DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Table of Contents
Part One
I.
Introduction of Data Communications
II. Data Transmission
III. OSI
IV. Networking (LAN)
V. Internetworking (WAN)
Part Two
VI. Modem and Interface
VII. ISDN
VIII. X.25/Frame Relay/ATM
IX. SONET/SDH
X. TCP/IP

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
I. INTRODUCTION of DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data Communication

is the exchange of data between two devices via some form of

transmission system.
(Data Communications & Networking by Forouzan)

is the transmission of binary or digital information from one point to

another.
(Communications Electronics by Frenzel)

is the process of transmitting and receiving digital information from

one point to another via electrical, radio and optical means.
(general definition)
Data

refers to a facts, concepts and instructions

it is also known as digital information

Bit (binary digit)

is the smallest unit of information (0s or 1s)

Forms of Information
sound (voice, music and the like)
text (alphanumeric and other special characters)
video (moving images)
images (graphics and pictures)
Components of Data Communication System
1. information source
2. encoder
3. transmission medium
4. repeaters
1

5. decoder
6. destination
7. noise
8. attenuation
4

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ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Five Basic Components of Data Communications

Protocol

Protocol
Message
Medium
Sender
Protocol

Receiver

is a set of rules that governs the data communications

Standards

are guidelines to manufacturers, government agencies, other service

providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in todays
marketplace and international communications.
Two Categories of Standards

Standards
De facto

De jure

Proprietary

Non-proprietary

Reasons for Standardization

Ensure hardware / software compatibility

Promote competition with high quality
Consumer can hold down the prices
It opened the possibility to build networks and share information. (interoperational of different networks)
Ensure Reliable communication protocol
Determine standard methods of communications

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ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Standard-Making Bodies
ITU International Telecommunication Union
an international standards organization related to the United Nations that develops
standards in telecommunications.
ANSI American National Standard Institution
a nonprofit organization, is the US voting representative to both the ISO and ITU.
IEEE Institute of Electronics & Electrical Engineers
is the largest national professional group involved in developing standards for
computing, communications, electrical engineering and electronics.
EIA Electronic Industries Association
is an association of electronics manufacturers in the U.S.
FCC Federal Communication Commission
has the authority over interstate and international commerce as it relates to
communications.
Responsibilities:

review rate and service-charge applications made by T & T providers

review technical specifications of communications hardware

establish reasonable common carriers rates of return

divide and allocate radio frequencies

assign carrier frequencies for radio and television broadcast

ISO International Standard Organization

Established in 1947

A multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on

international standards.

Covers all aspects of network communication in the OSI model.

II. DATA TRANSMISSION

According to Request and Response

Simplex

Half Duplex

Full Duplex

Full-full Duplex

one way communication

Ex. AM/FM/TV broadcasting, beeper
two way communication but one at a time
Ex. Military radio, walkie-talkie
simultaneous two way communication
Ex. Cellfone, telephone
more than a half duplex but less than a full duplex.
Ex. Computer communication

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ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
According to Timing

Asynchronous
Sending one start bit (0) at the beginning and one or more stop bits (1) at
the end of each bit.
Means asynchronous at the byte level, but the bits are still synchronized;
their durations are the same.

Synchronous
Sending bits one after another without start/stop bits or gaps. It is the
responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.

According to Number of Links

Serial

1
0
0
1
0
0
1

one at a time bit transmission

1
0
0
1
0
0
1

100100

Parallel

group of bits transmission

1
0
0
1
0
0
1

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ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
III. OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION
OSI, Open System Interconnection

Developed by ISO in 1984, considered as the primary architectural model

for intercomputer (data) communications

Reference model describes how information from a software applications

in one computer moves through a network medium to a software
application in another computer.

A conceptual model composed of 7 layers each specifying particular

function, divides the tasks into more manageable
task groups.

It is a not a protocol: it is a model for understanding and designing a

network architecture that is flexible, robust and interoperable.
Layer

Define as the segment of the process of moving information across a

network.
Defines a family of functions distinct from other layers
Is reasonably self-contained, to implement task assigned independently.
Solution to update without adversely affecting the other layers.

Internetwork
Is a collection of individual networks, connected by intermediate devices,
that function as a single large network.
Open System
Is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture.
Closed System
A vendor specified protocol.
OSI-RM, Open System Interconnection-Reference Model
Mnemonic: Please Do Not Touch Steves Pet Alligator

Layer 7
Layer 6
Layer 5
Layer 4
Layer 3
Layer 2
Layer 1

Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Datalink
Physical

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ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Datalink
Physical

Characteristics of OSI Layers:

Two Categories
1.
Upper Layers
Deal with application issues and generally are implemented only in software.
Refer to any above layers in the OSI model.
2.
Lower Layers
Handle data transport issues and implemented in both hardware and software.
Protocol
Is a formal set of rules and conventions that governs how computers exchange
information over a network medium.
Groups of Protocol
1. LAN Protocol (Local Area Network)
Operate at the network and datalink layers, define communications over various
LAN media
2. WAN Protocol (Wide Area Network)
Operate at the lowest 3 layers of OSI and define communications over the various
wide area media.
3. Routing Protocol
Network layer protocols that are responsible for path determination and traffic
switching
4. Network Protocol
Various upper-layer protocols that exist in a given OSI layer

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ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Application

Application

Interface 7-6

Interface 7-6

Presentation

Presentation
Interface 6-5

Interface 6-5

Session

Session

Interface 5-4

Interface 5-4

Transport

Transport

Interface 4-3

Interface 4-3

Network

Network

Interface 3-2

Interface 3-2

Datalink

Datalink

Interface 2-1

Interface 2-1

Physical

Physical

Network
Interface 3-2

Datalink
Interface 2-1

Physical

L7 data

L7 data

H6

L6 data

H5

L5 data

L4 data
T2

H4

H3

L3 data

H2

010101011011110110111110111110

Interfaces
The link between two adjacent layers of the OSI model.
Encapsulation/Framing
The process of putting the data unit into frame.

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ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Information Formats in the OSI Layers
A frame is an information unit whose source and destination are datalink layer entities. A
frame is composed of the datalink layer header (and possibly a trailer) and upper-layer
data. The header and the trailer contain control information intended for the data-link
layer entity in the destination system.
A packet is an information unit whose source and destination are network-layer entities.
A packet is composed of the network-layer header (and possibly a trailer0 and upperlayer data. The header and the trailer contain control information intended for the
network-layer entity in the destination system. The data from upper-layer entities is
encapsulated in the network-layer header and trailer.
The term datagram usually refers to an information unit whose source and destination
are network-layer entities that use connectionless network services.
The term segment usually refers to an information unit whose source and destination are
transport layer entities.
A message is an information unit whose source and destination entities exist above the
network layer (often the application layer)
A cell is an information unit of a fixed size whose source and destination are datalink
layer entities. Cells are used in switched environments, such as ATM and SMDS. A cell
is composed of the header and payload. The header contains control information
intended for the destination datalink layer entity and is typically 5 bytes long. The
payload contains upper-layer data that is encapsulated in the cell header and typically 48
bytes long.
Data unit is a generic term that refers to a variety of information units. Some common
data units are service data units (SDU), protocol data units (PDU) and bridge protocol
data units (BPDU). SDUs are information units from upper-layer protocols that define a
service request to a lower-layer protocol. PDU is OSI terminology for a packet. BPDUS
are used by the spanning-tree algorithm as hello messages.
Three Basic elements in Layer Services
1. Service User is the OSI layer that requests services from an adjacent OSI layer.
2. Service Provider is the OSI layer that provides services to service users
3. Service Access Point is a conceptual location at which one OSI layer can request the
services of another OSI layer.

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Physical Layer

It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of primary connections,

such as cables, connectors and signaling options that physically link two nodes on
a network.
It coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over physical
medium.
It oversees the changing of a bit stream into EM signals, and across the medium.

Number of Considerations:
Line Configuration
Data transmission mode
Topology
Signals
Encoding
Interface
Medium

Datalink Layer

It is responsible for delivering data units from one station to the next without
errors
It accepts data unit from the third layer and adds meaningful bits to the beginning
and end that contain address and other control information.

Sublayers:
LLC-Logical Link Control
Maintains the link between two nodes
MAC-Media Access Control
Controls which computer on a network can be transmitting or receiving
data at a given time.
Responsibilities:

Node to node delivery

Access Control
Flow Control
Error handling
Synchronization

Physical/Node Address
MAC Address Example:
Node A 87DE-FADA-DEAD
Node B 8576-EDAD-CADE
Node C CACA-BEAD-1562

Network Layer
Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal
ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet across multiple

network links.
Ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination
successfully and efficiently
Responsible for switching and routing

Switching
Refers to temporary connections between physical links, resulting in longer links
for network transmission.
Routing
Means selecting the best path for sending a packet from one point to another when
more than one path is available.
Responsibilities

Source-to-destination delivery
Logical addressing
Routing
Address transformation
Multiplexing

Logical Address
Address different from the physical addresses, network layer addresses are those
of the original source and the final destination.
Example:
Quad-Dotted Decimal
0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
125.56.24.2

Transport Layer

Responsible for source-to-destination (end-to-end) delivery of

the entire message.
Ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order,
overseeing both error control and flow control at the source-todestination level.
The network layer gets each packets to the correct computer,
the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct
application or that computer.
Header contains sequences or segmentations, numbers.

Service Point Address

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Connection

Port address or socket address

The type of address in the transport layer header
Is a single logical path between the source and destination that is
associated with all packets in a message.

Three Steps for Connections:

1. Connection establishment
2. Data transfer
3. Connection release
Responsibilities

End-to-end message delivery

Service point (port) addressing

Segmentation and reassembly

Connection control

Session Layer

The network dialog controller

It establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices
It ensures that each session closes appropriately rather than shutting down
abruptly and leaving the user hanging
Validates and establishes connections between users.
Includes password and log-in verifications
Controls the exchange of data
Whether the exchange occurs in both directions and simultaneously or
only one direction at a time

Checkpoints
Allow a session to backtrack a certain distance without completely starting over
when problems arises
Responsibilities
1. Session management
2. Synchronization
3. Dialog Control
4. Graceful Close

Presentation Layer
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ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Ensures interoperability among communicating devices.

Possible for two computers to communicate even if their internal
representations of data differ
Provides the necessary translation of different control codes,
character sets, graphics characters, and so on to allow both devices to
understand the same transmission at the same way
Responsible for encryption/decryption of data for security purposes and
for compression and expansion of data when necessary for transmission
efficiency

Application Layer

Enables the user whether human or software to access the network

Provides user interfaces and support for services such as email, remote
access, and transfer, shared database management, and other types of
distributed information services

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
IV.NETWORKING (Local Area Network)
NETWORK

Is a set of devices connected by transmission media.

NETWORKING

The process of linking devices together to share resources

Classification of Networks
According to area of coverage:
LAN Local Area Network
A connection of computers and other peripheral devices within a
building or clusters of building (campus)
MAN -

Metropolitan Area Network

A network with less than 50 km radius within a metro or city.

WAN -

Wide Area Network

A network that covers a large geographical space such as
countries, states, continents and even the entire world.

According to Configuration
Point-to-Point two and only nodes are connected in a network

Multipoint also known as multidrop network. A network with multiple nodes.

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS
According to Authority
Peer-to-peer all nodes has equal authority in the network.
Client-server a certain node called server has full control over the network and
nodes in the network.

LAN Components
1. Server
Is a computer in a network that shared by multiple users.
2. Network Interface Card
A printed circuit board that plugs into a network server or client computer. It
enables the computer to be physically connected to the network cable, which provides the
physical layer connection among the computers in the network. It performs electronic
functions of the access method or datalink protocol.
3. Hub
A device that acts as central connection of certain LAN topology. It is capable of
regeneration and switching of signals from one node to another. Also known as
concentrator, multiple access unit, transceiver or repeater.
4. Cable
The transmission link in a network. These are unshielded twisted pairs (UTP),
shielded twisted pair (STP), coaxial cable and fiber optics cable.
5. Connector
The terminating end of the cable to be plug-in or connected to the device.
6. Network Operating System (NOS)
The control program that resides in a server or workstation within a LAN. It
handles requests for data transfer from all the users of the networks. It interact with the
application programs and the computers operating system.
7. Client
It is the requesting computer from the supplying computers or server.
8. Other Peripheral Devices
These are the devices attached to the network such as printers, scanners and the
like.

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ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
LAN Transmission Method
1. Unicast
A single packet is sent from the a single source to a specific destination on a
network.
2. Multicast
Consists of a single data packet that is copied and sent to a specific subset of
nodes on the network.
3. Broadcast
Transmission consists of a single data packet that is copied and sent to all nodes
on the networks.

LAN Topology
Physical Topology

the set up how devices are wired together includes configurations of

cables, computers & other peripherals.
Logical Topology

the set up of how devices communicate or exchange information to

one another.

method used to pass information between workstations.

Main Types of Physical Topology
1. LINEAR BUS
consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end.
nodes such as file server, workstations and peripherals are connected on the
main cable.
Ex. Ethernet and Local talk

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS
2. STAR
designed with each node ( file server, workstations, and peripherals)
connected directly to central network hub or concentrator.
data passes through the hub or concentrator before continuing to its
destination.
the hub or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the
network.
the hub acts as repeater.
it is usually used with T.P
3. TREE
combines characteristic of linear bus and star
it consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable.
it allows for the expansion of an existing network and enable to meet network
needs.
4. MESH
nodes has connection to all other nodes in the network
every node has available ports for connection to other nodes
it consumes a lot of cable

5. STAR RING
it may appear externally to be the same as a star topology.
it consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to
linear.
internally, the MAU ( multistation access unit ) of a star-wired ring
contains wiring that allows information to pass from one device to
another in a circle or ring.
Ex. Token Ring

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS
TOPOLOGY
LINEAR BUS
STAR

TREE
RING

MESH

TOPOLOGY
LINEAR BUS

STAR

TREE

RING

MESH

ADVANTAGES
Easy to connect a node.
Requires less cables than star.
Easy to install and wire.
No disruptions to the network when connecting or
removing devices.
Easy to detect faults and remove parts.
Point to point wiring for individual segments.
Supported by several HW & SW vendors.
It provides equal opportunities to all computers in
the network
Installation can be simple
Signals do not degrade
Easy transfer of data because of direct connections
Less time and delay for transmission, fast
transmission
There are other available routes in case of one link
disconnection
DISADVANTAGES:
Entire network shunts down if main cable break.
Entire network shuts down, it is difficult to identify
the faults.
Not meant to be used as a solution for stand alone
system in a large building.
Requires more cable than a linear topology.
If the hubs or concentrators fail, nodes are disabled.
More expensive than linear bus topologies because
of hubs.
Overall length of each segment is limited by the
type of cabling used.
If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes
down.
More difficult to configure and wire than other
topologies.
Failure of any one connections can shut down the
entire network
Reconfiguration is difficult to implement
Distance is limited
Very expensive network
Messy to maintain and troubleshoot

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ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
LAN Access Method
it is unnecessary to have a MAC in pt-to-pt full duplex because there are
only two devices on the circuit and full duplex permits either device to
transmit at any time.
if it is point-to-point half duplex, it needs MAC and also in multipoint, full
duplex configurations since several devices share the same channel.
to ensure that no two devices attempt to transmit data at the same time.
1. Controlled Access
a. X-on / X-off
the oldest media access control protocols, dating back to the days of the
teletype.
b. Polling
the process of sending signal to a terminal to transmit or asking it to receive
it uses roll call polling with scheme or sequence
Node 3,its your time to transmit.
Node 1, its your turn to send.
Node 4, you can transmit after node 1.

c. Token Passing
A channel accessing arrangement that is best suited for ring topology with
either a baseband or broadband network. It uses a token and the token circulate in
the network.
Token is an electrical signal that circulate around the ring network from one
station to another. If the station has the token, it can send a ,message.
2. Contention
opposite of controlled access.
devices wait until the circuit is free and transmit whenever it has data to send.
a. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
A channel accessing method, a node monitors the line to determine if the line is
busy. If the station has a message to transmit but the line is busy, it waits for an
idle condition before it transmits its message.
Collision is the situation when two nodes transmit simultaneously using one link.
Backoff Time is the ceasing time before the station attempts to transmit again.
With detection:
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DATA COMMUNICATIONS
I have data to transmit.Let
me check the line.

I have data to transmit.Let me

check the line.

No one is transmitting. Ill

send my data to node 3.

Node is sending data to

node 3. Ill wait.

No Detection:
I have data to transmit to
node 4. Ill send it now.

Ill send my
data to node
2.

Collision

Comparison of Different Access Methods

Access Method
Advantages
Disadvantages
Inefficient use of
Polling
Guaranteed access
network
Fast in low traffic
Slow in high traffic
Contention
No access guarantee
Inexpensive
No priority mechanism
Fast in high traffic
Slow in low traffic
Token Passing
Guaranteed access
More expensive
Time-critical

LAN Architecture

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS
LAN-Local Area Network
A data communication system that allows a number of independent devices to
communicate directly with each other in a limited geographical area.
Project 802

LAN Issues:

1985, computer society of IEEE set standards to enable

intercommunication between equipment from variety of manufacturer
specifying functions of physical, datalink and portions of network layers
to allow interconnectivity of major LAN protocols
The strength of Project 802 is modularity, subdividing the functions
necessary for LAN management, the designers were able to standardize
that can be generalized and to isolate those that must remain specific
Unregulated single line
Danger of signals overlapping and destroying each other- Collision
As traffic increases on a multiple access line, so do collisions
A mechanism to coordinate traffic, minimize the number of collisions that
occur and maximize the number of frames that are successfully delivered

IEEE 802 Specifications

Number
802.1
802.2
802.3
802.4
802.5
802.6
802.7
802.8
802.9
802.10
802.11
802.12

Category
Internetworking
Logical link control
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection LAN
Token Bus LAN
Token Ring LAN
Metropolitan Area Network
Broadband Technical Advisory Group
Fiber-optic technical Advisory Group
Integrated Voice/Data Networks
Network Security
Wireless Networks
Demand Priority Access LAN

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Ethernet
IEEE 802.3 supports a LAN standard originally developed by Xerox and later extended
by a joint venture between Digital Equipment Corp, Intel Corp, and Xerox
802.3 Categories
1. Baseband Category
Specifying digital signal (Manchester encoding)
2. Broadband Category
Specifying analog signal (PSK encoding)
Note:
1st Number
10, 1 and 100 indicates data rate in Mbps
Last Number
5, 2, T and F indicates the maximum cable length or the type of cable
10-Base-5/Thicknet LAN
Information Category
Advantages
Disadvantages
Topology
Cable Type
Connector Type
Access Method
Max. Segment Length
Max. Total Network Length
Max. length between nodes
Max. # Segments
Max. # of nodes/segment
Max. # of nodes for network
Transmission Speed
IEEE specifications
Interference

Specifications
Long distances
Expensive, difficult to install & troubleshoot
Bus
50-ohm Thicknet coaxial
Vampire Tap Transceiver
CSMA/CD
500 m (1640 ft)
2500 m (8200 ft)
2.5 m
5, only 3 populated
100
300
10 Mbps
802.3
High resistant

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS
10-Base 2/Thinnet LAN
Information Category
Advantages
Disadvantages
Topology
Cable Type
Connector Type
Access Method
Max. Segment Length
Max. Total Network Length
Max. length between nodes
Max. # Segments
Max. # of nodes/segment
Max. # of nodes for network
Transmission Speed
IEEE specifications
Interference

Specifications
Simple to install, inexpensive
Difficult to troubleshoot
Bus
50-ohm Thinnet coaxial-RG 58A/U
BNC
CSMA/CD
185 m (607 ft)
925 m (3035 ft)
0.5 m
5, only 3 populated
30
90
10 Mbps
802.3
High resistant

10-Base T
Information Category

Specifications

Advantages
Very inexpensive, simple to connect and easy troubleshoot
Disadvantages
Limited distance
Topology
Star
Cable Type
UTP
Connector Type
RJ-45
Access Method
CSMA/CD
Max. Segment Length
100 m (328 ft)
Max. Total Network Length N/A
Max. length between nodes 2.5 m (8 ft)
Max #of connected Segments 1024
Max. # of nodes/segment
1
Max. # of nodes for network 1024
Transmission Speed
10 Mbps
IEEE specifications
802.3
Interference
Low resistant

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS
100-Base T LAN
Information Category

Specifications

Advantages
Fast, simple to connect and easy troubleshoot
Disadvantages
Limited distance, expensive
Topology
Star
Cable Type
UTP Cat 3-5
Connector Type
RJ-45
Access Method
CSMA/CD
Max. Segment Length
100 m (328 ft)
Max. Total Network Length N/A
Max. length between nodes 2.5 m (8 ft)
Max.# of connected Segments1024
Max. # of nodes/segment
1
Max. # of nodes for network 1024
Transmission Speed
10 Mbps
IEEE specifications
802.3
Interference
Low resistant
10-Base F LAN
Information Category
Specifications
Advantages
Fast and long distances
Disadvantages
Very expensive and difficult to install
Topology
Star
Cable Type
Fiber optic
Connector Type
Specialized
Access Method
CSMA/CD
Max. Segment Length
2000 m (6561 ft)
Max. Total Network Length N/A
Max. length between nodes N/A
Max.# of connected Segments1024
Max. # of nodes/segment
1
Max. # of nodes for network 1024
Transmission Speed
10 Mbps
IEEE specifications
802.3
Interference
Immune to EMI

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Token Ring
Its logically token-ring topology but physically wired as a star topology.
Token Ring LAN
Information Category

Specifications

Advantages
Disadvantages

Fast and reliable

More expensive than Ethernet solutions,
difficult to troubleshoot
Topology
Star-wired ring
Cable Type
IBM cable, Type 1 STP/Cat 3 UTP
Connector Type
RJ-45/ IBM Type A
Access Method
Token Passing
Max. Segment Length
45 m with UTP, 101 m with STP
Max. Total Network Length N/A
Max. length between nodes 2.5 m (8 ft)
Max # of connectedSegments 33 hubs
Max. # of nodes/segment
Depends on the hub
Max. # of nodes for network 72 node with UTP, 260 nodes with STP
Transmission Speed
4 or 16 Mbps
IEEE specifications
802.5
Interference
Low resistant
Beaconing
Is the process where computers on a token-ring network detect a problem and
attempt to fix it.
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
Uses fiber-optic cable and token-passing to create a very fast reliable network
operating at speeds of 100 Mbps
It includes up to 500 nodes over a distance of 100 km.
It uses ring topology with two counter-rotating rings.
It is implement as true physical ring topology.
A break in a FDDI network results in packets being sent back on the second ring.

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ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Token Ring LAN
Information Category

Specifications

Advantages
Very fast and reliable, long distances, high secure
Disadvantages
More expensive and difficult to install
Topology
Ring
Cable Type
Fiber optic
Connector Type
Specialized
Access Method
Token Passing
Max. Segment Length
N/A
Max. Total Network Length 100 km
Max. length between nodes N/A
Max # of connectedSegments N/A
Max. # of nodes/segment
N/A
Max. # of nodes for network 500
Transmission Speed
100 Mbps
IEEE specifications
No IEEE specification ANSI X3T9.5
Interference
Resistant to EMI

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
V. INTERNETWORKING
Hierarchy of Networks
1. End system (ES) is a network device that does not perform routing or other traffic
forwarding functions. Typical ESs include such devices as terminals, PCs and printers.
2. Intermediate System (IS) is a network device that performs routing or other trafficforwarding functions, it includes devices such as routers, switches and bridges.
Intradomain IS communicates within a single autonomous system.
Interdomain IS communicates within and between autonomous systems.
3. Area is a logical group of network segments and their attached devices; Areas are
subdivisions of autonomous systems.
4. Autonomous System (AS) is a collection of networks under a common administration
that share a common routing strategy. Autonomous system are subdivided into areas, and
an AS is also known as a domain.
Typical
Network

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Connection-oriented Vs. Connectionless Network
Connection-oriented
It involves three phases: connection establishment- a single path between the
source and the destination systems is determined; data transfer transmitted sequentially
over the path that has been established; and connection termination termination of path
that has been establish.
Connectionless
Offers two important advantages over connection-oriented service: dynamic path
selection enables traffic to be routed around network failures because paths are selected
on a packet-to-packet basis; dynamic bandwidth allocation used more efficiently
because network resources are not allocated a bandwidth that they will not use.

Virtual Circuits
Switched Virtual Circuit
A virtual circuit that is dynamically established on demand and terminated when
transmission is completed. It has three phases: circuit establishment, data transfer and
circuit termination.
Permanent Virtual Circuit
A permanently established virtual circuit consists of one mode: the data transfer.

Internetworking Devices
Hubs

A hub is a central network device that connects network devices in a star

topology.
Advanced hubs provide very high speed connectivity for FDDI, Fast Ethernet,
frame relay, and ATM networks.
It is also referred to as a concentrator (or switch), which is a device that can
have multiple inputs and outputs all active at a one time.
Services offered by hubs:
Provide a central unit from which to connect multiple nodes into one network
Permit large numbers of computers to be connected on single or multiple
LANs.
Reduce network congestion through centralizing network design.
Provide multiprotocol services, such as Ethernet-to-FDDI connectivity.
Consolidate the network backbone
Enable high-speed communications
Provide connections for several different media types.
Enable centralized network management.
Multiplexers
Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal
ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Multiplexers are network devices that can receive multiple inputs and transmit
them to a shared network medium.
A multiplexer is a switch that divides a communication medium into multiple
channels so several nodes can communicate at the same time.
A signal that is multiplexed must be demultiplexed at the other end.
Multiplexers simply are switches used in old and new technology, such as the
following:

Telephone switching
Switching telecommunications lines to create multiple channels on a
single line.
Serial communications to enable more than one terminal to
communicate over a single line.
Fast Ethernet, X.25, ISDN, frame relay, ATM, and other networking
technologies to create multiple communication channels over a single
communications cable.

Work at the OSI physical level, switching from channel to channel using one
of three physical methods:

Time division multiplexing (TDM)

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)

Bridges
A bridge is a network device that connects different LAN segments using the same access
method.
Bridges are used to:
To extend a LAN when the maximum connections limit has been reached.
To extend a LAN beyond the length limit.
To segment LANs to reduce data traffic bottlenecks.
To prevent unauthorized access to LAN (for security)

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Routers
Routers can connect networks that have dissimilar data links.
A router forwarding a packet to the right network.
It forwards packets to networks by using a decision-making process based on:
Routing table data
Discovery of the most efficient routes
Preprogrammed information from the network administrator
How routers are used:

To efficiently direct packets from one network to another, reducing excessive

traffic
To join neighboring or distant networks
To connect dissimilar networks
To prevent network bottlenecks by isolating portions of network
To secure portions of a network from intruders

Switching
Is a method by which multiple communication devices are connected tp one
another efficiently
Switch
An intermediary hardware/software that links devices together temporarily.

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Types of Switching
Circuit Switching
Packets from a single device travel on dedicated link to the destination.
Temporary connection, usually used for voice communications.
A B
C
D
Start
Sender
Connection
Propagation

Return Signal

Data

Receiver

Finish

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Message Switching
Also known as store and forward switching, a node receives a message, store it
and then send it.
A

Sender

Start
Processing Delay
Header

Data

C
Finish

Receiver

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Packet Switching
Generally more efficient than circuit switching for nonvoice communication.
A B
C
D
Start
Sender
Processing Delay
Header

Data

Finish

Receiver

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
VI.MODEMS & INTERFACES
Interfaces

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
DTE-DCE INTERFACE
DTE- Data Terminal/Terminating Equipment
Any device that serves as source or destination for binary digital data.
DCE-Data Circuit-terminating/Communicating Equipment
Any device that transmits or receives data in the form of an analog or
digital signal through a network.
Development of DTE-DCE Standards
To define the connection between the DTE-DCE, each standard provides a
model for the mechanical, electrical, and the functional characteristics of
the connection.
The EIA and the ITU-T have been involved in developing DTE-DCE
interface standards. The ITU-T standards are called the V series and X
series. The EIA standards are the following:
EIA-232 Interface
Originally issued in 1962 as the RS-232 (Recommended Standard), the EIA has
revised several times, the recent is the EIA-232D, defines not only the type of connectors
to be used but also the specific cable and plugs and the functionality of each pin.
Mechanical Specification
Defines the interface as a 25 wire cable with male and female DB-25 pin
or receptacles connector attached to either end, at each which is attached
to a single wire with a specific function.
The length of the cable may not exceed 15 meters ( 50 feet).
Male connector refers to a plug with each wire in the cable connecting to a
pin.
Female connector refers to a receptacle with each wire in the cable
connecting to a metal tube, or sheath.
DB-25 pins and tubes are arranged in two rows, with 13 on the top and 12
on the bottom.
Electrical Specification
Defines the voltage levels and the type of signal to be transmitted in either
direction between the DTE and the DCE.
All data must be transmitted as logical 1s and 0s (called mark and space) using
non-return to zero, level encoding, with 0 defined as a positive voltage and 1
defined as a negative voltage.
The electrical specification that signals other than data must be sent using OFF is
less than -3 volts and ON is greater than 3 volts.

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Functional Specification
Defines the function of each pin in the connector.
Other Concerns
Null modem
Crossing connections
Other differences
EIA-449 Interface
Mechanical Specification
One with 37 pins (DB-37) and one with 9 pins (DB-9), for a combined 46
pins.
Functional Specification
Defines the function of each pin in the connector.
Similar to DB-25, the difference between the 25- and 37-pin connectors is
that all functions relating to the secondary channel have been removed
from DB-37.
Category I Pins
Both pins 4 and 22 are called send data. These two pins have the
equivalent functionality of pin 2 in EIA-232, both pins 5 and 23 are called
send timing. And both pins 6 and 24 are called receive data. Even more
interesting, these pairs of pins are vertically adjacent to one another in the
connector, with the pin from the second column occupying the position.
Category II Pins
Local loopback. Pin 10 is used for local loopback testing.
Remote loopback. Pin 14 is used for remote loopback testing
Select frequency. Pin 16 is used to choose between two different frequency rates.
Receive common. Pin 20 provides a common signal return line to unbalanced circuits
from the DCE to the DTE.
Terminal in service. Pin 28 indicates to the DCE whether or not the DTE is operational
Select standby. Pin 32 allows the DTE to request the use of standby equipment in the
event of failure.
New signal. Pin 34 is available for multiple point applications where a primary DTE
controls several secondary DTEs. When activated, pin 34 indicates that one DTE has
finished its data exchange and a new one is about to start.

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Standby indicator. Pin 36 provides the confirmation signal from the DCE in response to
select standby (pin 32).
Send common. Pin 37 provides a common signal return line for unbalanced circuits from
the DTE to the DCE.
Electrical Specifications
EIA 449 uses two other standards to define its electrical specifications:
RS-423 (for unbalanced circuits) and RS-422 (for balanced circuits).
RS-423: Unbalanced Mode
An unbalanced circuit specification, meaning that it defines only one line
for propagating a signal. All signals in this standard use a common return
(or ground) to complete the circuit.
RS-422: Balanced Mode
A balanced circuit specification, meaning that it defines two lines for the
propagation of each signal. Signals again use a common return (or ground)
for the return of the signal. In balanced mode, EIA-449 utilizes both pins
in each Category I but does not use the Category II pins. The ratio of data
rate to distance is much higher that that of the unbalanced standard or of
EIA-232: 10 Mbps for transmission of 40 feet.
In balanced mode, two lines carry the same transmission, it do not carry
identical signals. The signal on one line is the complement of the signal
on the other. When plotted, the complement looks like a mirror image of
the original signal. Instead of listening to either actual signal, the receiver
detects the differences between the two. This mechanism makes a
balanced circuit less susceptible to noise than an unbalanced circuit, and
improves performance.
EIA-530

A version of EIA-449 that uses DB-25 pins.

The pin functions of EIA-530 are essentially the same of EIA-449
Category I plus three pins from Category II (the loopback circuits). Other
pins in EIA-232 are omitted in EIA-530 such as ring indicator, signal
quality detector and data signal rate selector.

Is an interface standard designed by ITU-T to address many problems

existing in the EIA interfaces and at the same time paves the way for all
digital communications.

X.21

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Using Data Circuits for Control
A large proportion of the circuits in the EIA interfaces are used for
control, since these are necessary to implement control functions as
separate signals. With a separate line, control information is represented
only by positive and negative voltages. But if control signals are encoded
using a meaningful control characters from a system such as ASCII, it can
be transmitted over data lines.
X.21 eliminates most of the control circuits of the EIA standards and
instead directs its traffic over the data circuits. To make this consolidation
of functionality possible, both the DTE and the DCE must have added
circuit logic that enables them to transform the control codes into bit
streams that can be sent over the data line. Both also need additional logic
to discriminate between control information and data upon receipt.
Design of X.21 allows not only to use fewer pins but also to be used in
digital telecommunications where control information is sent from device
to device over a network rather than just between a DTE and a DCE.
X.21 is useful both as an interface to connect digital computers to analog
devices such as modems and as a connector between digital computers and
digital interfaces such as ISDN and X.25.
Byte Timing
Another advantage offered by X.21 is that of timing lines to control byte
synchronization in addition to the bit synchronization provided by the EIA
standards. By adding a byte timing pulse, improves the overall
synchronization of transmissions.
Control and indication
Pins 3 and 5 of the DB-15 connector are used for the initial handshake, or
agreement to begin transmitting. Pin 3 is the equivalent of request to send.
Pin 5 is the equivalent of clear to send.

MODEM

Modem stands for modulator/demodulator

A modulator converts a digital to an analog signal.
A demodulator converts an analog signal to a digital signal
The series of 1s and 0s are transformed through the mechanism of ASK,
FSK, PSK and QAM.

Transmission Rate
Bandwidth

Every line has upper limit and a lower limit on the frequencies of the
signals it carry, this limited range is called the bandwidth

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Modem Speed
Type of digital to analog encoding used in Modems
ASK-manipulates the amplitude
FSK-manipulates the frequency
PSK-manipulates the phase
QAM-manipulates both the amplitude and the phase
Theoretical Bit Rate of Modems
Encoding
ASK/FSK/2-PSK
4-PSK/4-QAM
8-PSK/8-QAM
16-PSK/16-QAM
32-PSK/32-QAM
64-PSK/64-QAM
128-PSK/128-QAM
256-PSK/256-QAM

Half Duplex
2400
4800
7200
9600
12,000
14,400
16,800
19,200

Full Duplex
1200
2400
3600
4800
6000
7200
8400
9600

Modem Standards
Bell Modems
Standard
Bell 103
Bell 202
Bell 212
Bell 201
Bell 208
Bell 209

Tx Mode
FDX
HDX
FDX
HDX/FDX
FDX
FDX

Baud Rate
300 baud
1200 baud
600 baud
1200 baud
1600 baud
2400 baud

Bit Rate
300 bps
1200 bps
1200 bps
2400 bps
4800 bps
9600 bps

Tx Mode

Baud Rate

Bit Rate

No. of Wire
2-wire
2-wire
2-wire
2/4wire
4-wire
4-wire

Modulation
FSK
FSK
4-PSK
4-PSK
8-PSK
16-QAM

No. of
Wire

Modulation

ITU-T Modems
Standard
V.22 bis
V.32
V.32bis
V.32terbo
V.33
V.34

FDX
FDX
FDX
FDX
FDX
FDX

600 baud
2400 baud
2400 baud
2400 baud
2400 baud
2400 baud

1200/2400 bps
9600 bps
14400 bps
19200 bps
14400 bps
28800 bps

2-wire
2-wire
4-wire
4-wire
4-wire
4-wire

4-DPSK/16-QAM
32-QAM (trellis)
64-QAM
256-QAM
128-QAM (trellis)
4096-QAM

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
VII. ISDN
INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK (ISDN)
A technology that incorporates all communication connections in a home or
building into a single interface providing all services such as voice, data, image, facsimile
and so on.
A circuit-switched networks, an evolving communications network standard that
provides universal end-to-end connectivity over digital links.
ISDN Services Three Categories
Bearer Services
Provide means to transfer information (voice, data and video) between users
without the network manipulating the content of that information, it belongs to the first
three layers of OSI model.
Teleservices
The network may change or process the contents of the data, these services
correspond to layer 4 to 7 of the OSI model.
Supplementary Services
Services that provide additional functionality to the bearer services and
teleservices. It cant stand alone with the two services.
Channel
Channel
B
D
H

Data Rate (kbps)

64
16, 64
384, 1536, 1920

B Channel
Bearer channel is the basic user channel and can carry any type of digital
information in full duplex mode that doesnt exceed to 64 kbps.
D Channel
Data channel is for control of B channels, low-rate data transfer and other
applications.
H Channel
Hybrid channel is for high-data-rate applications.

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
User Interfaces
BRI Basic rate interface
Is a digital pipe composed of two B channels and one D channel.
Data rate of 192 Kbps (4000 frames/sec, 48 bits/frame)
PRI Primary rate interface
Is a digital pipe composed of 23 channels and one D channel.
Data rate of 1.544 Mbps (8000 frames/sec, 193 bits/frame)
ISDN Three Functional Groupings of Equipment
1. Network terminations (NT)
Two types of network terminations:
a. NT1-equipment that controls the physical and electrical termination of the
ISDN at the users premises.
b. NT2-equipment that performs functions related to layers one through three of
the OSI model.
2. Terminal equipment (TE)
Classifications of Terminal Equipment:
a. TE1-subscriber equipment conforming to ISDN standards.
b. TE2-subscriber equipment that does not conform to ISDN standards.
3. Terminal adapters (TA)-converts data from TE2s to ISDN format.
Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN)
Using fiber-optic media, fulfills the needs of users who require a higher data rate
that offered by ISDN. It has a data rate of 600 Mbps.
B-ISDN Two services
1. Interactive- two way services (two subscribers or a subscriber-service provider pair)
2. Distributive-one way service from service provider to subscriber.
B-ISDN Three Access Methods
1. 155.520 Mbps, full duplex
2. 155.520 Mbps outgoing and 622.080 Mbps incoming, asymmetric full duplex
3. 622.080 Mbps, full duplex

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
VIII. X.25/FRAME RELAY/ATM
X.25 TECHNOLOGY
The packet switching protocol used in ISDN.
Defines the procedures for data transmission between a DTE and DCE.
A protocol specifies three layers that correspond to the OSI model:
1. Physical layer
2. Link access procedure, balanced (LAPB) = datalink layer
3. Packet layer protocol (PLP) = network layer
It handles connection establishment and termination, data transfer
and packet creation protocols.
Two types of PLP packets: information and control.
Up to 4096 channels may be multiplexed at the PLP level.
Specifies protocols to handle resizing of messages.

FRAME RELAY LAYERS

A technology that operates only at the physical and datalink layers. No protocol is
specified for the physical layer; the choice is up to the user.
Eliminates the extensive error checking necessary in X.25 protocol
It uses simplified version of HDLC protocol in the datalink layer.
It uses routing and switching functions of the datalink layers. Frames, not packets,
are switched.
It uses PVCs (permanent virtual circuits). Identified through a DLCI (dalta link
connection identifier).
A switch in frame relay performs error checking and routing. Error correction is
left to the other protocols at the higher layers.
Flow control is handled through setting the BECN (backwards explicit congestion
notification) and FECN (forward explicit congestion notification) in the address
field of the frame.

ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)

Is the cell relay protocol designed by the ATM forum and adopted by the
ITU-T.
In ATM, some software functions have moved to hardware; this can
increase the data rate.
Terms:
Cell is the data packet is called a and is composed of 53 bytes (5 bytes of header and 48
bytes of payload). Because each cell is the same size and all are relatively small, delay
and other problems associated with multiplexing different sized packets are avoided
A cell network is based on permanent virtual circuit (PVC) routing.

Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) specifies the path a cell should take.
Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal
ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI) specifies the channel a cell should take.

User Network Interface (UNI) is the interface between the user and the wide
area ATM network.
Network-to-Network Interface (NNI) is the interface between two wide area
ATM networks.

ATM Standard Defines Three Layers:

1. Application adaptation layer (AAL) accepts transmissions from upper layer services
and maps them into ATM cells.
2. ATM layer provides routing, traffic management, switching, and multiplexing
services. It has 5-byte header to be added to each 48 byte segment.
3. Physical layer defines the transmission medium, bit transmission, encoding, and
electrical to optical specifications.
Two Sublayers of AAL
1. Convergence sublayer (CS) adds overhead and manipulates the data stream at the
sending station; performs the opposite function at the receiving station.
2. Segmentation and reassembly (SAR) at the sending station, segments the bit stream
into same-sized packets; adds headers and trailers; performs the opposite function at the
receiving station.
Four Different AAL for specific data type
1. AAL1- constant bit-rate stream
2. AAL2- variable bit-rate stream
3. AAL3/AAL4-conventional packet switching (virtual circuit approach or datagram
approach)
4. AAL5- packets requiring no information from the SAR layer.
ATM Switches provide both switching and multiplexing.

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
ATM Two Types of Switching
1. Virtual path (VP) switching channels within each VP remain with the VP.
2. Virtual path and channel (VPC) switching a channel from one VP may pass into
another VP.

IX.SDH/SONET
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
Developed by ANSI.
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
Developed by ITU-T.
SONET/SDH
The two are nearly identical. ANSI and ITU-T defined standards that are
fundamentally similar and ultimately compatible.
Is a synchronous network, a single clock is used to handle the timing of
transmissions and equipment across the entire network.
SONET
It defines the hierarchy of signals called synchronous transport signals (STS).
Optical carrier (OC) levels are the implementation of STS.
SONET/SDH Rates
STS
OC
Rate (Mbps)
STS-1
OC-1
51.84
STS-3
OC-3
155.52
STS-9
OC-9
466.56
STS-12
OC-12
622.08
STS-18
OC-18
933.12
STS-24
OC-24
1244.16
STS-36
OC-36
1866.23
STS-48
OC-48
2488.32
STS-96
OC-96
4976.64
STS-192
OC-192
9953.28
*STM-synchronous transport module

STM
STM-1
STM-3
STM-4
STM-6
STM-8
STM-12
STM-16
STM-32
STM-64

SONET Four Layers

1. Photonic layer is the lowest and performs physical layer activities.
A frame at the photonic layer for STS-1 consists of 6480 bits (8000 frames/sec)
2-4. Section, Line and Path layers correspond to the OSI models datalink layer. Each
of these layers is responsible for signal transfer across a specific portion of the
transmission path.

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
SONET Equipment
1. STS multiplexer combines several optical signals to make an STS signal.
2. Regenerator removes noise from optical signal.
3. Add/drop multiplexer adds STS signals from different paths and removes STS signal
from a path.

X.TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internetworking Protocol (TCP/IP)
Is a set of rules and procedures that governs the exchange of messages in an
internetwork.
Originally developed as a protocol for networks that wanted to be connected to
ARPANET, a US Department of Defense project, now known as Internet.
Is a five-layer protocol suite whose bottom four layers match the OSI model fairly
closely. The highest level, the application layer, corresponds to OSIs top three
layers.
Internet Protocol (IP)
Is defined at the network layer
Unreliable and connectionless.
Is basically the set of rules for one network communicating with any other
To be part of internet, organization needs an internet network number, unique
number to be included in any packet sent out of the network onto the internet
IP packet is known as datagram, consists of a variable header and a variable data
field.
IP Address
Uniquely defines the connection of a host to its network. The host with more than
one IP address is multi-homed host.
IP Addressing

32 bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal values

Equivalent to 4 octets ( 8 bits each decimal value )
Dotted decimal notation
Consists of 2 parts; the network and the node.
Network identifier of particular network on the internet.
Host identifier of a particular device which can be a server or a
workstations.

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
IP Address Classifications
Classes Format
Application
A
NHHH Few large size org.
B
NNHH Medium size org.
Relatively small
C
NNNH org.
D
N/A
Multicast
E
N/A
Experimental

High order
bits
0
10
110
1110
1111

Address range
1.0.0.0 - 126.0.0.0
128.1.0.0-191.254.0.0

Max. No.
of Host
16,777,214
65,543

192.0.1.0-223.255.254.0
224.0.0.0-239.255.255.255
240.0.0.0-254.255.255.255

Other Protocols
1. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Finds the physical address of a device if its IP address is known.
2. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
Find the hosts IP address from its physical address.
3. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Handles control and error messages in the IP layer.
4. Protocol Port
Is a source or destination point of an executing program in the application layer.

Transport Level Two Protocols

1. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Unreliable and connectionless
Communication is also port-to-port
UDP packet is known as datagram
2. Transport Control Protocol (TCP)
Is reliable and connection-oriented.
Communication is also port-to-port
TCP packet is known as segment.
Application Layer Protocols
Telnet a remote login application, is a client-server application using TCP/IP.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) uses UDP for file transfer.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) uses two TCP/IP connections (one for control and one for
data) for file transfer.
Network File System (NFS) is an application available on TCP/IP that allows file access
and manipulation on a remote system.

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE

245
N/A
N/A

DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the electronic mail application available on
TCP/IP. It provide alias capabilities and a spool based on the first come, firast searched
concept.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an application on TCP/IP used to
monitor and manage hosts on a network. The manager checks variable values on a
managed host. It can change these values to effect a desired outcome.
Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) is an advanced application program that links files
on the WWW.
Terms:
Gopher is a menu-driven file retrieval method. The user sorts through menus to find the
files needed.
Archie is an automated title-searched application program.
Veronica, using the services of gopher, is an automated retrieval application program
that uses conditional expressions in the search field.
Wide area information service (WAIS) is a application program that searches file
contents for key words. It returns the file names of successful finds.
World Wide Web (www) consists of information repositories located all over the world
that are linked together.
Hypertext and hypermedia are documents linked to each other through the concept of
pointers.
Uniform source locator (URL) requires method, a host computer and a pathname to
locate information on the www.
Browsers interpret and display a web document.
Hyper markup language (HTML) is a language used to create static web pages.
A dynamic web document is created by a server at a browser request.
Common gateway interface (CGI) is a standard for building dynamic web documents.
Active document is a copy of a program retrieved by the client and run at the client site.
Java is a technology and a language that enables the running of an active document.

Winners are made, not born.

A winner makes it happen; a loser lets it happen.
God bless on your exam!!!
*****End*****

Engr. Marlyn Quiambao-Camingal

ECE