DC Machines

Chapter 1: Theory Of Operation & Construction

Chapter 2: DC Machines On Load
Chapter 3: DC Generators
Chapter 4: DC Motors

References
S.J. Chapman, "Electric Machinery
McGraw Hill, 4th edition, 2005.

Fundamentals",

Chapter 1
Theory Of Operation & Construction
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Introduction
Electromechanical Energy Conversion
DC Machines Theory of Operation
Construction
Classification of DC Machines
Armature Voltage and Developed Torque

Electric Machine

Mechanical
Input

Electrical
Output

Generator

Electrical
Input

Motor

Mechanical
Output

Electromechanical Energy Conversion

Electrical system

+
_

w
Ideal Electric Machine

Motor
Energy Flow
Generator

T Mechanical system

v i=T w
4

Principle of Operation
If a conductor of length l moves at a linear speed v in a
magnetic field the induced voltage in the conductor is
Faradays law or
flux cutting rule

e=Blv

v
B

S
B
Right hand rule
5

Principle of Operation
For the current carrying conductor of length l the
force known as Lorentz force produced is

N
F

F=Bli

B
S
B
Left hand rule

Induced e.m.f

e=Blv

S
B

Right hand rule

Electromagnetic Force
F

N
F
B

F=Bli
S
B

Lift hand rule

DC Machines theory of operation

w
S

N
w

w
S

and for multiturn machine

8

Generated Voltage (EMF)

For counter-clockwise motion the rotor terminal under

the N pole is always positive with respect to that
under the S pole.
The brush terminal B1 is always positive and B2 is
negative so e12 is unidirectional

DC Machines

DC currents are required for both its field winding

( stator ) and armature winding (Rotor)
DC machine mainly used as DC motors

DC motors is characterized by superior torque

and a wide range of speed
DC machine is more costly than comparable AC
machine and their maintenance cost is higher.

10

Construction

4 Pole DC Machine
11

4 Pole DC Machine

12

2 Pole DC Machine
Shaft

Armature
Commutator

Stator

pole

Field
coil
13

DC Machine

14

Construction Of DC Machine

Armature
The armature (rotor) is made up of cylindrical steel
structure. However, it cannot be fabricated from
solid steel, since eddy and hysteresis losses may
reach prohibitive values and damage the armature
windings insulation. Reduction of eddy current
losses can be achieved by fabricating armature core
of insulated laminated silicon steel. Sheets of silicon
steel of 0.35 mm thick are punched to form the
shape of armature slots and teeth, then insulated on
both sides and assembled to form armature core.
Hysteresis loss can be reduced by adjusting the
amount of silicon in the steel such that the
hysteresis loop area of the alloy is kept as low as
possible.

15

The Armature

Slots

Cooling ducts for

air circulation

Teeth

16

Eddy Currents

17

Eddy Currents (cont.)

Dividing the iron core into thin insulated

laminations minimizes eddy current loss.
18

Hysteresis Loop

19

Hysteresis Loss

The amount of heat released per cycle

expressed in J/m3 is equal to the area in
Tesla.A/m of the hysteresis loop.
To reduce hysteresis losses, we select
magnetic materials that have a narrow
hysteresis loop, such as the grainoriented silicon steel used in the cores
of alternating-current transformers.
20

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

The Commutator
The commutator is made up from a number of
hard drawn copper segments forming a cylinder
rotating with the shaft. For small machines this
is achieved by mounting the segments on a
Bakelite ring fitted on the shaft. The segments
are insulated from each other and fixed on the
Bakelite ring using adhesives. For machines with
high ratings, the commutator is assembled from
commutator segments shaped as shown. The
segments are fitted into two guides as shown in
figure and insulated from each other and from
the guides using mica paper.

21

The Commutator
Commutator: is a mechanical rectifier, which converts the alternating voltage
generated in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brush. It is made of
copper segments insulated from each other by mica and mounted on the shaft of the
machine. The armature windings are connected to the commutator segments.

Commutator

22

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

The Brushes
Brushes are fitted to collect or conduct
current from or into the armature. They
are made of graphite with high hardness
to ensure long life time during service.
Brushes are usually fitted in brush box
(holder) are pressed on commutator
segments by virtue of spring. The brush
holder is fixed in the machine frame and
insulated from it. Details of brush holder
are shown in figure.
1. Brush holder box
2. Brush
3. Pressure spring
4. live pigtail

23

The Brushes
The purpose of the brush is to ensure electrical connections between the
rotating commutator and stationary external load circuit. It is made of
carbon and rest on the commutator.

Commutator and Brushes

24

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

Field System
The magnetic flux in a DC machine is established by
electromagnets shaped in the form of salient poles
attached to a cylindrical yoke. The pole itself is made
from two main parts, shank and shoe. The shank
may be of circular or rectangular cross section while
fabricated from cast steel, wrought iron or cast iron.
There is no need for laminating it since flux flow is
unidirectional. As for the shoe, it keeps field
windings in place and distributes flux lines over
larger area and thus avoids saturation of flux lines in
armature teeth. Pole shoe is essentially laminated to
keep iron loss in it to a minimum. Iron loss in pole
shoe is produced by tooth pulsations. Field windings
are made by concentric number of turns of insulated
copper wire wound on a former. The former is made
of Bakelite and is shaped as shown in figure.

25

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

Armature Windings
Armature windings are made of the shape of
pre-wound coils as shown in figure. The
armature is wound in a double layer fashion
to avoid irregular shape of end connections.
Moreover, coil pitch should be as near as
possible to pole pitch to ensure voltage
summation around the coil. On the other
hand, to obtain a reasonable value of
collected voltage, the coils are connected in
series maintaining that their voltages are in
the same sense. This is achieved in two
alternative methods of windings; namely, Lap
and Wave types of windings.

26

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

The turn, coil, and the winding are shown schematically as:
End connection

Conductors

Turn

Coil

Winding

A turn consists of two conductors connected to one end by an end connector.

A coil is formed by connecting several turns in series.
A winding is formed by connecting several coils in series.
27

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

Lap Windings
In this type of windings, the successive coils of the
armature overlap each other as shown in figure.
Successive coils are connected in series with their ends
connected to successive commutator segments. The
pitch of the coil as viewed from commutator end is
termed as the front pitch while that measured from
other end is called the back pitch. These pitches should
not be equal to ensure winding progression.
If an armature is wound with C coils and having 2p
number of poles, then the back pitch should be equal to
the number of coils occupying one pole pitch, i.e.
Back pitch y b= C/2p
coils
and hence, Front pitch yf = yb 1 coils
Positive sign is used for winding retrogression while the
negative sign is for winding progression.
Commutator pitch is then given by : yc = 1
Number of Commutator Segments = C
28

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

Example

Design a suitable armature winding for an

armature with 12 slots each containing two coil
sides. The winding is double layer and number
of poles is 4.

Solution
C = 12 x 2 / 2 = 12 coils
yb = C/2p = 12/4 = 3 coils
yf = 3 + 1 = 4 for retrogressive winding
or yf = 3 - 1 = 2 for progressive winding
yf is taken equal to 2 to ensure less end
connection length.

29

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

30

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

31

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

In a lap winding, the number of parallel paths (2a) is always equal to

the number of poles and also to the number of brushes.
Bottom coil sides

Top coil sides

Commutator

3
Brush

Elements of Lap Winding

32

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

33

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

Wave Windings
In this type of windings, the coils connected in series
are either progressing or retrogressing all the way. The
figure show schematic representation for a partially
wound armature with wave windings. The distance
between successive coils sides occupying
nearly the same location under similar poles is termed
the resultant pitch y and is equal to;
y = yb + yf
where yb and yf are the back and front pitches of the
winding.
The resultant pitch y occupies double pole pitch,
therefore for a machine with 2p poles;
y.p=C1
On the other hand, commutator pitch in terms of
commutator segments will be then given by;
yc = y
34

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

Example

Design a suitable armature winding for an armature with 14 slots each containing two coil
sides. The winding is double layer and number of poles is 6.

Solution
C = 14 x 2 / 2 = 14 coils
y = C 1 / p = 14 1 / 3 = 5 coils progressive only
yb = 3 & yf = 2
or yb = 2 & yf = 3

35

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

36

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

37

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

In a wave windings, the number of parallel paths (2a) is always two.

Top coil sides

Bottom coil sides

2
Brush
Elements of Wave Winding

38

Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)

From the previous example, it is clear that:

a) There is only two parallel circuits whatever the number of poles is.
b) Two brushes arms can only be used for voltage collection ( A & B ). However,
extra brush arms are used to limit the current in each brush arm ( C, D, E & F ).
Therefore number of brush arms = number of poles as in the case of Lap windings.
c) Again brush location is decided relative to position of poles and best location is
such that brushes should be in contact with coil sides in the neutral zone.
D) Number of parallel circuits in this type of windings whatever the number of poles
is always equal to TWO.
i.e. For wave windings 2a = 2

39

Classifications of DC Machines
Field
Armature

Separately excited

Field

Self excited
1- Shunt

Field
Armature

Armature

Self excited
2- Series
40

Self Excited
3- Compound
ff
F2

F1

ff

fs

A1
D1

D2

F1

D1

F2

i- Short-shunt
Cumulative

F1

A2

ii-Long-shunt
Cumulative

ff

fs

A1

F2

D2

A2

A2

ff

fs

A1

D1

iii- Short-shunt
Differential

D2

F1

A1

F2

fs

D1

D2

A2

iv-Long-shunt
Differential
41

Armature Voltage
Let
Z = total number of armature conductors
N = total number of turns in the armature winding = Z/2
2p = number of poles
2a = number of parallel paths = 2 for wave winding
2 p for lap winding
f = flux per pole Weber
Nm= speed of the motor in the revolutions per minute,
Time of 1 revolution = 60 N seconds
m
wm= speed of the motor in radians per second
2 p
Flux / Re v .

2 pN m / 60
Emf generated in each conductor =

Time / Re v .

(60 / N m )

Total emf between brushes =emf/conductor * Number of conductor/path

(2 pNm / 60)(Z / 2a)

But, wm 2Nm / 60
Where K a

, therefore

Z .2 p N .2 p

2 .2a .2a

Ea (2 pwm / 2 )(Z / 2a) Kawm

(armature constant)
42

Developed (or Electromagnetic) Torque

Consider the turn shown in the following Figure.

Area per pole A =

2rl
2p

2p
Flux density B
A 2 r l
Current / conductor is

Ic

The force on a conductor is

Ia
2a
fc B l

Ia
2a

.2 p. I

a
a
r
The torque developed by a conductor is Tc f c r B l
2a
2 .2a

The total torque developed is

Te

Z .2 p.I a
E I
K a I a a a
2 .2a
wm
43

Example 1

Determine the induced voltage induced in

the armature of a dc machine running at
1750 rpm and having four poles. The flux
per pole is 25 mWb, and the armature is
lap-wound with 728 conductors.

44

Solution
N m 1750rpm
2p 4

f 25mWb
2a 2 p 4
Z 728

Ea K afwm
pZ

fwm
2 a
pZf nm

60a
728 25 103 1750

60
530.83V
45

Example 2

A lap-wound armature has 576 conductors

and carries an armature current of 123.5A.
If the flux per-pole is 20 mWb, calculate
the electromagnetic torque.

46

Solution
2a 2 p

f 20mWb
Z 576
I a 123.5 A

Te K afI a
2 p.Z

fI a
2 .2a
576 20 10 3 123.5

2
226.43Nm
47

Magnetization Curve of a DC Machine

The magnetizing curve is obtained experimentally by rotating the dcmachine at a given speed and measuring the open-circuit armature terminal
voltage as the current in the field winding is changed.
Ea

Saturation

E a K a wm

wm1> wm2

Field
Linear

Ea

wm2

If
Flux-mmf relation in
a dc machine

If Nf

If

Magnetization curve

The magnetization curve is of great importance because it represents the

saturation level in the magnetic system of the d.c. machine.
48

Chapter 2
DC Machines on Load
1.
2.
3.
4.

Armature reaction
L di/dt Voltages
Commutation in DC Machines
Methods Of Improving Commutation

49

Armature Reaction

50

Armature Reaction (cont.)

51

Armature Reaction (cont.)

52

Armature Reaction (cont.)

53

Armature Reaction (cont.)

54

Armature Reaction (cont.)

55

Armature Reaction (cont.)

56

Armature Reaction (cont.)

57

Armature Reaction (cont.)

58

Armature Reaction (cont.)

59

Armature Reaction (cont.)

60

Armature Reaction (cont.)

61

Armature Reaction (cont.)

62

Armature Reaction (cont.)

63

Armature Reaction (cont.)

64

L di/dt Voltages

65

L di/dt Voltages (cont.)

66

L di/dt Voltages (cont.)

67

Commutation in DC Machines

68

Commutation in DC Machines (cont.)

69

Methods Of Improving Commutation

70

Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)

71

Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)

72

Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)

73

Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)

74

Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)

75

Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)

76

Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)

77

Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)

78

Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)

79

Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)

80

Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)

81

Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)

82

Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)

83

Armature Reaction
It is the effect of armature ampere-turns upon the value and the distribution of
the magnetic flux in the air gap.
Fluxes added each other

Fluxes oppose each other

S
If

N
Fluxes added each other

Near one tip of a pole, the net flux density

increases while it decreases near the other pole
tip, as a result the zero flux density shifts from
the brush-axis.
If the increased flux density causes magnetic
saturation, the flux per pole decreases. This
magnetizing effect of armature current

.
.

++
+
+
+
+
+

Fluxes oppose each other

AT Load

At No-Load

.
...
.

Saturation
effect

increases as the armature current increases.

B (resultant)
Bf+ Ba

Bf

Ba

84

Compensating Winding

The armature mmf distorts the flux density distribution and also produce
demagnetizing effect as a result the zero flux density shifts from the
brush-axis, and this causes poor commutation leading to sparking.
Much of the armature mmf can be neutralized by using a compensating
winding, which is fitted in slots cut on the main pole faces
MMF produced by compensating winding opposes the armature mmf.
The compensating winding is connected in series with the armature
winding so that its mmf is proportional to armature mmf.
Compensating
windings

Field
Armature

85

Commutation

The purpose of the commutator and brushes is to reverse the current in the
conductor when it goes from one pole to the next.
x
N

.. .
..

.
.

++
+
+
+
++
+

Brush

Reactance voltage:
the coil undergoing commutation is in the
interpolar region. When this coil moves in this
region, a voltage, called reactance voltage, is
induced in the coil undergoing commutation.
vr = L(di/dt)
This high voltage naturally causes sparking at
the brushes of the machine.

Coil undergoing
commutation

Commutator
segments

Brush

+Icoil

t
-Icoil

86

Interpoles or Commutator Poles

To improve the commutation, a small poles, called

interpoles or commutator poles, is created. Its winding
carries the armature current in such a direction that its flux
opposes the armature reaction flux and produces an emf that
equal and opposite to the reactance voltage vr.
Interpole
Interpole
winding
i

Ia

.
.
.

..
..

++
+
+
+
++

Ia

Armature
winding

87

Chapter 3
DC Generators
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Basic Principles
Classification of DC Generators
Voltage Build Up
Generator Characteristics
Efficiency

88

Principle of Operation
If a conductor of length l moves at a linear speed v in a
magnetic field the induced voltage in the conductor is
Faradays law or
flux cutting rule

e=Blv

v
B

S
B
Right hand rule
89

Classification Of DC Generators

1- Separately Excited DC Generator

Ia

IL

V f ( R fw R fc ) I f R f I f

+
ra
+
wm
Rfw

Rfc
If

Vt
Ea

+ Vf

RL

Ea Vt I a ra
E a K a wm
Vt I L RL
Ia IL
90

External Characteristic Curve

It is a curve between terminal voltage and load current
at constant field current and constant rotor speed
Vt

RaIa

Ea

Terminal characteristic
with no armature reaction

% rated voltage

100
DVAR

80
60

Terminal characteristic
with armature reaction

40
20
0

20

40

60
80
100
% rated current

It

External characteristic of a separately excited dc generator

91

2- Self-Excited DC Generators

1- Shunt generator (Voltage build-up)

If

Rfc
Rfw
wm

IL
+

Ia
ra
+

Vt
Ea

Ea

E a K a w m
Vt I L RL
Ia IL I f

RL

V f R f I f Vt
E a Vt I a ra

Operating point

(emf due to
residual flux(

Field resistance line

IfRf versus If

Ea2
Ea1
Ear

If
0

If1

If2

Voltage build-up
92

Shunt generator (Cont.)

Critical field circuit resistance

Rf3

Ea

Rf2

Rf1

Conditions for a successful voltage buildup

Rf4

Residual magnetism must be present in the

magnetic system
Field winding mmf should aid the residual
magnetism.
Field circuit resistance should be less than
critical field circuit resistance.

Vt4
0
If

Effect of field resistance

93

External Characteristic Curve

(without Armature Reaction effect)

The external characteristics of the self excited shunt generator
can be obtained from the magnetization curve and the field
resistance line, as illustrated in the following Figure.

94

2- Series Generator
IL

Ia

Vt Ea I a (ra Rs )

+
ra
+

Rs
Vt

Ea

RL

IL Ia I f
Ea K a sw m

Ea

Vt

Magnetization Curve

Vt

External Characteristic

Slope =(Ra+Rs)

Ia(Ra+Rs)
Ia=If =IL

IL

95

3- Compound DC Generator
If

If

IL

Rfc
Rs

+
Vt

Ea

Rfw

Short Shunt

Vt Ea I a Ra I L Rs
If

Ea I a Ra
R fw R fc

Ea K a ( sh s )w m

Ea

Rfw

Ea K a sh s wm

IL Ia I f

Cumulative

Ia
Ra

Ia
Ra

Rfc

IL

Differential

Rs
Vt

Long Shunt

Vt Ea I a Ra Rs
IL Ia I f
Vt
If
R fw R fc
Ea K a ( sh s )wm

96

External Characteristic Curve

Vt
Over compound

Vt(rated)

Flat compound
Under compound
Differential
(Useful as a welding generator)

Ia
Ia(rated)
Feff Fsh Fs FA
N f I f (eff ) N f I f N s I fs FA

I f (eff ) I f

Ns
F
I fs A
Nf
Nf
97

Graphical relationships for shunt generator without armature reaction

98

Graphical relationships for shunt generator with armature reaction

99

Graphical relationships for a series generator

100

Graphical relationships for a cumulative generator

101

Example: A 172-kW, 430-V, 400-A, 1800-rpm compounded dc generator

shown in figure. The magnetization curve is given at 1800-rpm. The
generator has compensating windings which eliminate armature reaction.

The machine is being driven at

1800-rpm, and Radj is currently
set to 55-.
(a) What is the no-load terminal
voltage?
(b) If this is connected
cumulatively compounded, what
is its terminal voltage at full-load
(400-A)? What will its voltage
regulation be?
(c) If this generator did not have
compensating windings and
instead had an armature reaction
of 500 A . turns at full-load, what
would its terminal voltage be at
full-load (400-A)? What would its
voltage regulation be?

The compounded dc generator

102

Solution

(a): RF + Radj = 75-, From the

magnetization curve the no-load voltage
is VT = 445-V.
(b): If the load current IL = 400-A, then
IA ~ 400-A too, and IA(RA + RS) = 24-V.
And the effect of the series field mmf in
terms of equivalent shunt field amperes
is :

(c): With armature reaction present in

this case, the equivalent shunt field
ampere is given by:

The load triangle thus has a horizontal

length of 0.7-A and a vertical length of
24-V. From figure, the output terminal
voltage will be: VT = 425-V
and the voltage regulation will be:

The load triangle thus has a horizontal

length of 1.2-A and a vertical length of
24-V. From figure, the output terminal
voltage will be: VT = 440-V
and the voltage regulation will be:

103

Solution

104

Example: If the generator in the previous example has compensating

windings and is connected differentially compounded, what will its
voltage be when it is supplying 200-A?

Solution
In this circumstances , the equivalent shunt current due to the series windings
and without armature reaction is:

The resistive voltage drop is IA(RA + RS) = 200 x 0.06 = 12-V.

The output voltage of the generator can be found
The load triangle thus has a horizontal length of 0.6-A and a vertical length
of 12-V. From figure, the output terminal voltage will be: VT = 390-V.

105

Power Flow and Efficiency

DC Generators
IL

If

Ia

Rfc

Ra
+

Rs
Vt

Ea

Rfw

Pinput=
Pmech =
Pshaft

Ea I a

Rotaional losses

Va I a

I a2 Ra

Va I L

Vt I L

I 2f R f I L2 Rs

Poutput=
Pelectrical

Poutput

Vt I L
Vt I L I 2 R RotationalLosses

Vt I L
Ea I a RotationalLosses

Pinput

Poutput
Poutput Losses

106

Chapter 4
DC Motors
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Basic Principles
Classification of DC Motors
Motor Characteristics
Efficiency
Speed Control
Starting

107

Principle of Operation
For the current carrying conductor of length l the
force known as Lorentz force produced is

N
F

F=Bli

B
S
B
Left hand rule

108

D.C. Motor Characteristics

Torque-Speed Characteristics
1- Separately excited & Shunt motors
Ia

(f is independent of the load torque )

Vt Ea I a ra
Ea K a w m

Vt I a ra
wm
Ka

T Ka I a
Therefore ,

Vt
ra
wm

T
2
K a ( K a )

wm

Vt
Ka
ra
Slope ( K ) 2
a

T
109

Torque-Speed Characteristics
2- Series motors
Ea Vt I a ( Ra Rs )
Ea K af wm
Neglecting saturation

f K1 I f K1 I a

Ea K a K1 I awm K s I awm
wm

Vt
R Rs
a
Ks Ia
Ks

But T K af I a K a K1 I a2 K s I a2
w m

Ra Rs
Vt

Ks
Ks T
110

Torque-Speed Characteristics
2- Compound motors
Cumulative Compound

ATt ATshunt ATseries

Differential Compound

ft fshunt fseries

Shunt motor

Vt
ra
wm

T
2
K aft ( K aft )
111

Example 3

A 250V shunt motor has an armature

resistance of 0.25W and a field resistance
of 125W. At no-load the motor takes a line
current of 5.0A while running at 1200
rpm. If the line current at full-load is
52.0A, what is the full-load speed?

112

Solution
If

At no-load:

It 5 A

It
Ia
Ra

Rfc

n 1200 rpm w
m
m

1200 2

Rfw

125 .66 rad / sec

60

+
wm

Vt

Vt 250
If

2 A , I a _ NL I t _ NL I f 5 2 3 A
R f 125

Ea _ NL Vt I a _ NL Ra 250 3 0.25 249.25V

K af

Ea _ NL

wm _ NL

249.25

1.984 V.sec/rad
125.66
113

At full-load:

I L 52 A

I a _ FL It _ FL I f 52 2 50 A

Ea FL Vt I a FL Ra 250 50 0.25 237.5V

Ea _ FL K afw m _ FL
Ea _ FL

237.5
wm _ FL

119.71 rad/sec
K af 1.984
wm 60
nm _ FL
1142.4 rpm
2

114

Power Flow and Efficiency

DC Motors

IL

If

Ia

Rfc

Ra
Rs

Vt

Ea
Rfw

Pinput = Vt I L
Pelectrical

Va I L

I L2 Rs

Va I a

I 2f R f

Ea I a

I a2 Ra Rotational
losses

Poutput=
Pmech=
Pshaft

Poutput
Pinput

Pinput Losses
Pinput

Vt I L I 2 R RotationalLosses

Vt I L

E a I a RotationalLosses
Vt I L
115

Example 4
The field and armature resistance of a
220 V series motor are 0.2 and 0.1,
respectively. The motor takes 30 A of
current while running at 700 rpm. If
the rotational losses are 350W,
determine the motor efficiency.

116

Solution

Ia

IL
+

Pin Vt I t 220 30 6600W

Ra

Pf I 2f R f 30 2 0.2 180W

Pa I a2 Ra 30 2 0.1 90W

Vt

Ea

Rotational losses 350W

Pout Pin

Rs

I 2 R Rotational losses

Pout 6600 (180 90) 350 5980W

Pout 5980

0.9061
Pin
6600

117

SPEED CONTROL
Since Vt Ea I a ra

Ea K a w m

Vt I a ra
wm
K af

So the speed of the d.c .motor can be controlled by controlling

Vt , ra , or

1- Armature Voltage Control

In this method ra and If (i.e.f) are kept constant,
and Vt is varied to change the speed.
The motor must be separately excited to use
armature voltage control.
Armature voltage control can control the speed
of the motor for speeds below rated speed but
not for speed above rated speed.
This method is expensive because it requires a
variable d.c. supply for the armature circuit.

118

SPEED CONTROL (Cont.)

2- Field current control
In this method Vt and ra remain fixed and the speed is controlled by varying
If . This is normally achieved by using a field rheostat as shown in the
following Figure for shunt d.c. motor. Field control can control the speed of
the motor for speeds above base speed but not for speeds below base speed.
This method is simple to implement and less expensive, because the control
is at the low power level of the field circuit.

119

SPEED CONTROL (Cont.)

3- Armature resistance control
In this method, the armature terminal
voltage Vt and the field current If are kept
constant at their rated values. The speed
is controlled by changing the resistance in
the armature circuit. Armature resistance
control is simple to implement. However,
this method is less efficient because of
losses in the resistance. This method can
be used in all types of d.c. motors.
Armature resistance control can control
the speed of the motor for speeds below
base speed.

Shunt Motor.

Series Motor.

120

SPEED CONTROL TECHNIQUES

1- Ward-Leonard System

(Classical method)

The system uses a motor-generator (M-G) set to control the speed of the DC drive motor.
The motor of the M-G set runs at constant speed. By varying the generator field
current, the generator voltage changes, which in turn changes the speed of the DC
drive motor. The system is operated in two control modes.
Vt Control: the speed is changed from zero to the base speed by keeping If constant at
rated value and changing the terminal voltage. The torque can be maintained constant
during operation in this range of speed.
If Control: The field current control is used to obtain speed above the base speed. In this
mode, Vt remains constant and If is decreased to obtain higher speeds. The armature
current can be kept constant, thereby operating the motor in a constant horsepower
mode.

121

SPEED CONTROL TECHNIQUES

2- Solid-State Control
In Recent years, solid-state control have been used as a replacement of rotating
(M-G) set. Both armature control and field control can be achieved using
controlled rectifier or choppers.

Controlled Rectifiers

If the supply is ac, controlled rectifiers

can be used to convert it to a variable
voltage dc supply by changing the firing
angle of the rectifier thyristors.

122

SPEED CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Chopper

A chopper converts a fixed-voltage dc supply

into a variable voltage dc supply.
The switch S can be a thyristor , a GTO or a
power transistor.
When the switching device S is on , Vt = V
(supply voltage) and motor current increases.
When S is off Vt = 0 and motor current decays
through the diode.
t on
V

V
The average Vt is
t

123

Starting

If a d.c. motor is directly connected

to a d.c. power supply, the starting
current will be dangerously high.
V Ea
at starting w 0 Ea 0
Ia t
ra
Ia

Starting

Vt
ra

Since ra is small, the starting current is

very large.
The starting current can be limited by
the following methods:
1- Use a variable-voltage supply.
2- Insert an external resistance at start,
as shown in the Figure.
124