Wave Phenomena: Physics 15c

Wave Phenomena
Physics 15c
Lecture 1
Waves
Harmonic Oscillator
Administravia
If you did not fill in the survey form last time, please do so
The forms are in the back of the hall
Online sectioning is on
Go to https://www.section.fas.harvard.edu/
Both discussion sections and lab sections
If the time slots do not work out for you, please send me email and
explain your constraints
Talk to me if you havent taken E&M (15b/153)
Todays Goals
Introduce the course topic: Waves
What do we study, and why is it worthwhile
Lots of recap today

Simple harmonic oscillators from 15a and 15b
Complex exponential, Taylor expansion
Make sure we all know the basics
Analyze simple harmonic oscillator using complex exp

How do we interpret the complex solutions for a physical system?
Are they general and complete?
Just how common are harmonic oscillators?

Very Physics is filled with them
But why?
What we study in this course

There are waves everywhere
Sea waves
Sound
Earthquakes
Light
Radio waves
Microwave
Human waves
The Great Waves off Kanagawa, Katsushika Hokusai, 1832
Features of waves
Oscillation at each space point
Something (medium) is moving back and force

Air, water, earth, electromagnetic field, people
Propagation of oscillation
Motion of one point causes the next point to move

How does oscillation propagate over distance?
What determines the propagation speed?
We study the general properties of waves focusing on the

common underlying physics
Waves and Modern Physics

Modern (= 20th century) Physics has two pillars:
Relativity was inspired by the absoluteness of the speed of light =
electromagnetic waves
Quantum Mechanics was inspired by the wave-like and particle-like
behaviors of light
Everything is described by wave functions
Relativistic QM is a theory of generalized waves
Solid understanding of waves is essential for studying

advanced physics
Goal of This Course

Understand basic nature of wave phenomena
Intuitive picture of how waves work

How things oscillate. How the oscillation propagates
How do waves transmit energy?
Why are waves so ubiquitous?
Foundation for more advanced subjects

Familiarity with wave equations
and Fourier transformation
Cover a few cool stuff related to waves
Esp. electromagnetic waves
Simple Harmonic Oscillators
current
Already familiar with them,

arent we?
Spring-Mass System
Mass m is placed on a friction-free floor
Spring pulls/pushes m with force
F = kx
(Hookes law)
Newtons law
d 2x
F = ma = m 2
dt
We find the equation of motion:
d 2x
m 2 = kx
dt
We must solve this differential equation

for a given set of initial conditions
F
-x
F
x
Equation of Motion
We know that the solution will look like a sine wave
Try x = x cos t
0
Equation of motion becomes
d
m 2 (x0 cos t) = kx0 cos t
dt
mx0 2 cos t = kx0 cos t
Weve found a solution
k
=
m
Not necessarily the solution
Lets remind ourselves how this solution looks like:

How the position and the velocity change with time
What is the frequency/period of the oscillation
How the energy is (or is not) conserved
Position, Velocity, Acceleration

x = x0 cos t
dx
= x0 sin t
dt
dv
a=
= x0 2 cos t = 2 x
dt
x0
x = x(t)
v=
Oscillation repeats itself at

t = 2
Position and velocity are offphase by 90 degrees
Velocity is ahead
Position and acceleration are
off-phase by 180 degrees
x0
x0
v = v(t)
x0
x0 2
a = a(t)
t
x0 2
Frequency and Period

in cost is the natural angular frequency of this oscillator
How much the phase of the cosine advances per unit time
Unit is [radians/sec]
The period T [sec/cycle] is given by

2
m
2 = T
T=
= 2
k
=
m
The frequency (Greek nu) [cycle/sec] is given by
1
1
= =
=
T 2 2
k
m
a.k.a. Hertz
Energy
Spring stores energy when stretched/compressed:
1 2 1 2
ES = kx = kx0 cos2 t
2
2
Moving mass has kinetic energy:
1
1
2
EK = mv = mx02 2 sin2 t
2
2
1 2 2
= kx0 sin t
Remember 2 = k/m
2
Therefore
1 2
ES + EK = kx0 = constant.
2
Energy Tossing
1 2
ES = kx0 cos2 t
2
1 2 2
EK = kx0 sin t
2
Energy moves
between the spring
and the mass,
keeping the total
constant
1 2
kx
2 0
ES
1 2
kx
2 0
EK
1 2
kx
2 0
ES
EK
Complex exponential
We know both cost and sint are solutions
The general solution is therefore
x(t) = a cos t + b sin t

for arbitrary values of a and b
Its more convenient to use complex exponential eit
As we have learned in 15b/153
Next four slides are reminders on complex numbers
Complex Numbers
I assume you are familiar with complex numbers
A few reminders to make sure we got the key concepts

Complex plane
Real part
Imaginary part
Complex conjugate
Absolute Value and Argument

For a complex number z,
The distance |z| from 0 is the absolute value:
z = a2 + b2
The angle is the argument, or phase:
= arg(z)
z may be expressed as:
z = z (cos + i sin ) = z e i
using Eulers identity
e i = cos + i sin
Eulers Identity
e i = cos + i sin
This is a natural extension of the real exponential
Check this with Taylor expansion
1 2 1 3 1 4
1 5
e = 1+ x + x + x +
x +
x + ...
2
6
24
120
1 2 i 3 1 4
i
ix
e = 1+ ix x x +
x +
x 5 + ...
2
6
24
120
x
1 2 1 4
cos(x) = 1 x +
x ...
2
24
1 3
1 5
sin(x) = x x +
x ...
6
120
Complex Plane
ei goes around the unit circle on the complex plane.
Im
e i = cos + i sin
Re
http://xkcd.com/179/
Complex Solutions
d 2x
Revisit the simple harmonic oscillator: 2 = 2 x
Xt
dt
Substitute x = e
d 2e Xt
2 Xt
2 Xt
=
X
e
=
e
2
dt
X 2 = 2
X = i
We got two complex solutions to a harmonic oscillator
x(t) = e i t
They are complex conjugates of each other
Generally, if you have a complex solution z(t) for an equation of
motion, the complex conjugate z*(t) must also be a solution
d 2 z(t)
2
=
z(t)
2
dt
d 2 z*(t)
2
=
z*(t)
2
dt
Complex Real Solutions

Since the equation of motion is linear, any linear
combination of z(t) and z*(t) is also a solution, i.e.,
x(t) = z(t) + z (t) where , are complex constants
Physical solution x(t) must be real
x(t) + x (t) ( z(t) + z (t)) ( z (t) + z(t))

Im(x(t)) =
=
2i
2i
( )z(t) ( )z (t)
=
= Im ( )z(t) = 0
2i
x(t) = z(t) + z (t) = 2Re( z(t))
Therefore
Ignoring the factor 2, this is the real part of { arbitrary complex

number times one of the solutions z(t) }
Complex Real Solutions

Generally, when z(t) and z*(t) are complex solutions of an
equation of motion, real (=physical) solutions are found by
taking the real part of z(t), where is an arbitrary
complex constant
Going back to the harmonic oscillator:
Expressing = a + ib, we get
x(t) = Re (a ib)e i t = Re (a ib)(cos t + i sin t)

= a cos t + b sin t
This is the general solution, as we knew from the beginning
We will use this recipe throughout the course
Ubiquity of Harmonic Oscillators

Harmonic oscillators equation of motion:
d 2x
m 2 = kx
Hookes Law force
dt
The restoring force kx is linear with x
This is not exactly true in most cases
Springs do not follow Hookes law beyond elastic limits
Still, the physical world is full of almost-harmonic oscillators
And for a good reason
Pendulum
A pendulum swings because of the combined
force of the gravity mg and the string tension T
Combined force is mg sin
Displacement from the equilibrium is L
Force is not linear with displacement
A pendulum is not a harmonic oscillator

Taylor-expand F = mg sin around = 0
sin = sin 0 + (sin ) =0 + 21 (sin )=0 2 +
mg sin
mg
1
= 61 3 + 120
5 +
For small angle ,
( ) = mL = mg + O(
d 2 L
dt
Almost linear
Taylor Expansion
Any (smooth) function f(x) can be approximated around a
given point x = a as:
1
1 n
2
f (x) f (a) + f (a)(x a) + f (a)(x a) + + f (a)(x a)n +
2
n!
You are already familiar with this
The approximation is better when x a is small
Because the higher-order terms (x a)n shrinks faster
Potential Energy
Look at the same problem with the potential energy
At angle , the mass m is higher than
the lowest position by h = L(1 cos)
The potential energy is
EP = mgh = mgL(1 cos)
Taylor-expand EP around = 0
EP = mgL(1 cos ) 21 mgL 2
cos = 1 21 2 +
Differentiating the energy by displacement

gives you the force
1 d 1
2
F=
=
mgL = mg
dx
L d 2
dEP
OK, we got the linear force again
1
24
h
x
Linearizing Equation of Motion

We can often linearize the equation of motion for small
oscillation around a stable point (equilibrium)
Why?
Anything that is stable is at a minimum
of the potential energy E
Lets call it x = 0
Taylor expansion of E near x = 0 is
1
1
2
E(x) = E(0) + E (0)x + E (0)x + E (0)x 3 + ...
2
6
Since x = 0 is a local minimum, E(0) = 0 and E(0) > 0

For small oscillations, higher-order terms (x3, x4, ) can be ignored
1
E(x) E(0) + E (0)x 2
2
A simple parabola
Ubiquity of Harmonic Oscillators
This gives a linear force
dE
F=
E (0)x
dx
Every physically stable object can
make harmonic oscillation
Stable object sits where the potential energy
is minimum
The potential near the minimum looks like a
parabola
Its derivative gives a linear restoring force
E(x) E(0) +
1
E (0)x 2
2
This is true for small oscillation

How small depend on how the potential looks like
We observe oscillation only when small is large enough
Summary
Analyzed a simple harmonic oscillator
d 2 x(t)
= kx(t)
The equation of motion: m
2
dt
The general solution:
Frequency, period, energy conservation
k
x(t) = a cos t + b sin t where =
m
Studied the solution
Learned to deal with complex exponentials
Makes it easy to solve linear differential equations
Studied how the equation of motion can be linearized for

small oscillations
Taylor expansion of the potential near the minimum
Next: damped and driven oscillators

Wave Phenomena: Physics 15c

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Wave Phenomena

The forms are in the back of the hall

Talk to me if you havent taken E&M (15b/153)

What do we study, and why is it worthwhile

Lots of recap today

Analyze simple harmonic oscillator using complex exp

Just how common are harmonic oscillators?

What we study in this course

The Great Waves off Kanagawa, Katsushika Hokusai, 1832

Something (medium) is moving back and force

Motion of one point causes the next point to move

We study the general properties of waves focusing on the

Waves and Modern Physics

Everything is described by wave functions

Relativistic QM is a theory of generalized waves

Solid understanding of waves is essential for studying

Goal of This Course

Intuitive picture of how waves work

Foundation for more advanced subjects

Cover a few cool stuff related to waves

Esp. electromagnetic waves

Simple Harmonic Oscillators

Already familiar with them,

Spring pulls/pushes m with force

We must solve this differential equation

Equation of motion becomes

Weve found a solution

Not necessarily the solution

Lets remind ourselves how this solution looks like:

Position, Velocity, Acceleration

Oscillation repeats itself at

Frequency and Period

The period T [sec/cycle] is given by

The frequency (Greek nu) [cycle/sec] is given by

The general solution is therefore

x(t) = a cos t + b sin t

Its more convenient to use complex exponential eit

As we have learned in 15b/153

Next four slides are reminders on complex numbers

A few reminders to make sure we got the key concepts

Absolute Value and Argument

The distance |z| from 0 is the absolute value:

The angle is the argument, or phase:

Check this with Taylor expansion

We got two complex solutions to a harmonic oscillator

Complex Real Solutions

Physical solution x(t) must be real

x(t) + x (t) ( z(t) + z (t)) ( z (t) + z(t))

x(t) = z(t) + z (t) = 2Re( z(t))

Ignoring the factor 2, this is the real part of { arbitrary complex

Complex Real Solutions

Expressing = a + ib, we get

x(t) = Re (a ib)e i t = Re (a ib)(cos t + i sin t)

This is the general solution, as we knew from the beginning

We will use this recipe throughout the course

Ubiquity of Harmonic Oscillators

Still, the physical world is full of almost-harmonic oscillators

And for a good reason