CHAPTER - THREE

STRUCTURAL TEMPLES IN
PUDUKKTTAI DISTRICT

CHAPTER THREE
STRUCTURAL TEMPLES IN PUDUKKTTAI DISTRICT
3.1. Three Styles of Indian Architecture
Structural Temples are classified from different points of view.
according to the size, Alpa and Mah-Prasda according to the number of
floors (tala or bhmi), ekatala dvitala, tritala etc., and according to their
shape and design, chaturasra (square), vritta (circular), chaturasradirga
(rectangular), hasti prshtha (apsidal), vrttayata (elliptical) shat-kona
(hexagonal) and ashtasra (octagonal). According to the Mnasaraagama and
Suprabhedaagama, the three main styles of temple architecture are defined
as follows:- Ngara is that in which the vimana was quadrangular through
out, Vesara in which the vimana was crowned by a circular sikhara above
the neck, and Dravida in which the vimana was crowned by an octagonal or
hexagonal sikhara above the neck, and the Manasara adds an apsidal form in
the case of both vesara and Dravida styles.
Architecture is one among the classifications of fine Arts. It is a
predominant of all other fine Arts. It is the principal, visible and material
record through the ages. It is considered to be the matrix of civilization. It is
generally classified into two main divisions. They are Secular Architecture
and Religious Architecture. Secular Architecture is in no way connected
with any religion, or it does not have any religious motifs. On the basis of
erection, or execution or creation the Architecture again classified into two
divisions as, Rock-cut Architecture and Structural Architecture.

3.1.1. Ngara Architecture

The temples in Northern India are built according to a style known as
the Ngara style. The Ngara style was developed during AD 5th century.
This style is characterized by a beehive-shaped and multi-layered tower,
called Shikhara. The layers of this tower are topped by a large round
cushion-like element called malaka. The plan is based on a square but the
walls are sometimes so segmented, that the tower appears circular in shape.
The Ngara style is typically characterized by the architectural
wonder, which ideally portrayed the craftsmanship of the artists. A study of
the temples of northern India reveals two distinct features. One of the
distinctions is in planning and the other one is in elevation. In plan the
temple was always a square with a number of graduated projections in the
middle of each side. These projections give it a cruciform shape with a
number of re-entrant angles on each side. In elevation it exhibits a tower or
Sikhara, gradually inclining inwards in a convex curve.
The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the
Sikhara, and thus there is strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation. On
account of this and the prominence of the vigorous and unbroken outline of
the tower it is also known as the rekha Sikhara. The Ngara style is widely
distributed over a greater part of India. It therefore, exhibits distinct verities
and ramifications in different lines of evolution and elaboration that each
locality chose for it. The cruciform plan and the curvilinear tower are,
however, common to every medieval temple of northern India, wherever it
is situated and whatever its local stamp might be. Ngara style of
architecture, Development in six distinct regions. These can be mentioned
as Orissa, Central India, Rajputana, Gujarat and Kathiwar, Deccan and

Sindhu-Ganga valleys. A brief description of the most important temples of

Ngara style in northern India can be given.

3.1.1.1. The development of Ngara Architecture in Orissa

The development of the Ngara style took place in Orissa from the
7th to 13th century A.D. It has, therefore, probably more temples than in all
the rest of northern India. The activity centered on Bhuvanesvara, which
alone contains hundreds of temples. The three most important temples of
Orissa are Muktesvara temple, Rjrnitemple and the LingaRja temple.

3.1.1.2. The Muktesvara Temple

The Muktesvara temple is regarded as a gem of Orissan architecture.
A low enclosure wall embellished with sculptured niches surrounds it. The
temple is entered through an elaborately ornamented takaratrana that forms
a unique and fitting entrance to this small but exquisitely ornate and wellproportioned monument. The sikhara is of five storeys and shows on the
central ratha beautifully carved Chaitya-dormer surrounded by a kirtmukha
and flanked by two grinning dwarfs. This is the first temple wherein the
shoulder partakes of the projections of Sikhara and the mandapa facade
follows the same scheme of ornamentation as the sanctum with the addition
of an ornate projection on each side. It is surrounded by a pediment and
crowned by a lion figure.

3.1.1.3. Rjrni Temple

The Rjrni temple, dateable roughly to the early 11th century,
represents a unique experiment in Orissa. Its sikhara55 is clustered by turrets
including leaning spires and corner-spires, some of them crowned by double
malakas, like the temples of central India such as those of Khajuraho.

3.1.1.4. Lingarja Temple

The Lingarja temple, dating from the 11th century is the grandest
and loftiest temple marking the culmination of the architectural activity at
Bhuvanesvara. This temple consists of the sanctum, a closed hall, a dancing
hall and a hall of offerings. The sanctum is pancharatha on plan. The lower
register of the wall is decorated with khakhara-mundis and the upper with
pidhamundis. The khakharamundis contains on the corner rathas figures of
eight Regents and on the flanking rathas miscellaneous friezes. The
pidhamundis are inset with images of various Brahmanical gods and
goddesses.

3.1.1.5. Puri Jagannath Temple

The

famous

temple

of

Jagannath56

at

Puri

is

roughly

contemporaneous with the LingaRja. It shows the same mature plan as the
latter, but is even loftier and is nearly 56.70 mts. High. The culmination of
the style was reached in the Sun temple at Konarak, which marks even in its
ruined state. This is the grandest achievement of the artistic and
architectural genius of Orissa. The colossal temple originally consisted of a
sanctum with a lofty curvilinear Sikhara, a Jagamohana and a detached
elaborately carved square platform. The sanctum and the Jagamohana
together stand on a common lofty platform. The sanctum has lost its super
structure including the towering sikhara but shows three super images of the
Sun God in the three cardinal niches. The battered wall of Jagamohana
consists of horizontal tiers grouped in three stages with life-size female
sculptures of great charm adoring each stage. This Jagamohana is
unparalleled for its grandeur and structural propriety in the country,
Majestic in conception and rich imagery, the temple not only marks the final

fulfillment of Orissan architecture but is one of the sublimest monuments of

India.

3.1.1.6. Khajuraho Temple

In Central India the Kandariya Mahdeva is the largest and loftiest
temple of Khajuraho57. It is very magnificent and mature in plan. It`s design
and dimensions and also its superb sculptural embellishment and
architectural elaboration is really enchanting. It is the most evolved and
finished achievement of Central Indian building-style and one of the
sublimest creations of Indian temple architecture. It is decorated with graded
and ascending series of smaller replicas of it totaling 85.
The grand Sikhara of the temple is an intricately ornamented pile,
somewhat restless in movement but unified in theme and design. Of all the
Khajuraho temples, it has the loftiest base with several elegantly chiseled
mouldings, which include two rows of processional friezes teeming with
elephants and horses, warriors and hunters, acrobats and musicians, dancers
and devotees, and erotic couples. The sculptures on three registers of its
wall represent an animated array of gods and goddesses, couples and
nymphs on projections. The sculptures on this temple are conspicuously tall
and slender and show the richest variety of nymph-types in lively, often
violently agitated postures.

3.1.1.7. Rajputana and Gujarat Temple

A beautiful variant of Ngara style is found in Rajputana and Gujarat.
It is characterized by a free use of columns, carved with all imaginable
richness, strut brackets, and exquisite marble sealing with cusped pendants.

The climax of the medieval architecture of the Rjasthan and Gujarat style
was reached in the two Jaina Temples at Mount Abu. These two temples are
known as vimalavasahi in the year 1031 and Luna Vasahi in 1230.
Vastupala and Teapala built these two temples respectively. They were the
two ministers of the later Solanki rulers of Gujarat. The Vimala Vasahi is
dedicated to Adinatha. It shows a lately added entrance hall and a
rectangular pavilion showing portraits, sculptures mounted on elephants.
Prithvipala, a descendant of Vimala added the magnificent assembly hall in
the year c. 1150.
The hall has lavishly ornamented pillars surmounted by attic sections,
with multi cusped tarana-arches in between. The architraves are heavily
ornamented and support a ceiling of ten diminishing rings loaded with
bewildering wealth of carvings of which the most impressive are the 16
figures of the Vidyadevis. There is a magnificently designed central
pendant. The rings are further decorated with friezes of elephants,
goddesses, dancers, musicians, horse riders and female dancers. All of these
are alternating with cusped and coffered courses. The ceilings and the
architraves of the lateral bays of the assembly hall are lavishly embellished
with carvings including narrative and mythological relieves.
The temple of Luna Vasahi, built two centuries later, illustrates
further efflorescence of the style. It is accompanied by a richer elaboration
of decoration. Its ceiling is slightly smaller in diameter but is carried equally
lavishly and culminates in a larger and more delicately ornamented central
pendant. It reveals the finest filigree work in metal. These temples constitute
marvels of stone chiseling and with their minutely carved doorframes,
niches, pillars, architraves and ceilings excel the rest of the ornamented
temples of India.

3.1.2. Vesara Architecture

Vesara is a type of Indian architecture primarily used in temples. The
two other prominent styles are Dravida and Ngara. Vesara is a combination
of these two temple styles.
Etymologically, the term Vesara is believed to have been derived
from the Sanskrit word vishra meaning an area to take a long walk. The
quarters of Buddhist and Jain monks who left urban areas to live in cave
temples were called viharas. This is also in conformity with the prevalence
of Vesara style of architecture in the Deccan and central parts of South Asia
vis--vis Ngara style prevalent in North India and Dravida style prevalent
in South India.
Accordingly, the Vesara style contain elements of both Dravida and
Ngara styles. The Vesara style is also described in some texts as the
Central Indian temple architecture style or Deccan architecture. However
many historian agree that the vesara style originated in the what is today
Karnataka. The trend was started by the Chalukyas of Badami (500-753AD)
who built temples in a style that was essentially a mixture of the Ngara and
the dravida styles, further refined by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (750983AD) in Ellora, Chalukyas of Kalyani (983-1195 AD) in Lakkundi,
Dambal, Gadag etc. and epitomized by the Hoysalas (1000-1330 AD).
The Hoysalas temples at Belur, Halebidu and Somnathpura are
supreme examples of this style. These temples are now proposed as a
unesco world heritage site. It is understaood that the Virupaksha temple at
Aihole and Pattadakal in northern Karnataka served as an inspiration for the
design of the famous Khajuraho temples at Madhya Pradesh. Early temples
constructed in this style include temples at Sirpur, Baijnath, Baroli and

Amarkantak. The temple complex at Khajuraho, a World Heritage Site, is a

typical example of the Vesara style.

3.1.2.1. Badami Chalukya Architecture

The Badami Chalukyas also called the Early Chalukyas, ruled from
Badami, Karnataka in the period AD 543 - 753 and spawned the Vesara
style called Badami Chalukya Architecture. The finest examples of their art
are seen in Pattadakal, Aihole and Badami in northern Karnataka. Over 150
temples remain in the Malaprabha basin.
The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture
and art that they left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments
attributed to the Badami Chalukya, and built between 450 and 700, remain
in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka.
The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a unesco World Heritage Site,
Badami and Aihole are their most celebrated monuments. Two of the
famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and
"The Persian Embassy" are attributed to them. This is the beginning of
Chalukya style of architecture and a consolidation of South Indian style.
3.1.2.2. Rashtrakutas
The Rashtrakutas who ruled the deccan from Manyakheta, Gulbarga
district, Karnataka in the period AD 753 - 973 built some of the finest
dravidian monuments at Ellora (the Kailasanatha temple), in the rock cut
architecture Development. Some other fine monuments are the Jaina
Narayana temple at Pattadakal and the Navalinga temples at Kuknur in
Karnataka.

The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the culture of the Deccan. The

Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid
rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta58, situated in present day
Mahrashtra. It is said that they altogether constructed 34 rock-cut shrines,
but most extensive and sumptuous of them all is the Kailasanatha temple at
Ellora. The temple is a splendid achievement of Dravidian art. The walls of
the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology including
Ravana, hiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings.

3.1.2.3. Western Chalukya Architecture

The Western Chalukyas also called the Kalyani Chalukyas or Later
Chalukyas ruled the deccan from AD 973 - 1180 from their capital Kalyani
in modern Karnataka and further refined the Chalukyan style, called the
Western Chalukya architecture. Over 50 temples exist in the Krishna RiverTungabhadra doab in central Karnataka. The Kasi Vishveshvara at
Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna at Kuruvatii, Kalleshwara temple at Bagali and
Mahdeva at Itagi are the finest examples produced by the Later Chalukya
architects.
The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in
the development of architecture in the deccan. Their architectural
developments acted as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya
Architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in
the 13th century. The art of Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the
Gadag style after the number of ornate temples they built in the
Tungabhadra - Krishna River doab region of present day Gadag district in
Karnataka. Their temple building reached its maturity and culmination in
the 12th century, with over a hundred temples built across the deccan, more
than half of them in present day Karnataka59. Apart from temples they are

also well known for ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) which served as ritual
bathing places, many of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. Their
stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the
VijayaNgara empire in the coming centuries.

3.1.2.4. Hoysala Architecture

The Hoysala kings ruled southern India during the period AD (11001343) from their capital Belur and later Halebidu in Karnataka and
developed a unique idiom of architecture called the Hoysala architecture in
Karnataka state. The finest examples of their architecture are the
Chennakesava Temple in Belur, Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu, and the
Kesava Temple in Somanathapura. The modern interest in the Hoysalas is
due to their patronage of art and architecture rather than their military
conquests. The brisk temple building throughout the kingdom was
accomplished despite constant threats from the Pndyas to the south and the
Seunas Yadavas to the north. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the
Western Chalukya style60, shows distinct Dravidian influences. The Hoysala
architecture style is described as Karnataka Dravida as distinguished from
the traditional Dravida, and is considered an independent architectural
tradition with many unique features.

3.1.3. Dravidian Architecture

Dravidian architecture was a style of architecture that emerged
thousands of years ago in the Indian subcontinent. They consist primarily of
pyramid shaped temples which are dependent on intricate carved stone in
order to create a step design consisting of numerous statues of deities,
warriors, kings, and dancers. The majority of the existing buildings are
located in the Southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,

Kerala, and Karnataka. Various kingdoms and empires such as the Pallavas,
Cholas, Pndyan , Chera, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, Nyk and
VijayaNgara Empire amongst the many others have made a substantial
contribution to the evolution of Dravidian architecture through the ages.
Dravidian styled61 architecture can also be found in parts of Northeastern ri
Lanka, Maldives, and various parts of Southeast Asia.

3.1.3.1. Pallava Architecture

The Pallavas ruled from AD (600-900) and their greatest constructed
accomplishments are the single rock temples in Mahbalipuram and their
capital Kanchipuram, now located in Tamilnadu.
South Indian architecture the earliest examples of temples in the
Dravidian style belong to the Pallava period. The earliest examples of
Pallava constructions are rock-cut cave temples dating from 610 - 690 AD
and

structural

temples

between

690

900

AD.

The

greatest

accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples at

Mahbalipuram. There are excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines
known as rathas in Mahbalipuram62. Early temples were mostly dedicated
to hiva. The Kailasanatha temple also called Rjasimha Pallava in
Kanchipuram built by Narasimhavarman II also known as Rjasimha is a
fine example of the Pallava style temple. Mention must be made here of the
Shore Temple constructed by Narasimhavarman II near Mahbalipuram
which is a unesco World Heritage Site.
Many iva and Vishnu temples at Kanchi built by the great Pallava
emperors and indeed their incomparable Rathas and the Arjuna's penance
Bas Relief are proposed unesco World Heritage Sites. The continuous
Chola, Pallava and Pandiyan belt temples, as well as the Sethupathy temple

group between Pudukkttai and Rameswaram uniformly represent the

pinnacle of the South Indian Style of Architecture that surpasses any other
form of architecture prevalent between the Deccan Plateau and
Kanniyakumari. Needless to add that in the Telugu country the style was
more or less uniformly conforming to the South Indian or Dravidian idiom
of architecture.

3.1.3.2. Chola Architecture

The Chola kings ruled from AD (848-1280) and included Rjarja
Chola I and his son Rjndra

Chola63 who built temples such as the

Brihadeshvara Temple of Thanjavur and Brihadeshvara Temple of

Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the Airateswara Temple of Darasuram and the
Sarabeswara (iva )Temple, also called the Kampahareswarar Temple at
Thirubhuvanam, the last two temples being located near Kumbakonam. The
first three among the above four temples are titled Great Living Chola
Temples among the unesco World Heritage Sites.
The Cholas were prolific temple builders right from the times of the
first king Vijaylaya Chola after whom the eclectic chain of Vijaylaya
Chozhisvaram temple near Nrttmalai exists. These are the earliest
specimen of Dravidian temples under the Cholas. His son ditya I built
several temples around the Kanchi and Kumbakonam regions.
Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the
genius of ditya I, Parntaka I, Sundara Chola, Rjarja Chola and his son
Rjndra Chola I. The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola
architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples of Tanjavur
and Gangaikondacholapuram. In a small portion of the Kaveri belt between
Tiruchy, Tanjore, Kumbakonam, at the height of their power, the Cholas

have left over 2300 temples, with the Tiruchy, Thanjvaur belt itself boasting
of more than 1500 temples. The magnificent iva temple of Thanjavur built
by Rjarja I in A.D 1009 as well as the Brihadisvara Temple of
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, completed around A.D 1030, are both fitting
memorials to the material and military achievements of the time of the two
Chola emperors. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, the
Tanjore Brihadisvara is at the apex of South Indian architecture. In fact, two
succeeding Chola kings Rja Rja II and Kulothunga III built the
Airavateswarar iva Temple at Darasuram and the Kampahareswarar iva
Temple at Tribhuvanam respectively, both temples being on the outskirts of
Kumbakonam around A.D 1160 and A.D 1200. All the four temples were
built over a period of nearly 200 years reflecting the stability and prosperity
of Chola rule and their glory.
The temple of Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of Rjndra
Chola, was intended to exceed its predecessor in every way. Completed
around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in much
the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more
affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rjndra . This temple has a larger
iva linga than the one at Thanjavur but the Vimana of this temple is
smaller in height than the Thanjavur vimana.

3.1.3.3. Vijayanagar Architecture

The whole of South India was ruled by Vijayanagar Empire from AD
(1343-1565), who built a number of temples and monuments in their hybrid
style in their capital Vijayanagar in Karnataka. Their style was a
combination of the styles developed in South India in the previous centuries.
In addition, the Yali columns (pillar with charging horse), balustrades
(parapets) and ornate pillared manatapa are their unique contribution. King

Krishna Deva Raya and others built many famous temples all over South
India in Vijayanagar Architecture style.
Vijayangara architecture64 is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya,
Hoysala, Pndya and Chola styles, idioms that prospered in previous
centuries. Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the
development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic
hallmark

is

the

ornate

pillared

Kalyanamantapa

(marriage

hall),

Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and the Rayagopura (tower). Artisans

used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the
kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. While the empire's
monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses
the vast open air theatre of monuments at its capital at VijayaNgara, a
unesco World Heritage Site.
In the 14th century the kings continued to build Vesara or Deccan
style monuments but later incorporated dravida-style Gpurams to meet
their ritualistic needs.

3.1.4. The Essential parts of the Hindu Temple

3.1.4.1. Garbhagraha
The most important part of a temple, its very heart as it were, is the
garbhagrha or sanctum sanctorum. This is usually square with a low roof
and with no doors or windows except for the front opening. The image of
the deity is satationed in the geometrical centre. The whole place is
completely dark, except for the light that comes through the front opening.
Over the roof of the whole shrine is a smaller tower. This tower is quite
hight in the North Indian temples and of low or medium height in the South
Indian temples.

3.1.4.2. Lingam
Lingam Li in the word lingam indicates Layam (getting in to
union) and Gam means comes out or Manifest. The word lingam denoted
Kuri (symbol) derived from the Sanskrit. Derivative root lingam65
chitreeekarani i.e that which performs wonderful act, as Gods act of being
with all liging being and at the same time apart from them, is wonderful.

3.1.4.3. Vimana
Vimana (Temple with its towers) have been sought to be erected and
not for the sake of god. The place where the chief deity is installed in the
sanctum is called Garbagraha and the tower over it is called vimana.
Gpuram is the sthula linga. Vimanas without manam means measure
degree. The gross vimana for god indicate that; His immeasurable form
pervades all (Virats varupa) and is every where (Viswarupi) and hence this
indicate his immeasurability. He is the greatest of the great and the atoms.
The gross tower which is visible denotes not only the visible sthula but also
the invisible sukshms and karana bodies which are immeasurable and hance
it indicates the invisible aspect of God.

3.1.4.4. Antarala
Anrarala, a narrow passage connecting the garbhagraha and the
mukhamandapa to the mandapa (pavilion or hall). As already stated, in most
of the temples the antarala is identical with mukhamandapa or sukanasi. The
mandapa the nrttamandapa (also called nrttamandapa ornavaranga) is a big
hall used for or congregational religious acts like singing, dancing recitation
of mythological texts, religious discourses and so on.

3.1.4.5. Mukhamandapa
In front of the garbhagrha and contiguous to it is the mukhamandapa,
sometimes called sukanasi or ardhamantapa, sometimes called sukanasi or
ardhamandapa, depending upon its proportion relative to that of the
grabhagrha. Apart form being used as a passage, it is also used to keep the
articles of worship including naivedya (food offerings) on special occasions.

3.1.4.6. Balipitha
The balipitha (pedestal of sacrificaial offerings) with a lotus or the
foorprints of the deits is fixed near the dhvajastambha, but nearer to the
deity. Red-coloured offereing like rice mixed with vermillion power, are
kept on this at appropriate stages, during the performance of rituals. This
indicates the feeding of the parivaradevatas (attendant and associate deities).

3.1.4.7. Dhvajastambha
The dhvajasdambha (flagpost) in front of either the garbhagrha or
antarala or the mantapa is another common feature. It represents the flagpost
of he king of kings. The lanchana (insignia) made of copper of brass fixed
like a flag to the top of the post varies according to the deity in the temple.
The figure on the lanchana is invariably that of the vahana (carrier vehicle
of the deity. For instance, in iva temples it contain Nandi. In iva temples
it is the lion that finds its place. In Vishnu temples Garudgets that honour.

3.1.4.8. Yagasala, Pakasala And Puskarni

A part from these, the temple precints include a yagasala, (sacrifical
shed), pakasala (cooking shed) and kitchen, place for the utsavamurth

(processional images carried during the car festivals), well or a puskaini

(tank) flower garden, stores and other essential structures connected with the
management of the temple as also the rituals.

3.1.5. Evloution of the Gpuras

Like the sky scrapers of the Western World, it is the Gpuram that
dominates the South Indian land scape. It is the main gateway of a temple,
the unique achievement and glory of Dravidian art. It has been pointed out
that in the boldness of its marvellous execution, it remains unsurpassed
and judged by any standard, its stands favourable comparision with any
other form of architecture, Eastern or Western.
In the days of the supremacy of Buddhism in India, stupas were built
all over the land, and tranaswere erected at the four cardinal points to serve
as gateways to these monuments as a Barhut, sanchi, Amaravati and
Nagarjunakonda. The tranasof Sanchi richly ornamented with bas-reliefs
illustrating the events of Buddhas life as well as stories of his previous
births (jataka stories) are really marvellous monuments of this class. And
some of the bas-relief on slabs which once covered the stupa itself contain
representations of gateways to cities, palaces and fortresses, they are
generally two storeyed, crowned by a sala type of pavilion resembling a
wagon-roof.
James Fergusson held the view that the term Gpurams applied to the
lofty towers over the entrances to Southern temples and that the later style
of Gpuram dates from the sixteenth century and do not properly belong to
the original Dravida temples. They were probably intended for purposes of
defence against invasion and plunder. The question of the erection of walls
of enclosure of temples for the purpose of defence did not arise before the

invasion of South India by the Muslims in the 14th century and later on
during the Anglo French wars of the 18th century. Even the officers of the
Archaeological Department believed that the tall Gpurams were the
creation of only Pndyan and Vijayangara rulers. But these views are outdated and have to be given up. Gpurams with three, five and seven storys
were built even during the period of he Chola rulers of Tanjavur i.e. even
from the 9th century A.D. onwards.

3.1.5.1. Kalinga
In kalinga, the Buddhist torana model was adapted to a Hindu temple.
One of the finest of the existing ornamental tranasresting on two stout,
fluted pillars is found at the entrance to the Mukteavara temple at
Bhuvaneswar (early 10th century A.D) but there were perhaps earlier
examples of this type. We shall deal with development of the Gpuram
during the pallava and chola periods.

3.1.5.2. Pallava
The Draupati ratha at Mamallapuram is a monolithic temple dedicated
to Durga and its entrance is surmounted by a beautiful makara-torana. The
sikharas of eh Bhima and the Ganesa rathas in the same place furnish the
prototype for the wagon-roof feature of the later Gpurams (Sala-type
pavilion).
The taller structural shore-temple at Mamallapuram has a gateway in
the front wall of the sanctum topped by a Sala type pavilion. There are
guardian deities on either side of the gateway. Here for the first time in
South India, the torana has given way to a new style of gateway.

3.1.5.3. Chola
The fine tradition in temple-building established by the Pallavas was
carried to greater heights by the Cholas. There are contemporary
inscriptions which refer to the building of Gpuram, but I have been unable
to find a photograph or description of any extant early chola Gopura.
There is another equally ancient and interesting Gpuram in front of
the Sundarvarar temple in the neighbouring village of Melappaluvur, a
mile away from Kilaiyur. Both the temples belong to the period of ditya I
(A.D. 871).
The next forward step is found in the great temple built at Tanjavur 66
by RjaRja I (A.D.1004 -1014). It is not only the biggest and grandest of
Dravidian temples, but is one of the finest products of Indian achievement in
Architecture. There are two Gpurams in front in the middle of the two
concentric walls of enclosure, both these Gpurams are shorter than the
vimana.
The next important development in this sphere of South Indian Art
and Architecture is the evolution of the seven-storeyed Gpuram under the
patronage of the later Cholas, from Kulottunga I to Kulottunga III (A.D.
1070 to 1216). And now, the centre of gravity in this field of art shifts to
Chidambaram. In this period,

the Gpuram dwarfs the vimana and

dominates the temple-complex and the ever-enlarging temple-city. In spite

of this new development, the essential features of the Tanjavur example
were still followed at Darasuram and Tribhuvanam.

3.2. Development of Pudukkttai Temple Architecture

The Pudukkttai temples are of more that local interest. The
geographical position of the State accounts for the existence within it of
structures belonging to all the most important epochs of south Indian
architectural history.
The Chola Architecture Development in A.D. 850 and 1100,covers
the period of the Vijaylaya line of kings and takes us to the beginning of
the Chola-Chalukya line. To the first 150 years of this period, ending about
the middle of the regin of RjaRja the Great belongs a group of interesting
temples in the State, all completely built of stone from basement to finial.
These are the Vijaylaya chlisvaram at Nrttmalai the iva temples at
Kaliypatti, Vialr, Tiruppr, and Panangudi (A.D.850 to 871), the iva
temple at Tirukkattalai, the Mukdvara temple at Kodumblr, the
Blasubrahamanya

temple

at

Kannanr

(A.D.871

to

907),

the

Tiruvagnivara temple at Cittar (A.D.907 to 953), the Mvarkvil at

Kodumblr, the Kadambarkvil at Nrttmalai (A.D.950 to 1000).
The garbhagrham is square except in the Vijaylaya Chlisvaram,
where it is circular but enclosed within a square prkram, which helps to
support the vimnam. The walls are decorated with pilasters, and sometimes
with dvagosthas or niches. The decorations of the kalaam and kumbham
of the pilasters are simple. The pdigai or corbel is ordinarily of the Pallava
type with roll-mouldings, but in some temples for example in the
Tirukkattalai temple instead of a roll at the lower edge of the curved part of
the corbel there is a concave moulding. The dvagosthas are surmounted by
double arched tranas. The figures in the niches are in bas-relief in the
earlier temples and in high relief in the later ones.

The kaptam or cornice is deep and has a single convex curve,

ornamented with kdus, the finials of which are trifoliate not spade shaped
like those of the normal pallava type. The angles of the cornice are
ornamented with the elaborate scrollwork known as karukku, and its lower
edge displays indentations, or inverted scollops, intended to suggest lotus
petals.

In some temples there is a row of btaganas immediately below the

cornice. The cupola surmounting the garbhagrham is plain and consists of a
grivam or base, supporting a ikharam or dome, crowned by the stupi or
finial. In the Vijayalachlisvaram temple at Nrttmalai there are several
storeys supporting the cupola proper. Each storey has a pancaram or turret
like a miniature cupola at each corner. The grivam has always a
dvagstham on each side, and the ikharam, a large kdu on each face
surmounted by a simhalaltam. The use of brick in the upper part of the
vimnam came into vogue in the second half of this epoch.
The upapitham or plinth consists of the upanam, the kumudam and
the varimabnam. The latter has a row of lions, heads larger than we find in
the Pallava style, interrupted at the corners by the heads of makharas.
The essential character of the bulbous capitals of this period is the
large size of the palagai or abacus. The plain bevelled corbels of the earlier
examples have a central triangular projection like a tenon, after about the
11th century.

Another interesting motif of the later years of this epoch decorative

pilaster, which developed into the kumbapancaram with its vasiform base of
the 14th century and later. This is a broad flat pilaster, rising from a vase-

shaped base, and terminating in a complicated ornament supported by a

rearing horse forming a bracket on either side, and consisting of a sort of
medallion, out of which rises something resembling a candelabrum flanked
by two makhara heads.
The Pndya style lasted from 1100 to 1350 A.D. Chola-Chalukya
line, which came to an end in 1280 A.D. Owing to the weakening of the
central authority of the Cholas and the discontinuance of the Chola-Pndya
viceroys, the Pndya power gradually developed, and in the reign of
Jatvarman Sundara Pndya I (A.D. 1251) attained the hegemony of South
India. The Pndya style, is intermediary between the Chola and Vijayanagar
styles. The central vimnam becomes comparatively insignificant instead of
being, as it is at Tanjore, by far the most prominent feature.

In this period the plain tenon-shaped corbel-end is elaborated into a

conventional pendent flower the puspabodikai, and its sides are ornamented
with bold conventional foliage. Where the old form of the corbel persists,
the sides behind the bevel are cut into perpendicular grooves. In the centre
of the kdu is a completely circular recess surrounded by a roll-moulding;
conventional foliage issues from the mouth of the lion in the finial and
spreads out on each side of the upper part of the circular recess. Similar
foliage sweeps round the lower half, and unites beneath it.
The pancarams or turrets, are elevated by the introduction of a base
called the karnakdu. Brick was substituted for stone in their construction,
and this explains why the upper parts of many temples of this style state are
now in runins, while the earlier temples built completely in stone are better
preserved.

The palagai or abacus of the pillar now becomes smaller and below it
we find a scolloped member called the idal suggesting lotus petals. The
octagonal shaft with the square base now display the nagapadam, a novel
ornament at the junction of shaft and base representing the head of a
serpent, more or less conventionalized, and ultimately to become
unrecognizable.
A large number of temple in the state belong to this style, and among
them the Rjndra Chlisvaram at Ponnamaravati, and the iva temples at
Tiruvarangulam,

Tirumananjeri,

Kolattr,

Karaiyur,

Perumanadu,

Puttambur, and Irumbanadu. The Amman temples at Ponnamaravati the

iva and Amman shrines at Kdumiynmalai and several mantapams in the
latter temple and in the Tirumayam iva and Vishnu temples were erected
in the 13th century.

3.2.1. Development of pillared hall mandapa in

pudukkttai district temples
Mandapams are built within the temple or outside for the installation
of the utsava-the processional deities-or as halting places for the visiting
devotees. The entrance of the mandapam may face any cardinal point. The
mandapam is supported by huge massive pillars. The number of pillars may
vary from four to a few hundreds, as found in many big temples in Tamil
Nadu. The roof of the mandapam is made of stone slabs supported by beams
in between the pillars. The number of pillars found in the temples and their
mandapams is one of the important features of Dravidian temple
architecture. The style and type of the pillar may vary from period to period.
A Dravidian pillar consists of the following parts, kalaam, Tadi, kumbam,
kamalam, Palagai and Podhigai.

The pillars in the mandapam of the temple are of different shapes.

They may be Chaturasa Stamba (square pillar) Vartula Stamba (circular
pillar),

Panchakona

Stamba

(pentagonal

pillar),

Shatkona

Stamba

(hexagonal pillar), Ashtakona Stamba (octagonal pillar), Dwadasakona

stamba (twelve faced pillar), and Shodasakona Stamba (sixteen faced pillar),
It is not necessary that throughout its height the pillar should be of uniform
shape. It may be four faced at the bottom and six faced at little high up and
four faced again at the top or circularly shaped throughout the full length of
the shaft with four face again at the top and bottom and so on. The style of
the podhigai differs from period to period and it is an identifying feature to
fix period of construction. It is usual to find on the huge pillars of the
mandapams, carvings of parrots, pigeons, peacocks, trees, armed soldiers,
monkeys, deer, lions, yalis or images of gods and goddesses, celestial
gandarvas, kinnaras and Yakshis.
The pillared halls (mantapam) in the temples in the state belong
mostly to the vijayanagar and madura styles. The principal idols are taken in
procession to these halls during festivals. The mantapam took the form of a
long corridor in the Madura period. Examples of such corridors are to be
found

at

Tirugkarnam,

Tiruvngaival,

Kdumiynmalai

and

Tiruvarangulam, but none of them is comparable in extent to the corridors

of Ramesvaram.
The pillars in the Vijayanagar structures found in the State temples
have the following peculiarities. The base is invariably decorated. The
rectangular bands at the bottom and top are often ornamented. The pillars
are massive and generally cubical in section. In the State we miss the
monolithic pillars with a number of small columns with bulbous capitals
sculptured on their sides, that we see at Madura or Suchindram. There are

however, massive monolithic pillars, called aniyottikkal, oblong in section,

set at right angles to the axis of the corridor which they flank and
elaborately sculptured with figures of Gods, chief tains, worshippers,
demigods, or women bearing lamps.
The Kdumiyanmalai and Ammankurichi temples have the best
specimens of such pillars. The sides of such pillars are often sculptured in
high and low relief. The stone slabs forming the roofs of the corridors or
pavilions are often supported by carved lions or rearing horses placed above
the pillars. The style of these structures though elaborate is debased and the
carving coarse. Many temples in the State have sculptures of chiefs, Kalla
and Marava chieftains or other donors. They are generally sculptured in the
attitude of worship on the pillars of the front halls. How far they are
conventional effigies or types rather than real portraits, it is impossible to
say. They presumably reproduce the details of contemporary costumes,
jewellery, etc., and are on that account of interest to the archeologist.

3.2.1. Mvarkvil in Kodumblr

Kodumblr lies about 25 miles from the town of Pudukkttai, and is
a famous place of ancient renown in Tamil Nadu State, on the road to
Kudimiyanmalai and Manaparai.

3.2.1.1. Puranical History

It is said in the Silappadikaram, and earliest Tamil epic of the golden
age of Tamil literature, to have been situated in a strategic position of
importance on the high road then in use between Uraiyur, the Chola capital,
and Madurai, the capital of the Pndyas. The Tamil work Periapuranam
calls it the chief city of Konadu, Konattuk-kodiNgaram. It was formerly a

flourishing capital city ruled by a dynasty of Vlirs called Irukkuvls, who

were connected by blood with the Cholas but politically were subordinate to
them. Idangalinayanar, who is reversed as one of the 63 Saivaite saints and
mentioned in the Tiruthandakam by Sundaramurti was a King of this Vlir
dynasty. He was the patron of the Saivas, and an ancestor of the Chola King
Vijaylaya, the founder of the Imperial Chola line, and his son ditya were
connected with this dynasty. Another prince of the line was Bhuti Vikrama
Kesari who built the Mvarkvil.
Kodumblr has taken different names at different times such as
Irukuvlur (the town of the Irukkuvls), and Mangammal Samudram in
recent times, when it was given away as an inam by Queen Mangammal to
Dalavoy Lakshmi Narasayya on the birth day of Vijaya Ranga
Chokkanatha. However its present name Kodukbalur is its oldest
denomination which has persisted through the centuries.

3.2.1.2. Mvarkvil
The Mvarkvil holds an honoured place in the evolution of both
South Indian architecture and sculpture. Originally there were three shrines
side by side at the Mvarkvil67 temple. Out of these three, only two, the
central and southern are now intact. Of the third or the northern shrine, the
basement alone remains. Each shrine was composed of a garbhagriha and a
closed ardhamandapa attached to its front. The three shrines stood side by
side in a line with the distance of 13 feet apart from one to another. Each
shrine is 21 feet square at the base with 32 feet high and the ardhamandpa
measuring 18 feet square. All of them facewest. There was a Mahmandapa
91 feet by 41 feet, common to all the three shrines, and a nandimandapa the
basement of which has now been exposed to view. In front of the
nandimandapa is the base of what must have been either a dvajas shrines,

each having a garbhagriha and an ardhamandapa, the basements of fourteen

of which are now intact. Surrounding these sub-shrines was the tirumadil
(boundary wall), a massive stone wall 3 X 4 in thickness with two
openings, one underneath a gopura and another, near the north-eastern
corner leading down by a flight of stone steps to a circular stone well 10 feet
in diameter. It is very probable that there was a covered cloister all round
the inside of the tirumadil linking together the sub-shrines.

Each of the existing two shrines is 32 feet high from ground level.
They are built completely from basement to finial of well dressed gneiss
blocks neatly and accurately fitted. Their walls are 5 feet in thickness. When
viewed from inside the shrine chamber, the roof is seen to be composed of a
number of courses of cut stones projecting one above the other.
The opening on top is closed by a single roof slab. According to the
tradition and report, the stones of the fort of this place were transported to
Tiruchirappalli for the builing of the Tiruchirappalli fort, and the materials
of the Mvarkvil were used for the construction of the fresh-water pond
in front of the Muchukundwara temple in this village, of a calingula in
Minavelli village, and of the iva temple in Tiruchirappalli.
The plinth of each the three central shrines rests on a lotus base. The
kumudam is curvilinear as in all early temples, and above it runs a frieze of
vyalas with projecting a makhara heads, with human figures sporting inside
their gaping mouths. At each of the corners a makhara head juts out with its
snout coiled up and with a gandharva. The walls are decorated with a series
of tetragonal pilasters crowned with kumbam, kamalam and palagai
successively. The palagai is large and massive, as in late Pallava and early
Chola temples. The capitals are adorned with elegant scroll-work. The

corbels are brackets with angular beveling, and the lower surfaces of the
bracket-capitals is decorated with horizontal rows of roll ornament with a
slightly raised band in the middle. But these rolls are not uniform as the
Pallava structures. One of them in each corbel curves inwardly.
The walls in the exterior side are provided with niches in the middle.
Over the niches in the walls are curved in low relief arched tranas spring
from the mouths of a pair of makharas. On top of the walls and below the
cornice runs a frieze of bhtaganas, a sort of cherules playing on different
kinds of musical instruments. Above the wall runs a cornice which is as in
the Pallava structures, thick and single arched and ornamented at close
intervals along its whole length with kdus crowned with trifoliated, finials
instead of the spade shaped finals, found in the Pallava structures. In
addition to this, the cornice in all its corners and the kdus in it are carved
with scroll work and its lower edge is also carved throughout its length with
a series of semi-circles simulating lotus petals. Over the cornice are the
vyalavari with heads of makharas jutting out at the corners. All these
features occur invariably in structure of this type.
Each of the two intact shrine is crowned by a vimana rising in three
tiers but diminishing in size. Each tier is being separated by a thick and
single arched cornice which is similar to the tower most cornice in all its
minor details. In the storey just above the first cornice, a small structure
called kutam is placed in each of the four corners with a four sided
curvilinear roof and a small four-sided finial above it. In the middle of each
corner is the model of a building called salai with a wagon-shaped roof
which reaches the second cornice. There are pilasters on either side o the
wagon-roofed tops.

The neck (griva) below the roof is also four sided with a niche
projecting in the middle of each side. A row of bhtaganas runs round its
edge close below the roof. In each of the corners of the topmost storey a
seated bull is placed facing outwards. This is evidently to show that the
temple is dedicated to iva. The roof portion terminates with two
rectangular slabs one above the other, the lower one called ratnapitha and
the upper one kamalapitha the latter is drawn out into petals. On the top a
finial fits into a close fitting sockets in the centre of the kamalapitha. From
what are left of the sub-shrines we may infer that their architectural features
were similar to those of the central shrines.

3.2.1.3. Inscriptions
Kodumblr is mentioned as the scene of an engagement in the 8th
century in which the Pndya King Maravarman Rjasimha (c. 740-765
A.D.), defeated the Pallava King Nandivarman Pallavamalla. The Sendalai
records which are full of the exploits of Perumbigugu Suravan MaranMuttaraiya chief and a contemporary and ally of Pallava-malla identify him
with Satrubayankara, and attributes a victory at Kodumbai (Kodumblr)as
having defeated the Pndyas and Cheras. Satrubayankara means the terror
of enemies, and is almost synonymous with Satrukesari meaning a lion to
his enemies. The Sanscrit inscription (No. 14in the Pudukkttai State
Inscriptions 1929) in Grantha characters in the Muvarkvil68 gives the
genealogy of the Irukkuvls from a King whose name is unfortunately
illegible to Bhuti Vikramakesari, perhaps the greatest of them all. He was a
contemporary of Madurantaka Sundara Chola Parntaka II and ditya II.
The Irukkuvls as the staunch allies and vassals of the Cholas, helped
them in all their battles. The Sinnamanur plates of the sixteenth year (c. 916
A.D.) of the Pndya Rjasimha II give an embellished account of a surprise

victory that he won over the Vlir forces at Kodumblr in a was which
ended, however, in the triumph of the Chola Parntaka I and his Vlir ally.
During the Pndya wars in the reign of Sundara Chola Parntaka II, one of
the commanders of the Chola forces was prince Parantakan Siriya Vlir of
Kodumblr. In the reign of Rja Rja the Great, another Kodumabalur
chief marched on an expedition to the north, evidently to Nolambapadi and
Gangapadi, now parts of Karnataka State. We do not hear much of the
Irukkuvls after the reign of Rjndra I, and nothing remains now of the
past glory of Kodumblr except the Mvarkvil and Muchukundvara
temples.
There is a Kannada inscription on three stones built into the bund of
the holy tank in front of the Muchukundvara temple. It mentions
Vikramakesari-griham, which name must refer to the Mvarkvil.
On the south wall of the central shrine of Mvarkvil is a Sanskrit
inscription in Grantha character which gives the genealogy of nine
generations of the Irukkuvl chiefs of Kodumblr. The date of inscription
has to be assigned to 10th century A.D. The inscription is mutilated both at
the beginning and the end. The extant portion consists of 24 lines
comprising eleven full stanzas in Sanskrit in various metres, and fragments
of two others, one at the opening and the another at the end. The inscription
occupies a wall space 410 in height and a pilaster in the wall, bears no
letters, divides each line into two parts of the length of 28 to the left of it
and about 1 5 to the right. The size of the letters is well over an inch, the
ligatures sometimes even reaching two inches. The inscription ends with the
name of a chief called Bhuti Vikramakesarin and tells that he had two wives
named Karralippirattiyar and Varaguna, and had by his first wife two sons
called Parantakavarman and Adityavarman.

The Mvarkvil was built by this Bhuti Vikramakesarin (a feudatory

of Sundara Chola) at Kodumblr and has nothing to do with the three kings
of the South as is generally supposed or with the three Saiva saints Appar,
Sambandar and Sundarar. An inscription at Kodumblr tells us explicitly
that the three shrines were actually built by the chief Vikramakesari in his
own name and in the names of his two wives. Having built three shrines
(vimanas) in his own name and in the names of his two wives, he set up
Mahesvara (iva) and presented to a big matha (brihan-matham) to
Mallikarjuna of Madurai who was the chief ascetic of the Kalamukha (sect)
with eleven villages for feeding fifty ascetics of the Kalamukha sect. The
Kalamukha sect is a division of Saivism. The Kalamukhas appear to be so
called because they marked their forehead with a black streak, and they are
said to be born of nara (human) and rakshasa (demonical) parents. The
Kalamukhas teach that the means of obtaining all desired results in this
world as well as the next are constituted by certain practices such as using a
skull as a drinking cup, smearing oneself with ashes of the dead body, eating
the flesh of such a body, carrying a heavy stick, setting up a liquor-pot and
using it as a platform for making offerings to the Gods, and the like. A
typical Kalamukha is wearing a bracelet made of Rudraksha-seeds on the
arm, matted hair on the head, a skull and smearing oneself with ashes.
Mallikarjuna belonged to the Atreya gotra and was the disciple of two
teachers Vidyarasi and Taporasi.

3.2.2. Avudaiyarkvil Athmanathaswami Temple

Avudaiyarkvil is 49kms from Pudukkttai and here is the most
omate temple in the District, noted for its fine sculptures, the temple of
Athmanatha. Avudaiyarkvil is called Thirupperunthurai in inscriptions and
intimately associated with Saint Manikkavasakar.

3.2.2.1. Puranical History

Manikkavasakar was the minister to the Pndya king probably
Varaguna II. (862-880 A.D.)69. The King sent him to the east coast to buy
imported horses. On the way from Madurai. Manikkavasakar saw an ascetic
seated under a Kurunda tree at Thirupperunthurai. This was Lord iva
Himself. Forthwith manikkavasakr forgot everything mundane and became
a disciple of the ascetic and with the money he had brought to buy horses
built a temple, which must have been the origin of the present huge
structure.
The Pndya king sent a message to his minister about his mission. On
Lord ivas instruction Manikavasakar returned to Madurai, and told the
king that the horses would arrive on Avani mulam day. But two days before
this, the king was informed of what the minister had done and in fury the
king punished Manikkavasakar. On Avani mulam day beautiful horses did
appear in Madurai and they were presented to the king. But actually there
were jackals which Lord iva had transformed, for the time being. The
horses became jackals again during that night. The infuriated king inflicted
further severe punishments on Manikkavasakar, loading him with heavy
stones and making him stand under the burning sun on the dry bed of the
river Vaigai. The Lord, heeding his prayer, sent a flash flood in the river.
The Pndya king realized that his minister was an elect of God, and begged
his mercy. The saint solacing him, went back to Thirupperunthurai. Later,
he achieved union with Lord iva at Chithambaram.
Manikkavasakars Thiruvasakam is a classic of mystic poetry. The
work has been held in great veneration down the ages. Thiruvasakam
mentions Thirupperunthurai. Many of its 656 stanzas were written here. The
temple holds an honoured place in the history of Saivisam in Tamil Nadu.

3.2.2.2. Athmanathar Temple

There are no images, iconic or aniconic, in the sanctum. In the shrine
of the Lord, only a Pitha, is under worship. This represents worship of the
Formless God, Athmanatha. Likewise, in the shrine of the Goddess another
Pitha in the form of ri Vidya Meru Chakra, is worshipped. There is no
flagstaff, no sculpture of nandhi, no festival image of the Lord (the
Utsavamurthi). The Utsavamurthi of the temple is manikkavsakar himself,
not of the Lord. This is a special feature in the Hindu religious practice in
Tamil Nadu.
The temple, as it stands today, is largely a work of the seventeenth
century. The temple which Manikkavasakar, built must have been a small
one and was of brick and mortar. It must have been progressively enlarged
from time to time until it received much of its present from in the
seventeenth century.
One of the mandapam was built by Raghunatha Nyk of Thanjavur
(1600-1634 A.D.) who appears in a portrait there. Another mandapam, the
ThyagaRja mandapam was begun by Achyatappa Nyk (1560-1614 A.D.)
and completed by Vanangamudi Muthu Tondaimn, who belonged to the
Aranthangi Thondaiman line.

An absolute remarkable aspect of the temple is its stone cornices in

the mandapams which resemble wooden reaper work. Composed of huge
stones, they have been worked with a delicate minuteness appropriate to
lapidary. The architects of the seventeenth century must have had powerful
engineering devices to hoist these huge stones to such heights.

3.2.3. Muchukundvara Temple in Kodumblr

Muchukundvara temple is another interesting temple not to miss to
visit at Kodumblr. It is situated nearly a furlong from Mvarkvil towards
north. It is also a protected monument70.

3.2.3.1. Muchukundvarar temple

Muchukundvara temple is built completely of well-dressed and
close fitting gneiss blocks. It faces east. Originally it seems to have been
composed only of garbhagriha and an ardhamandapa attached to it in front.
The closed Mahmandapa, an open pillared mandapa and Ammankvil
standing in front of them have been added at a later period. In Iscription
No.144 of the Pudukkttai71 list, The temple was built long before
Kulottunga III and all the idols mentioned above should have been placed in
the several niches at the time of the construction of the edifice but are lost
through neglect. Hence new ones were installed at the time of the renewal of
the structure.
The whole shrine is enclosed by a boundary wall (prkara) within
which four small sub-shrines are seen standing close to the boundary wall
and facing the main shrine, one in each of the two corners in the eastern
side, one in the north-western corner and the fourth on the rear side of the
main shrine.
The temple seems to have been repaired in the 13th century when the
Mahmandapa was built. There is an ancient circular stone well in the
temple measuring 6 9 across, said to have a tunnel 2 9 in width below,
probably an inlet for water from the tank in front of the temple.

An interesting specimen of a nandi is also found near the main road

and the path that lead to the Muchukundvara temple. The large stone
nandi, measuring 9 from the foreleg to the tail and 85 round the neck, is
comparable for artistic skill and majesty of appearance with the nandi in the
Tanjore Brihadesvaraswami temple, but the latter is larger. Attempts to
remove it to Pudukkttai proved futile, and it stands there itself on a
platform.

3.2.3.2. Inscriptions
Muchukundvara (Mudukundram Udaiyar) temple is an early Chola
shrine. The excavations round the basement of the central shrine have
disclosed four inscriptions dated in the reign of a Parakesari which mention
clearly that the karrali or the stone temple of Tirumudukundram Udaiyar,
the ancient name of the linga here was built by Mahimalaya Irukkuvl also
called Parntaka Vira Cholan or Kunjaramallan, who appointed priests to
conduct worship and endowed the temple with devadanam lands in
llaiyurkurram

and

other

places.

Mahimalaya

Irukkuvl

was

contemporary of Parakesari Parntaka I and his successor Rjakesari

Gandaraditya, and he built this temple in the 14th year of the reign of the
Chola Emperor Parntaka I, i.e. about A.D. 921.

3.2.4. iva temple in Kaliypatti

Kaiyapatti is a small village ten miles from Keeranur and 25 miles
from Pudukkttai, and is situate on the Pudukkttai Keeranur-Kilikkottai
bus route.

3.2.4.1. Kaliypatti iva Temple

On the foreshore of a so called Samadikulam near Kaliypatti is a
small but an interesting iva temple. It is one of the earliest stone temple
built in the Chola period. This is considered to be one of the best among the
single-storeyed temples of Vijaylayas age.
This iva temple faces the east. It is a compact structure containing
intact the garbhagriha, the griva and the sikhara. The stupi and the
ardhamandapa have disappeared. The entire structure is built of well dressed
granite blocks from basement to finial.
The central shrine (garbhagriha) is eight feet square. Its walls are one
and a half foot in thick. They are adorned with pilasters, four on each side.
Their brackets have an angular profile similar to those of the Vijaylaya
Chlisvaram at Nrttmalai and the iva temple at Tiruppr. There are no
niches on the walls of the central shrine to house the usual deities. The
cornice has, on each side, two kdus, well adorned with scroll-work. Each
corner of the cornice ends with a beautiful scroll called kodikkarukku. A
frieze of yalis runs above this cornice. Higher up is a square griva with four
niches one on each side adorned with kdus above. These and the four
corners of the sikhara are ornamented with scrolls of uncommon elegance
and charm. The sikhara is four-sided and curvilinear resembling those of the
Mvarkvil at Kodumblr. There is a layer of ratnapitha, and above it a
padmapitha. The stupi which adorned it is missing and its style should have
been similar to that of the Mvarkvil.

Of the ardhamandapa, the moulded basement alone is found in

continuation of the plinth of the garbhagriha. The basement of the

nandimandapa and traces of the usual seven sub-shrines can be seen also
the basement of the front gateway and of the walls of enclosure enclosing
the whole set of shrines.

3.2.4.2. Inscriptions
The inscription found in the southern wall of the garbhagriha is
important. This inscription is palaeographically assigned to the 9th or early
10th century. Balasubrahmanyam has identified that the inscription is of the
18th year of Parakesarivarman72, who is none other than Vijaylaya Chola,
and fixed the date of the inscription as A.D. 868.

3.2.5. Kannanr Blasubramanya Temple

Kannanr, also known as Rangiyam Kannanr is a village at a
distance of 22 Kms from Pudukkttai and about 3 Kms inside the main road
Rangiyam. There are two temples close to each other on the eastern bund of
the large tank at the village. The one close to the bund is the
Blasubramanya temple and other is dedicated to Vishnu. Both the temples
are of considerable architectural interest.

3.2.5.1. Blasubramanya Temple

The temple of Blasubramanya contains of garbhagriham and
ardhamandapam and belong to the 9th century. Originally the temple should
surrounded by a wall of enclosure, of which only the basement and the
pillars of the main gateways can be seen now.
This temple is a complete structural stone temple of the
svayampradhana class with Subramanya as the main deity. The
garbhagriham is square, its walls are thick and they are adorned externally

with pilasters which resemble those in the iva temple at Tirukkattalai and
have elegant scroll ornaments, kalaam, kumbham and palagai. The corbels
have an angular profile.

The vimnam is of single storeyed type. The vimnam stands on a circular

basement, and there are four niches in its griva portion which has scrolled
kdus crowned with simha heads on the four cardinal points. Images are
found only in two of them and they are beyond identification due to weather
beaten condition.

The shikara is bell-shaped with a beautiful curvature, convex,

followed by a concave surfaces. The sikhara resembles that of the
Kadambur temple at Nrttmalai, with this difference that underneath the
stupi here, there are two layers of lotus petals, padma and ratna pattikas,
whereas in the Kadambar temple there is only one. It is crowned by an
ornamented spherical stone stupi of exquisite workmanship.
The ardhamandapam is about 8 Feet square forming an integrated
structure

with

the

main-shrine.

Both

the

main-shrine

and

the

ardhamandapam have entrances facing west, while the Mahmandapam has

one facing south.

3.2.5.2. Inscriptions
It contains seven inscriptions. They are all of Pndyas. The earliest is
of Maravarman Sundara Pndya I, who came to the throne in 1216 A.D.,73
Therefore the mukhamandapam must have been built in the early part of
thirteenth century.

3.2.6. Sundarvara Temple in Tirukkattalai

Pudukkttai is a small village 5 km to the east of the Pudukkttai
town.

3.2.6.1. Sundarvarar Temple

The temple faces the east and a tank is seen in front of it outside the
wall of enclosure. The temple is now approached both from the east
gateway and the south gateway. The latter was nearly made by a opening in
the southern wall of enclosure.
The Sundarvarar temple is a structural temple from the basement to
the finial. It consists of a garbhagriha, an ardhamandapa attached to it in
front, the seven sub-shrines of Parivara-deva and the boundary wall round
them and they seem to be the only structures that were originally
constructed. All the other structures, the mukhamandapa attached to the
ardhamandapa and the shrine for the Goddess standing to the north of the
central shrine appear to have been subsequently added. This is clear when
the structural style of the mukhamandapa and the shrine of the Goddess in
one hand and the garbhagriha and ardhamandapa in the other being
compared. Moreover the latest king mentioned in inscription of the main
shrine is the Chola King Kulettunga I (A.D. 1070-1118) and the earliest
inscription in the mukhamandapa is the Chola King Kulottunga III (A.D.
1178-1216).

3.2.6.2. Inscriptions
The village is mentioned in its early inscriptions as Karkurichchi
Tirukarrali. This sacred stone temple is a iva temple, and the main deity of
the temple, now called Sundarvarar, is referred to in early inscriptions as

Karkurichi Karralipperuman adigal or the Lord of the stone temple of

Karkurichchi. The present name of the Tirukkattalai can be traced in a
Vijayanagar inscription of the 15th century in which the main deity is called
Tirukkattalai Isvara mudaiyar. Sundaresara temple is the only temple in
Pudukkttai area which has all the characteristic features of the architectural
style of the early Chola period in its pristine glory, unimpaired. Moreover
the latest king mentioned in inscription of the main shrine is the Chola King
Kulottunga I (A.D. 1070-1118)74 and the earliest inscription in the
mukhamandapa is the Chola King Kulottunga III (A.D. 1178-1216).

There are twelve inscriptions relating to this temple, of which one is

mutilated, eight are Chola, one Pndya, and two Vijayanagar. Inscriptions of
the fifteenth century dated in the reigns of Vijayanagar Emperors show that
the village was under the immediate rule of the Pallavarayars of Vaittur
Perungalur. rirangan Pallavarayar and Vilitturangum Pallavarayar are
among the donors to the temple.

3.2.7. ri vygrapurivara Temple in Tiruvngaivasal

The village Tiruvngaival is three miles from Pudukkttai and is
situated in the village which lies in between the Pudukkttai, Manapparai
and Pudukkttai, Tiruchirappalli route.

3.2.7.1. Vygrapurivara Temple

Tiruvngaivasal is a well-known and an ancient place of worship. The
name means the sacred place or gate of the Tiger and refers to the story of
the God Gkarna of Tirugkarnam who here took the form of a tiger, to
terrify and finally grant salvation to a cow that daily brought the sacred
water for his ablution.

The main shrine faces east. It has been renovated, and the original
structure should have been an early Chola structure. The reason for this
conjecture is the presence of the Saptamatrika group, and other old idols
within the cloister in the southern prkara. The present structure is of the
Pndya style of the 13th 14th centuries. The pilasters are polygonal in
section with square bases having nagapadmas the padmas are drawn out
into idols, and the corbels are of the pushpapdigai type with rudimentary
buds.
There are niches in three sides of the main shrine. The niche in the
north is empty, while the west contain a standing Vishnu. In the place of the
south niche, a small roofed structure is constructed with the help of some
fallen pillars, and an idol of Gnana Dakshinamurti75 is installed.
There is an ardhamandapa and a Mahmandapa in front of the main
shrine of ri Vyagrapurisvara. To the north of the artarala mandapa is the
shrine of the Goddess ri Brihadambl, facing south, which is late Chola or
early Pndya structure with square pilasters, simple idals, square palagais
and tenoned corbels in the temple processions. The Mahmandapa is a
Chola structure with pilasters as supporting large palagais and corbels with
tenons.
At the main entrance in the east to the temple is a mandapa with
massive pillars supporting carved lions on its top. The base of the gopura is
of the late Pndya style, but the upper part has been reconstructed.
Near the southern entrance is a shrine built in the reign of Rja
Ramachandra Tondaimn, in which is kept the idol of Amman, slightly
mutilated in its hand. It is said that when a new idol was installed, the old
mutilated one was about to be thrown into the tank to the south of the

temple, and that Amman appeared before the Rja in a dream and directed
him not to cast it away but to preserve it in a shrine.

3.2.7.2. Inscriptions
There are 15 inscriptions in this temple six are Chola, seven Pndya,
one of the Vijayanagar and one of the Pallavarayars period.
The earliest inscription in this temple of ri Vygrapurivara is dated
in the reign of Rjarja I (1011 A.D.) and refers to the God as Tirumerralai
Perumallor the Lord of the western shrine. He is called Cudamani
Vitangan in an inscription of the reign of Rjndra I (1037 A.D.), which
also mentions the Amman shrine which was probably built in this reign.
Sadiron Irasan, also called Kullottunga Chola Kidarattaraiya, consecrated a
linga called after him Sadira Vitangan, and instituted a festival, at which
plays were enacted (P.S.I. 139 of the reign of Rjadhirja II, dated 1175
A.D.)76. An inscription of the reign of Rjarja III records that land
endowed for a festival was to be allotted in equal shares to the God
Vygrapurivara or Tiruvengaivayiludaiya Nayanar and to the God Sadira
Vitangan and his Amman. Four inscriptions refer to Santi kuttu or dances
performed in the temple festivals to induce a feeling of repose. Those who
played this dance were also called Santikutti. The temple seems to have
been very rich and had devadana land in the villages of Perundanaiyur,
Sellikudi, Mayilapur (now called Mayilppatti), Orumanimangalam,
Tiruvetpur (now called Tiruvappur), Kavalamangalam, etc. An inscription
of the time of the Vijayanagar prince Kampana records the grant of
Padikaval rights by the temple authorities and the residents to a chief of
Irumbali. Tiruvngaivasal had both a Sabha or Brahmin assembly, and an
Ur or common village or town assembly, during the centuries of Chola and
Pndya rule.

3.2.8. Agastivara Temple in Panangudi

Panangudi is a village situated about nine miles from Pudukkttai in
the Pudukkttai-Annavasal road and a little to the south of the world famous
fresco paintings in the rock-cut Jaina cave-temple called ittannaval. The
temple is situated on the southern bund of the tank of the village.

3.2.8.1. Agastivara Temple

The iva temple is a conserved monument, in exteral appearance it is
a very small, compact but beautiful edifice, built completely from the
basement to the finial of well-dressed and close-fitting granite blocks. It is
exactly similar to the structural temples at Kaliypatti (Kulattur taluk),
Tiruppr (Kulattur taluk) and Enadi (Tirumayak taluk), both in size and
style of construction. This is a single-storeyed temple and is complete with
its original sikhara and stupi. It consists of garbhagriha and the
ardhamandapa. The basement of nandi mandapa and one of the subshrines
can be traced from ruins. The moulded basement of the Mahmandapa
which is buried below the surface of the ground can also be traced.
The garbhagriha is nine feet square externally and five feet square
internally. The outer walls contain pilasters which are decorated with
elegant scroll work. The corbels are plain and angular. There are niches on
the walls of eth garbhagriha, but no idols are found in them at present. The
ardhamandapa is intact and forms an integral part of the original shrine. The
cornice is provided with kdus crowned with trifoliated pieces of stone. Its
corners are decorated with scroll work. A frieze of bhtaganas is found
below the cornice and a frieze of yali above it, with makhara heads at the
corners. The griva above the cornice is four-sided with a niche in the centre

of each of the four sides for idols. The niches are surmounted by large
beautiful kdu crowned with simha heads projecting into the sikhara.

3.2.8.2. Inscriptions
There are three inscriptions in this temple one of the Chola King
Kulottunga Chola III (A.D. 1178)77 and another of an unidentified
Maravarman Kulasekhara Pndya and the third, the earliest dated in the
fourteenth year of a Ko-Parakesarivarman on the northern wall of the
temple. In the last mentioned inscription, the presiding deity is called
Panangudi Paramesvaran.

3.2.9. Arankulanatha Temple in Thiruvarankulam

Thiruvarankulam is five miles from Pudukkttai, and lies on the
Alangudi road. It is noted for its fine ancient temple to Haratirthvara
(Arankulanathar). Arankulanatha is in the form of a linga which is
Svayambuva.

3.2.9.1. Arankulanatha Temple

The temple of ri Haratirthvara and Amman ri Bribadamb is not
only ancient but also imposing in Pudukkttai area and held in high
veneration by devotees far and near. It has been the object of worship and
benefaction of rulers and citizens from early times, and the inscriptions in
the temple are the authority for the statement. The garbhagriha of ri
Haratirthvara (Arankulanathar) may by assigned to the beginning of the
late Chola period. The pilasters above the plinth have simple idals without
petals, the palagais are large, the corbels (pdigai) are tenon shaped and
beveled. On top of each palagai are two ylis standing on their hind legs as

if supporting the architrave above. Above the pilasters is a line of

bhtaganas supporting a convex moulded cornice. The kdus in the cornice
are formed of foliage scrolls with human head figures within. There aer
niches in the walls.
The garbhagriha, ardhamandapa and Mahmandapa are of the same
style. The earliest inscription in the central shrine is dated in the 14 th year
Kulottunga Chola III corresponding to A.D. 1218-19. The garbhagriha and
the two mandapas in front are surrounded by a hundred pillared mandapa
which was according to the Statistical Account of Pudukkttai (1813)
eracted by one Gopulingam a Chola minister. Along the walls of the
southern cloister are the figures of the 63 Saivaite saints. In this hundred
pillared mandapa are sub-shrines of Ganesa, Lakshmi, Subrahmanya,
Bhairava, Surya, etc. In the front part of the hundred pillared mandapa are
the processional idols which are considered to be fine specimens of late
Chola or early Pndya bronzes.
From this mandapa one has to pass through the second gopura erected
by a Gangaiyaraya chief. The gopura is in the Pndya style with polygonal
pilasters, idals with petals spread out, thinpalagais and corbels with
pushpapdigai. There is a long corridor between the second gopura and the
first or the main gopura. The roof of the corridor is supported by massive
monolithic pillars (aniyottikal) with carved lions on top. These pillars are
elaborately sculptured with figures of donors Valanad Chettiyars, local
chieftains, etc.
He built the old kitchen, and the Vinyka shrine brought a flower
garden, instituted services and festivals, and provided everburning lamps,
torches, etc., for his merit and in his name. one of these, figures sculptured
on the southern wall is that of Kattudaiyan Chettiyar who is believed to have

built this aniyottikal mandapa. This is also called Nakshata (star) mandapa
in which the signs of the zodiac are sculptured in the middle part of the
ceiling. To the north of the mandapa are the sabhamandapa or the Hall of
Dance.

3.2.9.2. Amman Temple

A separate enclosure for the Amman shrine which is much simpler
than that of the God. The architectural features of the Amman shrine mark
the transition from the Chola to the Pndyan epoch. The yalis and the
bhtaganas found in the central shrine are absent here. The Amman shrine
or the hall where the Goddess is installed.
Among the objects of interest in the southern cloister of the hundred
pillared mandapa is a slab with the figures of a raider on horse-back his
attendants, bearing the inscription which an be translated as Hail !
Prosperity !. Vijaya Raya Mindar, also called Kandiyadevar of Rjndra m,
the servant of Vira-Pratapan. It is not clear to whose servant he proclaims
himself to be. Vira Pratapa is one of the titles assumed by the Vijayanagar
chiefs of Penukonda, and the title being such a common one, it is quite
possible that some of Nyk or Tamil chiefs assumed it. The idol of Ganesa
in the western entrance to the temple is supposed to be directly in the path
and effulgence Porpanaikottai Muni.

3.2.9.3. Inscriptions
As per the earliest inscription found in this shrine which dates to the
39th

year

of

Kulottunga

III

(1217-18)

was

constructed

by

Kannudayaperumal, queen of the Nisadarja Chief of Piranmalai and

daughter of the NisadaRja chief of Piranmalai and daughter of the

Nisadarja chief of Ponnamaravathi. The main Gpuram may be assigned to

a late period in the Pndya epoch, and has the decorative pilaster motifs.
There is an inscription on the wall of this Gpuram in Telugu mentioning
that a kumbhabhiseka was performed by Rja Ramachandra Tondaimn
Bahadur.
There are 65 interesting inscriptions in this temple belonging to the
reigns of Kulottunga III, Sema Pillaiyar, the emperors of the second Pndya
dynasty, Vijayanagar emperors and Nyk chiefs, Vijaylaya Tevars, the
Tondaimn of Arantangi, the Pallavarayars of vaittur Perungalur, and the
Tondaimn rulers of Pudukkttai. The informations that are recorded in
the inscriptions convey an idea of the affluence of the temple in the past
its rich and costly jewels, festivals, cars used for the procession of deities,
and lands and gardens endowed to meet the expenses of daily worship.
How prosperous the temple was is seen in Pudukkttai State
Inscription 607, which records that the residents of Vallanad unable to pay
arrears of taxes for nine years amounting to 11,000 kasus mortgaged a jewel
of the God, and with the money thus raised paid the taxes, and in return
conveyed lands to the temple. There are 8 inscriptions reveal the agreements
reached in the temple by the rival parties and compacts entered into by them
not to engage in fighting in figure. An inscription dated A.D. 1218-19 says
that the local assembly meet within the temple. It has continued to meet
there in the succeeding centuries, and the caste panchayats of the Kallars
and of the Chettiyars of Vallanad continue to meet in the temple. A
sixteenth century inscription (P.S.I.746) refers to a Saiva matham situated in
the south street then called Vallanadan perunderu.

3.2.10. Subrahmanya Temple in Virlimalai

Virlimalai is situated about 26 miles from Pudukkttai, and is about
18 miles from Tiruchirappalli on the high road to madurai. It is a well
known place throughout South India for its Lord Subrahmanya temple on a
hillock. Virlimalai is a corruption of Viraliyurmalai or the Hill of
Viraliyur. Virlimalai also takes its names from a bold rock of
beautifully bended micaceous granite gneiss which it contains.

3.2.10.1. Purnical History

The origin of this temple is ascribed to Jnana varodaya, a native of
Vayalur, six miles to the west of Tiruchirappalli. When he was a little boy,
he played the truant one day to escape being flogged at school, and it
himself behind the idol of Subrahmanya in the temple at Vayalur. There he
remained shut up for the might unseen by temple servants, when the God
Subrahmanya appeared to him and blessed him with the gift of poesy. On
the next morning his parents discovered him in the temple and were
delighted to find that he had suddenly become learned and wise.
Sometime afterwards, God Subrahmanya, so runs the story, came a
hunting to the tract now called Virlimalai accompanied by this gifted boy,
and found the country so charming that the God told the boy in a vision of
his wish to have a temple built for him on the top of the hill at Virlimalai.
Thereupon the boy Jnana varodaya communicated this good news to
Alagiya Manavala of Perambur, who was then the chieftain of this tract.
Alagiya was also granted a vision of the Lord in answer to a hymn of the
boy, but the vision was so dazzling that the chief lost his eyesight for a
while. The chief built the temple, and become one of his most devoted
worshipper. The boy Jnana varedaya became the first trustee of the temple.

Portions of the temple were extended by the Kumaravadi and Marungapuri

chiefs who were the vassals of the Madurai Nyks. Ladatory songs are still
sung in praise of the Perambur chiefs during one of the temple festivals at
the Eastern gate mandapa.
One Karuppamuttu Pillai, a minister of one of the Kumaravadi chiefs
was in the habit of visiting the temple every Friday. Once after he had set
out from his house, he found that on account of heavy showers, a tnk had
burst and the Mamundi stream, lying between Kumaravadi and Virlimalai,
had become unfordable. He concluded that he had to spend the night
without meals and what was more important to him without smoking. The
God, however, appeared before him in human form, kindly supplied him
with a cigar and light, and arranged for his visiting the temple that night
without difficulty. The grateful devotee ordered that henceforth cigars
should be offered to the God at the time of the last puja of the day along
with food and other eatables and distributed among the Brahmins and others
visiting the temple. It is said that, after the tract passed into the hands of the
Tondaimns, a ruler of Pudukkttai ordered the offering of cigars to be
stopped as inappropriate to such a superior deity as Subrahmanya, and that
is said to have appeared to the ruler in a dream, exhibiting, his injured body
and explained that it was impossible for him to get on without smoking,
with the result that the cigar offering was permitted to be continued.

3.2.10.2. Arunagiri Nathar

Arunagiri, the great Saiva Saint who is believed to have lived in the
middle of the 15th century, visited Virlimalai, and sang in praise of the God
here, expressing some of his mystic experiences in his famous hymns called
Tiruppugal.

Subrahmanya Mudaliyar, son of Ekanyka Mudaliyar of Kunriyur,

both the ministers of Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Tondaimn, were greatly
devoted to this temple, and is the hero of a verse drama called Virlimalai
Kuravanji which is still staged annually by the dancing girls here.

3.2.10.3i. Subrahmanya Temple

The ascent to the top of the hills made by a series of

flights

commencing at an entrance close to the ardhamandapa. To the north of the

first landing, about half-way up there is a natural cavern in which there is
now a shrine containing a linga, an Amman, Ganesa, etc. At the top is a
mandapa from which one enters the main gopura facing south. More steps
lead to the northern prkara. The mandapas are of the Madurai style, and the
one of the extreme east affords a panaromic view of the country round as far
as the Tiruchirappalli rock fort.