Steel Design

FATIGUE FAILURE OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS

S.F. Stiemer

FATIGUE FAILURE OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS

ABSTRACT
An overview of the fatigue process and behaviour of fatigue loading is
given. Bolted connections in both tension and shear are discussed in
detail with emphasis placed on the location of failure, fatigue design
curves, influence of preloading, joint stiffness, and contact area. Anchor
bolts are also briefly discussed. Design requirements as per CSA S16.199 and AISC LRFD-1999 are given. Various methods on how to
minimize fatigue problems are presented.

INTRODUCTION

Under certain conditions a material may fail due to the repeated

application of loads that are not large enough to cause failure in a single
application. This phenomenon is referred to as fatigue failure. The
existence of fatigue failure implies that, under repeated stresses,
materials undergo some internal progressive, permanent structural
changes. Fatigue failures are often more dangerous than other typical
failures because they generally occur suddenly, without significant prior
deformations. Figure 1 shows a fatigue induced fracture surface.
Fatigue failure in bolted connections is generally caused by repeated
cycles of tension loading. Although failures under repeated cyclic
compression loads are know, these are rare and will be ignored in this
discussion.

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Figure 1. Fracture surface of a typical paper clip broken by 6 cycles of

repeated bending (80x).1

THE FATIGUE PROCESS

Fatigue failure will only occur if the following essential conditions are
present: cyclic tensile loads, stress levels above a threshold value, fatigue
susceptible material, and a flaw in the material. If these conditions are
present, then the following events can occur, leading to fatigue failure
(Figure 2):
1. Crack initiation
2. Crack growth
3. Crack propagation
4. Final rupture

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crack to propagate into the still undamaged material ahead of it. The
crack only propagates a finite distance in each loading cycle; this
advance may by as much as 25 m/cycle.1 The back stresses exerted on
the material during unloading cause deformation markings often called
striations or beach marks, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 2. Fatigue sequence - the stages of failure are: (1) initiation,

(2) growth, (3) propagation, and (4) rupture. 2
2.1

CRACK INITIATION

Generally, fatigue cracks will originate on a free surface at a point of

high stress concentration in the material. This may often be due to a preexisting flaw in the material; or perhaps a human made discontinuity,
such as the root of a thread, a tool mark, corrosion, or any point at which
there is a sharp change in size or shape of the material. It would be safe
to say that no connection is entirely free from defects of this type.
2.2

CRACK GROWTH

As the part is subjected to cyclic tensile loads, the material around the
stress concentrations undergoes a slip mechanism. Slip occurs by the
movement of dislocation displacement of the atomic matrix. Under
cyclic loading, reverse slip on adjacent slip planes may lead to the
formation of extrusions and intrusions at the surface. These will act as
the starting point of the crack. Initially the crack will grow along the slip
plane, but will eventually change direction until it is growing in a plane
perpendicular to the principle tensile stress.
2.3

CRACK PROPAGATION

Fatigue cracks will propagate under shear and tensile loads, but not under
compressive loading since these cracks will close rather than open.
During each tensile loading cycle, very high stresses occur at the crack
tip (due to the stress concentrating effect of the sharp crack), causing the
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Figure 3. Micrograph of fatigue fracture, with characteristic beach

marks.1
2.4

FINAL RUPTURE

The crack grows more rapidly as stress levels increase. The process of
crack growth is repeated until the crack reaches some critical length, at
which time a sudden failure occurs, in either a ductile or brittle manner,
depending on the characteristics of the material.
The fatigue life of a bolt and connection depends a great deal on the
location and magnitude of the initial crack, but more importantly on
factors such as bolt and joint stiffness, initial preload, alloy content, heat
treatment, location and magnitude of external tension loads, etc.
Therefore, there is a lot of scatter in the fatigue life of a bolted
connection, making it difficult to accurately determine.

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BEHAVIOUR OF FATIGUE LOADING

The fatigue life, or endurance, of a material refers to the number of

repeated cycles of loading (N) that a material will undergo before it fails.
N will depend on the particular set of loading conditions. However, the
general rule of thumb is that the higher the fatigue stress levels, the fewer
number of loading cycles are required to cause failure. In most well
designed bolted joints, however, fatigue failure will occur under highcycle loading. Fatigue data is most commonly presented in terms of S-N
curves (maximum stress versus the number of cycles), as shown in
Figure 4.

Figure 4. S-N Curve for varying magnitude of altering stress. 2

As Figure 4 shows, the material undergoes a definite fatigue limit. That
is, it may withstand infinite cycles of loading without failing, as long as
the applied stress is less than the fatigue limit. Although S-N curves are
often produced based on tension loading along the axis of the fastener, it
is important to recognize that if the fastener is subjected to some other
form of stress as well as tension, its fatigue life will be adversely
affected. Shear stress for example, would make it more susceptible to
fatigue. There are many factors that will affect the fatigue life, each
resulting in a different S-N curve. The major factors in order of
importance that affect fatigue life are:

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S.F. Stiemer

1. Shape of the connection.

2. Magnitude of stress excursions or variations.
3. Mean stress level.
4. Choice of material.
Other conditions such as corrosive environments and extreme
temperatures also can affect the fatigue performance.

BOLTED CONNECTIONS LOADED IN TENSION

A typical bolted connection loaded in tension is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Bolted connection loaded in tension. 3

4.1

LOCATION OF FAILURE

The tread in a bolt acts as a notch and therefore a high stress

concentration is caused at the root of the tread. At locations where two
threads meet the stress concentrations can be even higher, i.e. at the
runout of the thread and where the thread and nut first engages the thread
of the bolt. In addition, the head-shank transition is also a stress
concentration.
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A bolt and nut loaded axially, as shown in Figure 6, has three possible
fatigue crack initiation locations:
a. Head-shank transition
b. Runout of thread
c. Thread at nut

Figure 6. Axially loaded bolt with possible fatigue crack locations. 3

In standard bolts, the radius at the bolt-head shank transition is usually
large enough to prevent fatigue cracks at this point.
Normally, if fatigue cracks occur, they will be located at the first
engagement of the threads of the bolt and nut (point c in Figure 6), and
can be 2 to 4 times the mean value. 3 This is due to the load transfer from
nut to bolt. The contacting thread faces of the bolt and nut will give rise
to extra bending stresses in the threads. Also, the load is unevenly
distributed between the contacting faces of the bolt and nut, with the
stresses being higher at the first thread of engagement. This will depend
on the thread form, pitch, and differences in Youngs modulus where
different materials are used. The load transfer can become more uniform
by plastic deformation of the bolt.
4.2

THE INFLUENCE OF PRELOAD AND JOINT STIFFNESS

A bolt in a connection will see a portion of any external load, Fb,

applied to the joint. The magnitude of the mean load on the bolt depends
on the preload of the bolt. The magnitude of the load excursion (Fb)
depends on:
1. The magnitude of the external tension load.
2. The bolt-to-joint stiffness ratio (Kb/Kj).

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S.F. Stiemer

3. Whether or not the external tension load exceeds the critical load
required to separate the joint (depends on the magnitude of the
initial preload).
The effect of preloading, where there is tensile loading on the bolted
connection, is illustrated for a flange connection in Figures 7 and 8. The
thickness of the flange is assumed to be large enough to neglect bending
flexibility and possible prying forces.

Figure 7. Flange connection with non-preloaded bolts. 3

Figure 8. Flange connection with preloaded bolts. 3

Where there is no preload, (Figure 7), and thus no contact force on the
facing surfaces of the flanges, the external tensile force F t applied on the
connection will be transferred directly to the bolts, F b. Therefore, there
will be a variation of the force in the bolts and a corresponding
displacement between the opposing flanges. The connection can be
considered to act as a two-spring system.

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In the case with a preload force Fv, this force will initially be in
equilibrium with the contact force F c on the contact area of the flanges,
(Figure 8). These two flanges act like one as long as the external load F t
is less than the preload F v. As a result, the external load applied to the
bolts will change very little. As shown in the diagram, the increase in the
external force is compensated largely by a decrease of the contact force
Fc and small increases in the forces in the bolt F b. Only the elastic
deformation of the two flanges will cause change in the bolt load. The
flanges, however, are relatively stiff compared to the bolt area and
therefore this effect is minimal. But, the load in the bolts will increase
rapidly as soon as the contact surfaces separate due to the external force
surpassing the preload force F v. When this has occurred the situation is
equivalent to the non-preloaded case. As long as the external load F t is
below the preload force Fv the situation can be considered as a threespring system.
The amount of variation of the forces in the bolts due to the variation in
the external load is dependent on the stiffness ratio of the flange and bolt
(Figure 9). The more flexible the bolt, the less force variation it will
undergo. Using more washers or using spring washers will increase the
bolts length, thereby making the bolt more flexible. Inserting gaskets
between the flanges will make the flange assembly more flexible, leading
to possible detrimental effects. The flange thickness must also be
adequate to reduce bending flexibility; otherwise the location on the
contact forces may become critical.
4.3

S.F. Stiemer

Figure 9. The effect of varying F b and Kb /Kj ratios. (Note that the initial
preload is the same in each case). 2

THE INFLUENCE OF THE LOCATION OF THE CONTACT AREA

When the bolts of the connection are subjected to a preload force, contact
forces are induced on the connecting surface. The location of the
developed contact forces will affect the fatigue life of the connection.
Figures 10 and 11 shows an example where the flange thickness is much
smaller than in Figures 7 and 8 and is, therefore, more susceptible to
bending. In this figure, introducing shims develops contact forces. In
both cases, the bolts are tightened to the same preload. A schematic
model of the relevant spring system is shown in Figure 10, while Figure
11 shows the measured bolt forces with respect to an external load.
Figure 10. Flange connection with different location of contact forces. 3

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S.F. Stiemer

In general the most favourable condition with respect to the fatigue

resistance is to have the contact area as close as possible to where the
tensile force is acting. This is shown in Figure 12.

Figure 11. Measured bolt forces with respect to an external load.

(Dashed line represents FT, solid line represents FB). 3
4.3.1

Contact Area at the Centre

When the contact force is located in the centre, Figure 10a, there is
effectively a very stiff spring in the middle compared to the two flexible
springs representing the flexible bolts and flange edges. This situation is
very similar to having a very low Kb /Kj ratio, and the variation of
magnitude in the bolts will not be too great if the preload force is not
exceeded. This is shown in Figure 11a, with the applied external tension
force plotted in a dashed line, and the force in the bolt plotted with a
solid line.
4.3.2

Contact Area at the End of Flanges

When the contact force is located near the edge of the flanges, Figure
10b, the stiffness of the bolts is relatively large compared to the outer
flange. This situation is very similar to having a relatively high K b /Kj
ratio, and as a result the variation of the external force will cause
variation of the bolt forces of nearly equal magnitude, as shown in Figure
11b.

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Figure 12. Different locations of contact area: Going from (a) to (c) the
bolts will experience more load variation with the same
variation of the external forces. 3

BOLTED CONNECTIONS LOADED IN SHEAR

A typical bolted connection loaded in shear is shown in Figure 13. In

these types of connections, load is transferred from one piece to the other
via cover plates.
5.1
5.1.1

LOAD TRANSFER AND STRESS CONCENTRATION

Non-Preloaded Bolts

In the case of non-preloaded bolts, the applied force is transferred via

bearing between the plates and the shank of the bolt, as indicated in
Figure 13a. These types of connections are inadequate for variable loads
that change sign as significant displacements will occur due to the
clearance between the hole and bolt shank. Load transfer of this type is
very concentrated at the location were the shank bears against the holes.

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In these connections the stress is concentrated around the hole. Since the
bolt shank is also loaded in bearing, it too will experience high stress
concentrations, (Figure 14a).

5.1.2

S.F. Stiemer

Preloaded Bolts

When the bolts are preloaded, the applied force is transferred by friction
between the plate surfaces. High Strength Friction Grip Bolts (HSFG) are
used to obtain the necessary compressive stresses between the plates to
enable the load to be transferred by friction. The load is transferred over
a large area around the bolt (Figure 14b), and therefore the load transfer
is not as great as in the non-preloaded bolt case. These types of
connections can be used when the variable load changes sign.
For preloaded-bolts there are no stress concentration at the hole. In fact
the stresses may even be less than the nominal stresses. This is due to the
fact that the load has been transferred to an area around the hole.
5.2
5.2.1

LOCATION OF FAILURE
Non-Preloaded Bolts

The crack will occur at the hole due to the large stress concentration.
Another potential failure location could be in the bolt as a result of the
variable shear load applied to the shank at the shear plane. If this type of
connection is used, the threaded part of the bolt should not be located in
the shear plane, as the notch effect could drastically reduce the fatigue
resistance, (Figure 14a).
5.2.2

Pre-Loaded Bolts

In the case of non-preloaded bolts, the stress concentrations do not

generally occur near the hole. The contact pressure decreases radially
from the hole. Fatigue cracks will usually develop in the gross section of
the plate (see Figure 14b), were the contact pressure is not high enough
to prevent slip.

Figure 13. Example of a bolted connection loaded in shear. 3

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5.3

S.F. Stiemer

FATIGUE DESIGN CURVE FOR BOLTS IN SHEAR

In the case of non-preloaded bolts, there are two possible failures the
shank of the bolts and the gross section of the plate. Both should be
checked against relevant design curves. Canadian and American design
codes provide information for fatigue failure of gross plate crosssections, but none is available for failure of a bolt shank in shear.
In the case of preloaded bolts, the bolts themselves will not fail provided
that the pre-load is sufficient to prevent slip in the connection. The plates
fall into the same design category as in the non-preloaded case. However,
since the failure does not occur near the holes, the gross section of the
plate can be used for calculating fatigue stresses.

ANCHOR BOLTS

Anchor bolts have some different fatigue resistance characteristics in

comparison to the normal bolts that have been discussed thus far.
Test results have shown that the bolt diameter and the thread size do not
influence fatigue behaviour; the fatigue lives were almost identical as
normal bolts. 3
The way the bolt is formed also affects the fatigue resistance. Anchor
bolts with rolled threads perform better than those with cut threads. This
is due to the residual compressive stresses that are formed when the bolt
has been rolled. Also, cut threads leave a sharp notch at the location of
thread termination, which acts as a potential point of stress concentration.
The number of nuts also affects fatigue performance. More nuts can
substantially increase the connections resistance.
Another important factor that must be taken into account is the effect of
prying action, which will increase the applied force.

Figure 14. Stress and possible crack location of a bolted connection

loaded in shear. 3

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PREDICTING FATIGUE LIFE

There are several methods for predicting fatigue life; essentially they all
involve the concept of the gradual accumulation of damage during the
process of cyclic loading. The two most common methods are based on
linear cumulative damage, and the Palmgren Miners Rule.
The linear cumulative damage is based on specific S-N data for each
particular specimen type. This method is adopted in many design codes
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including the Canadian CSA S16.1-94 and American AISC LRFD-1999,

which are discussed in a later section. A formatted spreadsheet has also
been developed to implement the fatigue requirements of these codes.
The Palmgren Miner rule is used to determine the level of fatigue
damage.
In the calculation procedure, the existing number of stress cycles n i are
divided by the allowed number of stress cycles N i, and added for each
stress cycle. If this total is less than 1.0 the connection has not failed in
fatigue. Miners rule follows the expression:

7.1

CSA S16.1-94 FATIGUE REQUIREMENTS4

Fatigue requirements are addressed in Section 14 of the CSA S16.1-94.

The code states that fatigue is generally not a design consideration for
buildings such as commercial or residential. However, industrial
buildings may have members, such as crane girders, for which fatigue is
a design consideration; other structures such as amusement rides and sign
supports, for example may also be susceptible to fatigue.
When looking at the fatigue limit state, emphasis is placed on fatigue
cracks that result from live load effects and those that result in local
distortions. It is also important to determine the number of cycles to
which a detail may be subjected.
When carrying out the fatigue resistance analysis, only variable and
impact loads contribute to the stress range. Further, the designer only
needs to consider regions that are subjected to tensile stresses or stress
reversals. Compressive stress regions may be ignored.
Fatigue design in this specification is based on experimental data in
which various fatigue susceptible details were tested to develop
corresponding S-N curves. Details are assigned to one of eight stress
range categories (A to E1). Appendix K illustrates various details and
gives some guidance on how to assign a detail to a category. Figure 15
shows the allowable stress range versus the number of stress cycles for
each category.

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Figure 15. CSA fatigue resistances for categories A to E1 CSA S16.1-94

The fatigue life of a detail is inversely proportional to the cube of the
stress range for values above the constant threshold stress range. The
detail is considered to be satisfactory in fatigue if the applied stress range
is less than that corresponding to the expected number of cycles of
loading for the design life of the structure, as shown below.
f sr F sr
1

F sr

3Fsr

Fsrt
2

nN

fsr = calculated stress range at the detail due to the passage of the fatigue
load
Fsr = fatigue resistance, including adjustment for the number of stress
range cycles for each passage of load
= fatigue life constant pertaining to the detail category [Table 4(a)]
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n = number of stress range cycles at given detail passage of the moving

load [Table 4(b)]
N = number of passages of the moving load
Fsrt = constant amplitude threshold stress range [Table 4(a)]
For the fatigue resistance of high strength tension bolts, the code requires
that the bolts are tensioned to the required pre-load and that prying action
is considered.
From reviewing the detail categories given in Appendix K, we can see
that the code gives very little guidance on how to check a bolted
connection for fatigue resistance. It is left up to the designer to use
his/her judgement.
7.2

AISC LRFD-1999 FATIGUE REQUIREMENTS5

Fatigue requirements are addressed in Section K3 of the AISC LRFD1999. The AISC fatigue criteria are very similar to those found in CSA
S16.1-94; however, there are additional requirements given for bolts and
threaded parts.
The considered stress range is defined as the magnitude of the change in
stress due to the application or removal of the unfactored live load. In the
case of a stress reversal, the stress range shall be computed as the
numerical sum of maximum repeated tensile and compressive stresses or
the numerical sum of maximum shearing stresses of opposite direction at
the point of probable crack initiation. 5
No evaluation of fatigue resistance is required if the live load stress range
is less than the threshold stress range, F TH, or if the number of cycles of
application of live load is less than 2 x 104.
As in the CSA S16.1-94, the fatigue life of a detail is inversely
proportional to the cube of the stress range for values above the constant
threshold stress range. The detail is considered to be satisfactory on
fatigue if the applied stress range is less than that corresponding to the
expected number of cycles of loading for the design life of the structure,
as shown below. (Note all calculations shown are in SI units).
.

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S.F. Stiemer

F SR F TH
1

F SR

C f 327
N

FSR = design stress range, (MPa)

FTH = threshold fatigue stress range, maximum stress range for indefinite
design life [Table A-K.3.1], (MPa)
Cf = Constant [Table A-K3.1]
N = number of stress range fluctuations in design life
= number of stress range fluctuations per day x 365 x years of design
life
The AISC LRFD also has additional requirements for bolts and threaded
parts. For mechanically fastened connections loaded in shear, the
maximum range of stress in the connected material at service loads shall
not exceed the design stress computed using the equation given above.
For high-strength bolts, common bolts, and threaded anchor bolts with
cut, ground or rolled threads, the maximum range of tensile stress on the
net tensile area from applied axial load and moment plus load due to
prying action shall not exceed the design stress range computed using the
equation above. The factor Cf shall be taken as 3.9 x 108 (as for category
E). The threshold stress, F th shall be taken as 48 MPa (as for category
D). The net tensile area for metric bolts is given as:
At

db 0.9382P 2

P = pitch, (mm/thread)
db = nominal diameter (body or shank diameter), (mm)
When dealing with bolts and threaded parts, the designer must also
consider any prying action and the relative stiffness of the connected
parts.
Although the AISC LFD does provide a little more guidance than the
CSA S16.1-94, it still does not adequately take into account all of the

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effects, which may influence the fatigue life of a bolted connection. It is,
therefore, left to the designers to use their professional judgment.

MINIMIZING FATIGUE PROBLEMS

There are many steps that a designer can take to minimize fatigue related
problems. Each of these is related to the conditions that are necessary for
fatigue to occur: cyclic tensile loads, stresses above an endurance limit, a
susceptible material, and an initial flaw. In general, most of the steps that
we can take are intended to reduce stress levels (and concentrations)
and/or to reduce the load excursion seen by the bolt.
8.1

MINIMIZING STRESS LEVELS

The following are just a few of the steps that a designer can take to
minimize stress levels. Many of these are incorporated in fatigue
resistant fasteners, which are available from some fastener
manufacturers.
Rolling treads instead of cutting them provides a smother thread finish
(fewer initial cracks). The rolling process induces a residual compressive
stress in the bolts, which acts as a compressive preload, thereby helping
to reduce the tensile load excursions.
A generous fillet between the head and shank will reduce stress
concentrations. The exact shape is also important; an elliptical fillet, for
example, is better than a circular one. 2 Increasing the radius of a circular
fillet will also help
If the face of the nut, the undersides of the bolt head, and/or joint surface
are not perpendicular to the thread axis and the boltholes, the fatigue life
can be seriously affected.2
Bolts under tension see stress concentrations at the head-to-shank fillet,
first threads to engage the nut, and at the thread run-out. Anything that
may impose additional loading to these regions will be detrimental. Some
of these situations are shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16. Joints should be designed so that maximum loads do not fall
on stress concentration points of the fastener.2
The thread run-out should be gradual rather than abrupt. It has been
suggested that a taper of 15o should be used to minimize stress
concentrations at this critical point (Figure 17). 2

Figure 17. Thread run-out should be gradual.2

Anything that can be done to minimize corrosion will reduce the
possibilities of crack initiation and/or crack growth and will, therefore,
extend fatigue life.

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Figure 18 shows a proposed fastener, which, because of its geometry, can

greatly reduce stress concentrations and, therefore increase the fatigue
life of the connection.

S.F. Stiemer

determine if the applied stress range is within the desired limit for a
required number of load cycles. This may be relatively accurate for
normal steel members or welded connections; however, it does not
adequately address bolted connections, as there are numerous connection
types that do not fall under a prescribed design category. It is therefore
up to the designers to use their judgment or undergo further rigorous
analysis in order to determine if the connection is adequate to resist
fatigue.
By minimizing stress levels or reducing load variations, the designer may
make the connection less prone to fatigue failure.

REFERENCES
Figure 18. Flanges, dished, and undercut nut and bolt head used to
improve stress distribution.2
8.2

Young J., Mindess S, Gray R. and Bentur A. 1998. The Science and
Technology of Civil Engineering Materials. Prentice Hall: 152-175.

REDUCING LOAD VARIATIONS

Nothing can help extend the fatigue life of a bolt or joint more
dramatically than a reduction in load variations.
It will greatly help to correctly identify and apply the maximum safe
preload that the joint can withstand. Minimizing the bolt-to-joint stiffness
ratio, (as well as proper location of contact forces), so that the load
excursions and external loads will be seen by the joint and not the bolt
will reduce fatigue problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Fatigue failure of bolted connections is a serious problem in steel

structures, as the failure happens suddenly without prior warning. It
occurs in areas were the applied stress is cyclic and tensile in nature, and
where there is a stress concentration.
Bolted connections are commonly used in both tension and shear, each
with varying fatigue characteristics. The fatigue life of the connection
depends on many factors including: the magnitude of the varying applied
load, duration of the varying load, fastener geometry, preloading of the
bolt, relative stiffness of the bolt and joint and the contact area.
Designing to withstand fatigue related failures are addressed in both the
Canadian CSA S16.1-94 and American AISC LRFD-1999 design codes.
These codes provide a method that is based on experimental testing to

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Bickford J. 1990. An Introduction to the Design and Behaviour of

Bolted Joints, 2nd Edition. Marcel Dekker: 467-494.
3

http://www.kuleuven.ac.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/toc.htm,
November 2003.
4

Canadian Institute of Steel Construction. 1997. Handbook of Steel

Construction, 7nd Edition. CISC.
5

American Institute of Steel Construction. 1999. Load and Resistance

Factor Design Specification for Steel Buildings. CISC.

10 CREDITS
The text above has been based on a term project done by Mr. Chris
Meisl for the CIVL510 course in 2003.

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