the warp in moderate to rough seas is difficult

and timeconsurning, but a simple cathead, driven
by a flat belt from the main engine and controlled
by a jockey pulley, would alleviate this problem.
The anchor warp could be led by suitable blocks
to the catchead and all hauling could be done
from inside the vessel, a far safer procedure than

at present.
3 . Visibility: Good visibility from the steering position in all conditions is essential.

4. Hull Design: Low freeboard aft, a self-draining

cockpit and adequate flare to the sides of the
vessel aft are necessary.

Small Fishing Boat Designs for Use

in the South Pacific Region:
Displacement and Medium Speed Fishing Boats

Fisheries Technology Service

Fishery Industries Division
Department of Fisheries
Food and Agriculture Organization
Rome, Italy

Introduction
In most of the islands of the South'Pacific, small-scale
fishing activities are very largely those of a subsistence
fishery, the greater part of which are based on the harvesting of the inner reef and lagoon areas. Many of these
inner reefs and lagoons have reached or exceeded the
limit of their harvest potential. This is particularly the
case where population concentrations have occurred, a
result of urbanization. Underexploited lagoon resources
are usually found in isolated islands where sufficient fish
are harvested for the small local requirements but where
lack of a marketing and transportation infrastructure inhibits the catch of more fish than can be consumed by
the local village population.
Potential for increasing the catch and extending the
local fishery from the lagoons and inner reefs to the submerged banks, shelves, and reef slopes around the perimeters of the islands out to the 100-fathom line appears
good in most of the territories studied, while the offshore pelagic fishes of the tuna-like species, which are
seasonally abundant near many of the islands, offer
opportunities for increased local production as well as
the possibility in certain cases for establishing an export
industry.

No detailed information about standing stocks or

potential sustained yields of shelves, banks, and outer
reef slopes exists in the region but potential production
from these tropical coastal waters is not considered large
enough to withstand the type of industrial fishery that
occurs in temperate coastal regions. Relative to local need,
however, potential is expected to be adequate in a large
percentage of island coastal areas, most of which are at
present virtually untouched.
Apart from those cases where bait fish are available in
commercial quantities, catches of demersal and nearshore
pelagic fishes are not expected to be high enough to
warrant the setting up of an export market. Fishery
effort will therefore be small-scale and designed to provide the local markets with adequate supplies of fishery
products.
Fishing Methods and Suitable Vessel Types
Fishing methods expected to be used can be broken
down into three main groups characterized by the water
depth and feeding characteristics of the species caught.
The first of these, shallow water fishing in lagoon areas,
is practiced in restricted depth with cast nets, traps,
beach seines, and handlines for bottom-feeding species.

32/Proceedingsof the ZCLARMConference on SmallBoat Design

Species feeding at greater depths on isolated banks
and the outer reef slope can be caught by deep lining
techniques either by hand or more efficiently with reels.
Surface-schooling pelagic fish pose a more complex
problem due to the clarity of the water and consequent
difficulty in using either purse seines or gill nets. The
methods commonly consist of pole-and-line fishing with
live bait, pole and line using pearl shell lures, and trolling
with lures.
Commercial longlining for deeper swimming pelagic
fish with wide ranging offshore vessels is a more sophisticated method and is outside the purview of this paper.
Shallow water fisheries in lagoon areas can best be
carried out by simple lowcost flat or V-bottomed
wooden boats. Suitable types are shownin FA0 Fisheries
Technical Paper No. 117 (Rev. I), Fishing Boat Designs:
1 Flat Bottom Boats; and FA0 Fisheries Technical Paper
No. 134,.Fishing Boat Designs:2 V-Bottom Boats.
In island communities where distances to be covered
to the fishing grounds are small, deep lining on the reef
slope can be most economically carried out by simple
displacement boats. In the case of isolated village communities where the fishing effort is directed to supply of
the community alone and no marketing outlet exists for
excess fish caught, flat or V-bottom boats of the types
described in the FA0 papers cited above could be built
economically and powered by simple low hp outboard
engines to keep the cost of fish production as low as
possible. For exploitation of isolated banks or reefs some
distance from an urban center, a slightly larger vessel
with insulated hold and carrying nested dories on deck
could well be the most useful.
Where the need exists for a boat capable of at least
medium speed (10-15 knots) to range widely in the
search of surface-schooling pelagic fish, the higher cost
of a faster boat can be amortized by increased catch rates.
However, where the fishery is seasonal, a very careful
cost analysis should be made to ascertain the profitability
of higher operating costs when compared with the yearly
return.
Suitable boats equipped with inboard diesel engines
could be found in the size range 24-35 ft. Inboardloutboard Z-drive engines are not considered sufficiently
robust to stand up to the requirements of such a fishery
in a developing country.
Boats should be capable of multiple trolling and pearl
shell luring and possibly have limited live bait capacity.
The most economical solution is to provide a vessel
which is designed to operate efficiently and comfortably
in the medium speed range (10-1 5 knots) with enough hp
to maintain these speeds even when loaded. The semidisplacement hull of this type would be of moderate
dead rise (up to 15') with a relatively long, narrow, easily

driven hull. Such a hull would be more comfortable, less

inclined to hull damage due to pounding when driven at
speed, and should have considerably lower running costs
than higher speed planing vessels. The 28-ft boat designed
for Western Samoa and the proposed 35-ft extension of
this type were designed to take these operating characteristics into account.
Where distance, fishing methods, or economic and
social factors dictate a wide-ranging daily operation, the
possibility of using light, medium speed boats should be
considered. However, the catch rate and value of the
catch landed must be sufficient to justify the higher
operating costs, plus the fact that the greater hp and
higher rpm engine needed for this type of boat is not
only more expensive but requires considerably more care
in use with particular attention to fuel quality and regular
maintenance.
In many of the oceanic islandsbait fish are not available
in sufficient quantity to justify commercial exploitation
of the surface schooling pelagic tuna resource by poleand-line live bait fishing. Due to extreme clarity of the
oceanic waters of the area, this has proved to be the only
intensive fishing method for these species which could
justify the provision of larger, more sophisticated fishing
vessels needed for catches on an industrial scale. Project
activities in this area should therefore be focused on fish
production using relatively small unsophisticated boats
and equipment.

Medium Speed Boat Design and its Application

to Fishing Boats
Naval architects and boatbuilders frequently use the
terms displacement, semi-displacement, and planing to
describe the three principal operating conditions of
small craft. These conditions can be recognized in broad
outline by the speed at which the vessel operates, the
measure of the different forces acting on the hull, and
the wave patterns generated by forward motion.
Speed is a relative quantity which is dependent on
boat length. This dependence is due to the wave systems
created as a boat moves through the water. Speed of the
boat at any moment is that of the transverse wave system
formed by this motion. In quantitative terms this speed
depends on the distance betweenwavecrests in the system
and increases with increasing wave length. A long vessel
produces a long wave system more easily than a shorter
boat, and her potential for absolute speed is therefore
greater. A performance comparison between two vessels
can be made by examining the speed-length ratio obtained
by dividing the speed in knots by the square root of the
waterline length in feet. Two boats of different lengths
at speeds giving the same length ratio have a number of
operating characteristics in common, e.g., their wave

Medium Speed Fishing ~oats/33

patterns are similar and their power requirements in

horsepower per ton are comparable, as are the proportions of buoyant and dynamic lift forces operating on
the hull.
A second factor considered by naval architects when
discussing boat operational characteristics is the components of the various forces acting on the hull through a
range of speed-length ratios. These vary from the "at rest"
condition, when the entire load is supported by buoyant
forces, to the high speed planing condition when dynamic
lifting forces predominate.
Looking at these two factors together with the wave
systems generated, one can recognize in which of three
categories a small boat is operating and establish appropriate design requirements.
Below speed-lengthratios of unity, frictional resistance
makes up more than 50% of the resistance to forward
motion, with the remaining resistance due to formation
of wave system previously described. Buoyant forces are
predominant and dynamic lift forces negligible. These
operating speeds are characteristic of large merchant and
passenger ships and considered too slow for the majority
of small craft.
Speed-length ratios of 1-1.34 are the normal operating
range for small craft of the displacement type and in this
range resistance to forward motion increases rapidly with
an increasingly high proportion due to wave-making disturbance. Small boats designed to operate in this range
are characterized by deep-load-carryinghull forms with
curving buttock lines which, as speed increases to the
top of the range, sink progressively deeper in the water.
Hp requirements in this range are of the order of 3 to 5
hp per ton of displacement. At a speed-length ratio of
1.34 the length between transverse wave crests is equal
to the waterline length of the boat. Increasing the speed
up to a ratio of 1.5 with this type of hull results in
further sinking, increasing resistance caused by the deep
waves produced by this hull at the higher speeds. Beyond
this speed with this hull form, stern trim becomes excessive and the boat will finally become unmanageable.
Transition into the second category, that variously
known as semi-displacement or semi-planing, requires a
fundamental change in hull design. With speed-length
ratios larger than 1.34, the distance between crests of
the transverse wave system is longer than the boat and
the aftercrest is located at an increasing distance aft
of the transom.
To operate with the maximum efficiency in this
condition, suitable designs must be of comparatively light
displacement with small draft and with flat aft buttock
lines which will produce a shallow wave system, avoid
the excessive aft trim, and greatly increase resistance of
the deep-wave-making displacement hull.

In this range, with a suitable hull, increase in resistance

becomes less until at a speed-length ratio of about 2, it
flattens to a relatively constant rate of increase domparable t o that at speed-length ratio of 1. Hp requirements
will be from 2040 hp per ton of displacement. Dynamic
lift forces begin to become significant. At speed-length
ratios between 2.2 and 2.5 the hull will have risen to its
original static trim level, and as speed increases further,
will begin to rise above this until at speed-length ratios
between 3 and 4, dynamic lift is predominant, the wavemaking component of the total resistance decreases, and
frictional resistance component again becomes increasingly important.
The third category .of operations, the region of pure
planing, is well known to anyone familiar with developments in the high speed pleasure craft field. Resistance
to forward motion in this region is of the order of 110150 kg (250-330 lb) per ton of displacement, requiring
50 and more hp per ton, and except for certain special
cases with a low weight, high value catch, horsepower
requirements, and operating expenses make continuous
operation by fishing boats in this range uneconomical.
Accordingly, for fishing operations in which speed is an
advantage boats will need to be designed for the middle
of the three ranges discussed.
To avoid confusion from conflicting terms, such as
semi-displacement and semi-planing, I define the term
medium speed to apply to boats with speedllength ratio
range greater than 1.S and less than 3.
Feasibility of Medium Speed in SmallScale
Fisheries Operations
Speeds higher than those of the displacement range
can be expensive, both in the capital cost of the increased
hp required and in the higher operating costs of the larger
engine. Successful fishing boat design requires the production of a safe and efficient working platform that can
pay its way and leave a reasonable profit margin for the
operator.
To justify the increased expenditure required for a
medium speed boat, some or all of the following conditions should be fulfilled:
1. Weight and bulk of average daily catch required to
cover total costs should be low in comparison to vessel
displacement.
2. The catch can be increased by the use of a highly
mobile vessel during fishing operations.
3. Travelling time to and from the fishing grounds is
a large proportion of total vessel time.
4. The price obtained for landed catch is sensibly
higher for fish landed in optimum condition due to
reduction in travel time.

34/~roceedingsof the ICLARM Conference on Small Boat Design

5. Sea conditions in the area will permit operation in
the medium speed range for a high proportion of total
possible vessel time.
6. Geographic,. economic, and/or social conditions
dictate a 1- or 2-day operation.
Design Requirements for Medium Speed
Fishimg Boats
Boats designed to operate at medium speed should be
of light displacement with hull forms producing shallow
wave systems with minimum water disturbance. When
vessel cost must be at a minimum and load carrying
ability can be much reduced as in the typical village
fishery, narrow beam, light draft and a low displacement/
length ratio can be used to obtain speed economically.
For example, a boat with a 25-ft waterline length and
waterline beam of 5 ft fitted with a lightweight 25 hp
inboard engine weighing around 220 kg (500 lb) has
been quoted at a speed of 15 knots in when carrying a
light load. It is therefore possible to obtain operating
speeds of 11-12 knots with narrow beam, light draft
vessels of this type if loaded displacement can be kept to
around 1,500 kg. At this displacement, average fish
catch could probably not exceed 200 kg if speed in this
range is to be maintained.
A medium speed boat is best for small-scale fisheries
one step up from the subsistence fishery level where low
load-carrying ability is acceptable.
A boat with greater load-carrying capacity and a
greater return per unit effort by the crew is required in
more urbanized communities. In this case, design requirements for economical operation in the speedllength ratio
range 2.0-2.5 are as follows:
Basic hull dimensions. An easily driven hull shape
depends on the correct choice of minimum displacement
for the operating requirement. Displacement has the
greatest single effect on speed. A close estimate of average
daily catch will permit a good approximation of operating
displacement. It is important in the design of a medium
speed vessel not to overestimate the required carrying
capacity. As high a length to displacement ratio (Ll0.33)
as possible should be chosen and this should range between 5 and 7 depending on the particular design requirement. As large a lengthlbeam ratio as can be accommodated consistent with stability should be chosen. A
minimum prismatic coefficient should be 0.65 with a
value of around 0.7 as a satisfactory compromise between
the need for adequate buoyancy forward to maintain
good trim and sufficient fineness not to increase resistance unduly. A constant angle of deadrise in the after
sections is desirable but this is conditional on correct
placing of the LCB in relation to operating center of
gravity. The chine beam should be appreciably narrower

at the transom than at the rnidship section to aid water

separation, with chine and transom running dry in the
medium speed range.
Powering. The boat should have sufficient hp to
operate in the medium speed range when carrying the
average daily catch. This will generally require between
20 to 40 BHP per ton of displacement, the variation
depending on the length/displacement ratios chosen for
a particular design requirement.
Stability and handling characteristics. Transverse
stability should be sufficient to permit the loading of
three times the expected average daily catch in safety.
Determination of chine immersion aft and the length of
chine immersed will depend on transverse stability.
Directional stability should be sufficient to avoid any
tendency to broach while travelling at speed in following
seas. To retain good directional stability, deadrise aft
should be around 15'. Less will entail loss of directional
stability, while increase in deadrise much over this figure
will result in a higher hp to maintain medium speed. The
change in static trim due to change in variable weights
should be kept to a minimum.
Medium Speed Fishing Boats
in the South Pacific
THE INTRODUCTION OF MEDIUM AND HIGH SPEED
FISHING BOATS IN THE REGION

Requirements for economic operation of medium

speed fishing vessels have been given previously. Sufficiency in these requirements has been met in certain
areas and by certain fisheries in the region to justify the
use of vessels using speeds greater than that of a normal
displacement vessel.
Medium and high speed boats have been commonly
used in the crayfish (rock lobster) industries of Australia
and New Zealand where a high value, low volume catch
in combination with the greater range of daily operations
attainable, has made the higher speed boats economically
viable. Small high speed boats are also used by divers in
the abalone fishery in Australia for similar reasons.
Of more direct application to the South Pacific islands
is the Tahitian pole-and-helpearl shell lure fishery for
bonito. At least 500 people are engaged in this fishery
and the reasons for adopting higher speed boats are of
considerable interest in outlining areas where medium
speed can be viable. Local custom demands fresh caught
fish which have not been iced, which indicates a daily
operation. As fishery activity has increased, boats venture
farther offshore, thus requiring increased speed to return
to market in time for the sale of catches. Fishermen
locate schools of feeding bonito by flocks of seabirds
diving on the school. As the schools may surface for

Medium Speed Rshing ~oats/35

only a few minutes at a time, it is important that boats
arrive among the fish in the shortest possible time after
the school begins to feed. A boat capable of high mobility
during the fishing operation can therefore be expected
to increase its catch over that of a slower vessel. Where a
number of boats are working the same area, the fastest
boat reaches the school first, makes its total catch, and
returns to market in a shorter time, thus fetching a higher
price for f~ caught. This has resulted in competition
for speed to the point where present boats, which are
10-11 m (33-36 ft) long are using high speed diesel engines of around 300 hp giving cruising speeds of 17knots
and maximum speeds of 25 (speed ratios of 3-4.4) which
are in the pure planing range discussed previously.
A typical example, a boat built in Tahiti, is equipped
with a 280 to 300 hp diesel engine and costs approximately $30,000. The high speed and consequent high
capital and operating costs of these boats are acceptable
in the particular conditions of this fishery due to the high
price received for fresh bonito landed in good condition.
Prices in the height of the season (November to June)
range from US$1 to US$2 per kg but may reach three
times this level in the off-season (July to October).
The use of such high power is not recommended.
Speed in this fishery is expected to increase catch or
quality of fish landed and thus is relevant to the use of
the more economical medium speed boats proposed in
this paper.
The flat-bottom, high-speed dory that was developed
for fishing off the Northwest Coast of the United States
has been tried in several countries in the South Pacific
but does not appear to have provided a satisfactory
solution to the need for boats with sufficient speed for
the skipjack fishery. The original intention was to introduce a type of boat that could be operated from villages
with beaches and shallow lagoons and consequently the
boat was flat-bottomed and fitted with a Z-drive and
high-speed gasoline engine of 130 hp. The advantages
were in simplicity of hull construction and relatively low
initial hull cost but against this must be weighed the
higher operating costs and relative delicacy of the lightweight, high rpm, gasoline engines used, plus fhe small
carrying capacity of the hull. Serious technical problems
have occurred. The inboard gasoline engine and the Zdrive has shown itself too vulnerable for the job and the
repair bills have been very high. There have been no construction problems with the plywood hulls, but the
fishermen complain about the pounding and rough ride.
This experience has led to various modifications in
the last dories. A moderate V-bottom has been introduced
to diminish the pounding. The Z-drive has been replaced
by a Hamilton two-stage Waterjet, Model 752 and the
Volvo engine with a Ford Falcon 6-cylinder engine rated

at 135 hp/5,000 rpm. The engine is normally run at 3,500

rpm.
It is doubtful whether the dory equipped with a high
speed engine will be able to operate successfully from a
village lacking essential service facilities. It will have some
.of the same drawbacks as the outboard engine-short
service life, vulnerable electric parts, and relatively high
fuel consumption-without the advantages of easy
removal from the boat for storage and transport to a
central workshop for repair.
MEDIUM SPEED BOATS DESIGNED BY F A 0

Medium speed boats designed by FA0 include the 28-ft

open boat for outboard power (Fig. I), the 30-ft, flatbottom, double chine, inboard-powered version of a sampan express hull (Fig. 2), and the 28-ft boat in Figs. 3-8.
The 28-ft boat has been designed as an easily propelled,
narrow beam, light displacement craft suitable for village
fishery operations (Fig. 1). The outboard-powered version
of this boat, designed by Mr. 0. Gulbrandsen, has been
built in Western Samoa at a price of $1,250 and, with a
20-hp outboard, has achieved a speed of 12 knots in the
light condition and 10 knots with four crew and 200 kg
of catch.
The 30-ft flat-bottomed boat has a hull based on a
Texas dory Sampan Express 30, modified by FA0 for
inboard propulsion (Fig. 2). The intention behind this
design was to provide a hull of simple construction for
local builders which, while achieving medium speed,
would combine the relative simplicity and low cost of a
dory-type hull with the improved operating capability
of the medium speedinboard diesel. A prototype has been
built by local builders in the West Indies and repeat
orders are expected to cost $8,000-$9,000. Fitted with a
marinized Ford diesel engine of 80 BHP at 2,650 rpm,
the boat has achieved speeds of 13 knots in trial.
The 28-ft boat (Figs. 3-6) was designed for the smallscale pole-and-linelpearl lure skipjack fishery and was
built in Fiji for use in Western Samoa. Fitted with a GM
Bedford diesel giving 80 BHP (at 2,200 rpm), the boat
achieved a maximum speed of 12.4 knots and is capable
of extended operation in the 10- to 12-knot range. The
hull is fitted with two small bait tanks with circulating
water and a water spray system run from an engine-driven
pump, and has a hold capacity of 2,000 lb in insulated
hold compartments with individual hatches. A feature of
the design is the individual hatch system which permits
an open afterdeck with plenty of working space, while
allowing easy access to fish storage, propeller shaft, and
staffing box (Fig. 7). With good afterdeck space, the
design is suitable for the fitting of mechanical reels for
deep line f ~ h i n gfor skipjack in the off-season. The boat
is estimated to cost around $16,000 at 1975 prices.

3 6/~roceedingso f the ZCLARM Conference on Small Boat Design

Sheller 6 opf~on.31

0 . 1
I
:

Fig. 1. A 28-ft outboard powered boat suitable for village fishery operations.

Fig. 2. A 30-ft inboard powered boat based on a Texas dory Sampan Express 30.

4
!

IOklt
I

Figs.

38I~roceedingsof the ZCLARM Conferenceon Small Boat Design

2011YItu*n(hsbmqM

CONSTRUCTION

6
Figs. 5 6 . A 28-ft outboard powered boat designed for smaU-scale poleand4ine/pearl shell lure skipjack fishery.

Medium Speed Fishing Boats 139

Fig. 7. Boat built from Fig. 3 design, running at 12 knots at design trim.

Fig. 8. Boat in Fig. 7 during transportation to Western Samoa.

Note arrangement of flush hatches to give clear aft working
deck space.

401hoceedings of the ICLARM Conference on Small Boat Design

UiWGOlENT FOR O l U l SOLE TUNA F X E Y I D LINE WTW LM? BllT

W NOT SCALE FROM THIS DRAWING

Figs. 9-10. A 35-ft vessel fitted with a medium speed diesel engine of 120-140 BHP running at 12-14 knots.

~edium
.speed Fishing ~ o a t s / 14

For fishing from established harbors in urban communities where boats are to work a wide ranging daily
operation, a larger version than the 28-ft boat with a
greater carrying capacity may prove advantageous.
A 10.67-m (35-ft) vessel fitted with a medium speed
diesel engine of 120-140 BHP and an insulated hold
capacity of 1.5 tons would be expected to operate at a
displacement of around 5 tons, giving an expected speed
of 12 to 14 knots(speed/length ratio 2.1-2.5) (Fig. 9 , 10).
Cost of complete boat is estimated at approximately
$24,000, depending on engine installation.
ECONOMIC RETURNS FOR DIFFERENT
BOAT SIZES AND TYPES

To investigate economic returns for different boat

sizes and types, I compared three vessel sizes: (1) the
simple outboard-powered boat for village communities
(Table I), (2) the 28-ft inboard powered boat with
somewhat more sophisticated design (Table 2) which
could be considered suitable for more urban communities
with some port facilities but not requiring large carrying
capacity or long range, and (3) the 35-ft boat (Table 3)
for operation from an established port, capable of ranging
further afield and having an increased capacity making it
suitable as a fishing unit operating from larg6urban com:
munities where necessary operating maintenance skills
are more readily available. Fuel costs, crew wages and
other expenses are based on present costs in one island
group and converted to US dollars. Local costs should be
substituted to obtain equivalent results in other island
communities.
Fresh fish in this particular urban market retails at
around $0.66/lb. It is assumed that price paid at the boat
will be approximately half that of the retail price, i.e.,
$0.33/lb. This will frequently be a conservative estimate
as the fisherman himself or his family may well also
handle retail sales in smaller island groups.
The analysis which follows includes all annual and
daily expensesnecessary to operate the vessel. An estimate
is then made of the average daily catch required to cover
the operating costs. A further estimate is then made,
allowing for a 20% return on investment (before taxation)
and including an amount for crew incentive bonus which
is estimated as a daily average of 30% of regular wages.
For the case of the village community, the outboard
powered boat is assumed to operate on an average of 100
days per year, the fisherman being otherwise occupied
during the remainder of the year in other village occupations or subsistence crop raising for his own family use.
For the second and third case, a total of 200 fishing days
per year is assumed with time lost due to bad weather,
vessel maintenance, and repairs. The figure for main-

Table 1. Cost of operating the 28-ft outboard powered boat as

shown in Fig. 1. Initial cost of vessel's hull and equipment is
$1500 and the outboard motor $600, for a total of $2100.

Operating costs

Annually

Daily assuming 100

fishing dayslyear a

Depreciation:
Hull - 5 years
Engine - 2 years
Interest on capital at 10% on
reducing balance
Petrol/oil mixture, average
operation 6 hours/day =
10 gal at $l/gal
Crew wages:
1 captain at $6.60
3 crew at $3.30
Food $1 per day per man
Maintenance and repair, 5%
of vessel cost, 20% of engine cost
Total
a~veragedaily catch to cover costs = 101 lb of saleable fish.
Average daily catch toassurea20%returnoninvestment= 124 lb.

Table 2. Cost of operating the 28-ft inboard powered decked

boat as shown in Fig. 3. Initial cost of vessel's hull and equipment
is $11,000 and engine and installation of $5000, for a total of
$16,000.
Operating costs

Annually

Daily assuming 200

fishing days/yeara

Depreciation:
Hull - 10 years
$ 1,200)
800) $2,000
Engine and Equipment 5 years
Interest on capital at 10% on
reducing balance
800
Insurance, 5% of vessel cost
800
Diesel fuel, 10 hours full power
($0.66/gal) operationlday
2,640
Lubricating oil, 15% of fuel
cost
400
Ice, 250/day at $0.66150 lb
block
660
Crew wages:
3,500
Skipper at $7.50/day
3 crew at $3.33/day
Food $1 per man/day
800
Maintenance and repair, annually 10% of vessel cost
(including crew wages on
maintenance work)
1,600
Total

$13,200

$66.00

a~veragedaily catch to cover costs = 200 lb.

Average daily catch for 2Wo return on investment = 264 lb.

42/hoceedings o f the ZCLARMConference on Small Boat Design

Table 3. Cost of operating the 35-ft inboard powered boat as
shown in Fig. 9. Initial cost of vessel's hull and equipment is
$15,000 and engine and installation $9000, for a total of $24,000.
Operating costs

Annually

choice of boat for an area based on present catch rates

of local boats or on data which can be obtained from
experimental fishing.

Daily (200 days)a

Conclusions
Depreciation:
Hull 10years
Engine - 5 years
Interest on capital at 1Wo on
reducing balance
Insurance, 5% of vessel cost
Diesel fuel, 10 hours/day
average = 60 gal ($0.66/gal)
Lubricating oil, 10% of fuel
Ice, 400 lb/day
Crew wages:
Skipper at $8/day
3 crew at $4/day
Food, $1 per man/day
Maintenance and repair, 10% of
vessel cost (including crew
wages on maintenance)

Total

1,200
1,200

6.00
6.00

7,920
792
1,056
4,000

39.60
3.96
5.28
20.00

800

4.00

2,400

12.00

$22,668

$113.34

a~veragedaily catch to cover costs = 344 lb.

Average daily catch for 20% return on investment = 435 lb.

tenance is estimated at 1
Wo of vessel cost and would
cover wages paid to crew members engaged on maintenance tasks as well as slipping and repair costs.
The total catch figures arrived at can be used to estimate profitability for various boat types and hence of

Economically driven hulls, designed to operate in the

medium speed range, are expected to be viable in comparison with lower powered boats, especially in the skipjack fishery, due to increased catches resulting from
higher mobility in the catching operation and greater
operational range in a day fishery. Prices received for
better quality landings can also be expected to be higher.
For a village fishery where daily catches can be smaller
due to a lower acceptable return per crew effort, the outboard boat of Fig. 1 or its inboard-powered equivalent
will provide a satisfactory return. For larger, urbanized
communities and operation from deepwater harbors,
vessels in the 28- to 35-ft range of Figs. 3 and 8 can be
chosen. Decision of optimum size of boat depends on
expected average daily catch and operational range
required. FA0 interest in medium speed fishing boats is
expected to result in a volume in the FA0 Design Series
illustrating vessels of this type.
Further details of designs illustrated in this paper can
be obtained from the Fisheries Technology Service,
Department of Fisheries, FAO, Via delle Terme di
Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.

Design and Construction of the

ICLARM Experimental Small Fishing Boat

11 21 Wilder Avenue, 900B

Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, U.S.A.

Introduction
As part of the ICLARM program of evaluating fishing
craft for use in tropical small-scale fisheries, the report
on the Ponape Dory Project was assessed. Conclusions
drawn from that report indicate a need for hrther
research in developing suitable designs for small fishing
craft. To meet this need, a design committee was formed
to conduct this research as part of the ICLARM program.
Members of the committee were Stephen Ritterbush,
ICLARM Program Coordinator; Glen Fredholm, a noted
Honolulu marine designer; and William Travis, former
Fisheries Officer for Western Samoa and currently a
successful commercial fisherman in Kona, Hawaii. This
paper presents the recommendations of the committee
and design of a new boat potentially well suited for use
in tropical small-scale fisheries.
Design and Construction of the Experimental Boat
The committee concluded that (1) no single design
could fulfill all requirements and meet all conditions irn-

'present address: 5303 Sunset Drive, Anacortes, Washington

98221, U.S.A.

posed by various inner and outer reef fisheries;therefore,

a compromise design must be accepted; (2) no boat can
be developed on paper only, that full-size prototypes
must be built and true operating costs established; and
(3) no boat should be mass-produced until a prototype
has been completely sea-tested and evaluated.
Two primary design criteria were proposed by the
committee: (1) The hull should be 20 ft long, easily
driven, non-pounding, dry, and beachable. It should have
a shallow draft with protected propeller, large fishbox,
and a crew capacity of three or four. (2) The engine
should be inboard, low cost, lightweight, gasolinelkerosene- or diesel-powered with parts easily repaired or
replaced and speed enough for trolling.
The problem of hull design was approached by reexamining boats produced during the early decades of
powerboat development. The boats of this period had
one- or two-cylinder, low rpm, 5- to 15-hp marine engines
with swinging propellers of large diameter and blqde area.
Many of these boats developed speeds in excess of
10 knots for two important reasons: hull design and
propeller shove. According to Weston Farmer, a wellknown marine architect and author of articles on early
power boats, this performance resulted from both the
use of a propeller at least 25% of the size of the mid-

44/~oceedingso f the ZCLARMConferenceon Small Boat Design

'. BASE

BOW DETAIL

SEC. 6 SPONSON NTS

Fig. 1. Design plans for '1112-scale model of 20-ft ICLARM prototype boat.

section area and an easily driven hull.

Small 10- to 20-hp engines and low-power "Seagull"
outboards, which are used to aid in the mooring of 20to 40-ft sailboats with ease and speed, are unable to
effectively propel modem hard chine powerboats.
ICLARM's experimental small fishing craft has
features which can later be developed for sail-assisted
power. The boat's design includes: (1) a flat section
along the keel, 15-in-wide midships as used in the old
"Jersey sea skiffs" and in local sampans for ease in
beaching; (2) a full skeg for propeller protection and
help in steering in the following seas; (3) a narrow entry
with a high sheer forward and sheer sponsons. The latter
were designed to help solve spray problems. The narrow
entry allows efficient operation in typical 20- to 30-knot
trade winds.
After developing lines and offsets based on the above
specifications (Fig. l), a 1112th-scale model was built.

This flotation model was used to give the designer an

idea of the general wave pattern created by the hull. In
addition, the designer could check, load, and trim, as the
displacement of a model and prototype will vary arithmetically with the cube of their linear ratios. In other
words, three factors (length, breadth, and width) change
as a boat's size is increased, and experimenting with sizes
of crew and fish loads is thus possible by varying these
calculations and engine weights.
The committee found the problem of power to be
more difficult. Simplicity of engine operation and
availability of parts became prime considerations. Cost
was critical from an amortization standpoint, and the
designer was concemed with weight. After consultation
on prices with many engine manufacturers and distribution and service centers, the committee decided to test
first a 16-hp air-cooled gasohelkerosene engine with a
reduction gear assembly manufactured in the Philippines.

IAG. 2 CENTER LINE AT WL 6 INTERSECTS SEC.A AT WL4

Table 1. Offsets for 1/12-scale model of ICLARM prototype fishing boat. Dimensions are given in feet, inches, and eighths of
inches.

46/hceedings o f the ICLARM Conferenceon SmallBoat Design

Two such engines were donated to ICLARM by Briggs

and Stratton for the experiment. The light wight of this
engine allows installation in the dry, forward compartment of the boat, away from all fishing activity.
Although ICLARM had not intended to build boats,
this activity was necessary to gain firsthand information
on a newly developed construction method and to obtain
a full-size prototype.
The compound curves and complex shape of the proposed hull ruled out the use of plywood, and a standard
bent fiame plank construction of this design would be
too complicated and slow. We decided to use a new
material called "C-FLEX," a fiberglass planking made by
Seeman Plastics of New Orleans. This material was specifically developed for building fiberglass boats without a
traditional mold. The material is composed of parallel
rods of fiberglass and reinforced polyester resin alternating with bundles of continuous fiberglass rovings. The
whole is held together by two layers of lightweight, open
weave *fiberglass cloth. Each C-FLEX "pl&k" is 12 in
wide. The grade usedforthis project was "CF-65" (65 oz)
per square yd in a 250-ft coil). These "planks" were laid
over lightweight plywood frames 18 in on center running
fore and aft. (The C-FLEX is somewhat self-supporting
and conforms easily to compound curves). The "planks"
were tacked in place and wetted down with fiberglass
resin. After the resin hardened, fastenings were then
removed and the hull was lightly sanded. Fiberglass layup
was then applied at right angles over the C-FLEX with
alternating butt joints. The following layup was used in
the project:
Outside Hull

Keel
Finish
Inside Hull

1 layer C-FLEX
1 layer 1'A oz mat
1 layer 18 oz woven roving
1 layer 1%oz mat
1 layer 18 oz woven roving
Additional layer of mat and
wovep roving
1 layer mat veil and resin
1 layer 1% oz mat
1 layer mat veil and resin

Microballoons and resin were used as filler and fairing

compound, with the hull to be painted for a final finish.
The C-FLEX system has an additional advantage in
that a minimum of tools and equipment are required.
Only three power tools were used on the project: an inexpensive 6-in disc sander, a %-in drill, and a Saber saw.
Currently, the exterior hull layup is complete except
for final sanding and finishing. Actual man hours already
spent on the project equal 162M, and an additional 176
hours are estimated as needed to complete construction
(Table 2).

Table 2. Number of hours required for each step in constructing

ICLARM prototype boat. '
Days

No.
Man
man/hours hours

Work performed
I. Man Hours t o Date

1st
2nd
3rd
4th

5th
6th
7th

8th
9th

10th

Set up; construct base and level;

start frame layout
218
Set up; complete frame cut out;
start assembly
218
Set up; complete frame; set up
and fairing
Prepare frames: tapelwax form
for rub rails;
install C-FLEX
wet down C-FLEX
Line up and set shaft tube; built up
rub rail; mat lows; pick up supplies
Light sand; first layup mat and
roving
Sand hull; built up and foamed and
matted skeg;
second layup mat and roving
Clean up work area; complete skeg
forming; spot fill with microballoon
Sand hull; add extra layup to keel
and skeg; level fill with microballoon; sand hull
.Faired hull with filler
Total man hours to date
11. Estimated Man Hours to Complete

Exterior of hull; finishlpaint

Interior mat; filler
Glass in bulkheads and fish box
Install seats and hatches
Finish and paint interior
Mechanicallhardware installation
Total estimated man hours to complete
Grand Total-Man hours

48
32
16
32
16
32
176
338%

The 20-ft hull can be constructed for $983 (Table 3).

The fiberglass material accounts for about 66% of the
costs, with lumber and other supplies accounting for 18%
and 16%, respectively.
Table 3. Materials required for constructing 20-ft ICLARM fishing boat by C-FLEX method.

US$
priced'

Fiberglass Material
C-FLEX: 1 coil 1-ft wide, 250 ft long = 250 sq ft
@ $0.94
3 pieces 1% oz mat 38 in wide, 80.5 ft long = 241.5
lii. ft @ $0.20

$235
48

Continued next page

ZCLARM Experimental Boat 147

Table 3 contd.
2 pieces 18 oz woven roving 38 in wide, 80.5 f t
long = 161 lin. f t @ $0.27
Fish box/bulkheads: mattroving 60 lin. ft @ $0.47
6 five-gal buckets laminating resin = 30 gal (! $6.70
Fillers, catalyst, lacquer thinner
Miscellaneous: roving tape, veit mat, etc.
Subtotal
Lumber
Plywood for frameb, bulkheads, .seats, etc.
Other lumber: setup base, battens, rail form
Subtotal
Other
Sandpaper, brushes, rags, respirators
Paint: monopoxy, bottom
Miscellaneous: screws, protective face cream, small
hand tools
Contingency: power tool rental
Subtotal
Grand Total-Hull, completeC
a ~ r i c e sshown are F.O.B. Honolulu, Hawaii from stock (no volume discount shown).
b ~ u l t i - u s eitem.
' ~ o tincluding engine, gear, and hardware.

Plywood Boats for Offshore Fisheries

Marine Division, Ministry o f Transport

Private Bag
Wellington I , New Zealand

Introduction
Every year thousands of small plywood pleasure craft
are constructed in New Zealand and elsewhere from stock
plans produced for the amateur builder by several New
Zealand designers.
These designs, with some modifications, are often used
by owner-builders and some professional boatbuilders in
New Zealand as the basis for fishing vessels. These usually
constitute what we regard as $shore fishing vessels where
higher speed, lighter scantling craft are employed in cray
fishing and longlining. These craft can easily be adapted
for offshore, tuna/skipjack fishing in the Pacific region.
This paper describes construction of small plywood fishing craft from modified stock pleasure craft designs.
Design

All stock designs are of hard chine form and some have
a gdl wing configuration in the after sections. Basic
designs Tor pleasure cruisers usually have extensive cabin
structures which are unnecessary for fishing craft and
can be replaced with a smaller wheelhouse forward with
aft cockpit and fish boxes.
Typical layouts for a modified 27-ft stock hull are

shown in Figs. 1 and 2. This design is illustrated in Fig. 3

in a modified form and was used to build three boats
which were shipped to Fiji under the New Zealand aid
program.
This form of construction may also be used for small
craft involved in slower fishing operations in inshore areas.
Fig. 4 shows a 27-ft general purpose vessel designed by
the author for shrimp trawling and dnetting. Two of
these vessels have been supplied for a UN training school
in Indonesia under the New Zealand aid program.
Construction
Construction is simple; sawn frames, ply bulkheads,
and transom are cut from full size paper templates. These
transverse members are aligned in the upside-down mode
and the longitudinal members, hog, sawn timber stem,
inner chines, gunwales,and finally stringers are then glued
and screwed to the frames. The ply skins are glued and
nailed to the closely spaced longitudinal stringers. Ply
hulls may be of single skin, but on larger fishing vessels
requiring stronger hulls, double skins bonded with a suitable glue are usually used. A developing hull form is used
so the ply can be laid on in panels. But right forward,
particularly in the area of the topside flare, it may be

Plywood ~ o a t s l 4 9

Fig. 1. Typical layout for a modified 2'7-ft stock hull.

Fig. 2. Typical layout for a m o d i f ~ d27-ft stock hull.

SO/Proceedings o f the ICLARM Conference on Small Boat Design

Fig. 3. Layout for a modified 2 7 3 stock hull used to build boats which were shipped to Fiji.

II

II

ACCOMMODATION

' 1

FISH HOLD
\'

0 . F. TANK

Fig. 4. A 27-ft general purpose vessel suitable for shrimp trawling and gillnetting.

Plywood ~ o a t s l 51

necessary to lay the ply in strips. The width of strips is

dictated by the hull curvature. In double glued skins, the
ply panels are butted at the joints which are staggered in
each skin. Single skin joints are scarfed the length of the
scarf to thickness of ply being at least 8 to 1. Deck ply
with transverse beams can be butted and fitted with butt
straps between beams.
While still upside-down, the hull may be skinned with
cloth and resin and the rubbing strip (for inboard-engined
craft the sawn or laminated keel) glued and bolted on.
Bolts for the keel are placed through the sawn floors
which are fitted adjacent to the frames and midway
between them. The solid keel is normally an addition to
stock designs and is sided to suit the propeller shaft with
bolts on both sides of the shaft. A boat may then be
turned over, the deck and house fitted, and the outfit
completed.
The construction of a sturdy fishing boat often
requires greater scantlings than some of those specified
for stock pleasure craft designs. These scantlings are
usually the hog molding and siding of inner chine and
gunwale to provide the desirable surface of at least 2%
times the thickness of the finished ply. Additional
floors or siding to take the keel bolts, reduced stringer
spacing, and increased deck ply thickness may also be
necessary. Other scantling increases depend on the
original design specification where there is often some
variation between designers. A number of designs terminate the stringers in the forward third of the boat, where
short diagonal stringers are extended to the stem even if

more skill is required of the builder to prevent them from

twisting, in the interest of maintaining strength.
Typical scantlings and fastenings for plywood offshore
fishing craft are presented in Tables 1 and 2.

Plywood and Timber

Marine plywood to BS 1088 is preferred and is available from Australia and the United Kingdom. Marine
plywoods with kauri or pacific maple veneers reputably
to NZS 3613 are available from New Zealand, but are
not of the same quality as plywood to BS 1088, since
the cores are inferior. Marine plywood of good quality is
also available from Papua New Guinea.
Timber for these craft should be of superior softwood
variety-light, tough, and durable with long straight grain
and reasonably free of defects. Examples of this type of
wood are Kauri from Fiji, Papua or Klinki Pine from
Australia or Papua New Guinea; Huou Pine from
Tasmania, and Vitex from Papua New Guinea.
The timber should be subjected to preservative treatment prior to use. In New Zealand various grades of
preservative treatment are specified. The most severe
treatment is that for timber intended to be immersed in
seawater but may be specified for boatbuilding timbers
provided that care is taken to prepare glue surfaces and
that a suitable epoxy resin is used as the adhesive. If
resorcinol glues are used, the timber preservation treatment must be the same as that specified for posts and
sawn timber which come in contact with the ground.

Table 1. Typical scantlings used for plywood offshore fishing craft.

Boat size
(ft)

Hog form
(in)

Frames
at 36 in

Stringers
at 5 in apart

ply
bottom topsides

Deck
(in)

Table 2. Typical fastenings used for plywood offshore fishing craft.

Boat size
(ft)

Keel bolts
(in)

ascrew size is British Standard Gauge.

b ~ a isize
l is Imperial Standard Wire Gauge.

screwsa
(stringers to frames)

~ails~

5 2/~roceedingsof the ZCLARM Conference on Small Boat Design

Fastenings
For this type of craft, bolts are often used only for
the keel fastenings. The bolts should be of copper, silicon
bronze, or monel. The bolt material may be purchased in
rod form, threaded at one end, and headed at the opposite end to suit design requirements. Bronze nuts are often
used with the copper bolts; brass nuts should not be used
as they deteriorate rapidly in seawater when used in association with copper.
Countersunk wood screws are used for attaching
stringers and other longitudinal members to the frames.
The best material for these screws is silicon bronze.
Although expensive, silicon bronze is vastly superior to
galvanized iron or brass in stressed or corrosive conditions.
Modern practice dictates the use of serrated nails for
nailing the plywood to stringers, hog, chine, and gunwale.
These are great labor savers in comparison to the traditional clenched nail or turned copper nail. The serrated
nails should be of silicon bronze or monel.
For pleasure craft construction in developed countries,
the practice of stapling of ply in association with adhesives is not uncommon. This practice is not recommended
for commercial craft, except for pulling laminated ply
skins together while the glue line sets in areas of difficult
curvature clear of the framing. The use of stapling puts
too great an emphasis on the glue line.

Glues
Since the recorcinol glues and epoxy resins, which
conform to BS 1204/196S, are weather- and boil-proof,
these gap-filling and close-contact adhesives are used. For
many years resorcinol glues have been the approved
adhesive for boatbuilding timbers. They are mixed with
an appropriate hardener to provide a joint of maximum
water resistance and durability. Once mixed with the
hardener, the usable life of the adhesive depends on the
ambient temperature. In tropical zones pot life is extremely limited. At 6 8 ' ~ a typical resorcinol glue
has a pot life of 4% hours, while at 90F pot life is only
70 minutes. At higher temperatures, the setting time is
reduced. The initial setting time at 6 8 ' ~ for a typical
resorcinol glue is 22 hours and at 90F only 3 hours.
The setting time is defined as the period in which the
joint has sufficient strength to allow the pressure to be
released and the joint lightly worked. The full cure at
90F takes approximately 2 days.
Epoxy resins now available as timber adhesives have
a wood-to-wood shear strength twice that of resorcinol
glues. Initially there was a reluctance among boatbuilders
to use epoxy resins for laminating because they were
thick, pasty, and more difficult to apply to the timber
surface. Now, however, these drawbacks have been

overcome with the introduction of low viscosity resins

which can be brushed on like resorcinol glues. At 90F
the pot life of a typical epoxy is only 20 min with a full
cure of 1 to 3 days. Epoxy resins should not be used on
timber treated with boron.
The moisture content of the timber is an important
factor, regardless of the type of adhesive used. In theory,
moisture content should be around lo%,but resorcinols
will produce a satisfactory glue joint with up to 15%
moisture content. Epoxy resins are even more tolerant
and will glue satisfactority with a moisture content of up
to 18%. If joints are glued before adequate drying, drastic
shrinkage can occur, resulting in what appears to be failure of the glue joint b i t which in fact is a failure of
adhesion between the timber fibers.
Surface preparation is important in achieving satisfactory adhesion. All surfaces should be clean and resinous,
with oily or hardwood timbers washed with carbon tetrachloride and then washed and dried out.

Sheathing
Plywood boats used in tropical waters must be sheathed
with a reinforced plastic skin. The reinforcement can be
either a fiberglass cloth or dyne1 fabric, and an epoxy
resin should be used. Early plywood boats were often
sheathed with a polyester resin which did not permit
adequate adhesion to the ply and which eventually led
to delamination between the sheathing and ply.
Where fiberglass reinforcement materials are utilized,
it is normal to use a 6-02 or 8-oz cloth on the hull, a 6-oz
cloth on superstrucutres, and a 24-oz woven roving on
the working deck. A small amount of sand may be mixed
with the final resin application to give decks a nonslip
surface. Dyne1 cloth is more expensive but also superior
to fiberglass in most respects and is easier to lay over
complex curves.
Epoxy resins for sheathing are not recommended for
use where the humidity exceeds 90%. At higher humidities
the resin has a tendency to absorb additional moisture
which is not emulsifiable to a certain extent, and this
results in a milky and under-cured finish. Epoxies generally should not be used below SOOF;high temperatures,
however, will have no adverse effect on the curing other
than shortening the pat life and final cure time. Due to
shortened pot life at high temperatures, the amount of
resin and hardener mixed at one time should be limited.
For example, at 90F manufacturers recommend that 1
litre of resin and % litre of hardener be mixed (for a pot
life of 20 min) and the mixture then transferred to a
shallow tray. The application of the resin should not be
carried out in direct sunlight.
The actual skinning should be done carefully according

Plywood ~ o a t s53
/

to the resin manufacturer's recommendations. Careful

surface preparation and mixing of the resin is essential.
The resin hardener mixture is applied with a mohair paint
roller directly onto the fabric which has been tailored to
shape and smoothed out on the surface of the boat with
all joints butted together. Great care must be taken to
remove all air bubbles and wrinkles. Excessively heavy
coats of resin should be avoided since they will cause the
fiberglass to ripple and the lighter dyne1 to float on the
surface. When the resin begins to set up, which in hot
weather can be within 1 hour after application, the edges
overlapping the gunwale, etc., should be trimmed off.
The entire hull skinning operation should be completed

in 1 day and left to harden.

Conclusions
Sheathed plywood boats suitable for offshore fisheries
can be produced from modified stock pleasure craft
designs. These can be built by personnel who have only a
rudimentary knowledge of carpentry, but not necessarily
boatbuilding experience, using everyday woodworking
hard tools. Provided the correct materials are selected
and recommended practices followed, a sturdy and
durable craft can be built at a reasonable cost.

A New Use for an Old Idea:

A Small Multi-purpose Hawaiian Style
Fishing Boat for Developing Fisheries
in Island Areas

Western Pacific Program Office

Southwest Region
National Marine Fisheries Services, NOAA
c/o Honolulu Laboratory, P. 0. Box 3830
Honolulu, Hawaii 96812, U.S.A.

Introduction
One of the problems faced by those interested in
introducing a new boat for use in developing island fisheries is whether the boat should be a single- or multi-purpose fishing platform. There is no one precise answer t o
this question, but two important considerations are the
type of social unit that will operate the boat and the level
of technology available to maintain the boat and support
fishing operations.
The purpose of this report is t o describe a relatively
small Hawaiian style multi-purpose fishing boat, which
has the capability of being operated by several types of
social units and which does not require an excessively
high level of technology for maintenance and support.
The boat under consideration is a 37-ft-long wooden
sampan type that is capable of at least five different types
of fishing and has a range of approximately 330 miles
with a 165-hp diesel engine. It has minimal crew accommodations.
Some Characteristics of Developing
Island Fisheries
For convenience and simplicity, the social units which
operate fishing boats in island areas are characterized as

being at the family level, village level, or the commercial

level. Each has its own requirements for the number of
species caught or types of fishing it undertakes, depending on the ultimate use of the catch. A family-operated
boat might engage in only one type of fishing for a few
species; a village-operated boat might engage in additional
types of fishing for a greater number of species; and a
commercially operated boat would probably engage in
the most varied fishing operations, assuming it is not a
very large commercial activity which could utilize high
technology craft for only one or two types of intensive
fishing. There is no one small fishing boat that will satisfy
all the different requirements of the family, village,
and commercial levels, but the one that can adequately
satisfy the largest number of fishing requirements will
make the most significant contribution toward developing
an island's economic potential.
The social units that might operate such a vessel and
the level of available technologies fall into several types.
Examples are:
Type 1: A small atoll, with very few people and
families, very limited shore facilities, lack of carpentry
and diesel engine skills, and irregular delivery of fuel. This
situation is probably best met by canoe-type fishery and
could not possibly accommodate a larger scale fishery.

Hawaiian Style Fishing ~ o a t / 5 5

Type 2 : A larger atoll or island with larger numbers

of people, several villages, and some experience in ship's
carpentry and diesel engine maintenance. An example is
Lukunor Atoll in the Mortlock Islands, where it has been
possible to operate a wooden sampan-type boat about
30 ft long, the Fordham Ram. A key factor here is probably the presence of a resident seaman of wide accomplishments.
Type 3: An atoll or island which is a district center
and which has good repair facilities for small boats, communications, fuel, harbor facilities, several commercial
enterprises at. different levels, and large numbers of
people in several or many villages. An example is Majuro,
Marshall Islands.
Type 4: A concentration of many villages and people
coupled with a higher level of technology and a modern
type economy, good shipyard facilities, drydock and
marine railway, machine shops, and good cornmunications. An example is American Samoa.
Type 5: A cluster of islands around a large metropolitan center, providing a high level of technology and a
widespread market, such as the Fiji Islands.
Some Requirements of Small Fishing Boats
for Developing Island Fisheries
The basic requirements for small fishing boats include
the following: adequate size, speed, seaworthiness, useful range (sea endurance), versatility (multiple species/
multiple fisheries), dependable engines, low fuel consumption, ease of maintenance, and minimal crew accommodations that are adequate. A boat to be used on the
smaller islands and atolls should be capable of being
hauled completely clear of the water and not just
careened. The overriding consideration is that the above
factors should be keyed to the concepts of simplicity
and dependability of operations, machinery, and equipment.
The use of a multi-purpose fishing boat does assume
that a certain minimum level of a technology is available
to provide maintenance and repairs. However, since the
key criteria are simplicity and dependability, a high
level of technology and support facilities is not required.
Technology that might be categorized as being in the
low t o medium range is needed. Dry-docking and marine
railway facilities are not absolutely essential, but are
highly desirable. Electronic repair facilities are not
essential. Individuals with knowledge of ship's carpentry
and experience in maintaining dependable diesel engines
are required.
For boats in the 35- to 40-ft category, a sea endurance
of at least several hundred miles is needed to provide
sufficient range to seek fish and reach alternate islands,
and for safety. Diesel engines are preferred over gasoline

because of simplicity, lower fuel costs, and fewer systems

requiring maintenance. Radios are considered essential
for safety. Depth finders and other types of electronic
equipment are desirable but are not considered essential.
Hydraulics are not considered essential, but provision for
power to run hydraulic systems, should they be desired
in the future, would be useful.
Construction can be of either wood, fiberglass, or
ferro-cement. The use of wood has been generally preferred because the expertise and materials for repairs to
fiberglass hulls are not widespread on the smaller islands.
This situation is changing particularly in district centers,
and the use of fiberglass boatscan be expected to increase.
However, when wooden boats are properly maintained,
they can give years of service, even in the tropics.

Use of Small Fishing Boats in Hawaii

TYPES,SIZES,MULTIPLE USE

There is a variety of types of small fishing boats in

Hawaii in the 30- to 40-ft-long range. It is beyond the
scope of this report to discuss all the different types of
small fishing vessels in Hawaii, but a few comments are
in order concerning some features of sampan types from
30 to 40 ft long whose use has been proven over the years.
Hawaiian waters are noted for their roughness and No.
3 seas with waves 5 to 8 ft high and whitecaps are common; therefore, small sampan-type fishingboats are often
characterized by a high raked bow, sponsons, hard chine,
anti-rolling chocks, and relatively small house to reduce
windage. There are dozens of this type of fishing boats
successfully used in Hawaii.
This so-called "sampanw-type boat is capable of: (1)
Midwater handline fishing for big-eyed scad (akule),
Trachurops crumenopthalmus, and mackerel scad (opelu),
Decapterus pinnulatus, (2) Bottom fishing for a variety
of snappers (Lutjanidae) and groupers (Serranidae),
(3) Trolling for tunas and mahimahi, Coryphaena
hippums, (4) Occasional netting for reef fish, and (5) "Ikashibi" fishing, which is midwater handline fishing at night
for large tuna using squid for bait while drifting 10-15
miles offshore.
This latter fishing method is a recent development in
Hawaii. "Ika" is the Japanese word for squid and "shibi"
is an old word for tuna. The boats nightlight for large
squid which are placed on hooks fishing from 5 to 20
fathoms. It is not unusual for boats 30 ft long to catch
5 to 10 yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacmes) per night,
all weighing over 100 lb. Some individual ydowfin tuna
caught exceed 200 lb.
Accommodations for crew vary on these boats, with
the smaller (e.g., 2 5 to 39 ft) usually having none, while
boats in the 30- to 40-ft range may have accommodations

56I~roceedingsof the ZCLARM Conferenceon Small Boat Design

ranging from rough bunks alongside the engine to regular
bunks in commodious berthing spaces. The house may
be large enough to provide enclosed steering facilities
and crew accommodations or may be just large enough
to provide shelter from wind and spray. While drifting,
crew members often obtain shelter from sun or rain by
spreading a large tent-link tarpaulin over a long wooden
boom extending aft from the top of the house. Cooking
facilities are usually housed in a small box when not in
use and consist of a two-burner propane or kerosene
stove, plus a minimum of kettles, pots, frying pans, and
dishes. Only the larger boats, which are sometimes used
for recreational purposes, have toilets.
Most boats have at least one or two live wells which
receive water circulation through screened holes in the
floor of the well.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SANDRA ANN

The Sandra Ann (official number 5 16-414), a wooden

Hawaiian style multi-purpose fishing boat, was built in
1953 by Funai Custom Boats, P.O. Box 17869,Honolulu,
Hawaii 96817. It is 37 ft long, and has a beam of 9.8 ft
and a draft of 4 ft. Tonnage is 8.87 gross and 6.00 net.
General lines appear in Figs. 1-9. Fig. 1 is the only
existing construction drawing for the Sandra Ann. Many
of the sampan-type fishing boats built in Hawaii were
constructed mainly from designs that existed in the
builder's head, and as a result there are few available
plans for this type of vessel. At present the Sandra Ann
is primarily engaged in bottom fishing for Kona crabs
(Ranina ranina) using hoop nets and in bottom fishing
for snappers. It is powered by the original engine, a
General ~ o t o r s ' (Detroit Diesel) GM6-71 diesel engine
rated at 165 hp. It features four live wells, each with a
capacity of 375 gallons of water.
The main fishing characteristic of the Sandra Ann is
that it is capable of conductipg at least five different
types of fishing: (I) bottom fishing for snappers;(2) midwater handlining for akule, opelu, and tunas; (3) bottom
fishing for crustaceans; (4) trolling for mahimahi and
surface tunas; and (5) live bait fishing for skipjack tuna
(Katsuwonus pelamis) (most important). With a minimum
of further fitting out and the addition of a mechanical
line hauler, it probably can be rigged for a modest
amount of longline fishing for tunas and billfishes.
The hull and superstructure are wooden with a small
enclosed house just forward of the steering wheel. The
forward part of the house provides the upper portion of
the engine room and leads into a small gear locker
forward of the engine room. The house has been extended
l ~ e f e r e n c eto trade names does not imply endorsement by
the National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA.

aft a few feet on the starboard side by plyboard sheeting

to provide a sheltered area for the small winch used for
hauling the Kona crab bottom trot line and to provide
a lee for preparing food.
The hull has a raked stem with a medium flare just aft
of the stem. The forward portion of the hull is bluntly
tap&ed to about one-quarter of the way aft, which
provides for a quick recovery when entering a high wave.
This allows for a relatively small amount of freeboard
forward of the house resulting in excellent visibility
forward while steering. The hull is characterized by a
fairly low freeboard throughout and a long unobstructed
working area aft. Accordng to the builder and owner,
the Sandra Ann has very good seakeeping characteristics.
Live baitfish used for pole and line fishing for skipjack
and live akule, opelu, snappers, and Kona crabs caught
by midwater and bottom fishing may be kept alive in
four live wells located just aft of the house (Fig. 4). Each
well measures 40 x 45 x 48 in and has a capacity of 375
gal of water. Water circulation and oxygen exchange are
obtained through nine screened holes in the bottom of
each live well. Each hole is 3 in in diameter and can be
plugged if necessary. Wooden slats form the covers to
the live wells and rest on the ridges of the small combing.
A large fish hold measuring 30 x 36 x 80 in runs
thwartship aft of the live wells. This hold has two
hatches. Aft of this fish holds are three small holds
measuring 22 x 24 x 30 in that are used to store gear,
food, or fish if necessary.
Crew accommodations are minimal. Two narrow
bunks are formed by the floor boards on either side of
the main ~ n g i n ebut
, for all practical purposes sleeping is
done on deck. There is no toilet. Food is prepared on a
small propane stove which is housed in a covered box
measuring 22 x 24 x 30 in when not in use. There is no
mechanical refrigeration and any food that requires
chilling is kept on top of ice kept in the fish holds.
An important consideration is the keel, which is 26 in
wide. In areas without marine railways, this should allow
the Sandra Ann to be winched ashore on a sloping beach
using rollers made of coconut logs. According to the
builder, the Sandra Ann should not require any unusual
bracing to maintain an upright position when hauled
ashore. The present keel, however, ends in a downward
angled skeg, which makes leveling the boat a little harder
once hauled ashore. During haulout, the propeller is protected by a shoe extending from the skeg.
For use in developing island fisheries, a similar boat's
keel should be designed to be on the same plane throughout, with no skeg or shoe under the propeller extending
downward. Also, the keel could be shoed with a steel
plate to prevent damage when being hauled out on a
beach. Elimination of gouges in the keel will help prevent

Hawaiian Style ~ i s h i noat

~ / 57

SANDRA ANN
Fig. 1. Outline drawing of the Sandra Ann, a 37-ft long Hawaiian
style multi-purpose fishing boat wooden construction. The drawing shows the original lines of the house, which has since been

modified as shown in Figures 2 and 3. (Drawing courtesy of the

builder, Mr. Teruo Funai, Funai Custom Boats, Honolulu,
Hawaii).

worm damage.
Similar wooden sampan type boats in the 30- t o 36-ft
length range were constructed in the Koror (Palau Islands)
shipyard during the 1960s. Several of these boats have
received adequate maintenance and are still operational.
The Fordham Ram at Lukunor Atoll is one.
nlAIN ENGINE, HYDRAULICS, ELECTRONICS
AND STEERING

The Sandra Ann is powered by a GM 6-71, which

drives a three-bladed 36-in propeller coupled t o a 3 : l
reduction gear. A direct takeoff from the main engine
provides power for a Vickers hydraulic pump delivering
about 10 gal/min. This runs the winch used for Kona crab
used for
fishing and for the Kolstrand
bottom fishing. In developing island fisheries, however,
use of a hydraulic system is not envisaged, with bottom
fishing gear and crab fishing gear hauled by hand-cranked
reels or drums. At present, the Sandra Ann employs a
Raytheon white line depth finder, Model DE-72 1A, which
runs on a 12-volt DC system. It has a maximum depth
range of 280 fathoms, but again, its use is not envisaged
in developing fisheries unless competent maintenance
and service facilities are available. The Sandra Ann also
has an auto pilot, Bendix Model 125. In developing
fisheries steering would be by hand via the wheel attached
t o the house, or by a wooden tiller while hauling the
crab line or sometimes during live bait fishing for skipjack
tuna (Fig. 6). A Kaar Mode1 37 radio provides the Sandra
Ann with ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communications.
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

According t o the owner, the Sandra Ann is

of making 7 to 8 knots at 1,400-1,800 rpm with a fuel

Fig. 2. Side view of the Sandra Ann. Note plyboard sheeting aft
of the house, which forms a shelter deck for equipment and food
preparation.

Fig. 3. Stern view of theSandra Ann. Note bottom fishing hydraulic pulleys on port side of stern. Bamboo markers and plastic
floaters for Kona crab fishing gear are stored on the starboard
side.

58/~roceedingsof the ZCLARM Conference on Small Boat Design

consumption of 5 to 6 galfh. Fuel tank capacity is 285
gal. Assuming a speed of 7 knots, and a fuel consumption
of 6 gallh, the range of the Sandra Ann is approximately
330 miles. Allowing a 10% fuel reserve for safety, the
useful radius of operations is about 150 miles. The freshwater capacity is 40 gal.
Since the Sandra Ann was designed to operate in rough
waters and also to undertake live bait fishing for skipjack
tuna, a heavy duty engine (165 hp) capable of producing
a speed of at least 7 knots was selected. Another
influence in the selection of the engine was the fact that
in the years following World War 11, there were a considerable number of GM 6-71 diesel engines
available in
Honolulu at low cost due to their being surplus to
government needs. In waters less rough, and if a speed
somewhat less than 7 knots is acceptable, repowering of
be
such a boat with a lower horsepower engine
considered. For example, a GM 3-53 diesel rated at 101
hp mi@ be expected to have a fuel consumption of
about 1 gal/h for every 15 shaft horsepower (shp). At
2,400 rpm, shp is 73 (approximately 4.9 gal/h); at 2,000
rpm, the shp is 60 (approximately 4.0 gallh). A GM 3-53
diesel weighs 1,090 lb and costs about US$12,500 in
Honolulu. With a smaller engine, the sea endurance and
radius of operations should increase significantly.

Fig. 4. View of Sandra Ann's deck pace just aft of the house.
The small winch for hau!ing Kona Lab gear is in the upper left
and next to it is the box containing a propane stove. The forward
hydraulic pulleys for bottom fishing are shown at bottom center,
and the four live wells (covers removed) are in the center.

MULTIPLE FISHERIES APPROACH

The Sandra Ann is capable of being fished in at least

five different modes for a wide variety of species. A
good description of fishing for akule by handline is given
by Powell (1968a). The same general technique is also
used for opelu fishing by handline. Hoop net fishing for
opelu is described by Powell (1968b), and bottom
fishing for Kona crabs is described by Onizuka (1972).
At present, the technique of rnidwater handlining for
tuna with squid (ika-shibi fishing) as practiced off the
island of Hawaii has not been described.
The use of the Sandra Ann as a skipjack tuna fishingboat deserves greater explanation. June (195 1) provides
a good description of live bait fishing for skipjack tuna
in Hawaiian waters. In Hawaii, such fishing requires the
use of live bait, which is predominantly an anchovy called
nehu (Stolephoms putpureus). The usual skipjack fishing
vessels in Hawaii are of sampan design, but in the 60- to
80-ft length range, and have crews of 8 to 12 individuals.
The live bait is captured either by day with a large net
(ca 60 to 80 fm long) together with a 20-ft long net skiff,
or at night with a large net deployed from the fishing
vessel in conjunction with a submerged underwater incandescent light (June 1951). Since the Sandra Ann is
operated with a crew of only three or four individuals,
night baiting is the only feasible method of bait capture,
for day baiting requires a minimum of six or seven

Fig. 5 . View of Sandra Ann's deck space looking aft from door
of the house. The four live wells are shown in the foreground
with the slatted voers in place. The main fish hold (hatch covers
removed) is behind the live wells. Box with the stove is at left.
Note the long unobstructed working space extending

Fig. 6. The rectangular fitting for a removable tiller is shown

just forward of the stern rail of the Sandra Ann.

Hawaiian Style Fishing ~ o a t / 5 9

fishermen. By using the night baiting techniques and

concentrating on skipjack tuna fishing when the abundance of skipjack tuna was high, the Sandra Ann could
often land from 1,500 to 2,000 lb of skipjack per day on
a fairly regular basis, and on a few occasions as high as
5,000 to 6,000 Ib of skipjack per day. Each of the
Sandra Ann's live wells is capable of holding about five
to six buckets of live nehu. A bucket of nehu weighs
about +3-4 lb. The Hawaiian nehu is similar to the
anchovy (Stolephoms heterolobus) captured by night
baiting in Palau, where about 80,000 buckets are captured
each year (Muller, MS).
The bait holding capacity of the Sandra Ann is one of
its strong characteristics. With a bait capacity over 20
buckets, the boat is capable of successfully competing
with the larger Hawaiian skipjack vessels when skipjack
are plentiful and accessible to a slower boat such as the
Sandra Ann, which does not have the speed (12 to 14
knots) of the larger vessels. In areas where there are no
faster vessels, a boat like the Sandra Ann should be able
to conduct skipjack fishing even during the off-season.
Maximum bait holding capacity per live well in tropical
waters might be less than in Hawaii because of higher
water temperatures. The live wells can also be used to
hold the live catch taken by handlining and bottom fishing until the boat returns to its home island.
A description of trolling and bottom fishing techniques is assumed to be unnecessary in this report.

Fig. 7. Hoop nets used for Kona crab fishing on the Sandra Ann.
Each hoop is about 36-in diameter. Netting is double layer to
entangle the legs of Kona crabs, which live on a sandy bottom.

TRADEOFFS

The essential characteristics that make a small fishing

boat like the Sandra Ann useful for developing island
fisheries are (1) proven design and construction; (2)
dependable engine; (3) low fuel consumption; (4) adequate range; (5) live wells for bait and catch;(6) capability
of being beached for maintenance; (7) no need for high
technology support facilities; and (8) multi-purpose fishing. In short, the boat can do a variety of fishing jobs
using a minimum of simple and highly dependable equipment. Overall, simplicity is the key factor.
Special accommodations for the crew have been
sacrificed because the length of fishing trips in most
developing areas is often only 1 or 2 days and the climate
for the most part is favorable for living on deck. Hydraulics would increase the effectiveness of such a boat, but
is not considered necessary unless good maintenance
and repair facilities are available. A larger engine capable
of higher speeds might be desirable, but is not considered
essential because of higher costs, high fuel consumption,
and the fact that high speeds are not needed to get to
the fishing grounds or to compete with higher speed
boats for skipjack tuna fishing using live bait. A radio

Fig. 8. Closeup of two of the hydraulic pulleys and for bottom

fishing on the Sandra Ann. Each reel contains several hundred
fathoms of braided line.

Fig. 9. Closeup of the hydraulic powered small winch used for

pulling the bottom line used for Kona crab fishing on the Sandra
Ann. The winch contains several hundred fathoms of stainless
steel wire. Note the level wind.

60/Proceedings o f the ZCLARM Conference on Small Boat Design

should be carried for safety. Provision should also be

made for the use of a sail in an emergency.
The use of ice is highly desirable and is considered
necessary for all the atoll types except those where there
is no surplus fish left over after the boat returns home
and the catch is distributed following a day's fishing trip.
Most trips resulting in very large catches (e.g., skipjack
tuna) would probably be only 1 day, since the survival
of bait is expected to be a limiting factor. Shading the
catch and keeping it wet will help keep the catch in a
consumable condition. It is conceded, however, that
such a catch will not be in number one condition upon
arrival unless ice is used. For longer trips, if ice is not
available, catches can be dried or salted, or kept alive in
the live wells.
Ice is the single most important item that should be
obtained in any attempt to upgrade support facilities
for a boat similar to the Sandra Ann. It will greatly
increase its effectiveness.
Finally, a word about costs. A detailed discussion on
the costs of construction and operation of such a boat is
beyond the scope of this report, other than the figures
given on diesel engine costs in Honolulu and the fact
that construction costs of such a vessel in Honolulu today
are probably in the range of U S $ 1 , 5 0 0 - $ 2 , 0 0 0 per running ft with the engine and US$1,000-$1,500 per running ft without the engine.
It is assumed that construction will take place outside
the United States in a yard where reasonably priced construction materials are available and labor costs are lower
than those in Honolulu. Diesel engines are assumed to be
purchased overseas, but the important factor here is
dependability, and probably not cost. Paying an extra
20% for a diesel engine that with a reasonable level of
maintenance will operate trouble-free for many years is
well worth the cost, rather than buying a cheaper engine
that is more susceptible to breakdown.
Summary and Conclusions
A small multi-purpose fishing boat that emphasizes
the concepts of simplicity and dependability of hull,
machinery, and fishing gear in its design and operations
can be expected to make a more significant contribution
to developing an island's fisheries and economic potential
than a single- or dual-purpose fishing boat. Under certain
conditions, a small multi-purpose fishing boat can probably satisfy the requirements of the various social units
which might operate the boat, namely the family, village,
or commercial concerns.
A Hawaiian style multi-purpose sampan type fishing
boat should be capable of successll operations from all
but the smaller islands or atolls, providing low to medium
level technology is available for maintenance and repairs.

Skills in ship's carpentry and diesel engine maintenance

are required.
Hawaiian style sampans such as the 37-ft long Sandra
Ann, a wooden boat capable of at least five different
types of fishing, including live bait fishing for skipjack
tuna, are suggested as excellent fishing platforms for use
in developing island fisheries. A description of theSandra
Ann is given.
The overriding considerations in operating such boats
in outlying areas are simplicity and dependability, and
several systems have been eliminated to meet this end.
Crew accommodations are minimal, sleeping is done on
deck, and there is no toilet. Electronics (except for a
radio), hydraulics, .and automatic steering are not considered essential. Such a boat should be capable of being
hauled out on a beach; however, a small marine railway
is recognized as highly desirable.
A range of at least several hundred miles is needed to
seek fishing grounds and for safety.
Diesel engines are preferred over gasoline engines
bzcause of dependability, low fuel consumption, and
fewer systems to maintain. Mechanical refrigeration is
not considered essential, but the use of ice is needed in
all fisheries except those where there is no surplus fish
from each fishing trip and fishing trips are much longer
than 1 day. Ice is the single most important factor for
upgrading the operations of small multi-purpose fishing
boats.
Since there are few representative sets of plans for the
Hawaiian sampan type of boat, it would be useful if
some agency or individual would undertake preparation
drawings based on existing boats.
Acknowledgments
I would like to sincerely acknowledge the cooperation
of the Sandra Ann's builder, Mr. Teruo Funai, and its
owner, Mr. Toshio Yoshimoto, for providing technical
information. I also appreciate advice and suggestions
made by Messrs. John J. Naughton, Richard S. Shomura,
and Peter T. Wilson, who read the manuscript.

References
June, Fred C. 195 1. Preliminary fisheries survey of the HawaiianLine Islands area. Part 111-The live-bait skipjack fishery of
the Hawaiian Islands. Comm. Fish. Rev. 13(2): 1-18.
Muller, Robert. 1978. Some aspects of the population biology of
Stolephoms heterolobus from Palau. In Shomura, R.S. (ed.)
Collection of Tuna Baitfish papers. NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS
Circ. 408. 167 p.
Onizuka, Eric. 1972. Management and development investigations
of the Kona crab, Ranina ranina (Linnaeus). Final report.
Division of Fish and Game, Department of Land and Natural
Resources, State of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, 28 p.

Hawaiian Style Fishing Boat161

Powell, Ronald. 1968a. "Akule" night fishing gear. South Pacific
Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 13 p.

Powell, Ronald. 1968b. Hawaiian "opelu" hoop net fishing gear.

South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 10 p.

Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic

and Its Application to Boatbuilding

Marshall Islands Development Authority

and Island Fiberglass Co.
Majuro, Marshall Islands
Trust Territory of the Pacific I~lands

Fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) is the correct name

for what is commonly called fiberglass. It is a unique
combination of two very different materials which have
been blended together to make one product. While it is
not the panacea for all types of boat construction, it has
definite potential for use in the South Pacific.
Properly used, it can solve many problems which have
previously plagued local boatbuilding operations. It will
not rot, rust, or corrode. Given minimum maintenance,
it will far outlast any material currently used in boat
construction. However, it would be wrong to think that
fiberglass products can be built and then neglected.
Minimum maintenance must include at least one good
cleaning and waxing a year. Also, any nicks or gouges
that are found in the gelcoat (the water sealant coating
of a fiberglass product) should be touched up.
In the Pacific there is a mystique that has caught
people to shy away from fiberglass in the past. It is
certainly not a new product and has already undergone
several research and development phases. FRP found its
first use during World War I1 as a quick method of
repairing leaking wing tanks in airplanes. Since that time,
improvements to the major constituents of FRP have
been developed on an almost monthly basis.
Stories exist about fiberglassboats that have cracked,

split, or turned green. These problems have most probably

originated from faulty design, economical comer-cutting,
or sloppy workmanship. However, as an example, U.S.
Coast Guard testing of a fiberglass boat that has been used
full time for over 15 years shows a deterioration factor
of less than 10%.
Resins and material selections are the key to a successful venture. A reputable supplier can assist in the proper
selection of FRP products and provide advice on how to
avoid problems with their use. The only problem that
has been encountered when importing fibergl,ass to the
Marshall Islands is in proper storage and logistics. This
problem can be solved by storing the raw materials in a
controlled environment until time for use.
Both resins are affected by temperature and humidity,
and care must be exercised in their procurements and
storage. Most resin manufacturers will blend resins for
use under specific, predetermined conditions. Shelf life
can be extended by storing the resins under specific, predetermined conditions. Shelf life can be extended by
storing the resins under environmentallycontrolled conditions. The catalysts and hardeners can also be varied to
control the length of cure time.
While resins are flainmable, problems can be prevented
if one uses common sense. It should be noted that the

Fiberglass Reinforced plastic 163

flash point is in the range of 95 degrees (any good Scotch

whiskey is in the range of 85 degrees).
Glass reinforcements are available in a wide variety,
from finish veil which is "010" thick, to woven rovings
exceeding 24 oz lyd2. The cbrrect material is normally
specified by the designers, and methods of application
vary according to the material used. It is possible to
build fiberglass products as one-of-a-kind items using

"one off methods" (i.e., the ICLARM boat), or to mass

produce identical parts using a mold.
For those interested in fiberglass boat construction,
the following references are recommended:
"How to Fiberglass" by Glen-L Publications
"Fiberglass Boat Design and Construction" by
R.J. Scott
Both are available through National Fisherman.

Factors To Consider in Selecting

Power Units for Small Fishing Boats

Marine and General Engineering Division

Andrews and Beaven Limited
Auckland, New Zealand

Engine Horsepower Selection

Various factors must be considered when selecting an
engine that is best suited to a particular vessel and fishery:
1. The required speed of the vessel, keeping in mind
that the hull has a maximum speed irrespective of the
engine's maximum speed.
2. The types of tasks required of the vessel, e.g., line
fishing, trolling, and trawling.
3. The auxiliary power requirements of the engine,
such as supplying power to a voltage alternator, freezer
compressor, deck and bilge pump, trawl winch, etc. These
auxiliary duties all require additional horsepower from
the engine.
4. The lines of a vessel, as well as its displacement
and weight. These factors determine the engine's placement in the hull. If a displacement hull is used, the ratio
of engine weight to horsepower is not a critical factor;
with a planing hull, however, this ratio becomes a major
consideration.
5. The amount of available clearance that the hull
design allows for a propeller. With a planing hull with
twin engines, the propeller shaft is extended on a strut
or "A" frame. This structure has the disadvantage of
leaving the propeller unprotected and therefore more

liable to damage from flotsam, reefs, etc.

From the above facts, a general rule for determining
appropriate engine horsepower to hull length can be
derived:
Vessels up to 4 m in length require up to 6 hp
Vessels of 7 m require 6-15 hp
Vessels of 8 m require 15-25 hp
Vessels of 10 m require 25-50 hp
Vessels of 12 m require 50-100 hp
Engine Type Selection and Drive
A first consideration in choosing between gasoline or
diesel engines is the availability of fuel. Assuming that
both types of fuel are available, the cost per gallon (or
litre) should be assessed against the amount the engine
will burn per hour.
In addition, the dangers of gasoline must not be overlooked. Gasoline exhaust fumes are toxic, whereas diesel
fumes are not. Also, the electrical system of a gasoline
engine is very susceptible to damage from moisture and
in general, this engine type is more difficult to maintain.
The diesel engine will generally provide more hours of
trouble-free service than the gasoline engine.
Having selected an engine, one must next consider the

Engine Selection 165

drive unit. Several types exist: a conventional shaft

directly coupled to the gear box, vee belt drive from
engine to propeller shaft, inboard/outboard drive, outboard motor, jet unit, or vee gear box drive.
Gear boxes can be either hydraulic or manual. An
advantage of the hydraulic gear box is its "fingertip
control." Within this gear box, or bolted directly behind
it, are the reduction gear and thrust bearings. As a rule,
with a smaller number or propeller revolutions, slip is
reduced and a greater operating efficiency is thus
achieved.
When using the vee belt drive between engine and
shaft, it is important t o fit a thrust bearing onto the
propeller shaft. A '?jockey pulley" can be incorporated
in this drive unit which will allow the propeller t o idle
while the engine is running. Unlike a gear box which can
reverse the propeller's rotation, the vee belt drive is restricted to one direction only.
The inboard/outboard motor requires that the engine
be mounted in the aft section in the vessel. In both cases,
the purchase price includes a complete unit, including
propeller, shaft and other parts. These units offer the
advantage of being able to raise the propeller clear of
any obstructions. The outboard motors with lower
horsepower can be readily removed for servicing as well.
The jet unit must also be placed near the stern of the
vessel and requires a high rpm engine. The absence of a
propeller has definite advantages, but this type of drive
is very inefficient at low rpm and thus is inapplicable for
activities such as longlining and trolling.
Selection of Engine Systems
"Optional extras" offered by manufacturers are
additional considerations when purchasing a marine
engine:
Cooling. Three cooling systems are available. A saltwater cooling system involves pumping salt water directly
through the engine. This system is simple t o install, but
often subjects the engine to severe internal corrosion.
Air cooling is a second system. If the motor is located
in an open cockpit, this method poses no problem but if
the engine is installed in an engine room, an air flow must
be maintained to and from the engine.
The best cooling system is perhaps that of freshwater
cooling. The simplest method is to "keel cool" an engine;
the fresh water is first circulated through external pipes
on the hull where it is cooled by water and then passed
through the engine. The other freshwater method uses a
head exchanger whereby salt water is pumped through a
stack of tubes while the fresh water is circulated around
these tubes and through the engine.
Starting System. The simplest starting method is hand
starting. The other common type of starting is electrical,

which relies on battery power and is more difficult to

maintain. Some manufacturers, however, offer both
forms of starting and this is a major advantage.
Auxiliary Drives. If other tasks are required of the
engine, such as powering a trawl winch, line hauler, or
freezer, it is advantageous t o purchase a clutch-operated
power takeoff. Generally, if no power takeoff is available, vee pulleys can be mounted on the front end of the
crankshaft.
Instruments. Instruments can be either mounted
directly on the engine or remote-mounted on the dash,
and can be of the capillary tube variety or electrical.
They should include a tachometer (preferably with a
service house meter), oil pressure gauge, and water temperature gauge. If electricity is available, alarm units for
low oil pressure and high water temperature should be
fitted as they forewarn of problems before a sericus
breakdown occurs.
Operation of Engine
For maximum engine reliability and performance,
some simple training should be provided to the operator.
Initially, the operator should read the manufacturer's
handbook for familiarization with the engine.
Any proficient boat operator should be capable of
changing the engine lubricating oil and lube oil filters as
specified by the manufacturer. For all engine types it is
imperative that the correct grade of lubricating oil be
used. In addition, the oil level in the sump should be
checked daily, together with the freshwater level if applicable.
The operator should also be able to trace the fuel system from the tanks, through the primary filterlwater
trap, to the lift pump and thence to the fuel pump via
the secondary fuel filter. All fuel filters should be changed
and the water trap drained periodically. In the case of
gasoline engines, a basic knowledge of electrical connections is necessary. For example, an operator should know
how to deal with dampness on leads.
In addition, an operator should know how to check
battery water levels, clean engine air filters and assess
daily fuel consumption. A working knowledge of the
bilge pumping arrangements is necessary as well.
If a diesel engine is difficult t o start but has fuel, it
can be assumed that the compression is down and the
cylinder head should be removed so that the valves can
be ground. In general terms, all modern engines require a
valve grind at about 3,5004,500 service 'hours, which
should be done by qualified engineers. The number of
hours varies with different engine makes and models,
however, and this figure serves as a guide only. All engines give better performance and lower running costs
if they are not "overpropped," i.e., they must obtain

66/proceedingsof the ICLARMConferenceon Small Boat Design

their designed rpm when underway.

In summary, three major factors are involved in
selecting an appropriate engine type: the size of the
boat, the desired speed, and the type of work required
of the boat.
For greater reliability and economy the diesel engine
is the better choice. After the horsepower and weight of
a unit, the next important consideration is the availability
of replacement parts and servicing. From experience
gained, I would recommend the engines listed in Table 1

for marine use. These are drawn from those in the larger
list in Table 2.
The necessary accessories (i.e., the type of gear box)
must also be considered. Correct and careful installation
of the engine is an additional critical factor. With regular
and intelligent maintenance by the operator, many
motors can be operated almost continuously, without
frequent overhauling, for many thousands of hours.
An important point to remember is that when at sea
and a breakdown occurs, you cannot get out and walk.

Table 1. Brands of motors recommended for marine use with comments on their best features.

Yanmar YSI: 8
Yanmar YSE 12
Lister SRIN/G
Volvo Penta MDlB
Stuart Turner

Simple to operate and install.

Economical and very reliable. Has hand and/or electric starting.
For air-cooled applications.
Similar to Yanmar.
Good reliable gasoline engine.

Yanmar 2QM20
Lister ST2MG/R
Volvo Penta MD2B
Volvo Penta MB2A
Volvo Penta MDl lC/10OB

Simple to operate. Reliable, economical and has opfional starting.

For air-cooled applications.
For inboard use.
For gasoline fuel.
Diesel inboard/outboard use.

Lister ST3MG/R
Volvo Penta MD3B
Volvo Penta MB2OC

For air-cooled applications.

For diesel inboard.
For petrol fuel.

Fiat C03M
G.M. Detroit 3.53
Volvo Penta AQD21A/2700
Ford Cortina

Reliable diesel.
Compact 2-stroke diesel. Has good power to weight ratio.
Reliable diesel for inboard/outboard application.
Compact gasoline engine.

Fiat OMCP3M
G.M. 4/53
Lister HR6
Volvo Penta AQ115A/100
Volvo Penta BB115C

Compact and reliable.

Compact 2-stroke diesel. Has good power to weight characteristics.
For air-cooled applications.
Gasoline inboardloutboard.
Gasoline inboard.

Engine selection 167

Table 2. Brands of motors available in various ranges of horsepower and selected features of each brand.
Diesel
or
gas

Cooling

Hand-Elec
start

Budget pricea

BUKH. DVlOM
Lces One - 11
Stuart Turner
Yanmar YSE 8
Yanmar YSE 12
Penta MD 1B
Kubota
Lister SRIMG
Petter AClWM
Stuart Turner
Honda
Kawasaki
Briggs & Stratton
Various makes of petrol outboards

Sea water
Sea water
Sea water
Sea water
Sea water
Sea water
Sea water
Air
Sea water
Water
Air
Air
Air
Water

NZ$2,000
1,650

Petter PH2W
Yanmar
Volvo Penta MD2B
Lister ST2MG/R
Lister SW2
Volvo Penta MD 1 lC/100B (inboardoutboard)
BUKH DV2OM
Lees 4/27
Volvo Penta MB 10A
Wisconsin THOM
Briggs &Stratton
Outboards u p to

Sea water
Sea water
Sea water
Air
Sea water

NZ$1,640
2,000
2,800
2,300 + tax
2,300 + tax

850/$1,350
960 /$1,550
1,200
1,300
1,200
2,000
1,050
200 (up to)
415 (up to)
350 (up to)
700 (up to)

Sea water
Sea water
Fresh water
Sea watcr
Air
Air
--

Lister ST3MG/R
Lister HRW3
Lister HR3
Perkins 4/108M
Pcrkins D3/152
B.M.C. Captain
Volvo Penta MD3B
Lees 4/53
Volvo Penta MB20C
Ford Escort
Wisconsin WH4DM
Outboards up to

Air
Water
Air
Water
Water
Water
Water
Water
Water
Water
Air

B.M.C. COMMANDER
Perkins 4/236M
Lees 4/75
G.M. Detroit
Volvo Penta MD2lA
Fiat C03M
Volvo Penta AQD21A/2700 (inboard-

Water
Water
Water
Water
Water
Water

--

NZ$2,700+ tax
5,450 + tax
3,800 + tax

2,700
3,800
3,400
3,000
2,300
1,500

Continued next page

68/Proceedings o f the ICLARM Conference on SmallBoat Design

Table 2 contd.
outboard)
Lister HRW4
Lister HR4
Ford Cortina
Outboards up t o

Water
Water
Air
Water

5,100
8,750+ tax
5,800 + tax
2,400
1,900

80 to 100 hp
Ford 2715
Perkins 61354
Caterpillar 3304
G.M. Detroit 4/53
Fiat OM CP3M
Lister HRGMG/R
Lister HR6
Volvo Penta AQ115A/100 (inboardoutboard)
Volvo Penta BB115C
Outboards up to

D
D
D
D
D
D
D

E
E
E
E
E
E
E

Water
Water
Water
Water
hter
Water
Air

NZ$6,500
-10,000
7,500
8,600
9,100 + tax
7,100+ tax

G
G

E
E

Water
Water

2,300
3,800
2,300

Jet Units
Berkeley 5J5
Berkeley 6JA
Hamilton 75 1
aPrices
. quoted are as of September 1975.
b~~$1.=
0 NZ$1.00
3

G
G
G

7-10hp
10-40hp
5 0 - 150 hp

NZ$ 160
26 0
6 70

Air-Cooled Gasoline Engines

J . H. COOK
Far East and Pacific Sales
Briggs and Stratton Corporation
P. 0. Box 702, Milwaukee
Wisconsin 53201, U.S.A.

Many participants in this workshop are perhaps not

familiar with Briggs and Stratton, or if they do know the
name, may only associate it with lawn mowers.
The factory is located in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S.A.,
where single-cylinder, four-cycle, air-cooled gasoline engines rated from 2 hp through 16 hp are manufactured.
Engines rated from 2 to 10 hp are constructed of die-cast
aluminum alloy, whereas a second range of engines rated
from 9 to 16 hp is constructed of cast iron. Annual production averages 7 million to 9 million units. Briggs and
Stratton is the largest manufacturer of small gasoline
engines in the world. All major components of the engine
are produced by the company. Only those parts which
are uneconomical to manufacture internally-piston rings,
spark plugs, gaskets, springs, nuts, and bolts-are purchased from other sources.
It is estimated that 50 million Brigs and Stratton
engines are in use throughout the world, supported by a
worldwide service organization which may be the most
important factor in the success of the company. There
are few areas of the world where Briggs and Stratton does
not maintain a service and parts distributor. Recently, a
Central Service Distributor has been appointed for Guam
and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. A service
distributor is also located in Papeete, Tahiti.

The marine application of the Briggs and Stratton

engine had its origin in the Philippines immediately after
World War 11, when Filipino fishermen adapted surplus
U.S. Army generator engines, made by the company, to
the local fishing craft, the banca. There are now about
250,000 engine-powered fishing boats operating in the
Philippines, of which at least 90% are powered by Briggs
and Stratton engines. Thousands of the 10-hp cast iron
model 243431 and the 16-hp cast iron model 326431
are sold in the Philippines every year for use by fishing
boats.
The question is often raised as to the reliability and
durability of an engine that has not been designed and
constructed for marine application, but is used for that
purpose. Many of the older model Briggs and Stratton
engines are still in service. For example, a Model ZZP
(7.7 hp) manufactured in 1948 is still being used in the
Philippines. Another example, a Model 23A-FB (9 hp)
has been used since 1954-about 8 hours per day, 6 days
per week, and traveling 20 miles each way to and from
the fishing grounds. These are not isolated examples, but
admittedly, these engines are owned by individuals who
have taken good care of them and exercised good preventive maintenance. The owner of the Model 23A-FB
reports that he painted the blower housing, inside and

7O/Proceedings of the ICLARMConference on SmallBoat Design

outside every year, changed oil two times each month,
and sprayed exposed parts weekly with used oil. He also
replaced the crankshaft in 1973, changed piston rings
annually, and replaced blower housing every 2 or 3 years.
The intake valve has never been replaced. The engine is
still easy to start and in good running condition.
According to our studies, the average life of an engine
used in the local Philippine fishery operation is 5 years.
However, these engines are not specifically designed for
use in this highly corrosive saltwater atmosphere. The
principal use of these engines in the United States is on
small garden-type tractors, and others are used on pumps
and generatprs.
Briggs and Stratton has modified the standard production of 10-hp and 16-hp engines for this fishing application, as much as assembly line production will permit it
to be done economically. These modifications include (1)
coating the flywheel with an epoxy in the area where the
magnet is inserted to inhibit saltwater corrosion, (2) supplying a rubber spark plug cover, (3) installing the
exhaust elbow at an angle which will result in less interference with the narrow area wherethe engine isinstalled,
(4) installing a ground wire terminal at the ignition
breaker box with a stop switch instead of the standard
stop switch located at the spark plug, and (5) installing
a remote throttle control to enable the fishing boat
operator to control engine speed easily from a forward
or aft position.
In addition, the Briggs and Stratton Philippine distributor recommends, through informal training classes held
in fishing villages, the following preventive maintenance
procedures:
1. Wash the engine with fresh water after returning
from the sea.

2. Repaint the steel components inside and outside

(blower housing, backplate, armature core laminations, etc.) to inhibit saltwater corrosion.
3. Provide protection for the hot engine fiom water
splash and provide louvers for ventilation of the
engine compartment.
4. Check the alignment of driveline from engine to
propeller frequently.
5. Prevent too much tilt of the engine along its crankshaft axis which could cause problems in lubrication
and carburetor flooding.
6. Check end-play of the crankshaft every time the
engine combustion chamber is cleaned (every 100200 hours).
7. Retain the air cleaner assembly to inhibit corrosion
of carburetor parts (most fishermen tend to discard
the carefully designed air cleaner as superfluous in
their clean air environment.)
8. Spray the engine weekly with used oil to inhibit
corrosion.
The most frequently encountered problems, according
to service records, have been corrosion and breaking of
the connecting rod due to either low oil level or to overspeeding. A special remote throttle control has now
minimized this latter problem. These problems are generally caused by careless operation or maintenance.
An engine specification sheet for each engine model is
available from Briggs and Stratton. These sheets provide
complete power data and specification standards as well
as complete dimensional data. A transmission for the
10-hp and 16-hp enginesismanufactured by GWAM, Inc.,
Manila, Philippines and sold by Muller and Phipps Industrial Corp. of the Philippines.

The Modern Outboard as Applied

to the Fishing Industry

Outboard Marine Australia Pty. Ltd.

P. 0. Box 82, Bankstown
N.S. W. 2200, Australia

During the past 50 years, over 11% million outboard

motors have been sold in the U.S. Of these, two-thirds
are still in use today, and approximately 50% of the
motors are used for fishing purposes (estuary as well as
deep sea and commercial fishing).
Available figures indicate a growing preference for
outboard powered craft. In 1976 the range of outboard
motors will begin with a 2-hp model and extend to a
new 200-hp V6 motor, and the design of the various
models will derive from the many applications of their
commercial use.
Almost all modern outboard motors employ two-cycle
gasoline engines for several reasons. The two-cycle engine,
in its most refined form, is relatively simple in design
and function when compared to the four-cycle engine.
The piston of a two-cycle engine performs most of the
work for which a four-cycle engine requires a large
quantity of parts. The one up-stroke and one down-stroke
of this piston compresses the gas for combustion, opens
the exhaust, allows burnt gas to escape, draws in a fresh
charge of gas, closes the exhaust and inlet, and again
compresses the gas. This simplicity reduces both the
weight and the cost of the unit.
Weight is an important factor in outboard motor
design, and most outboards below 6 0 hp are light enough

to be either portable or semi-portable. An output of 135

hp can be obtained from a power-head (complete with a
starter, generator, automatic choke, ignition components
and carburetor) weighing less than 130 lb. This favorable
power-to-weight ratio is achieved by only a few moving
parts, a high output per cubic inch of capacity, the extensive use of aluminum, and the use of lightweight components, made possible by low compression ratios and
with subsequent lower pressures.
Although the tolerances on most of the motors' components are tight, die cast aluminum used to best advantage, a high volume output, and the inherent simplicity
of the two-cycle design brings the price of an outboard
motor within reach of the man on the street. The outboard motor manufacturer's continuous rating is a true
representation of the horsepower claimed. The ratings
are controlled by the Boating Industry Association which
employs horsepower certification procedures that conform to SAE procedures accepted worldwide. A manufacturer who is a member of this American organization
submits sample power-heads to independent testing
laboratories which measure and certify the hp output in
the presence of competitive manufacturers.
The horsepower output of the modern outboard is
high in relation t o its cubic capacity. It is common to

72/~roceedings
o f the ZCLARMConferenceon Small Boat Design

have greater than 1 h p per cubic inch, which is achieved

with engine speeds in a range of 4,550-5,500 rpm.
The torque curve of the engine is flat, which means
that a high propeller rpm can be maintained even at low
boat speeds. This is ideal for putting boats onto the
plane rapidly without overspeeding the engine and without needing to change over when the boat reaches its
full speed. The hp curve indicates a flat torque curve
(Fig. 1). The h p falls off rapidly after maximum brake
horsepower is reached. This is an advantage, because to
get the best speed from the motor, a propeller should be
fitted that permits the motor to reach the maximum h p
rpm. Thus, there is no advantage in fitting a propeller
that allows a motor t o run to high rpni, because performance drops off.

RPM
Fig. 1. Relation between horsepower and rpm. The ascending
line indicates that up to a certain point, an engine will continue
to develop power as rpm increases. The engine represented by
this curve would be rated at 30 h p at 4,500 rpm.

The reason why power of the outboard drops rapidly

when the engine rpm becomes excessive is that breathing
is hindered. The inlet and exhaust ports are not open
long enough to allow the fuel vapor inertia and friction
to be overcome and still charge the cylinder or crankcase.
The intake port of a typical two-cycle engine is open
for 120 degrees of crankshaft travel and the exhaust port
for about 145 degrees. At 4,500 rpm the inlet port is
thus a l l o ~ e donly 11220 sec to charge the cylinder and
the exhaust port 11185 sec to discharge the exhaust
from the cylinder. If the rpni's are increased to 5,100,
only 1/1,250 sec is available for intake and 112 10 sec for
exhaust.
Incoming gas and e x h a w is directed so that complete
scavenging of the combustion chamber is effected with
little loss of fresh, unburnt gas. This deflection is accomplished by either of two methods:
1. Most two-cycle outboards use the cross-flow prin-

ciple. The intake and exhaust ports are positioned

opposite each other in the cylinder walls. The incoming charge enters the cylinder through the inlet
port, deflects upward into the combustion area via
the deflector cast on the piston crown, and bounces
off the cylinder head and through the exhaust port.
2. The loop charging method has been popular in
single-cylinder air-cooled engines. Until recently,
no method of incorporating this design into a
multi-cylinder water-cooled engine existed. The
two intake ports are located almost opposite each
other in the cylinder walls, slanted upwards and
slightly back. The exhaust ports are positioned on
the far side away from the direction of slant of the
inlet ports. The piston is slightly domed and does
not deflect the gas. The two gases enter through
the opposing inlet ports, impinge, and deflect up
and around the domed cylinder head and out
through the exhaust port.
The air-fuel ratio requirement of most outboard
motors varies between 12:1, the rich mixture for idle
and maximum power, and 18:1, the leaner mixture for
maximum economy at cruising speeds. The carburetors
used to achieve this are of single- or multiple-throat side
draught. Usually one carburetor or carburetor throat
feeds a niaxiinum two cylinders and for large engines,
one carburetor or carburetor throat per cylinder is
common. This is because a high inlet velocity is important
for crankcase efficiency and a high carburetor venturi
velocity is necessary for quick motor response. Some
outboard carburetors have an adjustable low speed jet
for a smooth idling and easy starting, but the high speed
jet usually has a fixed orifice.
Magneto ignition is used on most outboard motors of
up to 40 hp. The magneto is usually mounted under
the flywheel. For a two-cylinder engine, it consists of a
mounting plate (or armature plate) on which the cornponents are mounted, one ignition coil per cylinder, one
condenser per cylinder, and one set of primary breaker
points per cylinder operated by a cam on the crankshaft
(Fig. 2). Permanent magnets are cast into the rim of the
flywheel which revolves around the armature plate; as
the poles of the matnets pass the heels of the coils, a
lnagnetic field is built up around the coil and causes a
current to flow through the primary winding. The
breaker points, when closed, complete the primary circuit
and collapse the current. The condenser is connected
across the points to prevent arcing and burning of the
points, and this helps reduce the collapsing primary
current to zero rapidly. This rapidly falling current in
the primary windings permits an abrupt change in the
di~ectionof the magnetic flow in the core of the coil.
This change then induces, in the fine secondary windings

Outboard Applied to Industry/73

MAGNET
MAGNET POLE SHOE-N
PRIMARY LEAD TO
BREAKER POINT
PRIMARY WINDING

SECONDARY WINDING
MAGNET POLE SHOE

SECONDARY LEAD

BREAKER POMTS
BREAKER ARM

BREAKER CAM

E SHOE

Fig. 2. A typical flywheel magneto system.

of the coil, a current of extremely high voltage which is

carried through a high tension leading t o the spark plug.
The throttle is synchronized with the spark timing.
The first one-third of engine speed is achieved by spark
advance only, with no opening of the throttle; the second
one-third is reached by advancing the spark to its maximum, with minimal butterfly opening; and the top onethird is achieved by complete throttle opening. Thus, full
power can be used to a point where there is maximum

spark advance but very little throttle opening. This

results in a good turn of speed with relatively low fuel
consumption. A typical fuel consumption curve for a
high h p outboard motor is shown in Figure 3.
Two-cycle outboard motors have always been lubricated by mixing oil with gasoline. The petrol-oil ratio
recommended for almost all modern outboard motors
is 50 to 1.
Optimal lubrication has been a goal of outboard

74/&oceedings o f the ICLARM Conference on Small Boat Design

1
0

as possible to facilitate priming. The pump consists of a

neoprene rubber impeller and an offset pump housing.
Because the housing is offset, the impeller blades flex as
they rotate, thus varying the space between them. The
pump inlet port, located in the stainless steel plate which
forms the lower part of the pump housing, is open to the
blades when the space between them is increasing. The
pump outlet port in the impeller housing is open to the
blades when the space between them is decreasing. Thus,
'at low speeds the impeller works as a displacement pump:
At higher speeds, when water resistance keeps the blades
from flexing and the pump acts as a circulator, enough
'water is provided by the forward motion of the mote;
through the water. The pump design can pass solids and
sand through the pump without damage.
Almost all outboard motors are made of die-cast aluminum. Because of the economic advantages of using this
material and process, special attention has been given to
the composition of alloys that will withstand corrosion
under hostile conditions. One of the best alloysis an 11%
silicon alloy with copper content below 0.6%.
I

10
20
30
BOAT SPEED (miles/ hr 1

40

Fig. 3. Fuel consumption curve for an outboard with high horsepower.

designers and the oil companies as well. A few years ago,

coil companies realized that four-cycle engine development headed in one direction and two-cycle outboard
development in the opposite. They recognized that the
automotive oil generally available would soon not be
suitable for water-cooled two-cycle outboards. As a
result, they developed an oil designed specifically for use
in outboard motors.
This "outboard"oi1 is a carefully blended mixture of
bright stock and neutral basics. It includes ash-free detergent dispersant additives which prevent the accumulation,
of deposits on the piston crown, the cylinder head, and
particularly around the piston rings, thereby eliminating
the prime cause of pre-ignition and plug fouling. This
outboard oil is not suitable for use in four-cycle engines,
and four-cycle engine oils cannot be used in outboard
motors.
Because outboard motors are generally used in waters
of an even temperature, most of them are water-cooled.
Because the cooling water is maintained at a fairly low
temperature. most outboards have thermostatically controlled systems. The cooling water is circulated through
the exhaust covers, around the cylinder sleeves, through
the cylinder head, and through the thermostat, and is
then discharged or returned to the pump. The pump is
driven directly by the driveshaft and is mounted as low

The internal water passages of the powerhead are specially treated with a high-solids varnish. The varnish is
applied under vacuum and baked to resist the high salt
atmosphere inside the passages after the motor has been
switched off. Special paints developed for outboard
motors are subjected to extreme exposure and salt spray
acceptance tests. The method of application on some
motors is to heat thick paint to spraying viscosity while
spraying takes place, which allows a heavier coat to be
applied without sags or runs. Then when baked, the

FULL THROTTLE

'01 1

TYPICAL

BOAT RESISTANCE

BOAT SPEED (miles / hr.)

Fig. 4. Resistance of typical 17-ft boat with load of four passengers. Full throttle thrust cuwe is net driving thrust of an 80-hp
engine using 10-indiameter x 10-inpitch propeller.

Outboard Applied to 1ndustry/75

coating is denser because less solvent must be evaporated

out.
The propeller of an outboard motor performs somewhat the same function as the gear box of a car. A propeller too low in pitch gives exceptional acceleration,
low top speed, and excessively high engine rpm. A propeller too high in pitch gives poor .acceleration, low top
speed, and low motor rpm, because the motor is overloaded. The correct propeller is one that allows the motor
to reach its maximum break horsepower rpm. This gives
good acceleration then, because of the flat torque curve
of an outboard motor and optimum top speed.
Propellers rely entirely on slip to do their work, slip
being the difference between the theoretical advance
(pitch times rpm) and the actual advance of the boat. As
the propeller slips through the water, it accelerates a
volume of water to the rear, and the reaction causes the
boat to move forward. Large displacement hulls, because
of their high resistance, require a great deal of slip, 50 t o
60% to get the required reaction to drive the boat forward.
Planing hulls with comparatively small resistance, operate
at a low slip of 10 to 2Wo.
The two main variables in the design or selection of
the propeller are pitch, for which a large range exists for
each hp outboard, and diameter, over which the outboard
user has limited choice. The manufacturer makes a compromise between a large diameter which produces a high
theoretical efficiency under low-speed, high-thrust conditions, and a small diameter which is more efficient at
higher boat speeds where skin friction losses become significant.
The outboard user has limited choice in the selection
of propeller diameter because the gearcase design limits
the diameter by distance between the propeller shaft

center line and the underside of the anti-cavitation plate.

Thus, gearcase design is also a matter for compromise.
The major problem facing designers is to determine a
shape which yields the least drag and the highest possible
speed for the horsepower of the outboard, while eliminating the possibility of cavitation. Cavitation occurs
when the pressure on the surface oLthe object equals
the vapor pressure of the liquid in which the object is
immersed.
The two-cycle water-cooled outboard motor designed
for constant and continuous power output is an economical propulsion unit for small fishing craft. By using either
single or dual installation of engines from 6 hp and up, a
high power-to-weight ratio is available for efficient propulsion of boats ranging from dugout canoes t o the landing barges used by major defense forces.
In areas where roads are rare or inaccessible, the outboard motor can be serviced readily because of its portability. Because the motor "clamps" onto the boat, a
greater range of power sources is possible, and by correct
propeller selection, smaller hp motors can be employed.
One result of using the two-cycle outboard motor is a
lower initial investment. Lower operating costs are another benefit. While the design of the outboard motor is
sophisticated, the actual product has been kept simple to
permit simple and cheap servicing. In addition, only a
low level of technical skill is required for normal maintenance and service.
The use of lightweight low-cost boats and outboard
motors can provide employment for large numbers of
people, enabling the increased cash returns from the fishing resources to be spread over a wider area than if bigger
and more technically oriented fishing vessels were used.

Drive Requirements for Small Fishing Craft:

The Jet Unit as Compared to Direct Drive

Lees Marine L td.

Auckland, New Zealand

An attraction of the Jet unit is that in terms of the

power pack, only three items are required: the engine,
the coupling, and the Jet. The Jet is a self-contained drive
unit. Installation, especially of the smaller Jet, is relatively
simple, the unit being light enough for one man to handle
and fit. Operation of the steering and reverse levers are
sufficiently light for conventional push-pull cables to be
used. In addition, moving parts for the Jet are restricted
to the central drive shaft which carries the impellers.
The shaft, normally of stainless steel, is carried in sealed
bearings.
The larger Jets, while adhering to the same basic principles, are more complex. Weight and size increase substantially, and the pressures needed for the operation of
the Jet controls, especially for reverse, require the use of
expensive equipment. Installation of these units is more
involved due to their wedge-shaped configuration whereby the entire Jet unit is housed outside the boat.
With the increasing use of sophisticated electrical
equipment, it is necessary to ensure that the Jets, the
bodies of which are normally aluminum, are adequately
protected from possible damage caused by electrolytic
action. Failure to check and replace the anodes periodically could result in the necessity to replace the entire
Jet unit.

A serious drawback with certain Jet applications

occurs when air is entrained in the water flowing through
the intake grill. This causes surging and not only is performance impaired, but the stresses on the engine from
sharp fluctuations in load can also eventually result in
damage to the unit. It should be noted, however, that
correct design of the craft, together with a lower operating speed especially in rough water, can do much to
obviate this fault.
The greatest benefit of the Jet unit is that it leaves
the hull clear of projections, thus allowing it to operate
in shallow water and to be easily beached.
Weed and other floating waste like polythene can
block the intake grill, as can fish'netting in a compacted
form. Once this occurs one cannot reverse the flow of
water, and even in neutral, the sucking action continues.
The other problem is that steering is inseparably linked
to the drive so that blockage causesnot only loss of drive
but loss of steerage as well.
The handling characteristics of Jet boats differ slightly
from more conventional craft. Steering can sometimes
feel heavy. This is because steerage is achieved by physically deflecting the Jet thrust. Therefore, the boat operator must ensure that the steering cable moves freely in
its outer cable to avoid any additional stresses.

List of Participants
S. ALLEN

D. J. EYRES

TTPI Field Representative

Community Services Administration
Region IIX
100 McAllister Street
San Francisco, California 94102

Naval Architect
Marine Division
Ministry of Transport
Private Bag
Wellington, New Zealand

R. BAIRD

B. FALCONER

Fisheries Adviser
South Pacific Commission
B. P. 5
Noumea, New Caledonia

Manager
Marine and General Engineering Division
Andrews and Beaven, Ltd.
29 Halifax Street
Nelson, New Zealand

A. CHAPMAN
UNDP Project Manager
P. 0 . Box 14
Nuku'alofa, Tonga

J. COOK
Ihrector, Far East and Pacific Sales
Briggs and Stratton Corporation
P. 0 . Box 702
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201

W. Coops
Administrator
Research Corporation of the University of Hawaii
1110 University Avenue, #402
Honolulu, Hawaii 968 14

R. EGINTON
Masterfisherman
SPC Outer Reef Artisanal Fisheries Research
South Pacific Commission
B. P. 5
Noumea, New Caledonia

G. FREDHOLM
Naval Architect
1 121 Wilder Ave. #900-B
Honolulu, Hawaii 96822

W. LE GALLEY
Director
U. S. Sea Grant Program
American Samoa Community Colleg6
Pago Pago, American Samoa

D. H. GIBSON
Acting Chief Fisheries Officer
Fisheries Division
Ministry of Commerce and Industry
P.0. Box 508
Betio, Tarawa, Gilbert Islands

@. GULBRANDSEN
Fisheries Adviser
P. 0 . Box 295
Apia, Western Samoa

7 8/ Proceedings of the ICLARM Conference on Small Boat Design

PWONSYHADLEY

R. NAGAI

Chief Mechanic
Ponape Dory Project
Ponape, Eastern Caroline Islands
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands

Fisheries Officer
Department of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries
Konedobu, Papua New Guinea

P. HELFRICH

Deput y/Program Leader

UNDPIFAO South China Sea Fisheries Development
and Coordinating Programme
MCC P. 0. Box 1184
Makati, Metro Manila
Philippines

International Center for Living Aquatic Resources

Management (ICLARM)
MCC P. 0. Box 1501
Makati, Metro Manila
Philippines

V. HINDS
Assistant Director
Fisheries Management Division
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
Wellington, New Zealand

T. HITCHCOCK
Manager
Lees Marine, Ltd.
Private Bag
Papakura, New Zealand

R. JAMES
Principal Fisheries Officer
Ministry of Natural Resources
Honiara, Solomon Islands

E. OSWALD

A. OVE RAA
UNDP/FAO Boatbuilder
P. 0 . Box 295
Apia, Western Samoa

S. PULETASI
Director, Extension Services
U. S. Sea Grant Program
American Samoa Community College
Pago Pago, American Samoa

R. RECHEBEI
Marine Resources Coordinator
Marine Resources Division
Department of Resources and Development
Saipan, Mariana Islands
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands

I. J . REAL
A. JONES
President
McWayne Marine Supply
1 125 Ala Moana Blvd.
Honolulu, Hawaii 968 14

Sales Director (Observer)

Salthouse Brothers (Ltd.)
Boat Builders and Designers
Greenhithe
Auckland, New Zealand

G. LOUBENS

S. RITTERBUSH

Oce'anographe biologiste
Section Ocehnographie
Centre ORSTOM
Noumea, New Caledonia

International Center for Living Aquatic Resources

Management (ICLARM)
MCC P. 0.Box 1501
Makati, Metro Manila Philippines

T. LUDWIG

E. SANTOS

Manager
Ponape Dory Project
Ponape, Eastern Caroline Islands
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands

Executive Director
Ponape Community Action Agency
P. 0.Box 400
Kolonia, Ponape, Eastern Caroline Islands
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands

J . MORET

M. LE COMMANDANT
YVANSERVE

Observer
Small Boat Designer
B. P. 2602
Noumea, New Caledonia

Inge'nieur de Marine
Inge'nieur-Conseil et Expert Maritime
B. P. 2387
Noumea, New Caledonia

List of Participants/79

R. SHAFER

B. STAFFORD

Consultant
Marshall Island Development Authority
General Manager, Island Fiberglass
Majuro, Marshall Islands

Australian Service Manager

Outboard Marine Australia Pty., Ltd.
P. 0. Box 82
Bankstown, N.S.W. 2200, Australia

B. R. SMITH

R. M. STONE

Acting Principal Biologist

Department of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries
Konedobu, Papua New Guinea

Principal Fisheries Officer

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests
Suva, Fiji

H. SPERLING

P. VEILLON

Regional Fisheries Coordinator

c/o United Nations Development Program
P. 0.Box 1864
Manila, Philippines

Inge'nieur Halieute
Association TerritoireICNEXO
Papeete, Tahiti