Ping and Traceroute

Contents
1

Ping (networking utility)

1.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Sample ping test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3

Error indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

Message format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.1

ICMP packet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.2

Echo request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.3

Echo reply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.4

Payload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5

Security considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.6

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.8

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Traceroute

2.1

Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2

Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3

Origins

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5

References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.7

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.7.1

Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.7.2

Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.7.3

Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 1

Ping (networking utility)

Ping is a computer network administration software utility used to test the reachability of a host on an Internet
Protocol (IP) network and to measure the round-trip time
for messages sent from the originating host to a destination computer and back. The name comes from active
sonar terminology that sends a pulse of sound and listens
for the echo to detect objects underwater;[1] however, the
acronym PING meaning Packet InterNet Groper has
been in use since early days[2] in computing for testing
and measuring networks and the Internet.

com:

$ ping -c 5 www.example.com PING www.example.com

(93.184.216.119): 56 data bytes 64 bytes from
93.184.216.119: icmp_seq=0 ttl=56 time=11.632 ms
64 bytes from 93.184.216.119: icmp_seq=1 ttl=56
time=11.726 ms 64 bytes from 93.184.216.119:
icmp_seq=2 ttl=56 time=10.683 ms 64 bytes from
93.184.216.119: icmp_seq=3 ttl=56 time=9.674 ms
64 bytes from 93.184.216.119: icmp_seq=4 ttl=56
time=11.127 ms --- www.example.com ping statisPing operates by sending Internet Control Message Pro- tics --- 5 packets transmitted, 5 packets received,
tocol (ICMP) echo request packets to the target host and 0.0% packet loss round-trip min/avg/max/stddev =
waiting for an ICMP echo reply. It measures the round- 9.674/10.968/11.726/0.748 ms
trip time from transmission to reception, reporting errors The utility summarizes its results after completing the
and packet loss. The results of the test usually include ping probes. The shortest round trip time was 9.674 ms,
a statistical summary of the response packets received, the average was 10.968 ms, and the maximum value was
including the minimum, maximum, the mean round-trip 11.726 ms. The measurement had a standard deviation
times, and usually standard deviation of the mean.
of 0.748 ms.
The command-line options for the ping utility and its output vary depending on implementation. Options may include the size of the payload, count of tests, and limits for 1.3 Error indications
the number of hops (TTL) that probes traverse. Many
systems provide a companion utility ping6, for similar
In cases of no response form the target host, most impletesting on Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) networks.
mentations of ping display nothing, or periodically print
notications about timing out. Possible ping outputs indicating a problem include the following:

1.1 History

H, !N or !P host, network or protocol unreachable

The ping utility was authored by Mike Muuss in December 1983 as a tool to troubleshoot problems in an IP network. He was inspired by a remark by David Mills on
using ICMP echo packets for IP network diagnosis and
measurements.[3] The author named it after the sound that
sonar makes, since its methodology is similar to sonars
echo location.[1][4]

S source route failed

F fragmentation needed
U or !W destination network/host unknown
I source host is isolated

RFC 1122 prescribes that any host must process an echorequest and issue an echo-reply in return.[5]

A communication with destination network administratively prohibited

1.2 Sample ping test

Z communication with destination host administratively prohibited

The following is the output of running ping under Linux

for sending ve probes to the target host www.example.

Q for this ToS the destination network is unreachable

1

CHAPTER 1. PING (NETWORKING UTILITY)

T for this ToS the destination host is unreachable
X communication administratively prohibited
V host precedence violation
C precedence cuto in eect

In case of error, the target host or an intermediate router

sends back an ICMP error message, for example host
unreachable or TTL exceeded in transit. In addition,
these messages include the rst eight bytes of the original
message (in this case header of the ICMP echo request,
including the quench value), so the ping utility can match
responses to originating queries.[6]

1.4 Message format

1.4.3 Echo reply

The echo reply is an ICMP message generated in response
to an echo request; it is mandatory for all hosts and routers
and must include the exact payload received in the request.
Type and code must be set to 0.
The identier and sequence number can be used by
the client to determine which echo requests are associated with the echo replies.

1.4.4 Payload
The payload of the packet is generally lled with ASCII
characters, as the output of the tcpdump utility shows:

16:24:47.966461 IP (tos 0x0, ttl 128, id 15103, oset 0, ags [none], proto: ICMP (1), length: 60)
192.168.146.22 > 192.168.144.5: ICMP echo request,
Generic composition of an ICMP 32-byte packet:[7]
id 1, seq 38, length 40 0x0000: 4500 003c 3a 0000
8001 5c55 c0a8 9216 E..<:.....\U.... 0x0010: c0a8
IP Header (in blue): protocol set to 1 (ICMP) and 9005 0800 4d35 0001 0026 6162 6364 ......M5...&abcd
0x0020: 6566 6768 696a 6b6c 6d6e 6f70 7172 7374
Type of Service set to 0.
efghijklmnopqrst 0x0030: 7576 7761 6263 6465 6667
ICMP Header (in red):
6869 uvwabcdefghi

1.4.1

ICMP packet

Type of ICMP message (8 bits)

Code (8 bits)
Checksum (16 bits), calculated with the ICMP
part of the packet (the IP header is not used).
It is the 16-bit ones complement of the ones
complement sum of the ICMP message starting with the Type eld[8]

The payload includes a timestamp of when the message

was sent and a sequence number. This allows ping to
compute the round trip time in a stateless manner without
needing to record when packets were sent.

1.5 Security considerations

Header Data (32 bits) eld, which in this

The ood ping option exists of many implementations,
case (ICMP echo request and replies), will be
sending requests as fast as possible in an attempt to decomposed of identier (16 bits) and sequence
termine the response of the network under high-load connumber (16 bits).
ditions. That option is restricted to users having admin ICMP Payload: payload for the dierent kind of istrative privileges, but may be used in denial-of-service
answers; can be an arbitrary length, left to im- attacks to induce a ping ood, in which the attacker atplementation detail. However, the packet includ- tempts to overwhelm the victim with ICMP echo reing IP and ICMP headers must be less than the quests.
maximum transmission unit of the network or risk Ping has been considered as a security risk as merely acbeing fragmented.
knowledging a hosts presence turns it into a potential

1.4.2

Echo request

target.[9] For these reasons, many systems provide means

to disable the reply,[10][11] despite the fact that RFC 1122
mandates hosts to always send a reply.

Host discovery, scanning or ping sweep is a feature of

network scanning tools such as nmap, working by utilizThe Identier and Sequence Number can be used by the
ing ICMP echo packets.
client to match the reply with the request that caused the
reply. In practice, most Linux systems use a unique identier for every ping process, and sequence number is an
increasing number within that process. Windows uses a 1.6 See also
xed identier, which varies between Windows versions,
Keepalive
and a sequence number that is only reset at boot time.
The echo request (ping) is an ICMP message.

1.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

List of DOS commands
List of Unix utilities
Traceroute
Ping of death
Ping-pong scheme
Security through obscurity
Smurf attack

1.7 References
[1] Mike Muuss. The Story of the PING Program.
Adelphi, MD, USA: U.S. Army Research Laboratory.
Archived from the original on 8 September 2010. Retrieved 8 September 2010. I named it after the sound that
a sonar makes, inspired by the whole principle of echolocation.
[2] Mills, D.L. (December 1983). Internet Delay Experiments. IETF. p. 1. STD 8. RFC 889. https://tools.ietf.
org/html/rfc889#page-1. Retrieved June 26, 2015.
[3] The Story of the PING Program, Mike Muuss
[4] Salus, Peter (1994). A Quarter Century of UNIX.
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-54777-5.
[5] RFC 1122 - Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers. p. 42. Retrieved 2012-03-19. Every host MUST implement an ICMP Echo server function that receives Echo Requests and sends corresponding
Echo Replies.
[6] ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol.
repo.hackerzvoice.net. January 13, 2000. Retrieved
December 4, 2014.
[7] RFC 792 - Internet Control Message Protocol.
Tools.ietf.org. Retrieved 2014-02-02.
[8] RFC Sourcebooks page on ICMP. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
[9] Shields Up, Firewall Test. Retrieved 4 June 2010. [text
shown if your computer replies to ping requests] Ping
is among the oldest and most common methods used to
locate systems prior to further exploitation.
[10] Windows rewall: how block ICMP echo response.
[11] redhat linux /proc/sys/net/ipv4 parameters.

1.8 External links

ping(1M) Solaris 10 System Administration Commands Reference Manual
ping(8) FreeBSD System Managers Manual

Chapter 2

Traceroute

When run, traceroute outputs the list of traversed routers in a

simple text format, together with timing information.

In computing, traceroute is a computer network diagnostic tool for displaying the route (path) and measuring transit delays of packets across an Internet Protocol
(IP) network. The history of the route is recorded as the
round-trip times of the packets received from each successive host (remote node) in the route (path); the sum
of the mean times in each hop indicates the total time
spent to establish the connection. Traceroute proceeds
unless all (three) sent packets are lost more than twice,
then the connection is lost and the route cannot be evaluated. Ping, on the other hand, only computes the nal
round-trip times from the destination point.

Traceroute running on OS X Snow Leopard

ing the ICMP error message ICMP Time Exceeded.[2]

Common default values for TTL are 128 (Windows OS)
and 64 (Unix-based OS).
Traceroute works by sending packets with gradually increasing TTL value, starting with TTL value of one. The
rst router receives the packet, decrements the TTL value
and drops the packet because it then has TTL value zero.
The router sends an ICMP Time Exceeded message back
to the source. The next set of packets are given a TTL
value of two, so the rst router forwards the packets,
but the second router drops them and replies with ICMP
Time Exceeded. Proceeding in this way, traceroute uses
the returned ICMP Time Exceeded messages to build a
list of routers that packets traverse, until the destination
is reached and returns an ICMP Echo Reply message.[2]

The traceroute command is available on a number of

modern operating systems. On Apple Mac OS, it is
available by opening Network Utilities and selecting
Traceroute tab, as well as by typing the traceroute
command in the terminal. On other Unix systems, such
as FreeBSD or Linux, it is available as a traceroute(8)
command in a terminal. On Microsoft Windows, it is
named tracert. Windows NT-based operating systems
also provide PathPing, with similar functionality. For
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) the tool sometimes has The timestamp values returned for each router along the
the name traceroute6 or tracert6.
path are the delay (latency) values, typically measured in
milliseconds for each packet.

Hop 192.168.1.2 Depth 1 Probe status: unsuccessful Parent: () Return code: Label-switched at stack-depth 1
Sender timestamp: 2008-04-17 09:35:27 EDT 400.88
msec Receiver timestamp: 2008-04-17 09:35:27 EDT
427.87 msec Response time: 26.92 msec MTU: Unknown Multipath type: IP Address Range 1: 127.0.0.64
~ 127.0.0.127 Label Stack: Label 1 Value 299792 Protocol RSVP-TE

2.1 Implementation

Traceroute, by default, sends a sequence of User Datagram Protocol (UDP) packets addressed to a destination
host; ICMP Echo Request or TCP SYN packets can also
be used.[1] The time-to-live (TTL) value, also known as
hop limit, is used in determining the intermediate routers
being traversed towards the destination. Routers decre- The sender expects a reply within a specied number of
ment TTL values of packets by one when routing and dis- seconds. If a packet is not acknowledged within the excard packets whose TTL value has reached zero, return- pected interval, an asterisk is displayed. The Internet Pro4

2.3. ORIGINS

tocol does not require packets to take the same route towards a particular destination, thus hosts listed might be
hosts that other packets have traversed. If the host at hop
#N does not reply, the hop is skipped in the output.

or rewalls that may be blocking ICMP trac, or high

port UDP in Unix ping, to a site. Note that a rewall
may permit ICMP packets but not permit packets of other
protocols.

On Unix-like operating systems, the traceroute utility

uses User Datagram Protocol (UDP) datagrams by default, with destination port numbers ranging from 33434
to 33534. The traceroute utility usually has an option to
instead use ICMP Echo Request (type 8) packets, like
the Windows tracert utility does, or to use TCP SYN
packets.[1][2] If a network has a rewall and operates both
Windows and Unix-like systems, more than one protocol
must be enabled inbound through the rewall for traceroute to work and receive replies.

Traceroute is also used by penetration testers to gather

information about network infrastructure and IP ranges
around a given host.

Some traceroute implementations use TCP packets, such

as tcptraceroute or layer four traceroute. PathPing is a
utility introduced with Windows NT that combines ping
and traceroute functionality. MTR is an enhanced version
of ICMP traceroute available for Unix-like and Windows
systems. The various implementations of traceroute all
rely on ICMP Time Exceeded (type 11) packets being
sent to the source.

It can also be used when downloading data, and if there

are multiple mirrors available for the same piece of data,
one can trace each mirror to get a good idea of which
mirror would be the fastest to use.

2.3 Origins

The traceroute manual page states that the original traceroute program was written by Van Jacobson in 1987 from
a suggestion by Steve Deering, with particularly cogent
suggestions or xes from C. Philip Wood, Tim Seaver
and Ken Adelman. Also, the inventor of the ping program, Mike Muuss, states on his website that traceroute
was written using kernel ICMP support that he had earlier
The implementations of traceroute shipped with Linux, coded to enable raw ICMP sockets when he rst wrote the
FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, DragonFly BSD, and OS ping program.[5]
X include an option to use ICMP Echo packets (-I), or
any arbitrary protocol (-P) such as UDP, TCP or ICMP.
On Linux, tracepath is a utility similar to traceroute,
2.4 See also
with the primary dierence of not requiring superuser
privileges.[3]
Looking Glass server
Cisco's implementation of traceroute also uses a sequence
MTR (software) computer software which comof UDP datagrams, each with incrementing TTL values,
bines the functionality of the traceroute and ping
to an invalid port number at the remote host; by default,
programs in a single network diagnostic tool
UDP port 33434 is used. Extended version of this command (known as the extended traceroute command) can
netsni-ng a Linux networking toolkit with an
change the destination port number used by the UDP
autonomous system traceroute utility
[4]
probe messages.

2.2 Usage
Most implementations include at least options to specify
the number of queries to send per hop, time to wait for a
response, the hop limit and port to use. Invoking traceroute with no specied options displays the list of available options, while man traceroute presents more details,
including the displayed error ags. Simple example on
Linux:
$ traceroute -w 3 -q 1 -m 16 example.com
In the example above, selected options are to wait for
three seconds (instead of ve), send out only one query
to each hop (instead of three), limit the maximum number of hops to 16 before giving up (instead of 30), with
example.com as the nal host.
This can help identify incorrect routing table denitions

PathPing a Windows NT network utility that combines the functionality of ping with that of traceroute
(or tracert)

2.5 References
[1] traceroute(8) - Linux man page. linux.die.net. Retrieved 2014-02-26.
[2] Comer, Douglas (2004). Computer Network and Internets
with Internet Applications. Pearson Education, Inc. pp.
360362. ISBN 0131433512.
[3] tracepath(8) Linux man page. linux.die.net. Retrieved
2015-06-21.
[4] Understanding the Ping and Traceroute Commands.
Cisco IOS Software Releases 12.1 Mainline. cisco.com.
2006-11-29. Retrieved 2013-12-08.
[5] The Story of the PING Program

CHAPTER 2. TRACEROUTE

This article is based on material taken from the Free Online Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008
and incorporated under the relicensing terms of the
GFDL, version 1.3 or later.

2.6 External links

RFC 1393: Traceroute using an IP Option Internet
RFC
How traceroute works InetDaemon
Tracert Windows XP Command-line reference

2.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

2.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

2.7.1

Text

Ping (networking utility) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ping_(networking_utility)?oldid=668761138 Contributors: WojPob,

Tuxisuau, Zundark, Mark, Drj, Shii, Mbecker, Frecklefoot, JohnOwens, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Breakpoint, Ahoerstemeier, Haakon,
Glenn, Netsnipe, Rotem Dan, Evercat, Htaccess, Dysprosia, Wik, Furrykef, Nv8200pa, SEWilco, Joy, Francs2000, JorgeGG, Paranoid,
RedWolf, ZekeMacNeil, Auric, Bkell, Mdrejhon, Rsduhamel, Tobias Bergemann, Ancheta Wis, Connelly, DocWatson42, Jimjoe, Marcika, Raph, Malbear, Joconnor, Frencheigh, Robbrown, Tagishsimon, Neilc, Yath, Gordoni, Dnas, Robert Brockway, Taka, Sam Hocevar, Rgrg, Jcw69, EagleOne, Generica, Mike Rosoft, Mormegil, DanielCD, Swedophile, Discospinster, Twinxor, Pmsyyz, Vsmith, Max
Terry, Bootedcat, Perfecto, Bobo192, Shnout, Toh, A Wikipedia user from Minnesota, Krellis, Alansohn, Gary, Mo0, Nealcardwell,
Jeltz, Andrewpmk, Burn, Neilmckillop, Tribh, Szumyk, Cburnett, Danhash, RainbowOfLight, Dan100, Ceyockey, Japanese Searobin,
Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Scjessey, WadeSimMiser, Gniw, Tjbk tjb, Pete142, Ashmoo, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Tzadikv,
JIP, JamesBurns, Mendaliv, Josh Parris, Sj, Vary, Tangotango, Nneonneo, AlisonW, Nguyen Thanh Quang, Aegicen~enwiki, Aveekbh,
FlaBot, Pumeleon, Ewlyahoocom, Gurch, ElfQrin, Alvin-cs, Tnarb, SirGrant, Garas, Theymos, YurikBot, Calamari, NTBot~enwiki,
Icarus3, Bhny, Stephenb, NawlinWiki, DragonHawk, Hm2k, Grafen, Uni4dfx, Mortein, Dhollm, Larsinio, Vlad, DeadEyeArrow, ReneGarcia, Yudiweb, Ebarrett, Bdmcmahon, Graciella, Fie, JasonXV, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, Cedar101, Spliy, Sneftel, Toniher, Mdwyer, Chris Chittleborough, MacsBug, Yakudza, DNSstu, SmackBot, Gregory nster, Direvus, Reedy, Royalguard11, CrazyTerabyte,
Btm, Anastrophe, VxP, Eskimbot, Vilerage, Nil Einne, Csab, Skizzik, KD5TVI, DanPope, Thumperward, Liamdaly620, SchftyThree,
Robocoder, Titera, WeniWidiWiki, Octahedron80, Darth Panda, TheGerm, Frap, OrphanBot, Lantrix, JonHarder, DGerman, Radagast83,
Nakon, Mistamagic28, Shadow1, Esb, Daniel.Cardenas, Mion, J.smith, Zac67, Autopilot, Kuzaar, Vanished user 9i39j3, Gingaman,
This user has left wikipedia, Ninnnu~enwiki, Akhilsharma86, SunAdmin111, Ckatz, Beetstra, EdC~enwiki, Jpbisguier, Kvng, Dl2000,
Hu12, Iridescent, ToastyMallows, Pimlottc, Daveyork, Tawkerbot2, Deathvader, StephenFalken, FatalError, CmdrObot, John Switzer,
Rohan2kool, Cydebot, Karimarie, Mblumber, A876, Gogo Dodo, Tawkerbot4, Zzsql, Joseph.leahy@gmail.com, JoeMK, Papajohnin,
JohnInDC, Thijs!bot, Mojo Hand, E. Ripley, Druiloor, Sam42, AntiVandalBot, Bradycardia, Prolog, Lugiadoom, Darklilac, Alphachimpbot, Dman727, JAnDbot, MER-C, LeedsKing, Jahoe, Toutoune25, Ideoplex, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Cic, Schily, VegKilla, PaulDon,
Vssun, Kgeischmann, Einhov, UnfriendlyFire, Peros038, R'n'B, Mycroft7, Huzzlet the bot, J.delanoy, Tannerbrockwell, Amitlovestosurf,
Dispenser, Silas S. Brown, FunnyMonkey101, Polnian, Ts1and2fanatic, Jrs363, Remember the dot, Er.punit, Halmstad, Inetpup, Tawlboy,
Dwlegg, LeilaniLad, Chsandeep, TXiKiBoT, EvanCarroll, Dictouray, Jason C.K., Ziounclesi, ErikWarmelink, Jhawkinson, Spinningspark,
Demize, Runewiki777, Kbrose, Tauriel-1, Technion, Weeliljimmy, Rockstone35, Adrian13, Yeohlee06, Tiptoety, Oxymoron83, Ddxc,
MahoneyUK, Bluesonic43, Wiknerd, Jons63, ImageRemovalBot, WikiBotas, Elassint, ClueBot, Torchwood Four, Abaumgar, The Thing
That Should Not Be, Alksentrs, T3hBra1nWa5her, Rjd0060, Number774, Webmaster4india, Control-alt-delete, Trioculus, Boing! said
Zebedee, Blanchardb, Jwz, Occamsrzr, Cillie, Daveisrategud, Timsdad, Fuzzymoochicken, Error49, Jotterbot, Cory Donnelly, Thingg,
Aitias, Egmontaz, The Zig, Miami33139, XLinkBot, Spitre, Yanksfanatic2000, A63falcon, C. A. Russell, NellieBly, Mifter, Khaleel
1345, MystBot, Dsimic, Addbot, Ghettoblaster, Mabdul, Ronhjones, HobbitAndy, Dov Jacobson, 0pen$0urce, LaaknorBot, Gxchaos,
Favonian, Comphelper12, InvincibleMario, , Tide rolls, Lightbot, , Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace, OrgasGirl, Ptbotgourou, GDI Commando, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, KamikazeBot, TestEditBot, Thabonch, AnomieBOT, Vikasminda,
Floquenbeam, Parinphoenix, Galoubet, Kingpin13, Flewis, Aneah, Tfewster, Tbvdm, LilHelpa, Andrewmc123, Xqbot, TheAMmollusc,
4twenty42o, Appy123, XAakashx, Lrdiver, Gnuish, FrescoBot, Dilic, Oldlaptop321, Qbeep, Chiranjiv wikian, Maher27777, Pinethicket,
Todd Peng, MatthewGreber, RedBot, SpaceFlight89, Mr.opc, FoxBot, Lotje, Reaper Eternal, Jhenderson777, Prodeji, TheMesquito, Minimac, Deluxebgn, Ravinlv, WikitanvirBot, Immunize, Nevillespade, Tarayzaminpar, DiiCinta, Blin00, JosJuice, Donner60, Bgenzoli, Prudhvi09, Ebehn, Lilprincesskrishna, Voomoo, Shaynarsey, ClueBot NG, Nimiew, Yournansarm, Widr, Chint82, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tumicking, Epicping, PaganPanzerfaust, Benpul, Mihir6692, Andrewvlk88, Eidab, Billie usagi, Mdann52, Th4n3r, Cjhoare1, None but shining
hours, Rds33, Patrickjonasetcher, Faizann20, Webclient101, Hksamuello, FenixFeather, Jshjdcb, XDroubay, ZipperJam, Nancy.liu611,
Aaniya B, Paravizal, Ajiratech and Anonymous: 561
Traceroute Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traceroute?oldid=667881722 Contributors: PierreAbbat, Shii, Ixfd64, Zeno Gantner,
Haakon, Snoyes, PeterBrooks, Nikai, Cherkash, , Htaccess, Dysprosia, ErikStewart, Joy, Finlay McWalter, Denelson83, RedWolf,
Jrash, Massysett, Peruvianllama, Digital innity, Sdsher, MJaap~enwiki, AlistairMcMillan, Khalid hassani, Tagishsimon, MSTCrow,
Pgan002, Yath, Thomas Springer, Beland, Dnas, Kooo, Kbh3rd, Janaagaard, Nabber00, CanisRufus, Sietse Snel, Femto, Mooses, Wrs1864,
JohnyDog, Gary, Guy Harris, Kotasik, Burn, Wtmitchell, Blaxthos, Ott, Weyes, Briansp~enwiki, Cbustapeck, Dionyziz, LimoWreck,
Bilbo1507, AlisonW, Aapo Laitinen, Aegicen~enwiki, FlaBot, Gurch, Quuxplusone, Intgr, Fresheneesz, Ramorum, Spasemunki, Shaggyjacobs, YurikBot, Borgx, Rowan Moore, Ibc111, Hm2k, Mortein, Larsinio, Calvin08, Mdwyer, GrinBot~enwiki, SmackBot, Lcarsdata, Samdutton, Anastrophe, Mauls, Xaosux, Gilliam, Oli Filth, Robocoder, JonHarder, Wes!, DGerman, Krich, Rajrajmarley, Martijn
Hoekstra, Warren, Mion, Zac67, Mike the k, Harryboyles, Erwin, Meco, Sreeji~enwiki, Pwforaker, Mylogon, StephenFalken, JForget,
Anon user, T23c, Equendil, Cydebot, Playphil, A876, Fl, DumbBOT, Cosmonaut3030, Ryanmshea, Ebraminio, Thijs!bot, Electron9,
Druiloor, Dawnseeker2000, Northumbrian, AntiVandalBot, Widefox, Nikolas Karalis, AndreasWittenstein, Dman727, JAnDbot, Jahoe,
Salinix, Freshacconci, JamesBWatson, Kgeischmann, RockMFR, Rotationx, CFCF, Slogsweep, TimurFriedman, MKoltnow, Bonadea,
Tasior~enwiki, Er.punit, Trismegister, Akrycek, CardinalDan, Breante, Philip Trueman, Jmath666, Billinghurst, Jhawkinson, Kbrose,
Dusti, VVVBot, Adrian13, Lightmouse, Kathleen.wright5, Stepshep, Eeekster, Jotterbot, Versus22, Johnuniq, Jovianeye, Skarebo, Dsimic,
Addbot, Mortense, Ghettoblaster, D0762, Favonian, HerculeBot, GDR!, Matt.T, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Themfromspace, THEN WHO
WAS PHONE?, AnomieBOT, Vikasminda, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Cybjit, White rotten rabbit, FrescoBot, Dilic, Josefnpat, I dream
of horses, Todd Peng, Viritrudis, Ayeowch, Yappy2bhere, EmausBot, GoingBatty, Weylin.piegorsch, ZroBot, MessiFCB, ClueBot NG,
Nimiew, Strcat, BG19bot, Pine, Mark Arsten, Chmarkine, Thenor, MrBill3, GoShow, TheJJJunk, Codename Lisa, Shierro, Rlcw0630,
Richman35, TheoryCloud, Abhisatya, Ciscozine, WikiJackool, Vieque, Moltonlava, Tacmamaeujnayn, Batmanaz23, Ajiratech and Anonymous: 202

2.7.2

Images

File:Bus_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Bus_icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?

Original artist: ?
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0

CHAPTER 2. TRACEROUTE

Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Shot_of_Traceroute_on_Mac.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Shot_of_Traceroute_on_Mac.
png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mylogon
File:Traceroute.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Traceroute.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Jaho at en.wikipedia

2.7.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0