Characteristics of Thyristor

Under Power Electronics

A thyristor is a four layer 3 junction p-n-p-n semiconductor
device consisting of at least three p-n junctions, functioning as
an electrical switch for high power operations. It has three
basic terminals, namely the anode, cathode and the gate
mounted on the semiconductor layers of the device. The
symbolic diagram and the basic circuit diagram for
determining the characteristics of thyristor is shown in the
figure below,
V-I Characteristics of a Thyristor

From the circuit diagram above we can see the anode and
cathode are connected to the supply voltage through the load.

Another secondary supply Es is applied between the gate and

the cathode terminal which supplies for the positive gate
current when the switch S is closed.
On giving the supply we get the requiredV-I characteristics of
a thyristor show in the figure below for anode to cathode
voltage Vaand anode current Ia as we can see from the circuit
diagram. A detailed study of the characteristics reveal that the
thyristor has three basic modes of operation, namely the
reverse blocking mode, forward blocking (off-state) mode and
forward conduction (on-state) mode. Which are discussed in
great details below, to understand the overall characteristics of
a thyristor.
Reverse Blocking Mode of Thyristor

Initially for the reverse blocking mode of the thyristor, the

cathode is made positive with respect to anode by supplying
voltage E and the gate to cathode supply voltage E is detached
initially by keeping switch S open. For understanding this
mode we should look into the fourth quadrant where the
thyristor is reverse biased.
s

Here Junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased whereas the

junction J2 is forward biased. The behavior of the thyristor here
is similar to that of two diodes are connected in series with
reverse voltage applied across them. As a result only a small
leakage current of the order of a few Amps flows. This is the
reverse blocking mode or the off-state, of the thyristor. If the
reverse voltage is now increased, then at a particular voltage,
known as the critical breakdown voltage VBR, an avalanche
occurs at J1 and J3 and the reverse current increases rapidly. A
large current associated with VBR gives rise to more losses in
the SCR, which results in heating. This may lead to thyristor
damage as the junction temperature may exceed its permissible
temperature rise. It should, therefore, be ensured that
maximum working reverse voltage across a thyristor does not

exceed VBR. When reverse voltage applied across a thyristor is

less than VBR, the device offers very high impedance in the
reverse direction. The SCR in the reverse blocking mode may
therefore be treated as open circuit.

Forward Blocking Mode

Now considering the anode is positive with respect to the

cathode, with gate kept in open condition. The thyristor is now
said to be forward biased as shown the figure below.

As we can see the junctions J1 and J3arenow forward biased

but junction J2goes into reverse biased condition. In this
particular mode, a small current, called forward leakage
current is allowed to flow initially as shown in the diagram for
characteristics of thyristor. Now, if we keep on increasing the
forward biased anode to cathode voltage.
In this particular mode, the thyristor conducts currents from
anode to cathode with a very small voltage drop across it. A
thyristor is brought from forward blocking mode to forward
conduction mode by turning it on by exceeding the forward
break over voltage or by applying a gate pulse between gate
and cathode. In this mode, thyristor is in on-state and behaves
like a closed switch. Voltage drop across thyristor in the on
state is of the order of 1 to 2 V depending beyond a certain
point, then the reverse biased junction J2 will have an

avalanche breakdown at a voltage called forward break over

voltage VB0 of the thyristor. But, if we keep the forward
voltage less than VBO, we can see from the characteristics of
thyristor, that the device offers a high impedance. Thus even
here the thyristor operates as an open switch during the
forward blocking mode.
Forward Conduction Mode

When the anode to cathode forward voltage is

increased, with gate circuit open, the reverse
junction J will have an avalanche breakdown at
forward break over voltage V leading to thyristor
turn on. Once the thyristor is turned on we can
see from the diagram for characteristics of
thyristor, that the point M at once shifts toward N
and then anywhere between N and K. Here NK
represents the forward conduction mode of the
thyristor. In this mode of operation, the thyristor
conducts maximum current with minimum
voltage drop, this is known as the forward
conduction forward conduction or the turn on
mode of the thyristor. Thyristor Application Types Construction
2

BO

Principle of Thyristor

Under Power Electronics

A thyristor is normally four layer three-terminal device. Four
layers are formed by alternating n type and p type

semiconductor materials. Consequently there are three p n

junctions formed in the device. It is a bistable device. The
three terminals of this device are called anode (A), cathode (K)
and gate (G) respectively. The gate (G) terminal is control
terminal of the device. That means, the current flowing
through the device is controlled by electrical signal applied to
the gate (G) terminal. The anode (A) and cathode (K) are the
power terminals of the device handle the large applied voltage
and conduct the major current through the thyristor. For
example, when the device is connected in series with load
circuit, the load current will flow through the device from
anode (A) to cathode (K) but this load current will be
controlled by the gate(G) signal applied to the device
externally. A tyristor is on off switch which is used to
control output power of an electrical circuit by switching on
and off the load circuit periodically in a preset interval. The
main difference of thyristors with other digital and electronics
switches is that, a thyristor can handle large current and can
withstand large voltage, whereas other digital and electronic
switches handle only tiny current and tiny voltage.
When positive potential applied to the anode with respect to
the cathode, ideally no current will flow through the device
and this condition is called forward blocking state but when
appropriate gate signal is applied, a large forward anode
current starts flowing, with a small anodecathode potential
drop and the device becomes in forward-conduction state.

Although after removing the gate signal, the device will

remain in its forward-conduction mode until the polarity of the
load reverses. Some thyristors are also controllable in
switching from forward-conduction back to a forwardblocking state.

Application of Thyristor
As we already said that a thyristor is designed to handle large
current and voltage, it is used mainly in electrical power circuit
with system voltage more than 1 kV or currents more than 100
A. The main advantage of using thyristors as power control
device is that as the power is controlled by periodic on off
switching operation hence (ideally) there is no internal power
loss in the device for controlling power in output circuit.
Thyristors are commonly used in some alternating power
circuits to control alternating output power of the circuit to
optimize internal power loss at the expense of switching speed.

In this case thyristors are turned from forward-blocking into

forward-conducting state at some predetermined phase angle
of the input sinusoidal anodecathode voltage waveform.
Thyristors are also very popularly used in inverter for
converting direct power to alternating power of specified
frequency. These are also used in converter to convert an

alternating power into alternating power of different amplitude

and frequency.This is the most common application of
thyristor.
Types of Thyristors
There are four major types of thyristors: (i) Silicon
Controlled Rectifier (SCR); (ii) Gate Turn-off Thyristor (GTO)
and Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor (IGCT); (iii) MOSControlled Thyristor (MCT) (iv) Static Induction Thyristor
(SITh).
Basic Construction of Thyristor
A high- resistive, n-base region, presents in every thyristor. As
it is seen in the figure, this n-base region is associated with
junction, J . This must support the large applied forward
voltages that occur when the switch is in its off- or forwardblocking state (non-conducting). This n-base region is
typically doped with impurity phosphorous atoms at a
concentration of 10 to 10 per cube centimeter. This region is
typically made 10 to 100 micrometer thick to support large
voltages. High-voltage thyristors are generally made by
diffusing aluminum or gallium into both surfaces to create pdoped regions forming deep junctions with the n-base. The
doping profile of the p-regions ranges from about 10 to 10
per cube centimeter. These p-regions can be up to tens of
micrometer thick. The cathode region (typically only a few
micrometer thick) is formed by using phosphorous atoms at a
doping density of 10 to 10 cube centimeter. For higher
forward-blocking voltage rating of thyristor, the n-base region
is made thicker. But thicker n - based high-resistive region
2

13

14

15

17

18

17

slows down on off operation of the device. This is because of

more stored charge during conduction. A device rated for
forward blocking voltage of 1 kV will operate much more
slowly than the thyristor rated for 100 V. Thicker high-resistive
region also causes larger forward voltage drop during
conduction. Impurity atoms, such as platinum or gold, or
electron irradiation are used to create charge-carrier
recombination sites in the thyristor. The large number of
recombination sites reduces the mean carrier lifetime (average
time that an electron or hole moves through the Si before
recombining with its opposite charge-carrier type). A reduced
carrier lifetime shortens the switching times (in particular the
turn-off or recovery time) at the expense of increasing the
forward-conduction drop. There are other effects associated
with the relative thickness and layout of the various regions
that make up modern thyristors, but the major trade off
between forward-blocking voltage rating and switching times
and between forward-blocking voltage rating and forwardvoltage drop during conduction should be kept in mind. (In
signal-level electronics an analogous trade off appears as a
lowering of amplification (gain) to achieve higher operating
frequencies, and is often referred to as the gain-bandwidth
product.)
Basic Operating Principle of Thyristor
Although there are different types of thyristors but basic
operating principle of all thyristor more or less same. The
figure below represents a conceptual view of a typical
thyristor. There are three pn junctions J , J and J . There are
also three terminals anode (A), cathode (K) and gate (G) as
1

levelled in the figure. When the anode (A) is in higher

potential with respect to the cathode, the junctions J1 and J3
are forward biased and J2 is reverse biased and the thyristor is
in the forward blocking mode. A thyristor can be considered as
back to back connected two bipolar transistors. A p-n-p-n
structure of thyristor can be represented by the p-n-p and n-p-n
transistors, as shown in the figure. Here in this device, the
collector current of one transistor is used as base current of
other transistor. When the device is in forward blocking mode
if a hole current is injected through the gate (G) terminal, the
device is triggered on.
When potential is applied in reverse direction, the thyristor
behaves as a reverse biased diode. That means it blocks current
to flow in revere direction. Considering ICO to be the leakage
current of each transistor in cut-off condition, the anode
current can be expressed in terms of gate current.

Where is the common base current gain of the transistor ( =

IC/IE). The anode current becomes arbitrarily large as ( 1 + 2)
approaches unity. As the anodecathode voltage increases, the
depletion region expands and reduces the neutral base width of
the n1 and p2 regions. This causes a corresponding increase in
the of the two transistors. If a positive gate current of
sufficient magnitude is applied to the thyristor, a significant
amount of electrons will be injected across the forward-biased
junction, J3, into the base of the n1p2n2 transistor. The resulting
collector current provides base current to the p1n1p2 transistor.
The combination of the positive feedback connection of the
npn and pnp BJTs and the current-dependent base transport
factors eventually turn the thyristor on by regenerative action.
Among the power semiconductor devices known, the thyristor
shows the lowest forward voltage drop at large current
densities. The large current flow between the anode and
cathode maintains both transistors in saturation region, and
gate control is lost once the thyristor latches on.
Transient Operation of Thyristor

A thyristor is not turned on as soon as the gate

current is injected, there is one minimum time
delay is required for regenerative action. After
this time delay, the anode current starts rising

rapidly to on-state value. The rate of rising of

anode current can only be limited by external
current elements. The gate signal can only turn
on the thyristor but it cannot turn off the device.
It is turned off naturally when the anode current
tends to flow in reverse direction during the
reverse cycle of the alternating current. A
thyristor exhibits turn-off reverse recovery
characteristics just like a diode. Excess charge is
removed once the current crosses zero and
attains a negative value at a rate determined by
external circuit elements. The reverse recovery
peak is reached when either junction J or J
becomes reverse biased. The reverse recovery
current starts decaying, and the anodecathode
voltage rapidly attains its off-state value. Because
of the finite time required for spreading or
collecting the charge plasma during turn-on or
turn-off stage, the maximum dI/dt and dV/dt that
may be imposed across the device are limited in
magnitude. Further, device manufacturers specify
a circuit-commutated recovery time, for the
thyristor, which represents the minimum time for
which the thyristor must remain in its reverse
blocking mode before forward voltage is
reapplied. Thyristor Triggering
1

Under
Power
Electronics
Today, the world is witnessing energy crises. This necessitates
the efficient utilization of electrical energy. Power electronics
helps in accomplishing this task of efficient energy usage.
thyristor is an important family of devices in power electronic
system. SCR (Silicon Control Rectifier) is the important
device in the thyristor family. As the SCR is used more widely
hence SCR is known as thyristor.
Applications of power electronics deals with the flow of
electronic power. In order to achieve better efficiency the
semiconductor devices used in power electronic system are
operated as switches. One of the semiconductor device used in
a power electronic system is thyristor. Few of the other devices
used
as switches are diodes,
bipolar junction
transistors(BJTs) , metal oxide semiconductor field effect
transistor (MOSFET), insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT),
gate turn off thyristor(GTOs).
The term thyristor is a general name for a family of
semiconductor device. Thyristor families consist of large
number of switching devices.

A thyristor is a solid state power semiconductor device. It has

four alternating layer and three junctions J 1, J2, J3 of N and P
type semiconductor material. A thyristor has three terminals.
Namely anode, cathode and gate. Thyristor acts as a bistable
switch, conducts when its anode is made positive with respect
to cathode and gate signal (between gate terminal and cathode
terminal) is applied.

Triggering means turning ON of a device from its off state.

Turning ON of a thyristor refers to thyristor triggering.
Thyristor is turned on by increasing the anode current flowing
through it. The increase in anode current can be achieved by
many ways.
1. Voltage Thyristor Triggering: - Here the applied forward
voltage is gradually increased beyond a pt.known as forward

break over voltage VBO and gate is kept open. This method is
not preferred because during turn on of thyristor, it is
associated with large voltage and large current which results in
huge power loss and device may be damaged.
2. Thermal Thyristor Triggering: - If the temperature of the
thyristor is high, it results in increase in the electron-hole pairs.
Which in turn increase the leakage current 1 & 2 to raise. The
regenerative action tends to increase (1 + 2) to units and the
thyristor may be turned on. This type turn on is not preferred
as it may result in thermal turn away and hence it is avoided.
3. Light Thyristor Triggering: - These rays of light are
allowed to strike the junctions of the thyristor. This results in
increase in number of electron-hole pair and thyristor may be
turned on. The light activated SCRs (LASER) are triggered by
using this method.
4. dv/dt triggering: - If the rate of rise of anode to cathode
voltage is high , the charging current through the capacitive
junction is high enough to turn on the thyristor. A high value
of charging current may destroy the thyristor hence the device
must be protected against high dv/dt.
5. Gate triggering: - This method of thyristor triggering is
widely employed because of ease C8 control over the thyristor
gate triggering of thyristor allows us to turn of the thyristor

whenever we wish. Here we apply a gate signal to the

thyristor. Forward biased thyristor will turn on when gate
signal is applied to it. Once the thyristor starts conducting, the
gate loses its control over the device and the thyristor
continues to conduct. This is because of regenerative action
that takes place within the thyristor when gate signal is
applied.
When the thyristor is forward biased, and a gate signal is
injected by applying positive gate voltage is applied between
gate and cathode terminals, then the thyristor is turned on.

Fig. shows the waveform of anode current after the application

of gate signal. ton is the turn on delay time. The turn on delay
time is the time interval between the application of gate signal
and conduction of thyristor. The turn on delay time ton is
defined as the time interval between 10% of steady state gate
current 0.1Ig and 90% of steady state thyristor on state current
0.9IT.ton is the sum of delay time td and rise time tr. The delay
time td is defined as the time interval between 10% of steady
state gate current (0.1 Ig) and 10% of on state thyristor current
(0.1IT). The rise time tr is defined as the time taken by the
thyristor anode current from 10% of thyristor on state current
(0.1IT) to 90% of on state thyristor current (0.9IT).
While designing gate thyristor triggering circuit following
points should be kept in mind.
1. When thyristor is turned on the gate signal should be
removed immediately. A continuous application of gate signal
even after the triggering on and thyristor would increase the
power loss in the gate junction.
2. No gate signal should be applied when thyristor is reversed
biased; otherwise thyristor 3. The pulse width of the gate
signal should le longer than the time required for the anode
current to rise to the holding current value IH.

Thyristor can not be turned off by applied negative gate signal.

To stop the conduction of the thyristor we have to bring the
anode current flowing through the thyristor to a level below
holding current level. Holding current may be defined as the
minimum anode current required to maintain the thyristor in
the on state without gate signal below which the thyristor stops
conduction.
If we want to turn on the thyristor, the current flowing through
the thyristor must be greater than latching current of the
thyristor. Latching current is the minimum anode current
required to maintain the thyristor in the on state with at gate
signal. Here we should note that even the thyristor anode
current falls below latching current (once it is turned on and
gate signal is removed) thyristor does not stop conduction. But
if it falls below holding current (Latching current is more than
holding current) then thyristor turn off.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier SCR | Two

Transistor Model | Operating Principle
Under Power Electronics
What is Thyristor or SCR?

It is a silicon based semiconductor device, which is used in

electrical circuits for switching operation. SCR, whose full
form is silicon controlled rectifier, is also a well known
member of thyristor family. Although there are many different

members are available in thyristor family, but silicon

controlled rectifiers are so widely used that as if thyristor and
SCR become synonymous. The characteristic of thyristor
consists of the characteristic of thyratron tube and
characteristic of transistor.
In other words, it can be said, that the characteristic of
thyristor is combination of characteristics of thyratron tube and
transistor. That is why the name of thyristor consists of first
four letters of thyratron tube and last five letters of transistor.
[THYRItron + transISTOR].
The device has ideal states, i.e. On and OFF. Generally an
SCR consists of two PN junctions, but sometimes it may also
consist of more than two P-N junctions.
If we see from the constructional and operational point of
view, it is a four layer (PNPN) three terminals (Anode,
Cathode, Gate) semi controlled device. This device has tow
states i.e. on and OFF. We can turn it ON by sending a gate
current signal between second P layer and cathode. But we
cannot turn it OFF by control signal. That means we have
control upon its turn ON, once it goes to conduction mode, we

lose control over it. It can block both forward and reverse
voltage but can conduct only in one direction. In very high
power application, like AC DC converter, AC AC
converters, engineers first choice is always thyristor or silicon
controlled rectifier due to its very low conduction loss.
Two Transistor Model of SCR
Basic operating principle of SCR, can be easily understood
by the two transistor model of SCR or analogy of silicon
controlled rectifier, as it is also a combination of P and N
layers, shown in figure below.

This is a pnpn thyristor. If

we bisect it through the dotted line then we will get two
transistors i.e. one pnp transistor with J and J junctions and
another is with J and J junctions as shown in figure below.
1

When the transistors

are in off state, the relation between the collector current and
emitter current is shown below

Here, I is
is forward leakage
C

collector current, I is emitter current, I

E

CBO

current, is common base forward current gain and

relationship between I and I is
C

Where, IB is base current and is common emitter forward

current gain. Lets for transistor T1 this relation holds
And that for transistor T2
Now, by the analysis of two transistors model we can get
anode current,
From equation (i) and (ii), we get,
If applied gate current is Ig then cathode current will be the
summation of anode current and gate current i.e.
By substituting this valyue of Ik in (iii) we get,

From this relation we can assure that with increasing the value
of (1 + 2) towards unity, corresponding anode current will
increase. Now the question is how (1 + 2) increasing? Here is
the explanation using two transistor model of SCR.

At the first stage when we apply a gate current I g, it acts as

base current of T,2 transistor i.e. IB2 = Ig and emitter current i.e.
Ik = Ig of the T,2 transistor. Hence establishment of the emitter
current gives rise 2 as

Presence of base current will generate collector current as

This IC2 is nothing but base current IB1 of transistor T,1, which
will cause the flow of collector current,
I and I lead to increase I as I = I + I and hence,
increases. Now, new base current of T is I + I = (1 + )I ,
which will lead to increase emitter current I = I + I and as a
result also increases and this further increases I = (1 +
)I .
As IB1 = IC2, 1 again increases. This continuous positive
C1

B1

C1

C1

B1

C1

C1

C2

feedback effect increases (1 + 2) towards unity and anode

current tends to flow at a very large value. The value current
then can only be controlled by external resistance of the
circuit.

Switching or ON OFF Characteristics of SCR

| Turn ON Turn OFF Time
Under Power Electronics

Turn ON Time of SCR

A forward biased thyristor can be turned on by applying a
positive voltage between gate and cathode terminal. But it
takes some transition time to go from forward blocking mode
to forward conduction mode. This transition time is called
turn on time of SCR and it can be subdivided into three small
intervals as delay time (t ) rise time(t ), spread time(t ).
d

Delay Time of SCR

After application of gate current, the thyristor will start

conducting over a very tiny region. Delay time of SCR can be
defined as the time taken by the gate current to increase from
90% to 100% of its final value I . From another point of view,
delay time is the interval in which anode current rises from
forward leakage current to 10% of its final value and at the
same time anode voltage will fall from 100% to 90% of its
initial value V .
g

Rise Time of SCR

Rise time of SCR in the time taken by the anode current to

rise from 10% to 90% of its final value. At the same time
anode voltage will fall from 90% to 10% of its initial value V .
The phenomenon of decreasing anode voltage and increasing
anode current is entirely dependent upon the type of the load.
For example if we connect a inductive load, voltage will fall in
a faster rate than the current increasing. This is happened
because induction does not allow initially high voltage change
through it. On the other hand if we connect a capacitive load it
does not allow initial high voltage change through it, hence
current increasing rate will be faster than the voltage falling
rate.
a

High increasing rate of dia/dt can create local hot spot in the
device which is not suitable for proper operation. So, it is
advisable to use a inductor in series with the device to tackle
high dia/dt. Usually value of maximum allowable di/dt is in the
range of 20 to 200 A per microsecond.
Spread Time of SCR

It is the time taken by the anode current to rise from 90% to

100% of its final value. At the same time the anode voltage
decreases from 10% of its initial value to smallest possible
value. In this interval of time conduction spreads all over the
area of cathode and the SCR will go to fully ON State. Spread
time of SCR depends upon the cross-sectional area of cathode.

Turn OFF Time of SCR

Once the thyristor is switched on or in other point of view, the
anode current is above latching current, the gate losses control
over it. That means gate circuit cannot turn off the device. For
turning off the SCR anode current must fall below the holding
current. After anode current fall to zero we cannot apply
forward voltage across the device due to presence of carrier
charges into the four layers. So we must sweep out or
recombine these charges to proper turn off of SCR. So turn
off time of SCR can be defined as the interval between anode
current falls to zero and device regains its forward blocking
mode. On the basis of removing carrier charges from the four
layers, turn off time of SCR can be divided into two time
regions,

1. Reverse Recovery Time.

2. Gate Recovery Time
Reverse Recovery Time

It is the interval in which change carriers remove from J , and

J junction. At time t , anode current falls to zero and it will
continue to increase in reverse direction with same slope
(di/dt) of the forward decreasing current. This negative current
will help to sweep out the carrier charges from junction J and
J . At the time t carrier charge density is not sufficient to
maintain the reverse current hence after t this negative current
will start to decrease. The value of current at t is called reverse
recovery current. Due to rapid decreasing of anode current, a
reverse spike of voltage may appear across the SCR. Total
recovery time t - t is called reverse recovery time. After that,
1

device will start to follow the applied reverse voltage and it

gains the property to block the forward voltage.
Gate Recovery Time

After sweeping out the carrier charges from junction J and J

during reverse recovery time, there still remain trapped
charges in J junction which prevent the SCR from blocking
the forward voltage. These trapped charge can be removed by
recombination only and the interval in which this
recombination is done, called gate recovery time.
1

Rating of SCR or Thyristor

Under Power Electronics

Thyristor ratings or SCR ratings are very
much required for operating it in a safe zone. The
reliable operation can be done when a thyristor
does not violate its voltage and current rating
during working period. A thyristor, or SCR may
have several ratings, such as voltage, current,
power, dv/dt, di/dt, turn on time, turn off time,
etc. Generally these ratings are specified in the
data sheet given by manufacturer.
Anode Voltage Rating

This rating gives us a brief idea about

withstanding power of a thyristor in forward
blocking made in the absence of gate current.

Peak Working Forward Blocking or Forward

OFF State Voltage (VDWM)
It specifies the maximum forward voltage
(positive voltage that applied across anode and
cathode) that can be withstand by the SCR at the
time of working.
Peak Repetitive Forward Blocking Voltage
(VDRM)
It specifies the peak forward transient voltage
that a SCR can block repeatedly or periodically in
forward blocking mode. This rating is specified at
a maximum allowable junction temperature with
gate circuit open. During commutation process,
due to high decreasing rate of reverse anode
current a voltage spike Ldi/dt is produced which is
the cause of V generation.
DRM

Peak Non-Repetitive or Surge Forward

Blocking Voltage (VDSM)
It is the peak value of the forward transient
voltage that does not appear periodically. This
type of over voltage generated at the time of
switching operation of circuit breaker. This
voltage is 130 % of V ), although it lies under the
forward break over voltage (V ).
DRM

BD

Peak Working Revere Voltage (VRWM)

It is the maximum reverse voltage (anode is
negative with respect to cathode) which can be

withstand by the thyristor repeatedly or

periodically. It is nothing but peak negative value
of the AC sinusoidal voltage.
Peak Repetitive Revere Voltage (VRRM)
It is the value of transient voltage that can be
withstand by SCR in reverse bias at maximum
allowable temperature. This reason behind the
appearance of this voltage is also same as V .
DRM

Peak Non Repetitive Revere Voltage (VRSM)

It implies the reverse transient voltage that does
not appear repetitively. Though this voltage value
is 130% of V , it lies under reverse break over
voltage, V . Forward ON State voltage Drop (V )
This is the voltage drop across the anode and
cathode when rated current flows through the
SCR at rated junction temperature. Generally this
value is lie between 1 to 1.5 volts.
RRM

BR

Forward dv/dt Rating

When we apply a forward voltage to the thyristor

Junction J and J are forward biased whereas
junction J is reverse biased and hence it acts a
capacitor. So due to Cdv/dt a leakage current
flows through the device. This value of current will
increase with the value of dv/dt. One thing we
have to keep in mind that voltage value is not the
reason behind flowing of leakage current, the
1

reason is the rate of voltage increasing. The value

of capacitance of the junction is constant hence
when dv/dt increases to a suitable value that
leakage current occurs a avalanche breakdown
across junction J . This value of dv/dt in called
forward dv/dt rating which can turn on the SCR
without help of gate current. In practice it is not
suitable to apply high dv/dt due to high
temperature malfunction of SCR.
2

Voltage Safety Factor of SCR (VSF)

It is described as the ratio of peak repetitive
reverse voltage (V ) to the maximum value of
input voltage.
RRM

Finger Voltage of SCR (VFV)

Minimum value of voltage which must be applied
between anode and cathode for turning off the
device by gate triggering. Generally this voltage
value is little mare than normal ON state voltage
drop.
Current Rating of SCR

We all know that a thyristor, hence a SCR is made

of semiconductor which is very much thermal
sensitive. Even due to short time over current, the
temperature of the device may rise to such a high

value that it may cross its maximum allowable

limit. Hence there will be a high chance of
permanent destruction of the device. For this
reason, current rating of SCR is very essential
part to protect the SCR.
Maximum RMS Current Rating (IRMS)
Generations of heat in the device present where
resistive elements are present in the device.
Resistive elements such as metallic joints are
totally dependent upon rms current as power loss
is I R, which is converts to heat, hence cause of
temperature rise of the device. Hence, I rating
of the thyristor must be a suitable value so that
maximum heat capability of SCR cannot exceed.
RMS

RMS

Maximum Average Current Rating (IAV)

It is the allowable average current that can be
applied safely such that maximum junction
temperature and rms current limit cannot be
exceeded. Generally manufacturer of SCR,
provides a characteristic diagram which shows I
as a function of the case temperature I with the
current conduction angle as a parameter. This
characteristic is known as "forward average
current de-rating characteristic".

AV

Maximum Surge Current (ISM)

If a thyristor operates under its repetitive voltage
and current ratings, its maximum allowable

temperature is never exceeded. But a SCR may

fall into a abnormal operating condition due to
fault in the circuit. To overcome this problem, a
maximum allowable surge current rating is also
specified by manufacturer. This rating specifies
maximum non repetitive surge current, that the
device can withstand. This rating is specified
dependent upon the number of surge cycle. At
the time of manufacturing at least three different
surge current ratings for different durations are
specified. For example, I = 3,000A for 1/2 cycle
SM

ISM = 2,100A for 3 cycles

ISM = 1,800A for 5 cycles

A plot between ISM and cycle numbers are also provided for
dealing with the various cycle surge current.
I2R Rating of SCR

This rating is provided to get an idea about overvoltage tackle power of a thyristor. The rating in

term of A S is the measure of energy that can be

handled by a thyristor for a short while. An
electrical fuse I R rating must be less than that of
thyristor to be used to protect it.
2

di/dt Rating of SCR

While, SCR is getting turn on, conduction stays in

a very small area nearer to the gate. This small
area of conduction spreads throughout the whole
area of the junctions. But if spreading velocity of
the charge carriers will be smaller than the di/dt
then local hot spot may arise nearer to the gate
which may destroy the device. To overcome this
problem a maximum rate of rise of current, di/dt
is also specified during manufacturing of the
devices.
Latching Current of Thyristor

This is the rating of current below which the SCR

can't be turned on even the gate signal is applied.
That means this much anode current must rise to
turn on the device. The gate pulse must be
continuous until anode current is greater or equal
to latching current of thyristor other wise the
device will fail to be turned on.
Holding Current of Thyristor

This is the rating of current below, which anode

current must fall to turn off the device.
Gate Specification of SCR
Gate Current to Trigger (IGT)

This is the value of gate current below which

device cannot be turned on. This value of current
specified at a particular forward break down
voltage.
Gate Triggering Voltage (VGT)

This is the value of minimum gate voltage that

must be a acquired by the gate circuit. for proper
turn on of the SCR. This voltage value is also
specified at a particular forward breakdown
voltage similar to I .
GT

Non Triggering Gate Voltage (VNG)

This is the maximum value of gate circuit source
voltage below which the device must be in off
state. All unwanted noise signals must lie under
this voltage to avoid unwanted turn on of the
device.
Peak Reverse Gate Voltage (VGRM)
This is the value of maximum reverse voltage
which can be applied across the cathode and
gate.

Average Gate Power Dissipation (PGAR)

This is the value of average power dissipation
which cannot be exceeded by a gate circuit for a
gate current pulse wider than 100 microsecond.
Peak Forwarded Gate Current (IGRM)
This is the rating of maximum forward gate
current that should not be exceeded to reliable
and safe operation. Thyristor Protection or SCR Protection
Under Power ElectronicsProtection of a device is an
important aspect for its reliable and efficient operation. SCR is
a very delicate semiconductor device. So we have to use it in
its specified ratings to get desired output. SCR may face
different types of threats during its operation due to over
voltages, over currents etc. There are different types of
thyristor protection schemes available for satisfactory
operation of the device like
1) Over voltage protection. 2) Over current protection. 3) High
dv/dt protection. 4) High di/dt protection. 5) Thermal
protection.

Over Voltage Protection :

It is the most important protection scheme w. r. t. others as

thyristors are very sensitive to over voltages. Maximum time
thyristor failures happen due to over-voltage transients.
A thyristor may be subjected to internal or external overvoltages. Internal Over-Voltages : After commutation of a
thyristor reverse recovery current decays abruptly with high
di/dt which causes a high reverse voltage [as, V = L(di/dt) so if
di/dt is high then V will be large] that can exceed the rated
break-over voltage and the device may be damaged.
External Over-Voltages : These are caused due to various
reasons in the supply line like lightning, surge conditions
(abnormal voltage spike) etc. External over voltage may cause
different types of problem in thyristor operation like increase
in leakage current, permanent breakdown of junctions,
unwanted turn-on of devices etc. So, we have to suppress the
over-voltages.
Protective Measure : The effect of over-voltages can be
minimized by using non-linear resistors called voltage
clamping devices like metal oxide like metal oxide varistor. At
the time of normal operation it offers high impedance and acts
as it is not present in the circuit. But when the voltage exceeds

the rated voltage then it serves as a low impedance path to

protect SCR.
Over Current Protection

Over current mainly occurs due to different types of faults in

the circuit. Due to over current i R loss will increase and high
generation of heat may take place that can exceed the
permissible limit and burn the device.
Protective Measure : SCR can be protected from over current
2

by using CB and fast acting current limiting fuses (FACLF).

CB are used for protection of thyristor against continuous
overloads or against surge currents of long duration as a CB
has long tripping time. But fast-acting fuses is used for
protecting SCR against high surge current of very short
duration.
High dv/dt Protection

When a thyristor is in forward blocking state then only J

junction is reverse biased which acts as a capacitor having
constant capacitance value C (junction capacitance). As we
know that current through capacitor follows the relation
2

[math]i=C\frac{dv}{dt}\Rightarrow i\propto \frac{dv}{dt}

(if \;C\; constant)[/math] Hence leakage current through the J
junction which is nothing but the leakage current through the
device will increase with the increase in dv /dt i.e. rate of
change of applied voltage across the thyristor. This current can
turn-on the device even when the gate signal is absent. This is
2

called dv/dt triggering and must be avoided which can be

achieved by using Snubber circuit in parallel with the device.
Protective Measure : Snubber Circuit : It consists of a
capacitor connected in series with a resistor which is applied
parallel with the thyristor, when S is closed then voltage Vs is
applied across the device as well as Cs suddenly. At first
Snubber circuit behaves like a short circuit. Therefore voltage
across the device is zero. Gradually voltage across Cs builds up
at a slow rate. So dv/dt across the thyristor will stay in
allowable range.
Before turning on of thyristor Cs is fully charged and after
turning on of thyristor it discharges through the SCR. This
discharging current can be limited with the help of a resistance
(Rs) connected in series with the capacitor (Cs) to keep the
value of current and rate of change of current in a safe limit.
High di/dt Protection

When a thyristor is turned on by gate pulse then charge

carriers spread through its junction rapidly. But if rate of rise
of anode current, i.e. di/dt is greater than the spreading of
charge carriers then localized heat generation will take place
which is known as local hot spots. This may damage the
thyristor.
Protective Measure : To avoid local hot spots we use an
inductor in series with the device as it prevents high rate of
change of current through it.

High Temperature Protection

With the increase in the temperature of the junction, insulation

may get failed. So we have to take proper measures to limit the
temperature rise.
Protective Measure : We can achieve this by mounting the
thyristor on heat sink which is mainly made by high thermal
conductivity metals like aluminium (Al), Copper (Cu) etc.
Mainly aluminium (Al) is used due to its low cost. There are
several types of mounting techniques for SCR such as Leadmounting, stud-mounting, Bolt-down mounting, press-fit
mounting, press-pack mounting etc.
Gate Protection of Thyristor
Like thyristor, Gate circuit should also be protected from over
voltages and over currents. Over voltages in the gate circuit
can cause false triggering and over current can cause high
junction temperature.

Protective Measure : Over voltages thyristor protection is

achieved by using a zener diode and a resistor can be used to
protect the gate circuit from over current. Noise in gate circuit
can also cause false triggering which can be avoided by using
a resistor and a capacitor in parallel. A diode (D) may be
connected in series or in parallel with the gate to protect it
from high reverse voltage.
Overall Protection of a Thyristor

Lead mounting : In such mounting technique housing of SCR

itself is used as heat radiator. Hence no need of additional heat
zink arrangement. Hence, this technique of thyristor Protection
is generally used for low current application, normally less
than one ampere.
Stud mounting : The anode of the thyristor is in the form of
threaded stud which is screwed to a metalling heat sink block.
Bolt-down mounting : Here the device is connected to the
heat sink with the help of nut-bolt mechanism. It is mainly
used in small and medium rating circuit.
Press fit mounting : This kind of mounting is obtained by
inserting the whole SCR into the metallic block. It is used in
high rating circuit.
Press-Pack mounting : This kind of mounting for thyristor
protection is obtained by sandwiching the thyristor between to
heat sink with the help of clamps. It is used for very high
rating circuit.

Series and Parallel Connection of SCR or

Thyristor
Under Power ElectronicsNowadays, SCRs are available of
ratings up to 10 KV & 3 KA. But sometimes we face demand,
more than these ratings. In this case combination of more than
one SCRs is used. Series connection of SCRs meets high
voltage demand and parallel connection of SCRs meets high

current demand. These series and parallel connection of SCR

or Thyristor will work efficiently if all SCRs are fully utilized.
Although all SCRs in a string are of same rating, their V-I
characteristics differ from one another. This leads to unequal
voltage or current division among them. Hence every SCR is
not fully utilized. So the efficiency of string is always less than
100% according to the given expression [math]String\;
efficiency
=\frac{V_{oi}\;or\;actual
\;current\;rating\;of\;the\;whole\;string}{nos\; of\; SCR\; in\;
the\;
string\;\times
V_{oi}\;or\;current\;rating\;of\;individual\;SCR}[/math] With
increase in the numbers of SCRs in a string voltage or current
handled by each SCR is minimized. This phenomenon
increases the reliability of the string, but reduces the utilization
of each SCR. Thus string efficiency decreases. Reliability of
string is measured by derating factor (DRF) which is given by
the expression DRF = 1 string efficiency
Series Operation of SCR
When the operating voltage is more than the rating of one SCR
the multiple SCRs of same ratings are used in series. As we
know SCRs having same rating, may have different I-V
characteristic, so unequal voltage division is bound to take
place. For example if two SCRs in series that is capable of
blocking 5 KV individually, then the string should block 10

KV. But practically this does not happen. This can be verified
with the help of an example. Let the characteristics of two
SCRs are as shown in fig. 1. So we can see from the diagram,
for same leakage current, unequal voltage division takes place.
Voltage across SCR is V but that across SCR is V . V is
much less than V . So, SCR is not fully utilized. Hence the
string can block V + V = 8 KV, rather than 10 KV and the
string efficiency is given by = 80%. To improve the efficiency
a resistor in parallel with every SCR is used. The value of
these resistances are such that the equivalent resistance of each
SCR and resistor pair will be same. Hence this will ensure
equal voltage division across each SCR. But in practical
different rating of resistor is very difficult to use. So we chose
one value of resistance to get optimum result which is given
by
1

Where n = no. of SCR in the string V = Voltage blocked by

the SCR having minimum leakage current. I = Difference
between maximum and minimum leakage current flowing
through SCRs. V = Voltage across the string.
bm

This resistance b is called static equalizing circuit. But this

resistance is not enough to equalize the voltage division during
turn on and turn off. In these transient conditions, to maintain
the equal volume across each device a capacitor is used along
with resistor in parallel with every SCR. This is nothing but

snubber ckt which also known as dynamic equalizing circuit.

An additional diodes can also be used to improve the
performance of dynamic equalizing circuit.

Parallel Operation of SCR

When the operating current is more than the

individual current ratings of SCRs then we use
more than one SCRs in parallel. Due to different
V-I characteristics SCRs of same rating shares
unequal current in a string. Let a string consists of
two transistors in parallel as shown in fig. 1 and
their current rating by 1 KA. From the VI
characteristics of the devices it can be seen that
for operating volume V, current through SCR is 1
KA and that through SCR is 0.8 KA. Hence, SCR is
not fully utilized here. Though the string should
withstand R KA theoretically it is only capable of
handling 1.8 KA. So, the string efficiency is =
90%. Due to unequal current division when
current through SCR increases, its temperature
also increases which in turn decreases the
resistance. Hence further increase in current
takes place and this is a cumulative process. This
is known as thermal run away which can
damage the device. To overcome this problem
1

SCRs would be maintained at the same

temperature. This is possible by mounting them
on same heat sink. They should be mounted in
symmetrical position as flux. Linkages by the
devices will be same. So, the mutual inductance
of devices will be same. This will offer same
reactance through every device. Thus reducing
the difference in current level through the
devices. Another way of equalizing the current
division in ac circuit can be achieved by using
magnetic coupled reactance as shown in Fig - 2.
When I = I then resultant flux is zero as two coils
are connected in anti-parallel. So, the inductance
of the both path will be same. If I > I then there
will be a resultant flux. This flux induces emfs in
cols. 1 and 2 as shown in fig. Hence current in
path 1 is opposed and in path 2 it is aided by the
induced emfs. Thus reducing the current
difference in the paths. Gate Characteristics of SCR or Thyristor
1

Under Power Electronics Gate characteristic of thyristor

or SCR gives us a brief idea to operate it within a safe region
of applied gate voltage and current. So this is a very important
characteristic regarding thyristor. At the time of manufacturing
each SCR or thyristor is specified with the maximum gate
voltage limit (Vg-max), gate current limit (Ig-max) and maximum
average gate power dissipation limit (Pgav). These limits should

not be exceeded to protect the SCR from damage and there is

also a specified minimum voltage (Vg-min) and minimum
current (Ig-min) for proper operation of thyristor.

A
gate non triggering voltage (Vng) is also mentioned at the time
of manufacturing of the device. All noises and unwanted
signals should lie under this voltage to avoid unwanted turn on
of the thyristor.

Curve 1 represents the lowest voltage values that must be

applied to turn on the SCR and curve 2 represents the highest
values of the voltage that can safely applied. So from the
figure we can see the safety operated area of SCR is bcdefghb.
Now, from the triggering circuit, we get, E s = Vg + IgRs Where,
Es = gate source voltage Vg = gate cathode voltage Ig = gate
current Rs = gate source resistance
A load line of gate source voltage is drawn as AD where OA =
Es and OD = Es/Rs which is trigger circuit short circuit current.
Now, let a VI characteristic of gate circuit is given by curve 3.
The intersection point of load line (AD) and curve 3 is called

as operating point S. It is evident that S must lie between S 1

and S2 on the load line. For decreasing the turn ON time and to
avoid unwanted turn ON of the device, operating point should
be as close to Pgav as possible. Slop of AD = source resistance
Rs. Minimum amount of Rs can be determined by drawing a
tangent to the Pgav carve from the point A.
Chopper | DC to DC Converter

Under Power ElectronicsDC to DC converter is very much

needed nowadays as many industrial applications are
dependent upon DC voltage source. The performance of these
applications will be improved if we use a variable DC supply.
It will help to improve controllability of the equipments also.
Examples of such applications are subway cars, trolley buses,
battery operated vehicles etc. We can control and vary a
constant dc voltage with the help of a chopper.

Chopper is a basically static power electronics device which

converts fixed dc voltage / power to variable dc voltage or
power. It is nothing but a high speed switch which connects
and disconnects the load from source at a high rate to get
variable or chopped voltage at the output.

Choppe
r can increase or decrease the dc voltage level at its opposite
side. So, chopper serves the same purpose in dc circuit
transfers in case of ac circuit. So it is also known as DC
transformer.

Devices used in Chopper

Low power application : GTO, IGBT, Power BJT,

Power MOSFET etc. High power application :
Thyristor or SCR.

These devices are represented as a switch in a dotted box for

simplicity. When it is closed current can flow in the direction

of arrow only.

1) Step down Chopper : Step

down chopper as Buck converted is used to reduce the i/p

voltage level at the output side. Circuit diagram of a step down
chopper

is

shown

in

the

adjacent

figure.

When
CH is turned ON, Vs directly appears across the load as shown
in

figure.

So

VO

VS.

When
CH is turned off, Vs is disconnected from the load. So output
voltage
VO
=
0.

The
voltage waveform of step down chopper is shown below:

TON
It is the interval in which chopper is in ON state. T OFF It is
the interval in which chopper is in OFF state. VS Source or
input voltage. VO Output or load voltage. T Chopping
period = TON + TOFF
Operation of Step Down Chopper with Resistive Load

When CH is ON, V = V When CH is OFF, V = 0

O

Where, D is duty cycle = TON/T. TON can be varied from 0 to T,

so 0 D 1. Hence output voltage VO can be varied from 0 to
VS.

So, we can conclude that output voltage is always less than the
input voltage and hence the name step down chopper is
justified. The output voltage and current waveform of step
down chopper with resistive load is shown below.

Operation Of Step Down Chopper with Inductive Load

When CH is ON, V = V When CH is OFF, V = 0

O

During ON time of chopper

Therefore, peak to peak load current,

During OFF Time of Chopper

If inductance value of L is very large, so load
current will be continuous in nature. When CH is
OFF inductor reverses its polarity and discharges.
This current freewheels through diode FD.

By equating (i) and (ii)

So, from (i) we get,

The output voltage and current waveform of step down

chopper

with

inductive

load

is

shown

below

2) Step

up Chopper or Boost Converter Step up chopper or boost

converter is used to increase the input voltage level of its
output side. Its circuit diagram and waveforms are shown
below
in
figure.

Operation of Step up Chopper

When CH is ON it short circuits the load. Hence

output voltage during T is zero. During this
period inductor gets charged. So, V = V
ON

Where
I is the peak to peak inductor current. When CH is OFF
inductor L discharges through the load. So, we will get
summation of both source voltage VS and inductor Voltage VL
as output voltage, i.e.

Now,
by equating (iii) & (iv),

As we can vary TON from 0 to T, so 0 D 1. Hence V O can

be varied from VS to . It is clear that output voltage is always
greater than the input voltage and hence it boost up or increase
the voltage level.
Buck-Boost Converter or Step Up Step Down Converter

With the help of Buck-Boost converter we can

increase or decrease the input voltage level at its
output side as per our requirement. The circuit
diagram of this converter is shown below.

Operation of Buck-Boost Converter

When CH is ON source voltage will be applied

across inductor L and it will be charged. So V = V
L

When chopper is OFF inductor L reverses its polarity and

discharges through load and diode, So.

By evaluating (v) and (vi) we get,

Taking magnitude we get,

D can be varied from 0 to one. When, D = 0; VO = 0 When D =

0.5, VO = VS When, D = 1, VO = Hence, in the interval 0
D 0.5, output voltage varies in the range 0 V O VS and we
get step down or Buck operation. Whereas, in the interval 0.5
D 1, output voltage varies in the range VS VO and we
get step up or Boost operation.

According to direction of output voltage and

current
Semiconductors devices used in chopper circuit
are unidirectional. But arranging the devices in
proper way we can get output voltage as well as
output current from chopper in our required
direction. So, on the basis of this features chopper
can be categorized as follows :

Before detailed
analysis some basic idea regarding V I
quadrant is required here. The directions of I and
V marked in the figure 1 is taken as positive
O

direction.
If
output voltage (V ) and output current (I ) follows
the direction as marked in figures then the
chopper operation will be restricted in the first
O

quadrant of V I plane. This type of operation is

also known as forward motoring.
O

When
output voltage (V ) follows the marked direction in
fig. 1 but current flows in the opposite direction
then V is taken positive but I as negative. Hence
the chopper operates in the second quadrant of V
I plane. This type of operation is also known as
forward braking.
O

It may
also happen that both output voltage and current
is opposite to the marked direction in figure 1. In
t his case both V and I are taken as negative.
Hence chopper operation is restricted in third
quadrant of V -I plane. This operation is called
reverse motoring.
O

If
output voltage is opposite to the marked direction
in fig. 1. then it is taken as negative. But output
current follows the direction as marked in fig. 1
and considered as positive. Hence chopper
operates in 4th quadrant of V I plane. This
mode of operation is called reverse braking.\
O

Now
we can proceed to detailed analysis of different
types of chopper. Some choppers operate in a
single quadrant only, which are called single
quadrant chopper. Some choppers operate in two
quadrant also which are known as two quadrant
chopper. It is also possible that a chopper
operates in all the quadrants, which are known as
4-quadrant chopper.
Type-A Chopper

It is a single quadrant chopper whose operation is

restricted in first quadrant of V I plane. The
circuit diagram is shown as below : When CH is
ON both V & I follows the direction as marked in
O

the figures. So, both are taken as positive hence

load power is positive which means power is
delivered from source to land. When CH is OFF
current freewheels through diode. Hence V is
zero and I is positive. In type-A chopper it is seen
that average value of V and I is always positive.
This is also called step down chopper as average
value of V is less than the input voltage. This
type of chopper is suitable for motoring
operation.
O

Type-B Chopper

This is also a single quadrant chopper operating

in second quadrant of V I plane. The circuit
diagram is shown in the following figure.
O

It is
interesting to note that load must have a dc
voltage source E for this kind of operation. When
CH is ON V is zero but current flows in the
opposite direction as marked in figure. When
chopper is OFF
O

Which exceeds the source voltage VS. So current flows

through diode D and treated as negative. Hence current IO is
always negative here but VO is positive (sometimes zero). So,
power flows from load to source and operation of type-B
chopper is restricted in second quadrant of VO IO plane. This
type of chopper is suitable for forward braking operation.

Type-C Chopper

This is a two quadrant chopper whose operation is

bounded between first and second quadrant of V
- I plane. This type of chopper obtained by
connecting type-A and type-B chopper in parallel
as shown in the figure.
O

When
CH is ON current flows through abcdefa and
inductor L will be charged. Hence output voltage
V and current I both will be positive. When CH is
OFF, induction will discharge through D and
current I will flow through same direction with
zero output voltage. So, we can see the operation
of CH is nothing but the operation of type-A
chopper by which we can operate a chopper in
the first quadrant. When CH2 is ON, output
voltage VO will be zero but output current I will
flow in opposite direction of current shown in the
figure and inductor will be charged up. When CH
is OFF Output voltage
1

Which exceeds the value of source voltage V S. So current

flows through diode D2 and treated as negative. Hence output
voltage VO is always positive and output current I O is always
negative here. We can see operation of CH 2 is nothing but
operation of type-B chopper by which we can operate the
chopper in the second quadrant. We can conclude that the
operation of type-c chopper is the combined operation of typeA and type-B chopper. This type of chopper is suitable for both
forward motoring and forward braking operation.