Rankine Cycle PDF

Chapter 8 Vapor Power Cycle: Steam Power Plant
273
CHAPTER 8
VAPOR POWER CYCLE:
STEAM POWER PLANT
Steam power plants are commonly used for power generation.
They follow a closed cycle plant that is called the vapor power cycle.
Steam is the working fluid in these plants. The standard basic vapor
power cycle is Rankine cycle.
LECTURE NOTES ON THERMODYNAMICS
274
8.1 VAPOR POWER CYCLE

8.1.1 RANKINE CYCLE THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLE
Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can
be eliminated by superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it
completely in the condenser, as shown schematically on a T-s diagram
in Fig.8.1. This cycle is called the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal
cycle for vapor power plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve
any internal irreversibility and consists of the following four processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump.
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler.
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine.
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser.
a) Flow diagram.
b) T-s Property diagram.
Boiler
T
Turbine
PB
2'
4
2
Condenser
Pump
1
W
1'
1
PC
Co
n
Pre den
ser
ss.
QB
WT
QC
a
Figure 8.1 Ideal Rankine cycle
275
Cycle Analysis:
Pump 1-2
Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is
compressed isentropically to the operating pressure of the boiler. The
water temperature increases somewhat during this isentropic
compression process due to slight decrease in the specific volume of the
water. The vertical distance between state 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram is
greatly exaggerated for clarity. (If water were truly incompressible;
would the temperature change at all during this process?).
The pump follows the SSSF process, Eq. 4.16, then
Q W = m { (h 2 h1 ) + (V22 V12) /2 + g(Z2 - Z1)}
In the pump the heat transfer is assumed zero (isentropic) and kinetic
and potential energies are neglected, then
0 W = m { (h 2 h1 ) + 0 + 0)}
WP = m (h 1 h2 )
wP = h 1 h2
kW
kJ/kg
This equation is used to determine h2 if wP is known. Otherwise h2 is

calculated as,
From
vdp
1
v constant (Incompressible)
wp = -v (PB PC) = -v (P2 P1) kJ/kg
then
h2 = h1 + v1 (p2 p1) kJ/kg
276
Boiler (Steam Generator) 2-3

Water enters the boiler as compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as
superheated vapor at state 3. The boiler is basically a large heat
exchanger where the heat originating from combustion gases, nuclear
reactor or other sources, is transferred to the water essentially at constant
pressure. The boiler, together with the section where steam is
superheated (the superheater), is often called the steam generator.
The boiler follows the SSSF process, Eq. 4.16, then
QB W = m { (h 3 h2 ) + (V32 V22) /2 + g(Z3 - Z2)}
There is no work in the boiler and kinetic and potential energies are
neglected, then
QB W = m { (h 3 h2 ) + 0 + 0)}
QB = m (h 3 h2 )
qB = h 3 h2
kW
kJ/kg
Turbine 3-4
The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it expands
isentropically and produces work by rotating the shaft connected to an
electric generator. The pressure and temperature of the steam drop
during this process to the values at state 4, where steam enters the
condenser. At this state, steam is usually saturated liquid-vapor mixture
with high quality (dryness fraction).
The turbine follows the SSSF process, Eq. 4.16, then
Q WT = m { (h 4 h3 ) + (V42 V32) /2 + g(Z4 - Z3)}
277
The process is isentropic and kinetic and potential energies are

neglected, then
0 WT = m { (h 4 h3 ) + 0 + 0)}
WT = m (h 3 h4 )
wT = h 3 h4
kW
kJ/kg
Condenser 4-1
Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser, which is
basically a large heat exchanger, by rejecting heat to a cooling medium
such as water from a lake, a river or the atmosphere. Steam leaves the
condenser as saturated liquid and enters the pump, completing the cycle.
The condenser follows the SSSF process, Eq. 4.16, then
QC W = m { (h 1 h4 ) + (V12 V42) /2 + g(Z1 - Z4)}
The process is isentropic and kinetic and potential energies are
neglected, then
QC W = m { (h 1 h4 ) + 0 + 0)}
QC = m (h 1 h4 )
qC = h 1 h4
kW
kJ/kg
Calculation of h4
Process 3-4 is an isentropic process so :
s3 = s4
Compare s4 with sf and sg at pcondenser if sf < s4 < sg
278
(s 4 s f )
= x 4 (sf & sfg at pc)
s fg
Calculate x4 as
Hence calculate
h4 = hf + x4 hfg
(hf & hfg at pc)
if s4 sg read directly h4 from saturated or superheated tables.

Calculation of cycle efficiency
W
Q
R =
net
W
Q
(h
h 4 ) (h 2 h 1 )
h3 h2
(8.1)
Similarly:
R = 1
= 1
(h 4 h 1 ) (h 3 h 2 ) (h 4 h 1 )
=
(h 3 h 2 )
h3h2
Rearranging the expression:

R =
(h 3 h 4 ) (h 2 h 1 )
h3 h2
(8.2)
The pump work is usually much less than the turbine work.
Thus the pump work can be neglected this means that:
h2 h1
hence QB h3 h1
also Wnet WT (Wp 0) hence
o
The difference in
small.
(h 3 h 4 )
(h 3 h 1)
(8.3)
between the forms in Eqs. 8.2 and 8.3 is very
279
Example 8.1: Determine the efficiency of a Rankine cycle utilizing

steam as the working fluid in which the condenser pressure is
10 kPa. The boiler pressure is 2 MPa. The steam leaves the
boiler as saturated vapor.
Solution
Pump:
P1 is known, saturated liquid;
P2 is known.
First law:
wP = h2 h1
Second law:
s2 = s1
Since
2
s2 = s1 ,
h2 h1 = v dp
1
Assuming the liquid to be incompressible,

Wp = v(P2- P1) = 0.001 01(2000 -10) = 2.0 kJ/kg
h2 = h1+ wp = 191.8 + 2.0 = 193.8 kJ/kg
Boiler:
P2 and h2 are known;
P3 is known, saturated vapor
First law:
qB = h3 h2
qB = h3 h2 = 2799.5 193.8 = 2605.7 kJ/kg
Turbine:
State 3 is known (above).
P4 is known.
First law:
wT = h3 h4
Second law:
s3 = s4
The quality at state 4 is obtained as follow:
s3 =s4 = 6.3409 = 0.6493 + x4 7.5009,
h4 = 191.8 + 0.7588(2392.8) = 2007.5
wT = 2799.5 2007.5 = 792.0 kJ/kg
x4 = 0.7588
280
Condenser:
First law:
qc = h4 h1
qc = h4 h1 = 2007.5 191.8 = 1815.7 kJ/kg
Cycle Efficiency:
R =
( h 3 h 4 ) ( h 2 h1 )
792 2
=
= 30 . 32 %
h3 h 2
2605 . 7
8.1.2 SOME IMPORTANT PARAMETERS IN STEAM

POWER CYCLE
8.1.2.1 Specific Steam Consumption (SSC)
The steam circulated in the cycle, m, is proportional to the size of
the power plant that produce power. The ratio between the steam flow
rate and the net power produced by the cycle is called the specific steam
consumption (SSC). Lower values of SSC refer to more efficient power
plant. Thus:
SSC =
net
1
w net
m w net
1
w net
kg / kJ
The units of SSC are converted from (kg / kJ) to (kg / kWhr). Then
1
SSC =
kg / kWhr 3600 s / hr
w net
SSC =
3600
w net
kg / kWhr
(8.4)
281
8.1.2.2 Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

In boilers the heat transfer to the water, QB, is produced by the
combustion of fuel inside the boiler house. The energy released by
combustion is not usually transferred to the water completely, i.e. the
boiler is not 100% efficient to transfer heat of combustion to the water.
The ratio between the heat absorbed by the water in the boiler, QB , and
the heat produced by combustion is used to define the boiler efficiency,
B . The difference between the heat released by combustion and the
heat transfer to the water is lost in the exhaust gases through the boiler
chimney and by the heat transfer through the boiler walls. The heat
produced by the combustion of 1 kg of fuel is called heating value of
fuel , HHV. Thus the heat released by combustion is obtained from:
QF = mF x HHV ,
(8.5)
where mF is the rate of fuel consumption in the boiler. The boiler

efficiency, B , is defined as:
o
QB
B =
m (h 3 h 2 )
(8.6)
Q F m F HHV
One of the most important parameters in power stations is the ratio
between the rate of fuel consumed, mF , and the power produced by the
power station. This parameter is called the specific fuel consumption,
SFC. It is calculated as:
o
mF
SFC =
W net
mF
kg / kJ
m w net
The units of the SFC are usually converted from (kg / kJ) to (gm/kWhr).
Then
o
mF
SFC =
kg / kJ
1000
g / kg 3600 s / hr
m wnet
o
SFC =
mF
o
m w net
3 . 6 10 6
gm / kWhr
(8.7) (8.7)
282
8.1.2.3
The Cooling Water Flow Rate in the Condenser
The steam in the condenser rejects heat to cooling water. Thus the
condenser is considered as a heat exchanger and the heat rejected by the
steam equals the heat absorbed by the cooling water. So,
o
Q C = Q c. w
o
where Q c.w is the rate of heat absorbed by the cooling water. If the mass
o
flow rate of the cooling water is m c.w and its temperature rises from Twi
to Two , then
o
Q c.w = m c.w (h wo h wi )
o
Q c.w = m c.w C w (Two Twi )

where Cw is the water specific heat ( = 4.18 kJ / kg K). Thus,
Q C = Q c. w
m(h 4 h 1 ) = m c.w C w (Two Twi )

o
m(h 4 h 1 ) = m c.w C w (Two Twi )

o
m c. w = m
(h 4 h 1 )
C w (Two T wi )
Since (h4 h1) >> Cw (Two Twi) ,
(8.8)
283
The amount of cooling water required in the condenser is huge relative

to the steam flow rate. This means that power stations require large
sources of water such as rivers and seas.
8.2 EFFECT OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

ON RANKINE CYCLE EFFICIENCY, R
8.2.1 EFFECT OF CONDENSER PRESSURE
Condenser operates at exhaust pressure below atmospheric
pressure. Further reduction of condenser pressure affects the cycle
efficiency. Work gain due to reducing condenser pressure can be
represented on the T-s diagram shown in Fig. 8.2 as the hatched area
(area 1` 2` 2 1 4 4`). This leads the higher efficiency.
C.P.
2
2
2'
1'
4
4'
p4
p4'
x 4' x
Figure 8.2 Effect of condenser pressure

Note:
Disadvantage of reducing the condenser pressure is the reduction of the
steam quality (dryness fraction) at the exit of the turbine (i.e. x4` < x4).
i.e. moisture contents at point 4` is higher than 4 and turbine blades are
exposed to more erosion.
284
8.2.2 EFFECT OF BOILER PRESSURE

To study the effect of boiler pressure we should keep the steam
temperature at the exit of the boiler, T3 , constant. Then
T3 = T3` = Tmax
Also condenser pressure is kept constant.
Heat rejection is reduced by the area (4 4` a c).
3'
.
2'
2
1
b
4'
4
a
Figure 8.3 Effect of boiler pressure

o
As a result of increasing boiler pressure, Q C is decreased.
If the area (a-b-3-c) = area (2-2`-3`-b). Then Q B is constant and
o
o
W net increases. This leads to an increase of R .

o
Also if area (4-4`-3-b) = area (2-2`-3`-b), then Q B decreases and
W net kept the same. Thus Rankine efficiency increases. So,

As PB increases R increases.
Note:
Disadvantage of increasing the boiler pressure leads to decrease of the
steam quality at the exit of the turbine. This is similar to the pervious
effect of reducing condenser pressure.
285
8.2.3 EFFECT OF SUPERHEATING

As shown in Fig. 8.4 by increasing T3 and keeping PB the same, then
Wnet is increased by the area (3 3` 4` 4).
QA is increased by the same area + area (4 4` b` b).
Heat rejection is increased by the area (4 4` b` b).
3'
3
2
4'
b
b'
Figure 8.4 Effect of steam superheat
th , R = 1
QR
QA
since QA is increased by a larger ratio
R will be increased if superheat is used.

Another advantage is the increase of the steam quality at the
exit of the turbine, i.e. less erosion is expected.
Summary:
As shown in Fig.8.5 below th is increased by:
1- Lowering condenser pressure (less heat rejection for
same heat addition).
2- Increasing boiler pressure.
286
3- Superheating the steam.

Lowering condenser pressure and increasing boiler pressure decreases
the quality of steam, as shown below.
th
Co
e
ens
nd
r es
rp
s.
Co n
de n
il
Bo
Condenser press.
Boiler press.
Superheating
er
ser p
pr
ress
.
e ss
p er
Su
h ea
g
tin
Condenser press.
Boiler press.
Superheating
Figure 8.5 Variation of steam quality at the turbine exit and Rankine
cycle efficiency with condenser pressure, boiler pressure and superheat
temperature
8.3 THE REHEAT CYCLE

Superheating the steam to high temperature is limited by its effect
on the turbine material. So, in order to improve the Rankine cycle
efficiency and increase the net power output, the steam is reheated after
expansion through some part of the turbine as shown in Fig.8.6. Thus
the steam is reheated before complete expansion in the turbine. After
reheat the steam is further expanded in the second part of the turbine.
This expansion may be occurring in two parts, called stages, of the
turbine. The first part of the turbine is called high-pressure stage and the
second part is called low-pressure stage.
After expansion from state (3) to state (4) in the turbine the steam is
reheated in the boiler building to state (5). The temperature of the steam
at state (5) is almost equal or less than T3:
T5 T3
287
The reheated steam is then passed to the second stage of the turbine, 5-6.
Reheat cycle improve the cycle efficiency, exit quality of the steam from
the turbine and increase the net power output.
Boiler
3'
T
Turbine
3
5
6
2
Condenser
1
6'
1
Pump
Figure 8.6 Modified Rankine reheat cycle

Example 8.2: Consider a reheat cycle utilizing steam. Steam leaves the
boiler and enters the turbine at 4 MPa, 4000C. After expansion in
the turbine to 400 kPa, the steam is reheated to 4000C and then
expanded in the low-pressure turbine to 10 kPa. Determine the
cycle efficiency.
Solution
For each control volume analyzed, the thermodynamic model is the
steam tables, the process is SSSF, and changes in kinetic and
potential energies are negligible.
High-Pressure turbine:
Inlet state: P3, T3 are known
Exit state: P4 is known.
Analysis:
First law:
wh-p = h3- h4
Second law:
s3 = s4
288
h3= 3213.6,
s3 = 6.7690
s4 = s3 = 6.7690 = 1.7766 = x4 501193, x4 = 0.9752
h4 = 604.7 = 0.9752(2133.8) = 2685.6 kJ/kg
Low-Pressure turbine:
Inlet state:
P5, T5 are known
Exit state:
P6 known.
Analysis:
First law:
wI-P = h5 h6
Second law:
s5 = s6
s5= 7.8985 kJ/kg K
h5 = 3273.4 kJ/kg,
s6 = s5 = 7.8985 = 0.6493 + x6 7.5009,
x6 = 0.9664
h6 = 191.8 + 0.9664(2392.8) = 2504.3 kJ/kg
For the overall turbine, the total work output Wt is the sum of Wh-P
and Wl-p, so that
wT = (h3 h4) + (h5 h6)
= (3213.6 2685.6) + (3273.4 2504.3)
= 1297.1 kJ/kg
Pump:
Inlet state:
Exit state:
Analysis:
First law:
Second law:
Since s2 = s1,
P1 is known, saturated liquid

P2 is known.
wP = h2 h1
s2 = s1
2
h2 h1 =
vdp = v(P2 P1)

1
wP = v(P2 P1) = 0.00101(4000- 10) = 4.0 kJ/kg

h2 = 191.8 + 4.0 = 195.8 kJ/kg
Boiler:
Inlet states:
States 3 and 5 both known (above).
289
Exit states:
States 2 and 4 both known (above).
Analysis:
First law:
qB = (h3 h2) + (h5 h4)
qB = (h3 h2) + (h5 h4)

= (3213.6 195.8) + (3273.4 2685.6) = 3605.6 kJ/kg
Therefore,
wnet = wT wp = 1297.1 4.0 = 1293.1 kJ/kg
W net
w net
1293 . 1
R =
=
=
= 35 . 85 %
QB
qB
3605 . 6
8.4 The IDEAL REGENERATIVE CYCLE

Consider Rankine cycle (1-2-2`-3-4)
and the corresponding Carnot cycle
having same TH & TL is (1`-2`-3-4).
Rankine efficiency is lower than Carnot
efficiency:
R < C
T
2'
1 1'
s
Figure 8.7 Rankine and Carnot cycles
because of heat addition between (2-2`) as shown in Fig. 8.7. Thus
improving the Rankine cycle efficiency requires to reduction of the heat
added between 2 and 2`. This is done using a regenerative cycle.
In regenerative cycle, the water is heated before the boiler by some
of the available energy in the steam. For ideal regenerative cycle the
water is heated in the turbine as shown in Fig. 8.8.
This improves the Rankine cycle efficiency. However, it is out
practical to heat the water in the turbine. So, the water may be heated by
290
small part of the steam extracted from the turbine to an external heat
exchanger called feedwater heater. Two types of feedwater heaters are
used. The first type is called open type feedwater heater where the
extracted, bled, steam mixes with the water and the result is hot water at
the exit of the heater. The second type is called closed type, where
there is no mixing between the steam and the water. The heat is only
transferred from the steam to the water. The regenerative cycle using
these two types is presented in the following sections.
Steam from boiler

4
3
3
Liquid to boiler
2
1
5'
s
Figure 8.8 Ideal regenerative cycle
8.4.1 REGENERATIVE CYCLE WITH OPEN

FEEDWATER HEATER
A regenerative cycle using one open type feedwater heater is shown
in Fig. 8.9 below. The ratio between the bled steam to the total steam
flow rate is called m. Then:
bled steam flow rate
m=
o
m
The flow diagram per 1 kg of total steam flow rate is also shown in
Fig. 8.9.
291
The steam extracted from the turbine at state (6) between the boiler
pressure and the condenser pressure is mixed with the water from the
condenser. Thus the water pressure at the condenser exit should be
increased by a pump in order to mix with the extracted steam. Another
pump is required at the exit of the feedwater heater to increase the water
pressure to the boiler pressure. Therefore, the feedwater heater requires
two pumps for operation as shown in Fig. 8.9.
5
Turbine
Boiler
High press.
1 kg
6
m kg
Feedwater
heater
4
Condenser
2
3 1 kg
Pump
Intermediate
press.
(1-m) kg
Low press.
Pump
Figure 8.9 Regenerative cycle with open feedwater heater

To apply the first law of thermodynamics in this case, first start with
feedwater heater to calculate m or state (3) or (6) if m is given as
follow:
6
From the first principles of the first law

of thermodynamics:
m
2
1-m
Energy in = energy out + Change of stored energy

m h6 + (1 m) h2 = 1 x h3
h h
m= 3 2
h 6 h 2
If m is given and state (6) is not known the above equation can be used
to determine this state.
292
Turbine
The turbine is divided into two parts; one before extraction where
the mass flow is total and the second where the mass flow is less by the
amount of m. Thus
wT = 1 x (h5 h6) + (1 m)(h6 h7)
o
WT = mw T
Condenser
The first law for the condenser is:
qc = (1- m)(h1 h7)
o
QC = mq C
Pump
The work of the pumps may be calculated as:
wp = wp 1-2 + wp 3-4
= (1 m)(h2 h1) + 1 x (h3 h2)
o
WP = mw P
However, the pumps may be neglected.
Boiler
The first law for the boiler is:
qB = 1 x (h5 h4)
o
QB = mq B
Thermal efficiency:
293
w w P
th = T
qB
8.4.2 REGENERATIVE CYCLE WITH CLOSED

FEEDWATER HEATER:
In this cycle the extracted steam condenses and does not mix with
the water. Thus, the condensate may return to the condenser through a
throttling valve or pumped to the water line to the boiler. The first law is
applied to each element of the cycle.
1 kg
Turbine
Boiler
m kg
(1-m) kg
3
2
Condenser
2 Pump
3
7
5
7
Figure 8.10 Regenerative cycle with closed feedwater heater

Extracted steam
Feedwater
Condensate
Pump
Trap
Back to
condenser
Figure 8.11 Closed feedwater heater
294
The process (7-8) is throttling process and

h7 = h8
h7 = hf .
It may be assumed that T7 = T3 and T7 = Tf at the extraction pressure.
8.4.3 EFFECT OF THE NUMBER OF FEEDWATER

HEATERS ON THE THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Increasing the number of feedwater heaters improve the thermal
efficiency. This is however limited by the cost and there is an optimum.
Fig.8.12 shows the effect of the number of feedwater heaters on the
thermal efficiency of the cycle. It shows that an optimum efficiency
exists about which the increase in th is very small.
th
Tota
l
cost
Optimum
Ope
rat
ing
cost
t
os
ed c
Fix
1
2
3
4
Number of feedwater heaters
295
Figure 8.12 Effect of number of feedwater heaters on the thermal

efficiency
Example 8.3: Consider a regenerative cycle utilizing steam as the
working fluid. Steam leaves the boiler and enters the turbine at
4 MPa, 4000C. After expansion to 400 kPa some of the steam is
extracted from the turbine for the purpose of heating the
feedwater in an open feedwater heater. The remaining steam
expands to 10kPa. The pressure in the feedwater heater is 400
kPa and the water leaving it is saturated liquid at 400 kPa.
Determine the cycle efficiency.
Solution
The line diagram and T- s diagram for this cycle are
shown in Fig. 8.9.
As in previous examples, for each control volume the model
used is the steam tables, the process is SSSF, and kinetic and
potential energy changes are negligible.
Similar to previous examples, we can obtain:
h6 = 2685.6 kJ/kg
h5 = 3213.6 kJ/kg,
h7 = 2144.1 kJ/kg,
h1 = 191.8 kJ/kg
Control volume:
Low-Pressure pump
Inlet state:
P1 known, saturated liquid; state fixed.
Exit state:
P2 known
Analysis:
First law:
wp1 = (h2 h1)
Second law:
s2 = s1
Therefore,
h2 h1 =
v dP = v (P2 P1)
wp1 = v (P2 P1) = 0.001 01(400 10) = 0.4 kJ/kg
296
h2 h1 + wp = 191.8 + 0.4 = 192.2
Turbine
Inlet state:
Exit state:
Analysis:
First law:
Second law:
P5, T5 are known

P6 is known; P7 is known.
wT = (h5 h6) + (1 m1) (h6 h7)
s5 = s6 = s7
Form the second law, the values for h6 and h7 given above have
been calculated in Example 8.2
Feedwater heater:
Inlet states:
States 2 and 6 are known (above).
Exit state:
P3 is known; saturated liquid
Analysis:
First law:
m1(h6) + (1 m1) h2 = h3
m1(2685.6) + (1 m1)(192.2) = 604.7
m1 = 0.1654
We can now calculate the turbine work.
wT = (h5 h6) + (1 m1)(h6 h7)
= (3213.6 2685.6) + (1 0.1654)(2685.6 2144.1)
= 979.9 kJ/kg
High-Pressure pump:
Inlet state:
States 3 is known (above).
Exit state:
P4 is known.
Analysis:
First law:
wp2 = (h4 h3)
Second law: s4 = s3
wp2 = v (P4 P3) = 0.001 084(4000 400) = 3.9 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 + wp2 = 604.7 + 3.9 = 60806
Therefore,
wnet = wT (1 m1) wp1 - wp2
297
= 979.9 (1 0.1654)(0.4) 3.9 = 975.7 kJ/kg
Boiler:
Inlet state:
Exit state:
Analysis:
First law:
P4, h4 are known (above)

qH = h5 h4
qH = h5 h4 = 3213.6 608.6 = 2605.0 kJ/kg

w
975.7
= net =
= 37.5%
th
qH
2605.0
Example 8.4: A steam power plant produces 220 MW. The steam is
superheated in the boiler to 500 oC at a pressure of 4 Mpa. The
steam enters the turbine at 3.5 Mpa and 480 oC. The steam expands
through the turbine to a pressure of 3 kPa and 0.9 quality. During
expansion two stream of steam are extracted at 10 bar and 2 bar to
two open type feed water heaters. Neglecting the pumping work,
calculate:
(a) The isentropic efficiency of the turbine,
(b) The thermal efficiency of the cycle,
(c) The specific steam consumption in kg/kW hr, and
(d) The specific fuel consumption in gm/kW hr if the fuel
calorific value is 41 MJ/kg and the boiler efficiency is 82 %.
Solution:
The flow diagram and the cycle on T-s and h-s diagrams are shown
below.
W
m1
QA
m2
11
10
6
WPIII
II
1 - m1
4
WPII
QR
1 1 - m1 - m2
2
WPI
298
8
6
4 5
3
9
m1
500 C
o
480 C
2 bar
m2
500 C
o
480 C
7
r
40 ba
r
35 ba
1 - m1
10
1 - m1 - m2
6
4 5
r
10 ba
2 3
1 - m1 - m2
m1
10
m2
2 bar
2
1-m
1-m
1 - m1
1 - m1 - m2
11s
11
0 .9
11s 11
1 obtained from the

The properties of steam at each state are
steam tables and chart andsare listed below:
State
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11s
11
P bar
0.03
2
2
10
10
40
40
35
10
2
0.03
0.03
T or x
x=0
neglect
x=0
neglect
x=0
neglect
500 oC
480 oC
x = 0.9
kJ/kg
101
101
504.7
504.7
762.6
762.6
3445
3405.6
3131.4
2834.2
2101.55
2301.14
(a) The turbine isentropic efficiency, , is:

t = (h8 - h11)/(h8 - h11) = 84.9 %
299
(b) Apply the first law to each feed water heater in order
to get the amount of extracted per kg of total steam flow
rate, m1 and m2.
For heater II
The first law: Energy in = energy out + change of stored
energy
m1 h9 + (1 - m1) h4 = h5
m1 = (h5 - h4)/( h9 - h4) = 0.0982
For heater I
The first law: Energy in = energy out + change of stored
energy
m2 h10 + (1 - m1- m2) h2 = (1 - m1) h3
m2 = (1 - m1) (h3 - h2)/( h10 - h2) = 0.1332
The cycle thermal efficiency, th, is calculated as:
th = Wnet / Qadded = wnet / qadded

The net work equals the turbine work where the pump work is
neglected, then
wT = (h8 - h9) + (1 - m1) (h9 - h10) + (1 - m1- m2) (h10 - h11)
wT = 951.93 kJ/kg
The heat added, qA, is:
qA = (h7 - h6)
qA = 2682.4 kJ/kg
Then,
th = Wnet / Qadded = wnet / qadded

th = 35.49 %
300
(c) To calculate the specific steam consumption, SSC,

SSC = mo / Wonet = 1 / wT = 3600 / 951.93 = 3.78 kg/kW hr
(d) The specific fuel consumption, SFC, is
SFC = moF / Wonet = moF / mo wnet
SFC = (moF / mo ) x (1/wnet) = (moF / mo ) x SSC
From the boiler efficiency, B,
B = QoA / moF HHV = mo qA / moF HHV
Then
moF / mo = qA / (B HHV)
moF / mo = 0.0798
SFC
= 0.0798 SSC
= 0.3016
kg/kW hr
SFC
= 301.6
gm/kW hr
8.5 DEVIATION OF ACTUAL CYCLE

FROM IDEAL CYCLE:
8.5.1 TURBINE AND PUMP LOSSES
3
2
2s
1
4s 4
301
Figure 8.13 Deviation of actual cycle from ideal cycle

Due to irreversibility entropy increases during compression and
expansion processes. Actual point at pump exit is 2. Actual point at
turbine exit is 4. Deviation of pump and turbine from ideal case may be
evaluated by an isentropic efficiency, is , for both as follows:
i ,p =
i ,t =
w i ,p
w act ,p
w act ,T
w i ,T
( h 2s h 1 )
(h 2 h 1 )
(for pump)
(h 3 h 4 )
(h 3 h 4s )
(for turbine)
8.5.2 PRESSURE LOSSES IN PIPE LINES

The friction losses in the pipe lines reduce the pressure. So, the
steam pressure in actual cycle is reduced in the boiler and in the pipe
lines between the boiler and the turbine and between the pump and the
boiler.
8.5.3 HEAT LOSSES IN PIPE LINES

The steam pipelines are usually insulated. The insulation is,
however, not perfect and some heat losses are expected.
302
PROBLEMS
8.1. In a steam power plant, operates on the Rankine cycle, the steam is
supplied to the turbine dry saturated at 45 bar and the condenser
pressure is 3.5 kPa. Calculate:
a) the work output, per kg of steam,
b) the heat supplied per kg of steam,
c) the specific steam consumption,
d) the specific fuel consumption if the fuel calorific value
is 42000 kJ/kg,
e) the mass flow rate of the cooling water if the water temperature
changes from 22 oC to 34 oC, and
f) the cycle thermal efficiency,
g) the Carnot cycle efficiency operating between the same
pressure limits,
h) the change of the cycle efficiency if the steam supplied is
superheated to 450 oC, 500 oC and 550 oC.
303
8.2. Steam is supplied to a two-stage turbine at 42 bar and 400 oC. It

expands in the first stage until it is just dry saturated, then it is
superheated to 400 oC and then expanded through the second
stage turbine. The condenser pressure is 3.5 kPa. Calculate the
work output and heat supplied for a total of 300 MW power plant.
Calculate the specific steam consumption and the specific fuel
consumption in gm/kW hr if the fuel calorific value is 41000
kJ/kg.
8.3. Two steam turbines are used to produce 100 MW. The steam
supplied for both turbines is at 4 MPa and 400 C. The first turbine
exhausts the steam at 10 kPa and 85 % quality. The steam leaves
the second turbine is used to supply heat for an industrial process.
So it exits from the second turbine at 1 bar and then passes
through a heat exchanger. The steam at the exit of the heat
exchanger is saturated liquid at the same pressure of 1 bar. If the
first turbine produces 80 % more specific work, and also power,
than the second turbine, determine:
1. The quality, if wet, or the temperature, if superheated, at
the exit of the second turbine;
2. The mass flow rate through both turbines; and
3. The heat rejected from the heat exchanger.
8.4. Repeat problem 8.2 if the expansion is not isentropic in both

stages, assuming an isentropic efficiency of 85 % for the first stage
and 80 % for the second stage. Compare the efficiencies and
comment.
8.5. Steam enters the first stage turbine of a 200 MW steam power
plant at 170 bar and 600 oC. The steam leaves the first stage turbine
at 40 bar. 15 % of the steam is extracted for feed heating and the
remainder is reheated to 600 oC and then expanded through the
second turbine stage to a final condenser pressure of 0.035 bar.
Calculate the cycle efficiency and the output power if the generator
mechanical and electrical efficiency is 95 %. Calculate the specific
304
steam consumption and specific fuel consumption, assuming a fuel

calorific value of 42000 kJ/kg. Calculate the amount of cooling
water required for a temperature rise from 18 oC to 26 oC.
8.6. A steam turbine is to operate on a simple regenerative cycle. The

steam is supplied dry saturated at 40 bar and is exhausted to a
condenser pressure of 0.07 bar. The condensate is pumped to a
pressure of 3.5 bar at which it is mixed with bleed steam from the
turbine at 3.5 bar. The resulting water, which is at saturation
temperature, is then pumped to the boiler. For the ideal cycle
calculate:
a) the amount of bleed steam required per kg of steam supplied,
b) the thermal efficiency of the plant, and
c) the specific steam consumption.
8.7. Steam is supplied to two-stage turbine at 40 bar and 500 oC. In the
first stage the steam expands isentropically to 3.0 bar at which
pressure 2500 kg/hr of steam is extracted for process work. The
remainder is reheated to 500 oC and then expanded isentropically to
0.06 bar. The by-product power from the plant is required to be
6000 kW. Calculate the amount of steam required from the boiler,
and the heat supplied in kW. Neglect the pump terms, and assume
that the process condensate returns at the saturation temperature to
mix adiabatically with the condensate from the condenser.
8.8. In a regenerative steam cycle employing three feed heaters, steam
is supplied to the turbine at 42 bar and 500 oC and is exhausted to
the condenser at 0.035 bar. The bleed steam for feed heating is
taken at pressures of 15, 4 and 0.5 bar.
Calculate the amount of steam bled at each stage, the work
output of the plant in kJ/kg of boiler steam and the thermal
efficiency. Assume that the isentropic efficiency is 80 %.
8.9. A combined reheat and regenerative cycle is used in a steam power
plant to produce 300 MW. The steam leaves the boiler at 4 MPa
and 400 oC and enters the high-pressure turbine at 3.5 MPa and 380
o
C. The isentropic efficiency of the high-pressure turbine is 85 %.
305
The reheat pressure is 1 MPa and the steam enters the low-pressure
turbine at 380 oC. The steam enters the condenser at 5 kPa and 93
% dryness fraction. During expansion in the low-pressure turbine
dry saturated steam is extracted for feedwater heating in a closed
type feedwater heater. Find the extraction pressure. Neglect the
pump work and calculate:
(i) the isentropic efficiency of the low-pressure turbine,
(ii) the specific steam consumption,
(iii) the specific fuel consumption if the boiler efficiency is 84 % and
the fuel calorific value is 41000 kJ/kg, and
(vi) the cycle thermal efficiency.
8.10. In a regenerative steam power plant a 500 ton/hr steam enters the
turbine at 45 bar and 500 oC. The specific fuel consumption is 265
gm/kW hr. The cycle contains one open type feed water heater
operates at 5 bar. Consider an isentropic expansion in the turbine to
0.05 bar, then calculate:
(i) the power of the plant,
(ii) the specific steam consumption,
(iii) the boiler efficiency if the fuel calorific value is 40000 kJ/kg,
and
(vi) the cycle thermal efficiency.
8.11. A steam Rankine cycle operates between 4 MPa and 10 kPa is

used to deliver 150 MW of power. If the steam enters the turbine is
superheated at 450 oC, calculate:
1. The cycle efficiency
2. The steam flow rate and specific steam consumption.
3. The rate of heat added to the boiler.
4. The amount of cooling water if its inlet and exit temperatures
are 15 oC and 25 oC, respectively.
306
8.12. In a simple Rankine cycle 85 kg/sec of steam leaves the boiler at a

pressure of 50 bar and temperature of 550 oC and then expands
through the turbine to the condenser at a pressure of 0.03 bar and
dryness fraction of 0.9. Calculate:
1. Cycle efficiency
2. The pump power
3. The net power
4. The specific steam consumption in kg/kW hr
5. The specific fuel consumption, in gm/kW hr, if the boiler
efficiency is 88 % and the fuel heating value is 50000 kJ/kg
6. The exergy of steam at the turbine inlet in kW
8.13. A steam power cycle produces 100 MW and operates between

boiler pressure of 40 bar and condenser pressure of 0.03 bar. If the
steam enters the turbine at 450 oC and the turbine efficiency is 92
%, calculate:
1. The pump power
2. The turbine power
3. The cycle thermal efficiency
4. The specific fuel consumption in gm/kW hr, assuming the
boiler efficiency is 88 % and the fuel heating value is 50000
kJ/kg
8.14. A steam power cycle operates with reheat and regenerative
modifications. The steam enters the first turbine at 50 bar and 500
o
C. The steam expands in the first turbine with an isentropic
efficiency of 90 % to a pressure of 20 bar, then the steam is reheated
to a temperature of 450 oC. During expansion in the second turbine
steam is extracted from two points to two open-type feed water
heaters at pressures of 8 and 2 bars. The steam enters the condenser
at 0.035 bar and 92 % dryness fraction. If the net power of the cycle
is 150 MW, calculate:
2. The amount of bled steam to both feed water heaters in tons/hr
3. The total steam flow rate
4. The second turbine efficiency
307
5. The specific steam consumption

6. The specific fuel consumption if the boiler efficiency is 85 %
and the fuel heating value is 50000 kJ/kg
o
C. The steam expands in the first turbine with an isentropic
efficiency of 90 % to a pressure of 20 bar. During expansion in the
first turbine steam is extracted at a pressure of 30 bar. The steam is
reheated to a temperature of 450 oC. During expansion in the second
turbine saturated vapor steam is extracted to an open-type feed
water heater. The steam enters the condenser at 0.035 bar and 92 %
dryness fraction. If the net power of the cycle is 300 MW, calculate:
1. The extracted pressure from the second turbine
3. The amount of bled steam to both feed water heaters in tons/hr
o
C. The steam expands in the first turbine to a pressure of 20 bar
and temperature of 375 oC, then the steam is reheated to a
temperature of 450 oC. During expansion in the second turbine
steam is extracted from two points to two open-type feed water
heaters at pressures of 10 and 2 bars. The steam enters the
condenser at 0.035 bar and 93 % dryness fraction. If the net power
of the cycle is 150 MW, calculate:
3. The first turbine efficiency
308

o
C. The steam expands in the first turbine to a pressure of 20 bar
and temperature of 400 oC, then the steam is reheated to a
temperature of 500 oC. During expansion in the second turbine
steam is extracted from two points to two closed-type feed water
heaters at pressures of 8 and 4 bars. The steam enters the condenser
at 0.035 bar and 90 % dryness fraction. If the net power of the cycle
is 150 MW, calculate:
3. The first turbine efficiency
8.18. A steam power cycle operates with regenerative modification. The
steam enters the turbine at 70 bar and 600 oC. During expansion in
the turbine steam is extracted from four points to four open-type
feed water heaters at pressures of 20, 10, 5 and 2 bars. The steam
enters the condenser at 0.035 bar and 89 % dryness fraction. If the
net power of the cycle is 150 MW, calculate:
2. The turbine isentropic efficiency
4. The amount of bled steam to each feed water heaters in tons/hr
8.19. A steam power cycle operates with regenerative modification. The
steam enters the turbine at 70 bar and 600 oC. During expansion in
the turbine steam is extracted from four points to four closed-type
309
feed water heaters at pressures of 15, 8, 4 and 1 bars. The steam

enters the condenser at 0.035 bar and 89 % dryness fraction. If the
2. The turbine isentropic efficiency
4. The amount of bled steam to each feed water heaters in tons/hr
8.20. A steam power cycle operates with reheat and rengenerative
o
C and then expands to a pressure of 30 bar and temperature of 450
o
C. The steam is reheated to a temperature of 540 oC and then
expands in a second turbine with an isentropic efficiency of 92 % to
a pressure of 15 bar. The steam is then reheated again to a
temperature of 500 and expands to a condenser pressure of 0.035
bar and 93 % dryness fraction. During expansion in the last turbine
saturated steam is extracted to an open type feed-water heater. If the
2. The isentropic efficiencies of the first and last turbines
8.21. A steam power cycle operates with reheat and rengenerative

o
C and then expands to a pressure of 30 bar and temperature of 450
o
C. The steam is reheated to a temperature of 540 oC and then
expands in a second turbine with an isentropic efficiency of 92 % to
a pressure of 15 bar. The steam is then reheated again to a
temperature of 500 and expands to a condenser pressure of 0.035
310
bar and 93 % dryness fraction. During expansion in the third turbine

steam is extracted at 4 bar to an open type feed-water heater. If the
2. The isentropic efficiencies of the first and last turbines
8.22. A steam power cycle operates with both reheat and regenerative
o
C and then expands to saturated steam at a temperature of 200 oC.
The steam is reheated to a temperature of 400 oC and then expands
in a second turbine with an isentropic efficiency of 92 % to a
condenser pressure of 0.035 bar. During expansion in the second
turbine three streams of steam are extracted for feed water heating
to three open type feed water heaters. The extraction pressures are
selected through the turbine with equal intervals between the inlet
and exit pressures of the turbine. If the net power of the cycle is 250
MW, calculate:
2. The turbine isentropic efficiency of the first turbine
8.23. A steam power cycle operates with reheat and regeneration
o
C and then expands isentropically to a pressure of 15 bar. The
steam is reheated to a temperature of 450 oC and then expands in a
second turbine with an isentropic efficiency of 90 % to a condenser
pressure of 0.035 bar. During expansion saturated steam is extracted
to an open type feedwater heater. If the net power of the cycle is
250 MW, calculate:
1. The extraction pressure
2.
3.
4.
5.
311
The cycle thermal efficiency

The total steam flow rate
The specific steam consumption
The specific fuel consumption if the boiler efficiency is 85 %
8.24. A steam power cycle operates with reheat and regeneration

o
C and then expands isentropically to a pressure of 15 bar. During
expansion in the first turbine steam is extracted for feedwater
heating at a pressure of 20 bar. The steam leaves the first turbine is
reheated to a temperature of 450 oC and then expands in a second
turbine with an isentropic efficiency of 90 % to a condenser
pressure of 0.035 bar. During expansion in the second turbine dry
saturated steam is extracted to an open type feedwater heater. If the
1. The extraction pressure
8.25. It is required to study the effect of number of feedwater heaters on
the Rankine cycle efficiency. If the boiler pressure is 60 bar and the
condenser pressure is 0.035 bar, calculate the cycle efficiency for
one, two, three, four and five open-type feedwater heaters
considering the extraction pressures to be equally divided between
the boiler and condenser pressures. Assume the turbine inlet
temperature is 550 oC and the steam enters the condenser at 0.85
dryness fraction.
Plot the efficiency versus the number of heaters and comment.
You are allowed to approximate the extraction pressure to the
nearest integer values.
312
8.26. It is required to study the effect of number of feedwater heaters on

the Rankine cycle efficiency. If the boiler pressure is 80 bar and the
one, two, three, four and five closed-type feedwater heaters
considering the extraction pressures to be equally divided between
the boiler and condenser pressures. Assume the turbine inlet
temperature is 650 oC and the steam enters the condenser at 0.95
dryness fraction.
You are allowed to approximate the extraction pressure to the
nearest integer values.
8.27. It is required to study the effect of number of reheats on the
Rankine cycle efficiency. If the boiler pressure is 70 bar and the
one, two, three, four and five turbines considering the reheat
pressures to be equally divided between the boiler and condenser
pressures and the reheat temperature is 650 oC. Assume the turbine
inlet temperature is 650 oC and the isentropic efficiency of all
turbines is 90 %.
You are allowed to approximate the reheat pressures to the nearest
integer values.
o
C and then expands isentropically to a saturated vapor. The steam
is reheated to a temperature of 300 oC and then expanded
isentropically to saturated steam conditions. The steam once again
reheated to a temperature of 250 oC and then expanded to a
condenser pressure of 0.035 bar with an isentropic efficiency of 90
%. During expansion in the last turbine saturated steam is extracted
to a closed type feedwater heater. If the net power of the cycle is
250 MW, calculate:
1. The reheat pressures
313

o
C and then expands isentropically to a saturated vapor. The steam
is reheated to a temperature of 500 oC and then expanded to a
condenser pressure of 0.035 bar with an isentropic efficiency of 90
%. During expansion in the second turbine steam is extracted to an
open-type feedwater heater. Consider the extraction pressure half
way between inlet and exit pressures of the turbine. If the net power
of the cycle is 250 MW, calculate:

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Chapter 8 Vapor Power Cycle: Steam Power Plant

LECTURE NOTES ON THERMODYNAMICS

8.1 VAPOR POWER CYCLE

b) T-s Property diagram.

Figure 8.1 Ideal Rankine cycle

Chapter 8 Vapor Power Cycle: Steam Power Plant

This equation is used to determine h2 if wP is known. Otherwise h2 is

h2 = h1 + v1 (p2 p1) kJ/kg

LECTURE NOTES ON THERMODYNAMICS

Boiler (Steam Generator) 2-3

Chapter 8 Vapor Power Cycle: Steam Power Plant

The process is isentropic and kinetic and potential energies are

Compare s4 with sf and sg at pcondenser if sf < s4 < sg

LECTURE NOTES ON THERMODYNAMICS

(hf & hfg at pc)

if s4 sg read directly h4 from saturated or superheated tables.

Rearranging the expression:

between the forms in Eqs. 8.2 and 8.3 is very

Chapter 8 Vapor Power Cycle: Steam Power Plant

Example 8.1: Determine the efficiency of a Rankine cycle utilizing

Assuming the liquid to be incompressible,

LECTURE NOTES ON THERMODYNAMICS

8.1.2 SOME IMPORTANT PARAMETERS IN STEAM

Chapter 8 Vapor Power Cycle: Steam Power Plant

8.1.2.2 Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

where mF is the rate of fuel consumption in the boiler. The boiler

LECTURE NOTES ON THERMODYNAMICS

The Cooling Water Flow Rate in the Condenser

Q c.w = m c.w C w (Two Twi )

m(h 4 h 1 ) = m c.w C w (Two Twi )

m(h 4 h 1 ) = m c.w C w (Two Twi )

Since (h4 h1) >> Cw (Two Twi) ,

Chapter 8 Vapor Power Cycle: Steam Power Plant

The amount of cooling water required in the condenser is huge relative

8.2 EFFECT OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

Figure 8.2 Effect of condenser pressure

LECTURE NOTES ON THERMODYNAMICS

8.2.2 EFFECT OF BOILER PRESSURE

Figure 8.3 Effect of boiler pressure

As a result of increasing boiler pressure, Q C is decreased.

If the area (a-b-3-c) = area (2-2`-3`-b). Then Q B is constant and

W net increases. This leads to an increase of R .

Also if area (4-4`-3-b) = area (2-2`-3`-b), then Q B decreases and

W net kept the same. Thus Rankine efficiency increases. So,

Chapter 8 Vapor Power Cycle: Steam Power Plant

8.2.3 EFFECT OF SUPERHEATING

Figure 8.4 Effect of steam superheat

since QA is increased by a larger ratio

R will be increased if superheat is used.

LECTURE NOTES ON THERMODYNAMICS

3- Superheating the steam.

8.3 THE REHEAT CYCLE

Chapter 8 Vapor Power Cycle: Steam Power Plant

Figure 8.6 Modified Rankine reheat cycle

LECTURE NOTES ON THERMODYNAMICS

P1 is known, saturated liquid

vdp = v(P2 P1)

wP = v(P2 P1) = 0.00101(4000- 10) = 4.0 kJ/kg

States 3 and 5 both known (above).