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Original article

Clinical, biochemical and microbiological factors associated with the

prognosis of pneumococcal meningitis in children
Iolanda Jordan a, , Yolanda Calzada a , Laura Monfort b , David Vila-Prez a , Aida Felipe a ,
c

Jessica Ortiz b , Francisco Jos Cambra a , Carmen Munoz-Almagro

a

Pediatric Intensive Care Unit Service, Hospital de Sant Joan de Du, Barcelona, Spain
Pediatric Service, Hospital de Sant Joan de Du, Barcelona, Spain
c
Molecular Microbiology Department, Hospital Sant Joan de Du, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 27 November 2014
Accepted 2 March 2015
Available online xxx
Keywords:
Prognosis
Pneumococcal meningitis
Pediatrics

a b s t r a c t
Background: Pneumococcal meningitis (PM) has a high morbidity and mortality. The aim of the study
was to evaluate what factors are related to a poor PM prognosis.
Methods: Prospective observational study conducted on patients admitted to the Pediatric Intensive Care
Unit in a tertiary hospital with a diagnosis of PM (January 2000 to December 2013). Clinical, biochemical
and microbiological data were recorded. Variable outcome was classied into good or poor (neurological
handicap or death). A multivariate logistic regression was performed based on the univariate analysis of
signicant data.
Results: A total of 88 patients were included. Clinical variables statistically signicant for a poor outcome
were younger age (p = .008), lengthy fever (p = .016), sepsis (p = .010), lower Glasgow Score (p < .001),
higher score on Pediatric Risk Mortality Score (p = 0.010) and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA)
(p < .001), longer mechanical ventilation (p = .004), and inotropic support (p = .008) requirements. Statistically signicant biochemical variables were higher level of C-reactive protein (p < .001) and procalcitonin
(p = .014) at admission, low cerebrospinal (CSF) pleocytosis (p = .003), higher level of protein in CSF
(p = .031), and severe hypoglycorrhachia (p = .002). In multivariate analysis, independent indicators of
poor outcome were age less than 2 years (p = .011), high score on SOFA (p = .030), low Glasgow Score
(p = .042), and severe hypoglycorrhachia (p = .009).
Conclusions: Patients younger than 2 years of age, with depressed consciousness at admission, especially
when longer mechanical ventilation is required, are at high risk of a poor outcome.
2015 Elsevier Espaa, S.L.U. and Sociedad Espaola de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiologa
Clnica. All rights reserved.

Factores clnicos, bioqumicos y microbiolgicos relacionados con el

pronstico de la meningitis neumoccica en ninos

r e s u m e n
Palabras clave:
Pronstico
Meningitis neumoccicas
Pediatra

Introduccin: Las meningitis neumoccicas (MN) se relacionan con una elevada morbimortalidad. El
objetivo del estudio es evaluar qu factores se relacionan con un peor pronstico.
Mtodos: Estudio prospectivo observacional con pacientes diagnosticados de MN ingresados en la Unidad
de Cuidados Intensivos Peditricos de un hospital de tercer nivel (enero 2000-diciembre 2013). El pronstico fue clasicado en buena o mala evolucin (secuelas neurolgicas o muerte). Se realiz un anlisis
multivariante de los resultados signicativos obtenidos en el anlisis univariante.

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ijordan@hsjdbcn.org (I. Jordan).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eimc.2015.03.004
0213-005X/ 2015 Elsevier Espaa, S.L.U. and Sociedad Espaola de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiologa Clnica. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Jordan I, et al. Clinical, biochemical and microbiological factors associated with the prognosis of
pneumococcal meningitis in children. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eimc.2015.03.004

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Resultados: Se reclutaron 88 pacientes. Las variables clnicas relacionadas de forma estadsticamente signicativa con una peor evolucin fueron: menor edad (p = 0,008), mayor duracin de la ebre (p = 0,016),
sepsis (p = 0,010), menor puntuacin en la Escala de Glasgow (p < 0,001), mayor puntuacin en Pediatric Risk Mortality Score (p = 0,010) y Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) (p < 0,001), ventilacin
mecnica (p = 0,004) y soporte inotrpico (p = 0,008) prolongados. Las bioqumicas fueron: mayor elevacin de protena C reactiva (p < 0,001) y de procalcitonina (p = 0,014) al ingreso, menor pleocitosis en
lquido cefalorraqudeo (p = 0,003), intensas proteinorraquia (p = 0,013) e hipoglucorraquia (p = 0,002). En
el anlisis multivariante, los factores independientes relacionados con una peor evolucin fueron: edad
(p = 0,011), elevada puntuacin en SOFA (p = 0,030), menor puntuacin en la Escala de
inferior a 2 anos
Glasgow (p = 0,042) e hipoglucorraquia intensa (p = 0,009).
con mayor depresin del sensorio al ingreso, especialmente cuando
Conclusiones: Los menores de 2 anos
requieren soporte ventilatorio prolongado, tienen un mayor riesgo de mala evolucin.
2015 Elsevier Espaa, S.L.U. y Sociedad Espaola de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiologa Clnica.
Todos los derechos reservados.

Introduction
Implementation of universal vaccination against Haemophilus
inuenzae type b (Hib) has changed the epidemiology and
decreased the incidence of bacterial meningitis (BM) in developed
countries. Nowadays, Streptococcus (S.) pneumoniae and Neisseria
meningitidis are the most prevalent causes of BM beyond neonatal
period.1,2
Pneumococcal meningitis (PM) has been related with great morbidity and mortality. In spite of diagnosis and therapeutic progress,
the mortality rate persists at around 8% with an incidence of
neurological handicaps of 2030%.38 Furthermore, cognitive and
behavioral sequelae that affect quality of life (academic limitations, language delay, low verbal uency, psychomotor retardation)
have been reported in up to 710% of patients with pneumococcal
meningitis.9,10
Recognizing the prognostic factors would be very useful in indicating early and individualized treatment in these patients with
PM. The contributions of clinical, microbiological and biochemical, and therapeutic approaches, as well as neuroimaging ndings,
have been analyzed in recent years in PM patients. The idea has
been identify patients at greater major risk. The most important
prognosis factors in relation to neurological handicaps seem to be
hypoglycorrhachia,11 mechanical ventilation requirement,12 late
diagnosis, ataxia, and not receiving dexamethasone treatment.1315
The nal prognosis probably depends on a combination of different factors but few studies have undertaken an integral analysis of
them. The aim of the present study was to determine what clinical,
biochemical, and microbiological factors are related to the prognosis of S. pneumoniae meningitis patients.
Methods
This was a prospective, observational, non-interventional study
of patients admitted to the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit (PICU)
at Hospital Sant Joan de Du, with a diagnosis of PM. In 1999
a database was created in order to prospectively recruit all data
of patients with BN. The study period was from January 2000
to December 2013. In Catalonia, with a population of around
7 million and 1.2 million people aged 18 years or younger, this
hospital with 345 beds (18 PICU beds) captured around 17% of all
pediatric hospital admissions during the study period.
Patients from 7 days to 18 years of age diagnosed with PM
were included. PM was dened by characteristic clinical signs
and symptoms (stiff or painful neck, vomiting, headache, persistent fever, bulging fontanelles) and compatible cerebrospinal
uid (CSF) alterations (CSF cell count up to 10 cells/mm3 ) along
with isolation of S. pneumoniae and/or DNA detection of pneumococcal genes by Real-Time PCR16 in blood or cerebrospinal uid.

We excluded patients with known primary immunodeciency

(humoral, cellular, phagocytic, complement alteration, congenital
asplenia) or known secondary immunodeciency (human immunodeciency virus, nephrotic syndrome, cardiopulmonary chronic
disease). The sepsis diagnostic criteria published in 200817 were
used.
DNA detection of S. pneumoniae was carried out using published
procedures that included the study of pneumolysin (ply) and wzg
genes (both had to be simultaneously positive to conrm any case
as a positive pneumococcal infection), and subsequent direct capsular typing of S. pneumoniae DNA positive samples.16,18
Pneumococcal strains were identied with standard microbiological methods that included the optochin sensitivity test
and an antigenic test targeting the capsular polysaccharide
(Slidex pneumo-kit, BioMrieux, Marcy-lEtolie, France). In addition, strains were also sent to the National Pneumococcus
Reference Center at Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain, to complete
serotype study with Quellung reaction and to determine the
minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of penicillin and
other antibiotics with Agar dilution technique. Antibiotic susceptibilities were dened according to the breakpoints of the
European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing
(EUCAST).19
Serotypes were classied into high invasive disease potential
serotypes (1, 4, 5, 7F, 9V, 14, 18C and 19A) and lower invasive disease potential serotypes (all others) according to the classication
of Brueggemann20 and Sleeman.21
At our hospital, all patients with a diagnosis of PM are admitted
to the PICU for the rst 24 h of the disease. The protocol treatment included cefotaxime (300 mg/kg/day, maximum 12 g/day, for
10 days) plus vancomicyn (40 mg/kg/day for 3 days, or longer if
cefotaxime resistant S. pneumoniae is isolated) and dexamethasone
(0.6 mg/kg/day; maximum 16 mg/day, for 3 days), in all cases.
Variables registered were (a) demographic: age, gender,
previous pneumococcal vaccination with 7-valent conjugate pneumococcal vaccine (PCV7), 10-valent conjugate pneumococcal
vaccine or 13-valent conjugate pneumococcal vaccine (PCV13);
(b) PM risk factors: acute otitis media (AOM), recent cranial surgery,
cranial trauma antecedent; (c) clinical: fever hours duration previous to PM diagnosis, previous antibiotic treatment; Pediatric Risk
Mortality Score (PRISM) III, Glasgow Score and Sequential Organ
Failure Assessment (SOFA) score at admission, focal neurological
signs (neurological decit, seizures), mechanical ventilation (MV),
and inotrope requirement; (d) biochemistry at admission: lactate,
CSF leukocyte count and CSF levels of protein and glucose, Boyer
Score punctuation, C-reactive protein (CRP) and procalcitonin (PCT)
levels at diagnosis and 2448 h after admission; (e) microbiological: S. pneumoniae serotype, and penicillin, erythromicyn, and
cefotaxime susceptibility.

Please cite this article in press as: Jordan I, et al. Clinical, biochemical and microbiological factors associated with the prognosis of
pneumococcal meningitis in children. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eimc.2015.03.004

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PCV7 serotypesb : 29.2%

Non-vaccine

PCV7

PCV13

PCV13 serotypesb : 58.3%

8
7

6
5
4

4
3

3
2

6A 6AC

2
1

6B

7F 7FA

9V

10

13

14

B/

15

16

15

F
A
B
C
18 18C 19 19

21

22 23B 23F

24

24

27

er

th

Fig. 1. Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype distribution causing bacterial meningitis in 72 available patients. a 7-valent conjugate pneumococcal vaccine (PVC7) includes
serotypes 4, 6B, 9V, 14, 18C, 19F AND 23B. b 13-valent conjugate pneumococcal vaccine (PVC13) contains the seven serotypes included in PCV7 and the six additional
serotypes 1, 3, 5, 6A, 7F, 19A. * Others: serotypes non-included in PVC7, PVC13 or 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23).

Outcome was classied into two groups: good evolution or

poor evolution. Last group included death and neurological handicap: seizures, hemiparesis, ataxia, hydrocephalus, psychomotor
retardation, or deafness. Neurosensory hearing loss diagnosis is
performed by our pediatric otolaryngology team; patients are evaluated at 1, 2, 6, and 12 months by auditory evoked potentials of
brainstem (newborns and infants) or audiometry. Other neurological handicaps are evaluated by our pediatric neurological team
during the rst 6 months (after this patients are referred to local
Neurological and physical therapy teams).
The SPSS statistical software package 19.0 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago,
Ill) was used for all statistical analyses. Sample characteristics were
expressed as counts and percentages for categorical variables, as
mean standard deviations for normal continuous variables, or
as a median and interquartile range (p2575) when variables were
not normally distributed. Statistical differences in mean or median
values were assessed through Students t test or MannWhitney
U test depending on the normality of the variable distribution.
Categorical variables were analyzed by means of the 2 test. A multivariate logistic regression was performed with the signicant data
from univariate analysis, in order to determine the prognosis factors associated with a poor outcome. Odds ratio (OR) was analyzed
for each of these signicant variables. The discriminatory power
of the variable in determining poor outcome was evaluated by the
area under the receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve (AUC)
and the 95% condence interval (95% CI). Sensitivity and specicity
were determined for each cut-off value of the variable. Probability
values less than 0.05 were considered signicant.
The research and ethical institutional review board of the Sant
Joan de Du Hospital Foundation approved the study and the
patients remained anonymous.
Results
There were 88 patients recruited. The median age was
18.5 months (range: 1 months17 years) and 59 patients

(67%) were male. The proportion of children who had received

pneumococcal vaccination, according to age, was 23.9% (21
patients). Predisposing conditions to pneumococcal meningitis
were recognized in 23 children (26.1%): concomitant ear infection was identied in 13 children (14.8%), 9 patients (10.2%) were
diagnosed with CSF stula, and 1 patient (1.1%) had undergone neurosurgery. The duration of illness symptoms before consultation in
the emergency room ranged between 1 and 336 h, with a median
of 36 h, and 20 patients (22.7%) had received previous antibiotic
treatment. On admission, 74 patients (84.1%) had focal neurologic
signs and 59 children (67%) met sepsis criteria. The median length
of stay in PICU was 4 days (range 158), during which 43 children
(48.9%) required MV and 21 (23.9%) required inotropic support.
Table 1 shows demographic and clinical baseline ndings and
the differences obtained according to outcome, assessed by univariate analysis. Variables that were statistically signicant related
to a poor evolution were younger age (p 0.008), lengthy fever
(p 0.016), sepsis associated with PM (p 0.010), lower Glasgow
Score (p < 0.001), higher score on PRISM (p 0.010) and SOFA
(p < 0.001), and longer MV (p 0.004) and inotropic support (0.008)
requirements.
The results assessed by the univariate analysis of the biochemistry variables, as well as baseline ndings, are shown in Table 2.
Variables that were statistically signicant related to a poor evolution were higher level of CRP (p < 0.001) and PCT (p 0.014) at
admission, relatively low CSF pleocytosis (p 0.003), higher level of
protein in CSF (p 0.031), and severe hypoglycorrhachia (p 0.002).
S. pneumoniae serotypes were identied in 72 patients (81.8%),
whose distribution is shown in Fig. 1. Some 29.2% of them are
included in PCV7 and 62.5% in PCV13. Table 2 presents baseline
microbiological ndings and the differences obtained according to
outcome, assessed by univariate analysis. There was no statistically
signicant relation between the serotype that caused meningitis and outcome, whether or not it was included in the vaccine.
There was also no statistically signicant relation between outcome and the serotypes invasive capacity. Figure 2 shows antibiotic

Please cite this article in press as: Jordan I, et al. Clinical, biochemical and microbiological factors associated with the prognosis of
pneumococcal meningitis in children. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eimc.2015.03.004

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Table 1
Demographic and clinical baseline ndings and differences obtained according to outcome, assessed by univariate analysis.
P*

Variable

Total patients (N = 88)

n (%)/median (P2575 )

Good evolution (n = 56)

n (%)/median (P2575 )

Poor evolution (n = 32)

n (%)/median (P2575 )

Age (months)
Age less than 2 years
Gender (male)
Vaccinated against S.
pneumoniaea
AOMb
CSFc stula
Length of fever (hours)
Previous antibiotic
treatment
Focal neurologic
symptoms
Sepsis
Glasgow Score (points)
PRISMd (points)
SOFAe (points)
MVf requirement
(hours)
Inotropic support
requirement (hours)

18.5 (859)
51 (58%)
59 (67%)
21 (23.9%)

23.5 (1381)
28 (50%)
37 (66.1%)
15 (26.8%)

14 (529)
23 (71.9%)
22 (68.8%)
6 (18.8%)

0.008
0.072
0.983
0.659

11 (12.5%)
11 (12.5%)
36 (1266)
20 (22.7%)

7 (8%)
10 (17.9%)
24 (2236)
16/20 (80%)

4 (4.5%)
1 (3%)
48 (1272)
4/20 (20%)

0.638
0.051
0.016
0.112

74 (84.1%)

44/74 (59.5%)

30/74 (40.5%)

0.053

59 (67%)
12 (915)
2 (07)
2 (03)
66 (2496)

32/59 (54.2%)
12 (715)
6 (07)
1 (03)
10 (047)

27/59 (45.8%)
9 (513)
7 (215)
6 (38)
36 (72120)

0.010
<0.001
0.010
<0.001
0.004

36 (14.572)

0 (024)

48 (2472)

0.008

Numbers in bold means that are statistically signicant.

a
Vaccinated against Streptococcus pneumoniae with 7-valent, 10-valent or 13-valent conjugate pneumococcal vaccine.
b
Acute otitis media.
c
Cerebrospinal uid.
d
Pediatric Risk Mortality Score.
e
Sequential Organ Failure Assessment.
f
Mechanical ventilation.
*
Statistical differences between good and poor evolution.

susceptibility, a test that was carried out on all strains. There

were 19 strains fully resistant to penicillin (MIC equal or greater
than 0.12 mg/L) and 10 strains (11.4%) fully resistant to cefotaxime
(MIC greater than 2 mg/L); 6 of them were identied during the
years 20002006 and the remaining 4 cases were detected during
the last 3 years of the study (3 strains matched with multiresistant
S. pneumoniae serotype 19A). There was no statistically signicant
relation between antibiotic sensitivity and outcome (p 0.143 for
cefotaxime, p 0.795 for erythromicyn, p 0.760 for penicillin).
OR, cut-off value, and the sensitivity and specicity for the variables statistically associated with poor outcome, are presented

in Table 3. Variables that proved to be independent indicators of

poor evolution in the multivariate analysis were being younger
than 2 years of age (p 0.046; OR 2.56, CI 1.0066.489), SOFA
higher than 2 points (p 0.001; OR 4.637, CI 1.80511.913), Glasgow
Score lower than 10 points (p 0.001; OR 5.625, CI 1.99215.885),
and hypoglycorrhachia lower than 20 mg/dl (p 0.015; OR 3.826, CI
1.38810.544).
The mortality rate was 8% (7 patients) and one or more sequelae were reported in 25 patients (28.4%), with outcome classied
as poor evolution (32 patients, 36.4%). Neurological handicaps
observed were deafness (11 patients), seizures (12 patients),

Table 2
Biochemical and microbiologicalg baseline ndings and differences obtained according to outcome, assessed by univariate analysis.
Variable

Total patients (N = 88)

n (%)/median (P2575 )

Good evolution (n = 56)

n (%)/median (P2575 )

Poor evolution (n = 32)

n (%)/median (P2575 )

P*

Serum lactate (mmol/l)

Initial CRPa (mg/l)
CRPa after 2448 h treatment (mg/l)
CSFb cell count
Proteins in CSFb (mg/dl)
Glucose in CSFb (mg/dl)
Boyer Score (points)
Initial PCTc , h (ng/ml)
PCTc , h after 2448 h treatment (ng/ml)

1.9 (1.42.6)
157.6 (95.8230.3)
176.4 (82.5271.3)
1300 (3003700)
195.4 (117274)
13.5 (350.7)
9 (711)
20.5 (6.648)
14.8 (9.159.8)

2.1 (1.42.9)
132.3 (73.3190)
165.1 (80.5268.3)
2300 (8004500)
172 (108256)
37 (558)
9 (710)
10 (5.525)
14.3 (7.632.2)

1.6 (1.22.5)
210.6 (158.2265.3)
181 (85.4274.4)
438 (1631460)
214 (122.5362)
5 (319)
9 (811)
46.0 (19.770.8)
41.9 (1061.3)

0.243
< 0.001
0.816
0.003
0.031
0.002
0.316
0.014
0.339

High invasive serotypes

Opportunistic serotypes
PCV7d serotypes
PCV13e serotypes
Non-vaccine serotypesf

25/72 (34.7%)
46/72 (63.9%)
21/72 (29.2%)
45/72 (62.5%)
27/72 (37.5%)

16/45 (35.6%)
28/45 (62.2%)
11/45 (24.4%)
29/45 (64.4%)
16/45 (35.6%)

9/27 (33.3%)
16/27 (59.3%)
10/27 (37%)
18/27 (66.7%)
9/27 (33.3%)

a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
*

0.501
0.501
0.238
0.579
0.579

C reactive protein.
Cerebrospinal uid.
Procalcitonin.
7-Valent conjugate pneumococcal vaccine.
PCV13, 13-valent conjugate pneumococcal vaccine.
Serotypes that are not included in any commercial conjugate vaccine.
Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes were identied in 72 patients: 45 patients had good evolution (62.5%) and 27 patients had poor evolution (37.5%).
PCT was analyzed in 36 of 88 patients (available since 2009 in our hospital).
Statistical differences between good and poor evolution.

Please cite this article in press as: Jordan I, et al. Clinical, biochemical and microbiological factors associated with the prognosis of
pneumococcal meningitis in children. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eimc.2015.03.004

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Table 3
Odds ratio and Sensitivity and specicity for each cut-off value of the signicant variable in univariate analysis.
Variable

ORi

Age (months)
Length of fever (hours)
Glasgow Score (points)
PRISMa (points)
SOFAb (points)
MVc requirement (hours)
Inotropic support requirement (hours)
CSFd cell count
Proteins in CSFd (mg/dl)
Glucose in CSFd (mg/dl)
Initial CRPe (mg/l)
Initial PCTf (ng/ml)

0.98
1.015
0.734
1.128
1.792
1.023
1.053
0.977g
1.037h
0.964
1.009
1.013

a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
*

OR CI95%
0.9640.995
1.0011.030
0.6230.865
1.0321.234
1.3332.410
1.0051.042
1.0061.103
0.9560.999
1.0041.071
0.9420.987
1.0031.015
0.9961.029

Cut-off

AUC (CI95%)

Sensitivity (CI95%)

Specicity (CI95%)

P* (CI95%)

<11
>36
<10
>6
>2
>48
>36
>800
>200
<20
<150
>5.45

0.654 (0.5430.754)
0.645 (0.5430.754)
0.761 (0.6540.848)
0.659 (0.5490.757)
0.780 (0.6780.862)
0.747 (0.5970.864)
0.831 (0.6280.950)
0.701 (0.5900.796)
0.645 (0.5320.742)
0.706 (0.5930.803)
0.735 (0.6280.424)
0.745 (0.5770.872)

85.7 (75.692.7)
60.4 (46.073.5)
79.3 (65.989.2)
81.8 (69.190.9)
74.6 (61.085.3)
75.0 (50.991.3)
87.5 (47.399.7)
76.4 (63.086.8)
64.2 (49.876.9)
53.3 (38.567.1)
64.3 (50.476.6)
80.0 (59.393.2)

49.4 (42.158.9)
68.5 (43.778.9)
66.7 (47.282.7)
43.8 (26.462.3)
61.3 (42.278.2)
69.2 (48.285.7)
58.8 (32.981.6)
64.3 (44.181.4)
51.7 (32.570.6)
75.9 (56.589.7)
80.0 (61.492.3)
76.9 (46.295.0)

0.008
0.0112
0.0001
0.0082
0.0001
0.0007
0.0001
0.0018
0.0247
0.0005
0.0001
0.0054

Pediatric Risk Mortality Score.

Sequential Organ Failure Assessment.
Mechanical ventilation.
Cerebrospinal uid.
C reactive protein.
procalcitonin.
Odds ratio for 100 CSF leucocites/mm3 increases.
Odds ratio for 10 mg/dl protein in CSF increases.
Odds ratio.
Statistical differences between good and poor evolution.

hemiparesis (7 patients), psychomotor retardation (3 patients), cranial nerve palsy (3 patients), hydrocephalus (2 patients), blindness
(1 patient), and ataxia (1 patient).
Discussion
The case-fatality ratio and sequelae reported in this study
(8% and 28.4% respectively) are similar to those observed in other
series. Arditi et al.3 (USA 19931996) reported a mortality rate of
7.7% and neurologic sequelae in 25% of children, and Buckingham
et al. (USA 19912001) obtained in their study a case-fatality ratio
of 9%, a deafness incidence of 55%, and other neurologic sequelae in 13% of cases.4 Our results are also in accordance with a
meta-analysis from prospective studies of 4520 children in 1993
(mortality rate of 4.88.1% and neurologic handicap in 1626% of
cases).5 In Europe, Kornelisse et al. reported similar results,6 but
Wasier (France 19902002) observed higher morbidity and mortality rates (case-fatality rate of 49% and neurologic sequelae in 47%
of cases).7 Despite the improvement in diagnosis and treatment
achieved in recent years, PM remains a severe and life-threatening
disease with a high incidence of neurologic handicaps in survivors,
as Pagliano8 and Chandran22 showed in more recent studies.
10

19

22

69

66

Penicillin

78

Erythromicyn
Susceptible

Cefotaxime

Non-susceptible

Fig. 2. Streptococcus pneumoniae antibiotic sensitivity distribution in 88 available patients. Breakpoint for interpretation of minimum inhibitory concentrations
(MICs) established by European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility
Testing (EUCAST): MIC equal or greater than 0.12 mg/l for penicillin implies
non-susceptibility; MIC greater than 0.25 mg/l for erythromicyn implies nonsusceptibility; MIC greater than 0.5 mg/l for cefotaxime implies non-susceptibility.

Clinical variables that we related with a poor evolution are

lengthy fever (which implies delayed antibiotic treatment), sepsis associated with PM, low level of consciousness at admission,
longer inotropic support requirement, higher scores on PRISM and
SOFA, and longer MV requirement. When multivariate analysis was
performed, clinical factors that proved to be independent predictors of poor evolution were the last two. These results are in accord
with the reviewed bibliography although they have not been analyzed together.68,23 Younger age was also associated with a poor
evolution in univariate analysis, with age under 2 years an independent factor of worse outcome in multivariate analysis. We did
not nd similar conclusions in the reviewed bibliography; however,
Grimwood et al.24,25 observed a poor cognitive outcome in children
under 1 year of age in their studies.
CSF variations in bacterial meningitis have been analyzed in
adults and children. In our study, patients who had higher levels
of protein in CSF and severe hypoglycorrhachia progressed poorly.
Moreover, severe low glucose level in CSF was an independent predictor of worse evolution in multivariate analysis. These results are
in accord with other studies.4,6,8 An association between relatively
low CSF cell count and poor evolution has also been reported in
other studies.8,23 Similar ndings were reported in the model of
pneumococcal meningitis cases made by Brandt, who postulated
that an insufcient inammatory response against pneumococcal antigens during the rst hours of the disease was associated
with lower CSF and blood cell count, thereby permitting bacterial
overgrowth within the CSF. In such cases, when antibiotherapy is
administered, the consequent bacterial lysis results in more pronounced inammatory changes within the meninges and vascular
complications are encouraged.26,27
Biological markers, such as CRP and PCT, are useful for discrimination between viral and bacterial etiology,28,29 but there are few
studies that demonstrate their prognostic utility or changes in them
with effective treatment.30 In our study, patients who had higher
initial CRP and PCT values had statistically signicant poorer evolution. We think that more studies are needed to determinate the
utility of these markers in treatment monitoring.
An increase in incidence of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD)
by serotypes not included in the PCV7 has been widely reported
worldwide.1,3134 We also observed a higher rate of non-PVC7
serotypes causing meningitis (70.8%). In Spain the decrease in the
prevalence of PCV7 serotypes after the introduction of the vaccine

Please cite this article in press as: Jordan I, et al. Clinical, biochemical and microbiological factors associated with the prognosis of
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has not been as marked as in the USA, probably due to lower

and irregular coverage (in Catalonia the distribution is mainly via
the private market and only 23.9% of children were vaccinated
in our study). In any case, recent studies made in our country
show that serotype replacement,3234 despite other factors such
the use of new drugs, may also play an important role.34,35 An
increase in multiresistant pneumococcal serotypes has also been
reported, with serotype 19A the most frequently isolated in the USA
and in Europe, especially in patients with meningitis and primary
bacteriemia.34,36
The association among pneumococcal serotype, antibiotic sensitivity, and outcome remains a controversial subject. We reported
8 strains that match up with S. pneumoniae serotype 19A (11.1%),
3 of which were isolated during the last 3 years and were fully resistant to cefotaxime (MIC greater than 2 mg/L), but we did not nd
a statistically signicant relation between them as other authors
have.1,3,37 This is probably due to the empirical double therapy
in our treatment protocol. Taking the recent increase in pneumococcal serotypes with decreased sensitivity to multiple antibiotics
into account, combined antibiotic treatment (cefotaxime plus vancomicyn) would be advisable in countries with high pneumococcal
resistance rates. Moreover, it is well known that the rate of PM
decreases with routine pneumococcal conjugate vaccination in
children,1,31,33,34,38,39 so this preventive measure against PM
in children would be also advisable.
This study has some limitations. One is the relatively low number of patients, but other studies in the literature show similar
populations and the patients in our study were quite uniform. Our
results may be applicable to patients admitted to PICU in other
developed countries, but the situation will be different in developing countries.
Conclusions
In our study, PM was shown to be a severe infectious disease and
that is still closely related to an elevated morbidity and mortality
rate. Patients younger than 2 years with depressed consciousness
at admission, especially if longer MV is required, are at high risk of
poor evolution. Other biochemical data such as severe hypoglycorrhachia and high levels of CRP and PCT at admission may help to
identify which patients need to be closely monitored and aggressively treated, in order to try to improve the prognosis. Delayed
antibiotic administration was also shown to be related to a poor
outcome. Therefore early administration of empirical antibiotic
treatment is essential.
Conict of interest
Authors disclose any potential nancial or ethical conicts of
interest regarding the contents of this submission.
Funding
This study has not been nancially sponsored.
Ethical approval
The study was done according to the Helsinky declaration and
approved by the Sant Joan de Du Ethical Assistant Committee.
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Please cite this article in press as: Jordan I, et al. Clinical, biochemical and microbiological factors associated with the prognosis of
pneumococcal meningitis in children. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eimc.2015.03.004