INLAND WATERWAY TRANSPORT-ITS RELEVANCE AND

ADVANTAGES IN PRESENT DAY TRANSPORTATION

SCENARIO.
RAMAKRISHNAN.K

This paper deals with the study of inland waterway transport system. It aims at bringing to fore the
true, but underutilized potential of inland water way transport. In addition to describing the
potential of IWT, the various factors to be kept in mind while setting up an IWT system are also
described. The paper also describes the case of IWT in Europe .
Key words : Inland water transport, Transport economics, Transport policy

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A countrys ability to transport is equivalent to its ability to prosper: most national
development plans recognize the strategic role of transport in providing the inter-sectoral
linkages of the economy.
Inland water transport (IWT) has been utilized throughout history on the rivers of
the world. The practice came about in the first instance due to lack of acceptable overland
alternatives. In the days of the past, before the advent of steam engine and automobiles
thereafter, IWT was the major means of transporting goods and people from one
commercial/urban center to the other. Since water transport has often been the only viable
means of transport for centuries, many big cities are located on the banks of rivers or
estuaries. There are places where this feature is still put to full use: in China, the Yangtze
is still the main artery of trade in and out of the nine provinces and two municipalities. The
fate of Shanghai, Kolkata, Bangkok, New Orleans or Rotterdam would have been very
different had they not been endowed with a riverine hinterland. Even the birth and
development of Paris was much linked to river transport.
This significance of IWT has been overshadowed by mans unquenchable
thirst for better means of transport, while ignoring and categorizing traditional means as
outdated and unprofitable. The truth is that even though we are past the period when
Under Graduate student, Department Of Civil Engineering, N.S.S College of Engineering.
Palakkad- 08 , Kerala

we were using wheel barrows for transporting goods, there are several orthodox
transportation means such as IWT which will still enable us to satisfactorily meet our
transportation requirements.

2. 0 ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES ON IWT

The basic requirements for any transport mode to be viable are

Demand

An efficient infrastructure

Proper management and operational skills

A greater demand for a specific means of transport will directly make that means

viable and profitable. It is imperative that an efficient infrastructure involving efficient

facilities will directly lead to effective transport which will in turn create a greater
demand, thus making the process profitable. In transportation field, as in any other field,
money is made by people who know what they are doing, how they are doing and why
they are doing a task. In other words, skills of managing both men and machinery are
essential in transportation field.
Before developing an IWT, the question of whether it is necessary to develop an IWT
system or whether it would be better to expand and improve existing rail/road systems has
to be asked.
The answer to this question lies firstly in a comparison of total delivered costs of
freight via alternative transport modes. This includes operating costs as well as capital
costs related to developing a new transport mode (IWT) or expanding existing rail/road
modes to accommodate anticipated traffic demand. In addition to this, other externalities
need to be considered. These include energy utilization per tonne-kilometre of cargo
moved, the impact on environment, employment generation and industrial development
potential, multiplier effects etc. Socio/political considerations also exert a strong influence
on decisions related to development of transport infrastructure.
Especially in the case of IWT development, considerations of transport economics
alone may not be sufficient for final decisions. In India, there are other important
claimants to the water resource, namely irrigation, hydropower etc. Thus, a decision to
develop a water way should be conditioned not only by long term transport economic
perspectives but also by other priorities and externalities.

3.0 SETTING UP IWT

Setting up of an IWT is mainly three dimensional.
Technical
The technical aspects are certainly challenging but also relatively straight forward. They
are related to developing and maintaining the water way with reliable channel depths
during all seasons.
Organizational
Organizational aspects are more complicated and are related to establishing appropriate
structures for planning, training of personnel, river patrol, waterway maintenance,
pollution and hazard prevention/treatment, river data collection and surveys,
communicational and navigational aids, and the like to ensure an efficient, reliable and
safe water way.
Commercial
The commercial success of IWT as a viable alternative mode of transport depends to a
large extent on the governmental policy framework under which IWT will be operated. It
is also dependant on the extent to which free and competitive exploitation of IWT will be
permitted as well as the Governments willingness to provide and maintain the necessary
infrastructure at low cost levels.
When all the factors are favourable, IWT can form an efficient, safe and reliable means of
transport across a nations inland waterways.
The various steps to be followed while setting up an IWT can be summarized as follows

Collection and analysis of technical, commercial and economic database.

Establishing potential cargo flows for IWT

Establishing a general policy of practice regarding various navigational aspects.

Calculation of total fleet capacity and ascertainment of profit in that basis

Macro economic analysis of benefits and costs.

Selection of appropriate strategy.

Fairway development, maintenance strategies and costs.

Implementation of plans.

4.0 IWT IN THE INDIAN SCENARIO.

Despite the fact that IWT is the most efficient mode of transportation with regard
to environmental friendliness, energy consumption and lower cost of transportation, the
potential of IWT remains largely underutilized in India, when compared to her neighbours
such as China. The major factor contributing to this state has been the reluctancy in the
part of investors to come up with realistic investment features for the development of IWT.
Navigable inland waterways in India, comprising of river system, canal,
backwaters, creeks and tidal inlets, extends to about 14,500 kms. Most waterways,
however, suffer from navigational inadequacies such as shallow waters, narrow width,
siltation and bank erosion,. Moreover, vertical and horizontal clearances at overhead
structures are not adequate for navigation throughout the year. Consequently, at present
about 5200 kms of major rivers and 485 kms of canals are suitable for mechanised crafts.
Even these navigable waterways lack the needed infrastructure such as navigational aids,
terminals and communication facilities. The mechanised operations are confined to only
few locations. Cargo transportation in an organised manner is confined to Goa, West
Bengal, Assam and Kerala. The total cargo moved by IWT is about 20 million tonnes
corresponding to just over 1.5 billion tonne kms or 0.15% of the total inland cargo of
about 1000 billion tonne kms, the balance being served by the road and rail.
The National Transport Policy Committee (NTPC) in its report (1980) recommended
various measures for development of IWT in the country. In order to maintain inland water
channels in navigable conditions, NTPC recommended the following urgent measures :

To frame a detailed conservancy programme for each navigable section of the

waterway

To undertake the maintenance works regularly on priority basis

To make specific financial provisions for conservancy and maintenance works

To set up an independent Authority to design, direct and execute such projects.

NTPC while recommending setting up a statutory authority, namely Inland Waterways

Authority of India (IWAI), also suggested that IWAI can be entrusted with the
responsibility of conducting economic surveys to assess future potential of traffic and
provide infrastructure facilities in this sector. The committee, in addition, recommended
that the Authority may be entrusted with IWT regulatory and administrative functions. As

a follow up of the recommendations of the NTPC, Inland Waterways Authority of India

was set up in October, 1986 under the IWAI Act, 1985.
Based on NTPC recommendations, three main national waterways have been
identified in India. They are

Allahabad Haldia stretch of the Ganga Bhagirathi Hooghly river system

(1620 kms) in October 1986 as National Waterway 1. (Fig No : 1)

Saidiya Dhubri stretch of the Brahmaputra river system (891 kms) in

September, 1988 as National Waterway 2. (Fig No: 2)

Kollam Kottapuram stretch of West Coast Canal (168 kms) alongwith

Champakara canal (14 kms) and Udyogmandal canal (23 kms) in February, 1993
as National Waterway 3. (Fig No : 3)
Developmental activities for improvement and maintenance of fairway, providing
terminals, navigational aids etc. are being taken up on all the three National Waterways by
Inland Waterways Authority of India.

Fig No : 1
National Waterway No: 1

Fig No: 2
National Waterway No: 2

Fig No: 3
National Waterway No : 3

5.0 ADVANTAGES OF IWT

5.1 Efficient, Reliable And Safe
Using the inland waterways to transfer goods offers value to customers because of its
low costs and efficient operations. Most vessels can transport 127 tonnes of freight per
litre of fuel, in comparison to 97 for rail and 50 for road. This is partly because inland
waterway vessels use the natural flow of waterways, together with engine power to
provide propulsion. Also, because of their sheer size they offer economies of scale that
road transport cannot provide. Inland waterway transport also provides an advantage in
terms of reliability, because it does not suffer from the same congestion problems that
currently restrict the roads or rail. On the major part of the network, navigation can take
place 24 hours a day, seven days a week, offering complete flexibility of travel. As a
result, shipping firms can send out ships without having to plan in a delay factor, safe in
the knowledge that goods will still reach their destinations on time. This is particularly
useful considering recent trends in goods transport which have seen customers demanding
that hauliers provide a just-in-time service. Safety is also a main asset of inland
waterway transportation. Vessels are required to comply with the most stringent of
standards and regular tests by classification societies and shipping inspectors. Vessels
equipped to carry dangerous goods or liquid chemicals are specially designed with safety
as a priority and often built with a double hull. Many are fitted out with fume extraction
equipment, so that any dangerous fumes emitted from the cargo tanks can be extracted
before they come into contact with the air. The number of accidents in inland waterway
transportation is extremely low. In the event of an accident, damage to personnel and
material is very limited. Therefore, the industry offers customer safety margins that cannot
be matched by other modes. This is also good news in a commercial sense, as a good
safety record merely add to the modes overall reliability for users.
5.2 Sustainable, Clean And Quiet
Many firms are now looking to boost their green credentials, and moving their transport
needs to inland waterways can offer positive results in terms of public and customer
perception of how they conduct their activities. A Commission study into the cash spent on
the socioeconomic costs of various types of transport such as accidents, air pollution,

climatic change, noise pollution, congestion, effects on the countryside and the urban
environment revealed that road transport accounted for 91.5 % of the costs, air transport
for 6 %, rail transport for 2 %, but inland navigation a tiny 0.5 %. Together with its low
fuel consumption, this makes inland waterway transport one of the most sustainable forms
of transport. Emissions in particular are dropping even further as newer vessels are
introduced with more efficient engines. As a result, emissions caused by inland waterways
have dropped by a quarter over the past 20 years. In this context, the carbon dioxide
emission forecasts for the inland navigation sector could well meet, and probably even
exceed, the Kyoto targets.
5.3 Iwt Is Not Slow And Delivers Cargo Just-In-Time
Multimodal transport requires delivery on scheduled time. International goods
orders are sometimes placed months in advance, and a break in the supply chain could be
disastrous. Thus it is essential that every mode delivers at its own pace on time. IWT is
able to do that with the advantage that it meets no congestion. Its combination of speed
and reliability is at par with other inland modes.
A stronger presence of IWT will bring benefits to the industry, which will get a
better service; consumers, who may get a cheaper product; railways, which will eventually
achieve much needed improvements under the pressure of IWT competition; and road,
which is likely to see an increase in traffic linked to IWT intermodalism. A strong
advantage of IWT is that is congestion-free. Multimodal supply chains require delivery on
scheduled time according to the just-in-time (JIT) concept, rather than rapid delivery.
Many supply chains incorporate a sea voyage in their organization. Then, global delivery
time ranges in weeks rather than days, and adding one day more using IWT on the inland
transport side would not have a negative impact. Also, thanks to its reliability, it provides
the consignee with a guaranteed estimated time of arrival (ETA), while road transport may
miss its ETA due to traffic congestion either on roads or at terminal gates, or due to time
restrictions on the use of trucks.

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5.4 Iwt Is Directly Linked To Seaports And Banks

Especially in developing countries with great rivers and underdeveloped transport
networks, the other modes of transport are obliged to bridge the rivers at great cost, while
IWT can reach both banks of a river with the same ease.
There are therefore great market opportunities due to the fact that rivers or canals
run past or through big cities. Building materials can reach the centre of town without
choking the surrounding streets, and city waste can be processed outside of the cities, with
only a short move on water, either in bulk (like London or Geneva) or in containers (like
The Hague or Lille). In the same manner, IWT can easily link complementary industries
that have settled on riverbanks without congesting the few crossings on which enough
traffic is already squeezing.
5.5 Iwt Is Advantageous, Not Only For Long Haul Heavy Cargo

Operations, But Also For Short Haul Operations As Well.

As regards the IWT length of haul, in Europe the average lead is around 150 km, thus,
long distance haul is not a must. On the contrary, many lucrative offers are for shortdistance shuttling, when congestion of roads and railways, or topographical
considerations, makes it a sensible alternative.
In Goa, in India and in the Netherlands, for instance, many container routes are no
more than 50 km long, and IWT is also a very good alternative to transport in deltaic
areas, where roads are difficult to build and maintain. Rural transport or country boat
transport is also bound to short distances, and may amount to a fairly high tonnage. In
Bangladesh, country boat traffic provides good service in most areas, while it does not
appear in the statistics. It may amount to 15 million tonnes, three times the amount of
middle- distance mechanized traffic.
As regards transportation of goods, it is usually believed that bulk transport is the only
type which can support a strong IWT. But Ro-Ro (roll on roll off) and container
transports, however, are spreading rapidly, and they carry manufactured goods in these
ITUs. Besides, there are cases where IWT bulk transport is not competitive on medium
and long distances due to drastically low railways rates for bulk, but where it has a good
niche is in the traffic of finished goods, break bulk cargoes, packaged goods, etc. for

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which railway rates are high, and this is where IWT can compete with both the railways
and roads on quality of service and on cost.
Of course, a strong flow of bulk trade on a waterway network is not detrimental to
IWT, but there may be other ways to run a profitable trade. In Asia, it may sometimes be
difficult for IWT to obtain much bulk traffic on a purely "tariff" approach, while it may
win in quality of service: a reduction of pilferage and losses, by 2 per cent as documented
in a number of cases, will go a long way to put IWT on a competitive footing with other
modes. Multimodal transport, which better protects goods, including manufactured goods,
in its ITUs, may be a solution, and on this type of traffic IWT has a strong role to play.
Container transport is very well suited to shallow rivers with its high volume/weight ratio
and a full complement of containers could transit towards land-locked
countries on ultra-shallow barges not deeper than country boats.

5.6

Iwt Can Be Developed As A Part Of A Vast Multi Purpose Water

Resource Management Project.
The link to water resources is well known, but seldom incorporated in comprehensive

analysis. However, the development of the Tennessee, the Rhone, the upper Rhine and the
Volga are proof that excellent results can be achieved at low cost for the countries
involved, by the simultaneous development of a river for power, flood control, navigation,
irrigation, industrial/urban uses, beautification and recreation.
Such multipurpose developments are also catching up in developing countries,
such as the Damodar in India and gigantic works like Itaipu at the Brazilian-Paraguayan
border, the Rio So Francisco in Brazil, Gezhouba and the Three Gorges in China.
With increased energy costs, small watercourses with low head turbines are becoming
quite profitable and a number of projects are planned, particularly in China on the
tributaries of the Yangtze.
5.7 Iwt Is Intermodal And Multimodal In Essence
The combination of modes originated to help passenger movement overland, and
the ferrying function remains even today and extends to road and sometimes rail transport.
Once people ventured farther from their birthplaces, they started to trade and often did half
of the trip on rivers, but this nascent IWT had to be supplemented by other modes on the

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route. IWT was really created with the use of sails to go upstream and downstream, but the
complementarity with other modes was never challenged. In the sixteenth century in
Europe, horse-drawn coaches were carried over hundreds of kilometres on flat-top barges
to avoid the rough and insufficient road network, a fully multimodal combination.
Intermodalism emerged with the development of railways, when the latter needed to
bridge gaps in their network.
This was the case during the nineteenth century in Pakistan, where the Indus
flotilla carried the goods over a long distance to link the two isolated railway networks.
Once the overland connection was established, the flotilla was disbanded. During that
period, by locating most of their stations away from the waterway front, the victorious
railways disrupted the usual interface. A form of "one-modalism" was established, where
railways were buying canals and IWT companies to let serve only the trade that they
themselves could not profitably carry. At that time road transport was not a serious
competitor over long distances.
When trucks started to prosper, intermodalism regained popularity and a number of
railway lines were closed and replaced by road services. At the same time a buoyant IWT
truly practiced intermodalism, at least at one end, but interfacing with either sea or road
transport, while most inland ports also had rail connections.
Today, this intermodal network enables IWT to play its part in the multimodal system
and to use containers and Ro-Ro techniques. Being location specific, a majority of its
traffic needs to use another mode. By this intermodalism, IWT brings more traffic to other
modes of transport rather than competing with them. Also, with proper planning of
terminals and adequate siting of new industries, its role in the intermodal competition in
Asia can be tremendous.
5.8 Iwt Is Flexible Enough To Accommodate Vessels Irrespective Of

Their Sizes Such That The Best Alternative Can Be Adopted For
Increased Profits.
It is true that in accordance with the law of escalating returns, bigger vessels have a
cheaper unit price.
It is also true that the existing small vessels are contrary to the general tendency of
concentration, and with the ensuing increase in size of the consignments of bulks they are
at risk of being chased out of the market. This concentration move exists throughout the

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industrial chain: a company which needed one 20-tonne truck per day twenty years ago
may need five today. This means a 300-tonne barge satisfies three days of its needs, with
free storage during its voyage, and fits very well in a supply chain, provided the plant is
not too far away from the waterway.
There is a growing trade in highly specialized bulks, usually half-products or
semitransformed bulks, shuttling between big seaboard plants to the factories where the
final transformation takes place. This is done in medium quantities, and is ideally suited to
the medium size fleet, which has found a very dynamic niche market. This can be true in
every country of the world, should this opportunity be known, and should IWT be
adequately marketed. The flexibility of the transportation process means that the customer
has the freedom to choose the means that best suits his requirements.

6.0 FINANCING OF IWT, THE ROLE OF RESPECTIVE

GOVERNMENTS IN THE PROCESS AND POLICY MAKING.
In developing countries, much of the initial transport infrastructure of various modes is
in need of repair, extension or modernization. The growth of internal and international
trade was greatly hampered by unsuitable infrastructure development in the twentieth
century. To put an end to that situation, large sums have been invested into modernizing
networks. Nevertheless, not all modes of transport have been invested in equally. The
amount spent for IWT has often been much smaller than that for the railways, for instance.
Most Governments in Asia prefer to invest in artificial transport modes used by the general
public, rather than developing the network of natural waterways.

One of the strategies to develop a sound transport sector has been to invite
private sector financing.
Ports in particular have seen a sizeable growth of BOT or BOO projects.
The
development of international trade and multimodal transport has seen the
emergence of a number of big operators. IWT could benefit from this
trend and its development could also be supported by private sector
involvement in container transport out of the ports, possibly in shuttle
traffic between an inland port and a seaport controlled by the same
interests.

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Governments could jointly finance transport assets or initiate operations in the

public interest, which are unlikely to be run solely by the private sector.

Governments could also establish appropriate legal and regulatory framework

to ensure fair competition and constrain monopolies.

Governments could assist with labour redundancy schemes.

In the field of financing, governments may facilitate the improvement of

institutional capacity to monitor new public/private partnerships, managing
transactions between public and private bodies and overseeing private
operations without interfering with their financial and commercial activities.

Governments should also establish pricing and cost-recovery mechanisms.

Governments could also collect taxes for the use of facilities which can be used
both for IWT and for various other purposes. The taxes thus collected can be
used for improving IWT facilities and for establishing healthy relationships
between various modes of transport.

Countries may also consider the polluter pay approach as adopted by some
European countries. Use of roads, in particular for long-distance transportation,
causes air pollution and users are obliged to provide compensation so as to
contribute to other less polluted modes of transport, such as inland waterways
and railways. The funds thus raised are used to improve inland waterways and
railways to reduce overall air pollution produced by all the modes of transport.

7.0 POLICY FORMULATION AND GOVERNMENT SUPPORT FOR

IWT
7.1 Domestic Technical Measures
Definition of adequate multimodal standards for waterway design, in particular
regarding vertical clearance (12.4 m over main routes) and lock width (12.6 m on main
routes). For other waterways, the vertical clearance should be roughly equal to the
width of the design vessel. Special attention should be paid to canals, where the
clearance should be coincide with that over the average water level found on the
route, rather than over the SHWL.

15

 Removal of bottlenecks and building of missing links wherever economically feasible.

Maintaining multimodal waterways, so as to guarantee a standard 1.45 m draught on
smaller routes and 2.45 m on main routes.
Setting up government-funded ICDs by the side of potentially navigable rivers.
Locating inland customs offices to riverine multimodal terminals.
Ensuring GSM and DGPS coverage along waterways.
Encouraging use of EDI between harbour customs and IWT container operators for
advance clearance in order to save time in port and recoup part of the extra time spent
inland.
Organizing River information services (RIS) accessible from onboard ships by EDI,
WAP or the Internet.
To speed up river development, organize daily feedback of depth information from
vessels en route and daily update of RIS. This will cut the amount of signalling and
marking to the strictest minimum without compromising safety, which is essential for
the reliability and final success of a container line.

7.2 Domestic Political Measures

Enlist IWT authorities and operators within a national transport or trade facilitation
committee
Authorize night navigation in order to reduce transit time
Authorize IWT operators to become MTOs.
Negotiate with seaport authorities and port workers in order for environment-friendly
river transport to be accepted and encouraged in preference to moving containers inland.
Authorize and encourage overside handling of containers and their direct waterway
connection with the hinterland.
Encourage IWT shuttles between anchorages or mouths of ports and upstream ICDs,
for instance by banning road transit of containers through big cities.
Encourage combined transport operations, for instance by accepting higher load limits
for trucks operating in and out of intermodal container depots.
Guarantee law and order on waterway route so that reliability of IWT is at its normal
level, i.e. higher than rail or road transport .
Finance or subsidize capital costs of establishing riverine intermodal container depots.

16

 Finance or subsidize operating costs of IWT container services on the grounds that
they are less harmful to the environment and incur five times less external cost to the
community for each container carried.

8.0 IWT IN EUROPE

Europe has over 30 000 kilometres of canals and rivers that link together hundreds
of key towns and areas of industrial concentration which are already providing safe and
reliable services to freight businesses and, to a lesser extent, passengers. The core network
links the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Germany and Austria
via a myriad of easily accessible rivers and canals, carrying cargo such as heavy materials,
bulk industrial goods, building products, containers, oversized loads and waste. And
although the arteries of this network include large rivers such as the Rhine and Danube,
many smaller towns, villages and industrial areas are also easily accessible by numerous
tributaries and canals. Smaller networks exist in other Member States. Several hundred
inland ports and landing stages along the network provide access and links with other
modes of transport. The ports offer efficient and reliable services, and all the necessary
logistical support that businesses need to get their goods to their final destination. Their
position, at the heart of Europes trading routes, means they are perfectly placed to offer
intermodal connections to road, rail and sea lanes.

8.1 Facts And Figures On Inland Waterway Transport In The European

Union
Navigable network: 30 000 km;
Community fleet: around 11 500 vessels (mainly
self-propelled goods vessels);
Total loading capacity of fleet: 11 million tonnes;
Total performance Community fleet in 2000:
125 000 million tonne-kilometres;
Number of enterprises: 7 000 (in the six Member
States)
The sector directly employs around 23 000 people.
Source: EU Energy and Transport in Figures.

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Despite the availability of this dense and flexible network, there is still a massive
amount of capacity on the waterways that is not being exploited. Freight transport by
inland waterways accounts for 7 % of total inland transport 125 000 million tonnekilometres in 2000 whereas road and rail carry 74 % and 14 % respectively. (Bearing in
mind that only half of the EU Member States have interconnected navigable inland
waterways). In some regions and the hinterland of seaports, such as Benelux and northern
France, modal shareof inland waterway transport is much higher and can reach up to 43
% (in terms of tonne-kilometres).

9.0 INADEQUACIES OF IWT

o Slow movement
o Limited spatial accessibility
o Only those points which are situated beside waterways enjoy point to point
connectivity through IWT.
o IWT is not available for navigation through out the year.

10.0 CONCLUSION
The waterways industry, with its spare network capacity and modern fleet, is
immediately available to use and can offer cheap, reliable and sustainable transport
to thousands of businesses across the world. Inland waterway transport is ready to play a
key role in shifting traffic off roads. By removing key physical, technological or
bureaucratic bottlenecks, inland waterway transport will become even more effective,
offering a quality service to freight forwarders in terms of price and reliability against
which other land modes cannot easily compete. In addition, the use of inland waterways
will actually contribute to the improvement of the environment due to its cleanliness and
efficiency. The capacity and opportunities are there for the shipping industry and freight
forwarders to realise. Taking steps towards them are all that is required to win new
business for inland waterway transport.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my teachers P. Asha Varma, M.Tech,
Dr. A. K. Raji, M.Tech Ph.D, A. V. Hema Nalini M.Tech for guiding me to achieve my
goal of completing this seminar report.

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2. Hugh, Inland Waterway transport, a transport solution that works, Report published by
the Director General of energy and transport, European commission on December 2002
3. Jiles.D, Manual on modernization of inland water transport for integration within a
multimodal transport system
4.Matti Arpiainen, Magnus Backstrom, Pekka Salmi, Winter transportation possibilities
through the inland water ways in Finland, POAC 2001, Ottawa 12 -17 .8.2001
5. Report of NTPC May 1980- pp 283 - 305

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