English Illuminated Manuscripts

I'*
ENGLISH ILLUMINATED
MANUSCRIPTS
Strictly limited to an edition of 300 copies,
of 7i>liich this is No.t-f- w

20.
ENGLISH
ILLUMINATED
MANUSCRIPTS
BY SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, K.C.B.
LONDON
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER
AND COMPANY, LIMITED
1895
NV
t42
JAN 1 5 1965
"%
"'"^^r
?r3/^^
T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty

Edinburgh :
TABLE OF PLATES
TO FACE PAGE
1.
Beginning of the Gospel of St. Luke,
* '
from the Lindisfarne Gospels or

'
Durham Book '
about a.d. 700.

;
(Cottonian ms., Nero D. iv.) .

9
2. David playing on the Lyre, from '
St.
'
Augustine's Psalter early 8th ;
Century. (Cottonian ms., Vespasian

A. i.) 13
3. Illustration of Psalm ix., from a
Psalter; nth Century. (Harleian
MS. 603) 17
'
4.
'
Scenes from the Psychomachia of
Prudentius loth and nth Cen-
;
turies. (Additional ms. 24199 and ;
Cottonian ms., Cleopatra C. viii.) .

19
5. Adoration of the Magi, from the
Benedictional of St. yEthelvvold ;
about A.D. 970. (ms. of the Duke

of Devonshire) . .21
6. The Crucifixion, from a Psalter ;
late
loth Century. (Harleian ms. 2904) 23
7. Beginning of Psalm
lil, from a
Psalter; nth Century. (Arundel
MS. 60) 24
8. Scenes from Paraphrase of
yElfric's
the Pentateuch, etc. early nth Cen-
;
tury. (Cottonian MS. Claudius B.iv.),

25
VI 1
TABLE OF PLATES
PLATE TO FACE PAGE
Scenes from the Life of David, from

a Psalter 1 2th Century. (Cottonian
;
MS., Nero C. iv.) . 3^

10. David playing on the Harp, from a
Psalter 1 2th Century.
; (Royal MS.
2 A. xxii.) 35
11. Page from a Bible; 13th Century.
(Royal MS. I D. i.) 37
. •
.
12. Page from the Psalter of Alphonso,

son of Edward i. before a.d. 1284.
(Additional MS. 24686)
;
... 39
13. Scene from the Life of Offa ; 13th
Century. (Cottonian ms., Nero D.i.) 41
14. Scenes from the Life of Joseph, from

'
Queen Mary's Psalter' ; early 14th

Century. (Royal ms. 2 B. vii.) 43
15. The Last Judgment, from 'Queen
Mary's Psalter' early 14th Century.
(Royal MS. 2 B. vii.)
;
... 45
16. Scenes from an Apocalypse; about
A.D. 1330. (Royal MS. 19 B. xv.) .
53
17. Page from
a Psalter; before a.d.
1339. (Arundel ms. 83) .
55
18 and 19. Initial Letters from a Bible;
end of the 14th Century. (Royal
MS. I E. ix.) . 59.61 . . .
20. The Annunciation, from a Book of

Hours early 15th Century. (Royal
;
MS. 2 A. xviii ) Frontispiece . . .
21. Page from the Missal of St. Lau-

rence, Old Jewry; before a.d. 1446.
(Arundel ms. 109)

Vlll
. . .
-65
ENGLISH ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS
From the Eighth Century to the Norman

Conquest
^>2kviQ p<r^<^:^^?^ HR history of illumination and

book-decoration, as practised
in England in the period an-
terior to the Norman Con-
quest, has a particular interest
which altogether surpasses
that of contemporary conti-
nental art of the same nature.
There still exist, in fairly
sufficient numbers, manuscripts produced in our
own country, in the three and a half centuries
between the years 700 and 1066, which enable us
to judge, with something approaching to accuracy,
the progress of the art used in their decoration. In
them we find two distinct styles the one having
:
its origin in the north, the other developing in the

south, of the kingdom. In the north we have the
style introduced from Ireland
—
a style which may
be termed almost purely decorative, in which figure-
drawing is of so primitive and barbarous a nature
that it counts for nothing from the point of view of
art, but in which the marvellous interlaced designs
and ribbon and spiral patterns combine to produce
decorations of the highest merit, and such as have
no rivals in other schools of illumination. On the
other hand, in the style which arose in the south
we have figure-drawing largely, and in no small
degree successfully, cultivated ;and, at the same

time, the decorative side of the art is not neglected.
This developed, not with the minute accuracy and
laborious ingenuity of the Irish school, but with
freedom of drawing and some imitation of nature ;
and it has a very pleasing result.

It does not come within the scope of our subject
to trace in detail the rise and development of the
Irish school of book-decoration, or to examine its
productions on its native soil. We must confine
our attention to the result of its importation into
England, and to its influence there, as far as that
can be traced. The school of the south has a larger
claim upon us, and its development and methods of
work will be followed in some detail.
The late Professor Westwood in his great work.
Facsimiles of the Miniatttres and Ornaments of
Anglo-Saxon and Irish Manuscripts, has attempted
briefly, and we think with success, to
show that the
Irish school of ornamentation not only owes nothing
to classical examples, but that it was essentially a
native school working out its own ideas, untouched
by exterior influences. The careful examination
which he bestowed upon the extant specimens of
the work of this school, and the comparisons to
which he subjected them with the productions of
other countries, satisfied him that we can recognise
no sufficient resemblance to justify the assumption
of relationship with foreign schools. Of course,
we do not mean to assert that various imported
objects of art, metal-work, carving, or what not,
may not at an early period have suggested to the
Irish workmen the lines on which their designs
were to be elaborated but that elaboration followed
;
its own course, and there is nothing in the fully-
developed work to indicate external influence, as we

2
understand the word. Westwood defines the differ-
ent kinds of ornament employed in the decoration
'
of Irish manuscripts to be formed (i) simply by the

use of dots, generally in different coloured inks ;
(2) by simple lines, straight

or curved (3) by the
;
step-like, angulated patterns (4) by

;
the Chinese-like
Z patterns (5) by interlaced ribbons (6) by inter-
; ;
laced zoomorphic patterns and (7) by the various

;
spiral patterns, which are by far the most

charac-
teristic of the whole.' The repetition of these de-
signs, usually set in compartments and arranged
either to form full ornamental pages or elaborate
produces an effect which, regarded as
initial letters,
ornament, it would be difficult to surpass.
pure
There is some reason to assume that the illumina-
tors of the early Irish manuscripts borrowed their
patterns from other more early established indus-
tries, those of the metal-worker, sculptor, wicker-
worker, or in whatever branch of art we may suppose
such designs to have been used. This assumption
is supported by the sudden appearance of highly-
decorated manuscripts at a certain period without
earlier specimens to show anything like a gradual
development. It would indeed be expecting too
much to look for the survival of early manuscripts
in such numbers as to afford a complete chain of
evidence but if there had been a gradual growth
;
of book-ornament spreading over a fairly extended

period, we should certainly have found
fuller traces
of it in what survives. If we are right in our belief
that the form of writing which was employed in
Ireland in the earliest manuscripts was adapted in
the sixth century from Roman models in a particular
class of writing, something more than a century
of manuscript-production would have elapsed when
the brilliantly ornamented pages of the Book of
'
3
Kells, probably executed towards the end of the
seventh century, burst upon us with fully developed
designs. It would be out of place to attempt to
conjecture to what remote period we

are to look for
the origin of the Celtic patterns which we meet with
in Irish illuminated manuscripts ;
such speculations
may be carried back almost indefinitely with no
satisfactory result;
but it is significant that the
spiral or whorl which Westwood particularises as
a specially Celtic detail of ornament is to be seen
in the metal-work of shields of British make as
early as the first century.
The history of the introduction of the Irish style
I of book-decoration into the north of England is
well known. In consequence of the conversion of
Oswald, who became king of Northumberland in
the year 635 and who had accepted Christianity
during his exile in the Irish monastery of lona,
Aidan, a monk of that house, became the founder
of the Northumbrian Church. He was the first
bishop of the see of Lindisfarne (Holy Isle), choos-
ing that island on the Northumbrian coast
as
the seat of his diocese. There was established by
the brethren who accompanied him from lona the
famous School of Lindisfarne, which produced a
series of finely-written and ornamented manuscripts
in the Celtic style, examples of which still survive.
Of these the most beautiful, as well as the most
perfect and highly finished, is the manuscript
in
the Cottonian collection in the British Museum,
which is known as the Lindisfarne Gospels,' or
'
'
St. Cuthbert's Gospels,' or the Durham Book,'
'
the date of which is about the year 700. The

history of its origin and of its vicissitudes is so
interesting that a few words may be said regarding
the manuscript. It contains the Four Gospels of
4
St. Jerome's Latin version, written, as appears from
a comparatively early record in the volume itself,
by Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne, a.d. 698-721,
in honour of his predecessor, St. Cuthbert, who
died in 687. Ethilwold, who was bishop from
724 to 740, bound it; and Billfrith the anchorite
wrought the jewelled metal-work with which the
covers were adorned, no doubt, as we may fairly
assume, in the style of the interlaced and other
patterns of the ornamental pages of the volume.
We are not told who were the artists engaged on
these pages, which however were executed under
direction of Eadfrith. The particulars here given
are derived from a note written at the end of the
book by the priest Aldred, an inmate of the house
of Lindisfarne, who also added a gloss
'
'
to the
Gospels that is, he wrote, word for word, between
—
:
the lines, a translation in English a priceless

monument of the Northumbrian dialect of the tenth
century, the period to which the writing of Aldred
is to be Aldred, it is true, gives no
assigned.
authority for the tradition regarding the origin
of the manuscript which he transmits and we
;
must bear in mind that he writes more than two

hundred years after the death of Eadfrith. On
the other hand, the general accuracy of his state-
ments may, we think, be accepted, for the manu-
script must have been held in too much esteem in
the monastery for the details of its history to have
been forgotten, although they may perhaps have
been magnified. There is one pleasing touch of
nature in the worthy Aldred's memorandum which
deserves record. After speaking of himself with
all the self-abasement— '
indignus et miserrimus
'
—
which natural or conventional modesty demanded,
he affectionately remembers his parents, and takes
5
care to tell us who they were
—Alfred, and '
a good
woman, Tilwin.'
The manuscript remained at Lindisfarne till the
time of the Danish invasion in 875, when it was
carried away for safety together with the shrine of
St. Cuthbert and, as we are told by the historian,
;
Simeon of Durham, who wrote early in the twelfth

it was lost overboard
century, during an attempted
voyage to Ireland, and was only recovered by the
intervention of St. Cuthbert himself. Afterwards
it was kept at Durham, but was subsequently
restored to Lindisfarne, when the priory was rebuilt
as a cell to Durham Priory, and remained there
until the dissolution of the monasteries. Nothing
is known of its later
history to the time when it
came into the possession of Sir Robert Cotton, that
great collector to whom we owe the preservation of
so many treasures of the art and learning of the
Middle Ages, who purchased it from Robert Bowyer,
Clerk of the Parliaments, in the reign of James the
First and then its jewelled covers had disappeared.
;
The ornamentation of the volume is most perfect.

The first page of each Gospel and two other pages,
six in all, are in large letters of the most elaborate
designs, with borders and on a leaf prefixed to

;
each Gospel and on one accompanying the first

preface is a full-page painting or cruciform design,
worked with all the wonderful combination of
geometrical and interlaced and spiral patterns of
the Celtic school. Besides, decoration, in keeping
with these more elaborate pages, is applied to the
Eusebian Canons and to the principal initial letters
of the text. There are likewise four interesting
portraits of the Evangelists. They are copied from
Byzantine models; and, although the artist's method
of expressing his ideas may be peculiar, there is to
6
be seen in them an attempt to render the originals
with something approaching to accuracy, and we
are rid of the extraordinary barbarism of the
figure-
drawing of Irish manuscripts. The difficulty of
representing the folds of the draperies has proved
too much for the artist's powers, who has indicated
them, not by shading, but by streaks of paint of a
different colour from that in which the robes them-
selves are painted and in the faces the shadows of
;
the features are marked out with lines of

green
paint. But, it may be asked, how and whence
would the Lindisfarne draughtsman obtain the
Byzantine drawings which served as his models?
And it is seldom that one is in a position to give
so satisfactory an answer to such a
question as
can be given in this instance. We know, in
fact, that the text of the Durham Book is copied
from a manuscript of the Gospels which was
brought into this country by one of the mission-
aries from Rome. This knowledge we owe to
the acute investigations of Mr. Edmund
Bishop,
the result of which he communicated to Dom
Germain Morin, who has shown in the Revue
Bdnddictine (Nov.-Dec. 1891, pp. 481, 529) that the
' '
Capitula or tables of sections which accompany

the several Gospels follow the Neapolitan use;
and that Adrian, the companion of the Greek
Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, in his mission
to Britain in the year 668, was abbat of a
monastery
in the island of Nisita, near
Naples. That the
two missionaries visited Lindisfarne we know from
the pages of Bede, and we thus
complete the chain.
There can be no reasonable doubt that the Neapoli-
tan manuscript from which the Durham Book
derived its text was one which had been a
brought
few years previously from Naples by the abbat
Adrian ;
and we venture to think that the drawings
of the Evangelists which we are now considering
were also very probably copied from others executed
in the Byzantine style in that manuscript. Know-
ing, as we do, the influence exercised, particularly
in Southern Italy, by Byzantine art, the supposition
of the existence of such Byzantine models in a
manuscript written and ornamented in Naples is in
no way unreasonable. It is, of course, also possible
that the English drawings may have been copied
from actual Greek originals existing in some Greek
manuscript left at Lindisfarne by Theodore or
Adrian and the occurrence on the copies of the
;
titles of the Evangelists in Greek would at first
sight appear to support this view. But we think

that their half- Latinised forms, e.g. 'o agios
'
MATTHEUS,' o AGius MARCUS,' indicate that the

original drawings and inscriptions had passed
through an intermediate process that is, that
:
actual Greek drawings and inscriptions did not come

before the Lindisfarne draughtsman, but that he
drew from copies, such as might have adorned the
Latin Gospels of the abbat Adrian, wherein the
Greek words had received Latin modifications.
We can hardly believe that he would have had
Greek enough to make such alterations himself,
and we prefer to think that, following the usual
practice, he copied exactly what he saw.
The page of the Durham Book which has been
selected for reproduction, on a reduced scale, in
Plate I, contains the commencement of St. Luke's
Gospel, 'Quoniam quidem multi conati sunt ordinare
narrationem,' and has been chosen because it is
composed of a fairly representative variety of the
different patterns employed in the decoration of the
volume. It would be quite impossible to reproduce
8
-f Jjucas innilns ^
cm^ p « W' rti y)i(?
lu..H-
by any mechanical process the exquisite colouring

of the original, which with its thickly-laid pigments
resembles a specimen of beautifully-finished porce-
lain or enamel. The outline of the large Q is black,
edged on the inner side with bands of straw-yellow.
The spirals in the space within the bow of the letter
are coloured with violet, light green, red, blue, and
yellow and the little triangular space in the centre
;
is filled with —
gold the only instance of the use of
that metal in the whole design. Gold is not found
at all in native Irish manuscripts, and is applied
very sparingly in this masterpiece of the school of
Lindisfarne. The interlacings on the bow of the
letter are in sections of red and blue those on the
;
stem are in black and white. The birds and lacer-

tine creatures are green, and white, and yellow;
but the two birds at the bottom of the stem are
coloured red, blue, violet, and yellow. The circles
and spirals in the terminals are green, red, and
violet. The borders and the corner-piece are edged
with violet. In the corner-piece the birds have
white wings and heads, yellow legs and crests, and
green and blue necks, and, in addition to the inter-
lacing of necks, crests, and legs, they are further
linked together with intertwining red ribbons. In
the lower border the birds have white wings edged
with yellow, yellow legs and heads, and blue and
red tails. In the side border there are the same
colours, differently disposed. The cat's head which
terminates the side-border is yellow with white
muzzle the fore-legs are blue. And this extra-
;
ordinary creature's hind-legs and tail are at the

other end of the border, which thus does duty for
its body. Of the ornamental letters the and OU
are coloured in harmony with the rest of the page.
The dotted patterns are red. Wefeel that we
ought to apologise for this detailed and, we fear,

tedious account of the colouring of this beautiful
specimen of Lindisfarne work but, in default of
;
the actual colours in our plate, a literal description

is the only means of giving an idea of the original.
Nothing can excel the harmony of the whole com-

position, which can only be realised by inspection
of the manuscript itself.
But, at the period when this beautiful book was
produced, the Celtic style of ornamentation was
already known also in the southern part of England.
7'
It may have been directly introduced by Irish
monks at such a centre as Glastonbury or, what
;
is more probable, the connection between Lindis-

farne and that house, which we know existed, may
have made it quickly known in the south. At
Canterbury it was practised as early as the begin-
ning of the eighth century. Of that time we have a
valuable manuscript in which we find ornamenta-
tion of this type executed with great skill and, side
;
by side with it, an instance of the adaptation of

Roman art by native draughtsmen. Nothing can
be more interesting for our subject than thus to
see the two styles, the Celtic from the north and
the classical from abroad, meeting on one page
in a volume produced in the city which was the
gateway for the entrance of Roman art into the
country. The manuscript is a Psalter in the
Cottonian collection in the British Museum, bear-
ing the press-mark Vespasian A. i. It belonged
to the Abbey of St. Augustine, and was no doubt
written and ornamented in that house. And it is
not only on account of its ornamentation that it is
of interest for the character of the writing is also
;
significant and supports the view that the manu-

script may, in fact, be a copy of one of the volumes
10
which were imported into England by the followers
of St. Augustine. The text of the Psalms is in
Roman uncial letters, a form of writing which never
obtained favour with English scribes and certain
;
portions of the manuscript are copied in Roman

rustic capitals, which were even still less
adopted by
them. An early tradition has even pronounced the
manuscript to be one of the very volumes which
were sent to St. Augustine by Pope Gregory, as re-
corded by Bede. Thomas of Elmham, who wrote
at the beginning of the fifteenth century a chronicle
of St. Augustine's Abbey, describes two Psalters,
which he appears to include among the gifts which
were presented by St. Augustine to Peter the first
abbat and the description of one of them so nearly
;
suits the Cottonian manuscript that it is difficult

not to believe that it is the actual volume to which
Elmham refers. Of course, if it had any claim to
the distinction of being one of St. Augustine's own
manuscripts brought into this country from Rome,
the presence in it of
Anglo-Irish work could hardly
be accounted for. However, it is not necessary to
discuss the point. With our better opportunities for
comparison, there can no longer be any question of
the real age of the manuscript, and of the country
where it was written and ornamented.
The decoration of the volume chiefly consists of

initial letters designed in the Celtic style, but with
certain modifications which betray foreign influence.
Gold, which, as has already been qbserved, is no-
where found in Irish manuscripts, and is but spar-
ingly used in the productions of the Lindisfarne
school, is here applied with profusion and on its
;
surface delicate patterns were traced in black a rare —

process, as it appears. We can scarcely doubt that
this more magnificent and costly method of decora-
II
tion was suggested by the illuminated manuscripts
of the continent. But the volume also contains a
full-page design, to which we have above referred,
in which Celtic and Roman art stand side by side.
This page is reproduced in our Plate 2. First,
examining the decorative portion of the design,
we have a solid arch supported on columns, richly
ornamented with interlaced and spiral patterns as
well as with lozenges and rosettes. The colours are
red, blue, green, lake, and light yellow, on a ground
of black but the marginal bands, the lozenges, and
;
the rosettes are gilded, patterns having been traced

on the surface of the gold, as just described. The
flaking-off of the metal has to some extent destroyed
these delicate designs. The prevalence of the Celtic
element is evident enough in these ornaments the ;
spirals and interlacings are purely Celtic details,

and they occupy so much space in the composition
that, as a whole, it would be classed as of the Irish
type. On the other hand, the foreign element is
not wanting, for the three gilt rosettes which stand
in the upper part of the arch are such as are found
very commonly in Greek and Roman decoration.
But turning to the picture, here is nothing Celtic.
David is seated on his throne playing on a lyre ;
on each side stands a scribe, the one holding a

scroll and stilus, the other a set of tablets and a
^
stilus and in the foreground are two boys or
;
young men dancing between two horn-blowers and

two trumpeters. The prevailing colours are stone-
blue, green, red, and brown. David's nimbus and
the framework of the throne are gilt, and the lyre
'
The scroll in the hand of the sciibe on the no doubt meant for a
left is
papyrus roll {volumen). It is remarkable, though probably nothing more than

a coincidence, that, in two instances in the Assyrian bas-reliefs in the British
Museum, the scribes who are taking note of spoils are represented in pairs, one
scribe using a tablet, the other a scroll. The tablets would be used for the
rough draft, the roll for the fair copy.
12
and the cross-pieces in the legs of the throne are
in silver. At a glance the design proclaims itself
to be of Roman origin and it is evident that the
— ;
draughtsman who we may confidently assume to

have been one of the native inmates of St. Augus-
tine's Abbey —
has done his best to make a faithful
copy of the Roman original before him, without
any addition or peculiar treatment of his own. The
Cottonian Psalter is, then, as we have seen, a very
valuable record for the history of the early book-
decoration of England and, if we are right in be-
;
lieving that its text may have been actually copied

from one of St. Augustine's own manuscripts, and
that the picture before us may be a reproduction of a
classical model, we have in it a link which connects
English art with the time of the Roman missionaries.
Celtic style of ornament was followed
That the
at Canterbury to a later date is shown in the
decorated pages of a fragmentary copy of the
Gospels among the Royal j\iss. (i E. vi.) in the
British Museum (see Westwood, Miniatures and
Oruainents, p. 39), a manuscript of the latter part
of the eighth century, which also belonged to St.
Augustine's Abbey, and which, it may be added,
appears also to have been one of the volumes which
Thomas of Elmham enumerates as having been
sent by Pope Gregory to St. Augustine. The
northern style, however, was now on the decline.
Soon we find quite a different class of ornamen-
tation prevailing in the south of England, based
upon a free style of drawing, and retaining only
a partial reminiscence of the interlacings of the
Irish school. This new southern style was founded,
as we shall presently see, on late classical, or per-
haps we should rather say semi-classical, models,
not of the broad type of the drawing in the Cottonian
13
Psalter just described, but of a light and more
graceful character. The influence of Roman models
of the style of the Psalter drawing is not to be
traced very clearly in English manuscripts. That
such models, however, were not altogether neglected
may be inferred from the style of certain miniatures
in the manuscript which is known as the Psalter
of King yEthelstan, and which may have actually
belonged to him (Cottonian MS., Galba A. xviii.).
This little volume, of foreign origin, appears, like
another manuscript in the same collection, to have
been sent as a present to the English king by the
Emperor Otto i., who married in 929 Eadgyth, the
half-sister of yEthelstan. The miniatures to which
we have referred are insertions by English hands
of the tenth century, and are evidently strongly in-
fluenced by later Roman or Byzantine models (see
Westwood, Miniatures and Ornaments, p. 96). But
of
generally the decorations of English manuscripts
this period are of that lighter style, the development
of which we will now endeavour to trace.
In contrasting this, the southern style, with the
productions of the Celtic school, we have, at the
beginning of this article defined it as one in which
figure-drawing was more specially developed.
This
figure -drawing is distinguished by the general
lightness and delicacy of outline, the elongation
of the limbs, a strange humping of the shoulders
or back, in some instances almost amounting to
deformity, and the peculiar treatment of the drapery
'
to which the epithet of fluttering has been given

'
in order to describe its appearance as though
agitated by the wind. In this style of drawing

our Anglo-Saxon ancestors were particularly suc-
cessful and attained in some instances to a beauty
grace nowhere to be found in the contemporary
and ?5'
14
manuscripts of the Continent, which are adorned

on the more gorgeous lines of the Byzantine school.
So national did this free style become, that there
—
has been a tendency which we think has been
carried too far — drawings of this
to appropriate all
nature to our own country. On
the contrary, it can
be shown that, at least in some instances, such
drawing was practised down to the tenth century,
under Anglo-Saxon influence it may be, but cer-
tainly outside this country. And for its origin
we must look abroad. The classical details in the
earliest extant example of the style are too manifest
to allow us to suggest any other country than Italy
for its birth. This example is the manuscript
known as the Utrecht Psalter, which once belonged
to the library of Sir Robert Cotton, but is now in
the University Library of Utrecht. Its antiquity,
like that of other volumes whose classical details
misled the experts of the day, was formerly over-
estimated. Its actual date may be fairly placed
about the year 800 but what gives it a peculiar
;
value is, that it has all the appearance of being

practically a facsimile copy of a much earlier manu-
script. Both in the character of the writing, and,
we may also fairly assume, in that of the drawings,
the ancient style is pretty faithfully reproduced.
The ancient rustic-capital writing, which passed
out of general use for the text of manuscripts some
hundreds of years earlier, is employed in this
volume, the scribe no doubt finding that he could
thus most conveniently maintain the same setting
of the text as in the archetype, and could thus leave
the necessary spaces for the insertion of the draw-
ings in conformity with those of the older volume,
which we may very reasonably assume to have been
at least as early as the fifth century.
IS
The drawings, which are numerous, illustrate
the Psalms most literally, and contain an infinite
variety of subjects and they are executed with no
;
mean Until recently they were thought to be

skill.
the production of English artists but this view can
;
no longer be maintained, for internal palaeographical

evidence leaves no room for doubt that the manu-
script is of Prankish workmanship. We are pro-
bably not far wide of the mark in adjudging it to
the north or north-east of Prance.^ Here, then, we
have evidence of the early existence on the Con-
tinent of the style of drawing which afterwards
took root and flourished so successfully in our own
country ; and, as we have
said, the classical ele-
ments point decidedly to its ultimate Roman origin.
The Utrecht Psalter appears to have been one
of the imported volumes on which the English style
was to form itself. We
have two later copies of
the Psalter illustrated with similar, though not
exactly the same, drawings as in that manuscript :
the one of the eleventh century, Harleian ms. 603,

in the British Museum the other, known as the
;
Eadwine Psalter, of the twelfth century, at Cam-

bridge. With the latter volume we are not now
concerned, as it does not fall within the period with
which we are dealing. It is quoted only as an
instance to show how popular the illustrated Psalter
of the type of the Utrecht ms. became in England.
The Harleian ms. is made up exactly in the same
way as the Utrecht Psalter, that is, the text is
written in triple columns (not, however, in capitals
as in the older manuscript, but in the ordinary
Caroline type of minuscules of the time), and the
'
Since the above was written, the place of origin of the Utrecht Psalter has
been made a subject of research by M. Paul Durrieu, who concludes that the
MS. was executed in the diocese of Kt:\ms.—L'Origtne tltt MS. cdlibre dit Lc
Psautier if Utrecht, in Mila7i<:;cs Jiilicn Havet, 1895.
16
.^ o.
^&«:.
o
^*^€jî
¥
'4c=
:^^^ US
^.^
< >>
Cf.
drawings extend across the full breadth of the page.
Many of the latter are the same as those in the

Utrecht MS., some indeed being so exactly similar in
design that they might have been copied from that
volume but generally additions are introduced and
;
there are variations in the costume and, again,

;
many are altogether different. The Harleian MS.

is therefore not a copy of the Utrecht Psalter itself,
and leads us to infer from its variations that other
versions of the illustrated Psalter were in existence
in England at an early date. The drawing which
we here give, on a reduced scale (Plate 3), from the
Harleian ms. illustrates the 9th Psalm but it is ;
not easy to find in the words of text a certain

explanation of all of the different scenes. God is
'
seated in the Heavens judging right (v. 4) the

'
groups of men being slain are the enemy who are

'
turned back and fall and perish (v. 3) on the

'
right, the heathen are rebuked (v. 5), and the idol
falls from its base in the centre are the destroyed
;
cities (v. 6) in the foreground, the three figures

;
seated in the canopied hall appear to be engaged in

' '
ministering judgment to the people in uprightness

(v. 8) ;and, on the left centre, the wicked are being
'
'
turned into hell (v. 1 7), which is represented as a
flaming tower. The walled cjty on the left is pro-
bably intended for Zion, the Psalmist standing
above the gate and 'showing forth praise' (v. 14);
and the building on the hill on the right, from which
one of the group of figures has apparently emerged,
may perhaps illustrate the gates of death (v. 13).
This drawing is almost an exact replica of the
corresponding drawing in the Utrecht Psalter.
There is the same pose of the figures, the same
elongation of the limbs, and the same treatment
of the draperies. Here, however, the outlines are
c 17
variously drawn in colours, blue, red, and green

being used as well as ordinary ink.
It may here be remarked that the practice of the
Anglo-Saxon artists of copying drawings from older

and foreign models has scarcely been sufficiently con-
sidered by writers on the manners and customs of
our forefathers, and that too much in these drawings
has been assumed to be purely English. It is true
that the later artists would introduce certain modi-
fications and it may be readily granted that to some
;
extent they adapted details in their work, such as

arms and dress, to suit the objects of their own time
and country but it is also quite as certain that they
;
still copied exactly very much that they saw in their
originals, and that many of the illustrations that

appear in our histories and costume-books as English
are only travesties of the early classical models.
As the Harleian Psalter forms so valuable a
link in the history of Anglo-Saxon drawing, we
have taken it out of its true chronological order, if
we regard the period at which it was actually exe-
cuted. For we have examples of this particular
class of drawing dating from the previous century,
the period in which it appears to have attained its
full development in England. But before we pro-
ceed to notice the manuscripts which we select, for
the illustration of our subject, as being of undoubted
English workmanship, one must engage our atten-
tion which has been described by Professor West-
wood, Miniatures and Ornaments, p. 107, as a
'
specimen of English production, the drawings of

which,' he says, 'are of great value as containing a
series of representations of the habits and customs,
dresses, arms, etc., of the later Anglo-Saxons,' but
which we venture to think is of foreign origin.
This is an illustrated copy of the Psychomachia,'
'
18
(1)
-7>^/^-
(2) (3)
4.
an allegorical Latin poem on the subjection of the
vices by the virtues, written in the fourth century by
Aurelius Prudentius, an officer of high military rank,
who was born in Spain, and who solaced himself in
retirement by composing this and other poems of a
like character. The Psychomachia,'
'
like the illus-
trated Psalter, appears to have been a favourite
work for reproduction in this country, as there still
survive several copies with illustrative drawings of
the Anglo-Saxon period. But the manuscript in
question, which formerly belonged to Archbishop
Tenison's library and is now in the British Museum
(Additional MS., 24199), was certainly written abroad,
and we believe that its drawings were also executed
on the continent. The writing is distinctly of the
as
type which has been called Caroline minuscule,
used in the Prankish Empire in the ninth and
tenth centuries. The hand was indeed occasionally
adopted by English scribes of the latter century,
but they stamped a character of their own upon it
which is not to be mistaken. In this manuscript,
which is of the latter part of the tenth century, there
is no trace of the English impress upon the writing ;
it is altogether of the'^foreign type, and was probably
written in the north of the Prankish Empire, per-

haps in the district now the Netherlands. From
the evidence of a few stray notes which have been
added, we gather that the manuscript had already
been brought to England in the early part of the
fourteenth century; but there is nothing to show
whether it was in this country at an earlier date.
Now turning to the drawings, we find that a series
of them has been added, to the extent of two-thirds
of the poem, in the spaces left vacant by the scribe
for their insertion, and that they are executed in
the light sketchy style adopted by the Anglo-Saxon
19
artists. At the same time the classical elements in
the designs are very evident, and there is no doubt
that they are copies of an earlier series. If we are
right in our opinion that the manuscript was written
abroad, these drawings must also be of foreign
execution for that they are contemporaneous
;
with the writing is proved by the accommodation of

certain contemporary marginal commentaries to keep
clear of the space occupied by the drawings. They
could not, therefore, be the work of Anglo-Saxon
artists after the introduction of the manuscript into
England and that they are the work of Anglo-
;
Saxon artists abroad is hardly probable. We have

then in this series of drawings strong presumptive
evidence that even as late as the tenth century the
copying of earlier models in the light outline which
became so popular in England was not confined to
this country, and that on the continent, at all events
in the districts opposite to our southern shore, the
same style of book-decoration as our own was
cultivated. It is indeed only reasonable to suppose
that such should have been the case and it is not ;
impossible that the wide practice of this particular

form of drawing in this country may have in-
fluenced the work of the artists across the channel.
To return to the Tenison Psychomachia,' the
'
spaces left to receive illustrations for the rest of

the poem have been only partially filled with ten-
tative sketches, some very rough and inartistic
and seemingly of later date, others, again, executed
with very considerable skill by contemporary hands.
We select from the latter a very prettily-drawn
'
scene illustrating the line Cornicinum curva asra
silent ; placabilis implet Vaginam gladius,' etc.,
and a single figure from another page (Plate 4,
nos. I, 2), which, in the treatment of the drapery
20
and the wrinkled hose and sleeves, so closely re-
semble the Anglo-Saxon style. This manuscript
too affords us an interesting instance of a peculiar
method of work followed in the production of
illustrated manuscripts. Some of the drawings
are accompanied wath descriptive titles, as in the
case of the first scene in the Plate. These were
written by the scribe, not by the artist, before the
drawings were executed as is proved by the occur-
;
rence of titles in spaces which are still devoid of

drawings. The scribe, in fact, copying from an
earlier example, could exactly space out the words
of the titles to fit the artist's copies. In one or
two instances, the text itself is spaced out to admit
of the insertion of drawings.
As a companion to the two specimens selected
from the Tenison ms., we have added to the same
Plate an interesting example from another copy of
the same poem. But the manuscript from which it
is taken is
altogether English, both in writing and
ornamentation. It is the Cottonian ms., Cleopatra
C. viii., of the first half of the eleventh century. The
scene represents Humility taking flight to Heaven
in the presence of the Virtues :
—
-'
auratis przestringens aera peiinis
In celum se virgo rapit mirantur euntem
;
Virtutes, tolluntque animos in vota volentes

'
Ire simul
The flying figure of Humility is particularly graceful,

and is only marred by the exaggeration of the
open hand, a fault w^hich appears also in the other
figures. The difficulty which, in the early stages
of art, seems always to have been experienced by
the artist when dealing with the open hand or
naked foot appears to be more prominently brought
before us in Anglo-Saxon outline drawings. When
21
the hand is clasped or the foot is booted, a fairly-
true proportion is observed. Sometimes the fault
of drawing even goes to the other extreme, and the
booted feet of women are often drawn abnormally
small. But, when the fingers of the open hand or
the toes of the naked foot have to be drawn, the
details are immediately exaggerated.
Judging from the examples which have descended
to us, the southern style of Anglo-Saxon book-
ornamentation seems to have been brought to the
highest perfection at Winchester, as one would
naturally expect to be the case in the chief city of
the kingdom and under the patronage of the suc-
cessive kings from the latter part of the tenth
century down to the period of the Norman Con-
quest. Many of the finest extant manuscripts of
this class were produced in the great religious
houses of that city and of these the most beautiful
;
and elaborate is the Benedictional of St. ^thelwold,

the property of the Duke of Devonshire, and justly
described by Westwood as the noblest of all the
'
surviving productions of later Anglo-Saxon art.'

It contains the ancient benedictional of the see of
Winchester, and was written and ornamented under
the direction of .4ithelwold, who succeeded to the
bishopric in 963 and died in 984. The date of the
manuscript may therefore be placed about the year
970. It has as many as thirty illuminated minia-
tures and thirteen other ornamental pages, and
originally contained even more, as some have evi-
dently been cut out of the volume. To get an idea
of the colouring of the miniatures, nearly all of which
are fully painted and profusely gilded, the reader
must refer to Westwood's Mhiiatures and Orna-
ments, plate xlv. As we have already noted above,
in the case of the Cottonian Psalter (Vespasian
22
W. r.ricjt". l''n>"
A. i.),
the extensive use of gold as a means of decora-
tion in these grand examples of southern work is no
doubt to be attributed to the increasing influence of
the Byzantine school of ornamentation which held
sway on the continent. We
have to content our-
selves here with presenting a reduced reprint (Plate 5,
the Adoration of the Magi) of one of the plates in
Archaeologia, vol. xxiv., where the whole series of
miniatures is very carefully engraved, which will
convey a fairly sufficient idea of the finished drawing
and elaborate ornamentation of the original.
As a specimen of the best style of the figure-
drawing of this school we place before the reader a
very beautiful miniature (Plate 6) of the Crucifixion
from the Harleian ms. 2904, a Psalter, of the
same age as the yEthelwold Benedictional and also
probably executed at Winchester. Westwood has
eulogised this miniature as the finest of its kind.
The outlines and modelling of the limbs and other
details are drawn in a pinkish bistre, and the under-
robes of the Virgin and St. John in pale blue.
Importance is given to the figure of the Saviour, in
the usual manner, by rendering the accompanying
figures on a smaller scale but, in order to maintain
;
symmetry in the design and to bring them into

proper position, the latter are placed upon two
mounds. While the drawing has the good qualities
of grace and refinement, the faults of the school, to
which we have above referred, are conspicuous in
the drawing of the hands and naked feet of the
disciple, and in the hump-backed pose and dispro-
portionate smallness of the lower part of the figure
as well as of the feet of the Virgin.
Our remarks on the southern school of Anglo-
Saxon art have been chiefly confined to the drawing
of the figure - designs or miniatures but a few
;
23
words must be given to the subject of its decora-
tion. In connection with the miniatures or in full-
page ornamental designs the artist most frequently
drew a border surrounding the page and composed
of conventional foliage interlaced and entwined
with the supporting framework of the border.
There can be no doubt that the germ of this foliage
is to be found in the classical architectural leaf-
mouldings which were imitated so much in Prankish

illuminated manuscripts and were conveyed by that
channel to the notice of our native artists. A
good illustration of this development is before us
in the border of the page which has been selected
from the ^thelwold Benedictional (Plate 5). In
the small compartments of the frame are seen
sections of leaf-moulding confined within bounds,
as in the case of ordinary architectural decoration ;
in the large rosettes which form the corner-pieces

the foliage is in luxuriant growth and interlaces its
shoots and leaves with the framework. The colours
which the Anglo-Saxon used in his decorations are
usually bright, and the effect of this variety of tints
introduced in the border-designs is very pleasing.
As has already been said, gold is profusely applied
in the manuscripts of Winchester origin but in
;
other examples we find colours alone employed.

Of the latter type is the page which forms the
subject of Plate 7, taken from the Arundel MS. 60,
a Latin Psalter of the eleventh century. The
framework is made of long rods, perhaps osier-
wands, which are tinted with pale yellow and are
connected together at the corners by rings of the
same colour. The foliage is in tints of red, blue,
and green, relieved with white, and is laid on a
background coloured in sections with stone-blue
and green. The initial letter Q is in keeping with
24
the style of the border and has the same colouring.
In general, foliage forms a conspicuous part of the
large ornamental initial letters of southern Anglo-
Saxon manuscripts, together with interlaced knots
— a detail of ornament which, as well as the entwin-
ing just described, is doubtless due to the influence
of the northern school.
To conclude this article, we will briefly describe
a manuscript which is not an artistic work in the
way that we may regard the volumes from which
the preceding illustrations have been drawn, but
which is of so much importance for the insight we
obtain from it into the method of work of the
Anglo-Saxon book-illustrator, that we may regard
its survival as a most fortunate circumstance for
the history of English art. It is one of the
volumes of the Cottonian collection (Claudius B.
iv.) and contains the Anglo-Saxon paraphrase
of
the Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua by Îfric
the Grammarian, written early in the eleventh
century and illustrated with numerous coloured
drawings. These drawings do not pretend to be
artistic indeed many of them are very rough, the
;
object of the draughtsman being to illustrate the

text, not to decorate the book. At the same time
some of the which are chiefly in outline and
series,
only slightly tinted with colour, are not without
merit. We
give one of them in the upper part of
Plate 8, representing the scene of the journey of
Abraham with Lot and with their herds and flocks
to Bethel, unto the place of the altar which he had
'
But the greater number

'
made there (Gen. xiii. 4).

of the drawings in the volume are painted with
body-colour, and, as towards the end of the manu-
script a large proportion of them are unfinished
and have been left in different stages of progress,
D 25
we see exactly how the work was done. First the
colours of the dresses were applied with the brush
in patches, without any previous outline being
drawn with the pen or pencil, so that a design
which has been left in this initial stage has all the
appearance of a set of variously coloured stencils
laid haphazard across the page. It is, however,
quite evident that no mechanical means were

employed for marking out the different shapes, but
that the artist trusted entirely to his eye to guide
his hand. The facility with which this part of his
work was composed could only have been the result
of considerable practice. Next, the heads, limbs,
hands, details of dress, etc., were drawn in outline,
the features were added and the picture was
;
then presumably complete. In the lower part of

Plate 8 we have a section from one of these
half-finished designs. It represents Moses, with an
enormous pair of horns fitted to his head, dividing
the promised land among the children of Israel.
Here the dresses have been blocked in in body-
colour in the way described, and the heads and
limbs have been sketched in the final touches,
;
however, such as the indications of the features,

have not been added. But this design, as well
as one or two others in the book, is peculiar in
having undergone a further treatment from a differ-
ent hand. It will be seen that the folds of the coats
or tunics of the two figures to the right and left of
Moses, and the hands of one of them, are drawn in,
above the other work, in the agitated style of Anglo-
Saxon art. Whether it was intended thus to finish
off the other designs in the manuscript cannot be
determined ; perhaps not. But, however that may
be, this last addition is evidently the work of a
skilful artist, who may have been merely exercising
his hand on a few figures in an idle moment.
26
II
From the Twelfth to the Fourteenth

Century
HE changes wrought in Eng-

land by theNorman Conquest,
which at this distance of time
appear to us in many respects
so abrupt, are in no depart-
ment more marked than in
that of the production of
manuscripts, whether in their
character of writing or in their
style of ornamentation. The abrupt suddenness
of the change is perhaps more apparent than real.
If we examine the English manuscripts of the
eleventh century we find that the influence of the
handwriting of the continent had already manifested
itself on this side of the Channel long before the in-
vasion of England was dreamt of; and there is no
difficulty in believing that, even if that invasion had
never taken place, the handwriting of English scribes
would in course of time have gradually developed
on the lines into which it was more hurriedly forced
by the transfer of power to the Normans. That
there was, however, a marked change wrought by
the Conquest will not be disputed. The number
of Mss. of this period which have descended to us
is quite large enough to satisfy us on this point.
With regard to the ornamentation of manuscripts
27
we have unfortunately only a scanty amount of
material by which to form an opinion but judging
;
from what remains, and following the analogy of

the course of the handwriting, there can be little
doubt that the change in style was here also very
decided.
The change was an advantage and gain to English
draughtsmanship. The grafting of the foreign style
on the outline-drawing of the Anglo-Saxon school,
which we have described in a former article, cer-
tainly lent to the latter a strength which checked
the affectation towards which it was tending.
Without this foreign infusion, the figures of the
^ Anglo-Saxon draughtsman would probably have
been subject to increasing exaggeration of their
leading characteristics and have ended in being
mere grotesques. On the other hand, the fine free-
hand drawing, which actually resulted from the
combination of the English and Norman schools,
is a conspicuous feature in manuscripts ornamented
in England during the next three centuries ;
and
we may trace the favour shown to this style of
drawing in our country to the success with which
outline-drawing had been so long practised under
the Anglo-Saxon kings.
But, besides artistic draughtsmanship which had
scope for its efforts in the paintings or miniatures
of the manuscript, there is that other side of book-
ornamentation which, all through the progress of
the art in the Middle Ages, runs with it, generally
subordinate, but sometimes even excelling the minia-
ture-drawing, namely, the purely decorative side,
as seen in the border and the initial letter. The
skill required for this department was of a more
mechanical nature than that which the miniature
demanded and, although the fertile invention of
;
28
the decorator and his facile dexterity in execution
are often marvellous, the draughtsman of the
miniature was usually an artist of a higher order.
At first the distinction is not so great, drawing and
decoration would be executed by the same hand ;
but in the later Middle Ages the two branches were

quite separate and were cultivated by different classes
of artists. Wemust not lose sight of this fact in
estimating the character of the manuscripts which
pass in review before us.
In the nature of things, illuminated
manuscripts,
which, like all other works of art, were scarcely to
be produced but under peaceful conditions, could
have been executed in no great numbers at a period
when so many changes were in progress as after
theNorman Conquest. That few should have been
handed down to us from this time is no great wonder.
It was
probably only in the great monasteries that
there existed the skill and means for their
pro-
duction and when we bear in mind the destruction
;
and loss which attended the dispersion of the

monastic libraries at the time of the suppression
of the monasteries, we may deem it a
happy acci-
dent that we possess even such few examples as
exist.
We must begin our review some hundred years
after the date of the
Conquest, first taking in our
hands two manuscripts of a typical character, the
one coming from the old Anglo-Saxon capital '^
and seat of art and literature, Winchester, the

other from the later founded house of Westminster,
where the new foreign influence more strongly
prevailed.
The first of these two manuscripts is in the
Cottonian collection of the British Museum, and
bears the press-number, Nero C. iv. It contains
29
the Psalter, written in Latin and Norman-French
in parallel columns, perhaps soon after the middle
of the twelfth century. From entries in the ac-
companying calendar and a reference in one of the
prayers, we ascertain that the place of its origin
was the monastery of St. Swithun at Winchester,
and that it became the property of the nuns of
Shaftesbury Abbey in Dorsetshire not long after
its completion. The part of the volume which now
concerns us is a series of miniatures which precede
the text and which illustrate the scheme of the
Redemption, traced from the Fall of Man, through
the Deluge, the Patriarchs, the life of Joseph, the
giving of the Law, the life of David and of Christ,
to the Last Judgment. These drawings are very
remarkable instyle, and the fact of our knowing the
place where they were executed renders them par-
ticularly valuable as being specimens of the school
which had formerly produced so many magnificent
examples of Anglo-Saxon illumination. The contrast
between them and such a series as that contained
in the Benedictional of St. .^thelwold (see above,
p. 22) sufficiently marked in general character.
is
The delicacy of the older drawings gives place to a
bolder and stronger style and yet in details we
;
may trace affinities which show that the traditions

of a hundred years of earlier date still influenced
the artists of Winchester in the days of the early
Plantagenets.
The miniature which has been selected for repro-
duction (Plate 9) on a reduced scale represents
two scenes David delivering the lamb from the
:
lion's mouth and Samuel anointing David. In

;
the David tending his flock stands on the

first,
left, on the right he is seen rescuing the lamb the ;
repetition of the principal figure in different actions

30
being, it is
hardly necessary to remind the reader,
not unusual in mediaeval art. The tree which fills
the background, with its curiously close-packed
top
of foliage and its wide-spreading branches, is not
the least interesting feature in the scene, for in it
(as also, to some extent, in the leafage of the
border) we can recognise a connection with the
luxuriant leaf-ornamentation of Anglo-Saxon manu-
scripts of the southern school. And, before dis-
missing the scene, we may note an instance of the
survival of the memory of early classical models in
the attitude of the two dancing kids. '
Ici escust
'
David al liun un veille is the Norman-French

title. In the second scene David, the
youngest
(and therefore here represented as very decidedly
the smallest) of the sons of Jesse, is anointed
king
by Samuel in the presence of his father and his
'
brethren Ici enunist Samuel li
:
prophete David
en rei par ly cumant Deu.'
The most distinctive characteristic of the draw-
ing of this series of illustrations lies in the treat-
ment of the drapery, which clings to the limbs and
indicates their outlines in a very forcible manner.
This peculiarity is to some degree observable in
the Mss. of the Anglo-Saxon period, as, for in-
stance, in the Benedictional of St. ^thelwold, and
may perhaps be a special mark of the style of the
Winchester school of the twelfth century, for we
find it again in the drawings in the
great Bible of
that time, still preserved in the
Chapter Library of
Winchester (see Facsimiles of the Palaeographical
Society, Series ii., Plates i66, 167). Another sur-
vival of the older school is found in the liberal J
application of gilding. In the page before us, the

narrow frame on which the titles are inscribed,
the borders of some of the robes and the personal
31
ornaments, David's crook (in the upper scene),
Samuel's horn, and details of the foliage of the
tree are gilt with dull gold, and the same pro-
fusion is found in other miniatures of the series.
The colours are chiefly different shades of red and
green, for the most part lightly washed in. The
background was originally painted light blue, but
the colour has almost entirely discharged.
The drawing of all the miniatures of the series
is not of equal merit; and that which has been
selected is one of the best. But, taken as a whole,
they afford very remarkable material for the study
of that side of English art of the period in which
the sentiment of the Anglo-Saxon school was still
a not unimportant element. There are, however,
among them two paintings which may for a moment
engage our attention. They are not English in
character; and their presence is not one of the
least interesting points in connection with this
volume. They are entirely Italian in drawing and
in colouring; but how they came to be included
in the series we shall never know. They are not
mere haphazard insertions but, as appears from
;
their setting and the Norman-French titles written

as in the English drawings of the series, they were
executed expressly for the book. Who could have
been the artist ? Was he an Englishman who had
dwelt in Italy and had been trained as an artist in
the Italian school ? Or are they the work of some
Italian monk or traveller who made return for the
hospitality of the house of St. Swithun by leaving
behind him these testimonies of his artistic skill ?
Who shall decide? The one drawing represents
the Death of the Virgin, the other her Enthrone-
ment and both are remarkable for the excellence
;
and bold character of their execution. When we

32
bear in mind how few examples of painting of this
description are to be found in Italian manuscripts
of the period of the twelfth century, we can scarcely
rate too high the value of our two miniatures
for the history of Italian book - decoration. Even
if
they should be the work of an English artist
who had studied in Italy, their witness to the high
standard of the miniaturist's art in that country,
which we might otherwise scarcely suspect, is
equally good.
While we might expect to find, at such a centre
of Anglo-Saxon art as Winchester had been, the in-
fluence of the older style still prevailing, as in the
case of the manuscript which we have just been
considering, the decided change in illumination to
which we have referred above as the result of the
Norman Conquest is manifest in examples pro-
duced in places where contact with foreign art
was more frequent. Thus, as early as the twelfth
century, we already experience, in not a few in-
stances, a difficulty in discriminating between manu-
scripts ornamented in England and those produced
in Northern France or the Netherlands ;
and every
one who has studied the subject knows how this
difficulty increases as we proceed through the next
century and a half. It is frequently by small
indications alone that we can fix the nationality ;
aTTd^hese indications are not always marked enough

to allow us to judge decisively. This, however,
is not to be wondered at, if we bear in mind the
close connection of England with the neighbouring
countries of the continent at this time, and the con-
tinual influx of foreign artists.
We take our next example from an English
manuscript of the twelfth century, which has cast
off almost all traces of the older Anglo-Saxon
E 33
school, and which will bear comparison with
Norman work of the period. Xhfi-jnanuscriptjs
a very beautiful Psalter in the Old Royal collection
in the British Museum, numbered 2 A. xxii. The
writing is distinctively English, of that charming
type which places the twelfth-century manuscripts
of England in the very front rank of caligraphy ;
and the prominence given in the calendar and

prayers to St. Peter and to St. Edward the Con-
fessor would be quite sufficient to show that the
volume originated at Westminster, even without
its identification by an entry in the inventory of
the abbey. It is of the period of the later years
of Henry the^Seeojid's reign. As is usual with
Psalters of this period it has a series of miniatures
preceding the text. One of these is here given
(Plate 10) representing the Psalmist playing on the
harp. He is clad in three garments an under-:
robe of white shaded with blue, which is seen on

the forearm and covering the ankles an upper-robe
;
of pale violet, with a gilt jewelled border at the

top and round the open sleeve, and with an orange
border round the bottom and a cloak of pale
;
brown madder lined with ermine and having a

gilt jewelled border at the bottom.
His shoes
are open down the front and disclose stockings
of orange the footstool is chocolate dappled with
;
white. The harp is of straw-yellow. The throne

is constructed of various materials, indicated by
slate-blue, green, orange, and white the cushion

;
is orange. The back of the throne is deep ultra-

marine, the use of which becomes so prevalent in
France in the next century and often determines
the nationality of the manuscripts of that country.
The background of the niche in which the throne
is set is of burnished gold (a material of ornament
34
10.
which now begins to make its appearance) which, J
however, has flaked off in part and the cornice
;
is of white, shaded with pale green, the brick-

work of the two corners being slate -blue. The
features are pallid, and are worked up with white,
applied in a thick pigment the hair is brown.
;
This treatment of the features we are inclined to

accept as a mark of English work and it is very ;
observable in the illumination of manuscripts of

this country at a later time. We
should also point
to the peculiar salmon pink colour of the outer
border, worked with a leaf-design in white, as an
indication of English origin and also in particular
;
to the thin line of green with which this border is

edged. Green-edging isvery prevalent in English
illumination of this period.
The drawing of this miniature is in the broad
style characteristic of its period and the same
;
breadth oF treatment is to be observed in the,

details of merely decorative designs, as initial
letters and borders. In the larger manuscripts
of the twelfth century we find numerous examples
of initials of unusually grand dimensions, formed
of interlacingand twining patterns, in which foliage
on a bold scale occupies a prominent part, while
animals of various kinds play among the branches.
As the century advances these large initials be-
come more refined in their details, preparing us
for the delicately minute work of the next century.
The contrast, indeed, between the broad style
of the twelfth century and the minute style of the
"thirteenth century is so striking that we are apt
to think the change more sudden than perhaps it
really was. It is true, however, that the period
of transition was not very extended, and the
rapid and general disuse of large volumes and the
35
adoption of a smaller scale, particujarly„ for the

multitudes of Bibles which, were prodûced in the
thirteentH centuiy, affected the art of illumination
in a remarkable degree. It is from the period^ of
the latter part of the twelfth century that we have
a steady and continuous development of the initial,
the border, and the miniature connected with the
initial and border, running through the next three
centuries. All that had been done in book-decora-
tion previously to this time belongs to what we may
call the older school. Illumination now takes a
new departure and the reign of brilliant colouring
;
and highly burnished gold commences. In fact,

the term illumination is now appropriately applied
in reference to the highly decorative art which is
henceforth practised through the thirteenth, four-
and fifteenth centuries.
—teenth,
X Plate represents a page of a Latin Bible pj
1 1
\about the middle of the thirteenth century, now

Jthe Royal MS. I. D. i in the British Museum.
[The scribe has given his name, Willelmus
Devoniensis but there is no indication how
;
or whence volume passed into the Royal

the
Library. a
It isvery beautiful manuscript, written
on fine vellum in a perfect style of penmanship,
and decorated with miniatures and numerous
initials, all executed with great skill in rich
colours and burnished gold. The large initial P
of the plate has a stem composed of three bands
of gold, blue, and lake respectively, relieved with
patterns in white and the bow of the letter is filled
;
with diapered work on a ground of lake. The

Apostle Paul wears an under-robe of vermilion
and an upper-robe of blue lined with green. The
sheath of his sword, which is placed across his
shoulder, hilt upwards, is of gold and he holds
;
^.6
«îî; t I iV- J
fyKf*^-
nomma fimnnitUio Titit(0attictt loicccnfceTinifimria

|B^S[^
111 CDmino fcmvo'- mtin ditogBUix 'Sftv^^l criucnfcsftiitrafiani
Tt- a)oafha itmnomfrroiniD^ lioiip t ipt Vintmn cranra ^
tomiinis\j20VA; cfltclnl folittm fm? Vfmco avlts-nct at)it>
Omomiu oibnc tobfcaatontmm acccfftriâpisfcr?
f
gratttm attton vfnroncs ihnoittt 1108 ptrcpiam tomgiraiiuimnirc
Ttfcanr apuo oatm- (fe pa^ '^^ ^ '?<^ nimubum abairhtvpoqin Timftt
fuâromncfciifMm ntftcdiarcoisa num in cos aatptr- <eigo apis fen
tim 1 witUigTOas itms in;x:vbitfit birtisiamitganis ab ephcfo pint'
tominoiin)-j£ktctDfits ducauri; uttm dtatonf. lacoimnnondiinit-
(
fwirun-a cimm;vudita.qtimMTj) \cp!a' iauUiiDcoloccnfcsr

tuto. qatm> fta- qminj amaUUia. ajiittsapi'sx^nu
qttcmm; Uonc fame st quammts Iperiioiuntatcm
ft qita laus difnpitntlict cqgtiatp 6t iTimotKs fir
qtic dtdtnmsi aotptftts.? attdifU^ ilni&quifiinrco
1 utdifhs mmtH) ccagtttt uetis va lofts fns\fimt
08 cm: itol/tum CautfU6 fitm auf
. llSfttcptn^teftt:
in CDtnmo ufljrtfrtxt qmtanoem. a jgm ttol) 1 pax a^
liqntoitfl(»ut(hs^»o)ntfcrat»ft^ |tsop£enw»ioonnnoii4it;cpj«y
ifmrtflHitS-ocatvaTtanmms no qt nas agimtis ocoipit oomtni
nil tmt ;cpt fcinpcr pio nob' oA
\«oprpmunaind«o- ego cnt otBtu
TX» auoiemre fttcm ttmin i ;cfr
mqun»fnmfitfftttois ttfttoilni
miuatt <ao i Ditntjait- i^Diq; i in \wx. \ diuaanm qmhcns in os
omniiH mftmtms fmn ^ fanancr fcospioprfprniqitcttpafrricft-
tftmttimnoait'ivcntmam pan. itobtfttn miscftn anotfhs in
ttbo iitTan& citnstUt cfo pmit
«Dmniavoffumihcoqutmec5fo2'
unmttfo
tttr ao uos futtr/? in
Tar.-ûiptnDrifwjfhs comunttans
TnDiijmintt. 5tttt& aft i xio^X'^nup mnnto l^ fritmfitar'^ crrfctrfi
Vcnf» cp in vimtipib ntn^tlii qnj) turinQoti^ca qm_audtftt8
fftms film a matcroma iniUa in et dtei cognotnflis flrmm T)« m
c5muntca«trmTOnn)aTi ec
flefia iinaitftotrdtdtttftts ab epa^
ntt) qm cft-ft
attt^ ntfi uos foil- qi ^-dicfalont Vj Jftaktfio tonfento
cam fttncl i bi&m ufum mmiftftT'^' .„i6 piouobtsminiftcrxpt liiu q
fiqi qtirto oaium : i; itqiiW) frttt^, ktatnmftniftftnuirnobts diiccao
xitm iiuntantcm m
own cm umm •
nan umm m
fptrmt-lbco tnoe ^^
hco ail omniainuntD -itviCTtts fu qua dtt audtunntts no ctfTautmu
attcpns al) tvaftodtro qitcmififhs pio uobts oiaiiTtft'ipoftttianns tt,
morcatrnfuaummsftofttam at impicamtmagntrccttoiunraTtsa
ttpTampiattmtmteojd^nts aiox th omntfapfa imxElumt fpuait-
urambi'ras dtgncteo per omnia
'
m's imvicaromnt ocftontm urm

fmmiD dutmas fitas in Ofia in ;cvb piacmrtsm omniopett bonoftttC'
tMiii^co ait I viintbffioiiainfcla -nfitanT»Tctcfttnr»iM!«tfa octm
fmtlQuun am.§aittiatcomntfoti
'
omntutrturtconfwiaitfcfttnb po
in;tvb tmiâummritos attirncm
Ttham tianrans cnismomni po-
fnnr ftt&ftaiutanr uos omnee fa- mittaiionjjantmttHrt- atmgauot
mfyntnc aTtf qui oc ccfans tjomo ff- ogms admits ro ? pii qui oigrios
,
(SianaoonnninfiiHUjtViminfpi' no&fmrtiipammfomefcdiiimT
ttniittbamcn- iitmtnc qui mpmrnos be potrait
'Ttncma?i i ftimutrintrgnttm filii
dilctaonis funn quolfcmtisitiq)
11.
unfolded the scroll of his Epistle to the Colossians.
Green, blue, red, lake, and gold arc employed in
the finials of the letter and also compose the initial
;
C of the prologue and its pendant. —-, .
In the large initial we have an example of the

combination of the miniature with the initial and
partial border, a combination which is typical of
book - decoration of the thirteenth century. In
manuscripts of earlier periods the miniature was
a painting which usually occupied a page indepen-
dently of the text, as, for example, in the psalters
which have provided the two plates which have
just been presented to the reader or, if inserted
;
in the text, it was not connected with the decora-

tion of the page. It was in fact an illustration
and nothing more. But now, while the miniature
is still employed in this manner independently
of the text, the miniature-initial also comes into
common use, the miniature therein, however, con-
tinuing to hold for some time a subordinate place
as a decorative rather than as an illustrative feature.
In course of time, with the growth of the border,
the twofold function of the miniature as a means
of illustr ation and also of decoration is satisfied
by allowing it to occupy part or even the whole of
a page as an independent picture, but at the same
time set in the border which has developed from
,
/ the pendant of the initial. This development of

/ the border it is extremely interesting to follow ;
and so regular is its growth, and so marked are the

national characteristics which it assumes, that the
perjod and j)lace of origin of an illuminated manu-
.
script may often be accurately determined from the 1
V details of its borders alone.

In the plate before us we see that the pendants
^
or finials of the initials are simple in style and
37
restricted in extent, and that they terminate in
simple buds or cusps. In the next stage, char-

acteristic generally of the fourteenth century, the
pendants put out branches, and the buds grow
into leaves and thus, gradually extending, the
;
border finally surrounds the entire page.

We have already referred to the difficulty which
is often experienced of pronouncing decisively on
the nationality of illuminations of this time pro-
duced in England and the neighbouring continental
countries. With respect to the particular manu-
script which we are considering, and having regard
to the decoration alone, the general style closely
follows methods of the school of Northern
the
France but we should adjudge the volume to
;
England, chiefly on account of the large employ-

ment of lake, a favourite colour with English
artists of this time, and partly on account of the
quality of the gold. That metal, it has been

observed, as used in French manuscripts, rather
inclines towards a copper tint, which is never
discernible in the illuminations of this country.
The drawing of the little figures and details in
the initials of the thirteenth century is, in general,
remarkably fine and clean. The features of the
human face are indicated by very light pen-lines
alone without any attempt at modelling. Conse-
quently there is a certain meagreness of aspect and
tendency to over-refinement ;which, however, is
perfectly in keeping with the minute character of
the decoration generally. Though we may not rate
illuminations of this style and period as artistic
productions so highly as those which succeeded
them, yet the effect which they produce is always
pleasing, and we never cease to admire the invention

and ingenuity which the thirteenth century artist
38
H ttontm osmaleritthonccctitttmttttDtnc
îmtmt c(bturoDE8 irccs eojtmi di) cffitmc^
^ ottttmo ct tnfatams m ttt^s contmret ttmm

pxa& turn ccgnotrnttnt^non efl- ttmo: m an
otmc ojndrmt otnttts can o$etmttttr tn
xîtmcmv^qtii tctto^trtt plcfiem tnmm (I
II omtnttmnantmtaattcmnrtatctttptmttr
ttmrttmoicâlitttmt ctatttmm «B—bbbb
p ttontatn tomtmts tn gmcmttonetttfla eft
ranfilittm tno|)t8 cottfttwfltsrquontdni tamt
tuts to cms C(fc |>J^^^^SK:--:-^ tv.s<>Ki4^^
tttemwrerôntaxttmtttfiact^cmnattet
nmttntts m|)t6tttattm pi^trts fttc ^ttto
ua)]b €ticmimttrt£inc(egBEBaBaBi
#mttu(ntt8iTii)tmbtrmtaictmuttlo
_mor;atttqttt8 mttttcfettn mote fd) ttto-
mmgttdtmrftnctnamiaretcg^tmftiuia
ttt utitttmrtmtmmn tn cmocfttfitciuttia
cDttttn tttldigtta fttd|î^:^^3K2^-
ccftctr tn<rt6no ftto nia)ttttn.ict 0!^^
aasptc ftimccfttjB, pi$t(tnof|tt08|
12.
displays in filling to the best advantage the cir-

cumscribed spaces which the fashion of the day
left at his disposal in the texts and margins of
manuscripts.
As the century proceeds we are sensible of an
expansion in style. As the handwriting gradually
relaxes its severe stiff character and assumes a
certain roundness and pliancy in its strokes, so
the rather rigid drawing of the middle of the century
begins to bend into those more yielding lines which
are typical of the art of the fourteenth century.
Our next example is selected, as an instance of
highly-finished decoration of the later half of the
thirteenth century, from the Additional ms. 24686
in the British Museum, known as the Tenison
Psalter, from its having once formed part of the
library of Archbishop Tenison. This Psalter is one
of the most beautiful illuminated English manu-
scripts of its time, but unfortunately only in part,
for it was not finished in the perfect style in which
it was begun. The whole book is illuminated, but
in the first quire of the text the ornamentation is
of peculiar beauty and differs in style from that
of the rest of the volume. It appears, from the
evidence of coats of arms and other indications, to
have been undertaken as a royal gift on the in-
tended marriage of Alphonso, son of King Edward
the First, with a daughter of Florent, Count of
Holland, which, however, was never accomplished
owing to the young prince's death in the year
1284. The book was afterwards finished in an
inferior style, and was probably given to the prin-
cess Elizabeth, fourth daughter of Edward the
First, who was married successively to John, Count
of Holland, and to Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of
Hereford and Constable of England.
39
In Plate 12 is produced one of the pages
of the quire ornamented for Alphonso and the ;
progress of the art, when compared with that of

William of Devon's Bible, is at once manifest.
There is more freedom in the drawing, the stiff-
ness of the earlier examples is in great measure
overcome and the pendant has thrown out a
;
branch which has already put forth leaves. A

great variety of colours, blue, rose, vermilion, lake,
green, brown, as well as burnished gold, is em-
ployed in the composition of the large initial and
its accompanying pendant and border and the ;
small initials are of gold laid on a ground of blue

or lake, and filled with lake or blue while the
;
ribbons which fill up the spaces at the ends of the

verses are alternately of the same colours and are
decorated with patterns in silver on the blue and
in gold on the lake.
The group of the dismounted knight despatching
a gryphon, which has proved too much for the
horse, upon whose dying body the expectant raven
has already perched, is tinted in lighter colours.
It is an instance of the use to which marginal space
was frequently put, particularly by English artists,
for the introduction of little scenes, such as episodes
in romances or stories, games, grotesque combats,
social scenes, etc., often drawn with a light free
hand and most artistic touch. Without these little
sketches, much of the manners and customs, dress,
and daily life of our ancestors would have remained
for ever unknown to us.
In connection with this free style of drawing
just referred to, we must for a moment turn from
the subject of illumination to cast an eye upon its
employment for the main illustration in manu-
scripts of a character not necessarily needing the
40
artistic treatment of such choice books as the
Bibles and Psalters which form the bulk of illumi-
nated manuscripts of the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries. In the Winchester Psalter described
above we had examples of the bold style which
was the result of Norman influence upon the native
school of drawing of that place. From the dearth
of material we cannot
unfortunately follow the
course of its development; but that free outline-
drawing was cultivated as a means of illustration
of historical books, whether sacred or
profane, is
quite certain, as is proved by such examples as we
have. One of the monasteries best known to us
for the production of its
manuscripts was St.
Albans Abbey; and the man who, above all
others, is famous for his work there, both as a
writer and as an artist, was the monk, Matthew
Paris. Some have doubted whether all the manu-
scripts which have been ascribed to him could have
been the work of one pair of hands, and whether
they should not be pronounced to be the pro-
ductions of a school rather than of an individual.
Be that as it may, the fact remains that we have
a number of volumes written in one style, if not
by one hand, and, accompanying several of them,
-
very well executed drawings of an illustrative
character.
Plate 13 taken from a scene in Matthew Paris's
is
Life of Offa, in the Cottonian ms. Nero D. i.

The drawing represents a scene from the Life of
Offa, king of Mercia, the founder of St. Albans
Abbey. The son of Wasrmund, king of the
Angles, he was born blind and dumb, and, although
at the age of seven he received his sight, he
still remained a mute. On the left margin, the
child Offa kneels in prayer before the altar within
F 41
'
a church :
'
Offa orans et oblatus Deo ;
his afflic-
tions being told in two hexameter lines :
'
Ve, vc, quo fato regali stem[m]ate nato,
Os michi mutescit, oculorum lumen ebescit.'
, At the age of thirty he was still incapable of

speech, and the king was growing old and the ;
people were uneasy at the prospect of a dumb

man sitting on the throne. This was the oppor-
tunity of the traitor Rigan, one of the nobles, who
put forward a claim to the throne and gathered
his followers. In a truce that was arranged a great
council was held for many days, and on the last
day Offa was present and in his grief his heart
;
was so moved that his tongue was loosed and he

spake boldly before the wise men. Here King
'
Warmundus sits in state upon his throne before
'
him Offa, by the grace of God, Whose protecting

arm is outstretched from heaven, stands sanus '
et elegans while three of the king's nobles,

efifectus,'
proceres,' offer up praises to God for the miracle.

'
'
Rigan, qui et Aliel dicebatur,' turns away as he

defies the king and his son, with the words,
'
Te,
rex delire, cum filio diffiducio,' in company with
'
an evil-faced follower, a suggestor malorum.'
After making due allowance for imperfect know-
ledge of perspective and faults in proportion, which
are common to the time and not characteristic of
the individual, no one can fail to admire the bold-
ness of the outlines and the artistic treatment of
the drapery nor can it be denied that the draughts-
;
man, whether Matthew Paris himself or some other

worker in the scriptorium of St. Albans, was a
capable and skilful illustrator.
We now take leave of the thirteenth century
and enter on the period when the art of book-
42
^"t i>i
been Vcnic foim pre

jtncn
Ifoftpl) T\ ry^
14.
decoration in England reached its highest standard
of excellence. And we commence our review of
the work of that period with the
very finest manu-
script of its kind, probably unique in its com-
bination of excellence of drawing, brilliance of
illumination, and extent and variety of subjects.
The Royal ms. 2 B. vii., commonly known as
'
Queen Mary's Psalter,' is a thick volume of 320

leaves, of large octavo size, which, as we learn from
a note on the last leaf, was on the
point of being
carried beyond seas when the '
spectatus et honestus
vir,' Baldwin Smith, a customs officer in the
port
of London, wisely laid hands on it and
presented
it to the
Queen in October 1553. It is bound in
crimson velvet worked on each cover with a
large
pomegranate,— the Queen's badge, which had been
that of her Spanish mother, —
but now much worn ;
and it has gilt corner plates, and

clasp fittings
(the clasps themselves no longer exist) engraved
respectively with the lion, the dragon, the portcullis,
and the fleur-de-lis of the Tudor
royal house.
The manuscript is of the
beginning of the
fourteenth century, executed in the best
style of
English art of that time. The first fifty-six leaves
are occupied by a series of most
exquisite minia-
ture drawings,
illustrating Bible history from the
Creation down to the death of Solomon, and
generally arranged two on a page. Each drawing
is
accompanied with a description in French, some-
times in rhyming verse and it is to be observed
;
that the narrative is not

always strictly confined
to the Bible account, but
occasionally embodies
apocryphal details. Nothing can be more charm-
ing than the delicate execution of these drawings,
Hghtly sketched with a perfect touch and exact
precision, and very slightly tinted with colours,
"^
43
violet, green, and brown. Our Plate 14 gives us
the two scenes of Joseph making himself known to
his brethren, and receiving his father and mother
on their arrival in Egypt but the artist has for-
;
gotten that Rachel had died long before.

The
descriptive titles are as follows :
—
Lors respond ioseph ne aiez pour tut de gre lai fet
'
: :
pur vos mesfetz cunustre. Car ioe su Ioseph vostre frere

qe vous vendistes a seneschal de Egypte. Lors touz crient
mercij. Alez qere nostre pere et nostre mere, car cink auns
sunt unkore a venir de grant famine. Car de seht {i.e. sept)
ne sunt qe deus passez. E il sount alez qere. si les ount
a Ioseph lur fiz amenez. dount grant ioie estoit.'
Icij est lacob e sa femme amenee en Egypte
'
a Ioseph
lur fitz. Comen Ioseph been venie soun pere e sa mere.'
The frame, as in the rest of the series, is composed

of simple bands of vermilion, with green quatre-
foils at the corners, from each of which springs a
stem with three leaves lightly touched with green
or violet.
The elegant outline of the figures and the easy
flow of the lines of the drapery could have been
attained only after long practice by a skilful hand ;
and we should specially notice, as characteristic of

the time, the peculiar sway given to the human
figure, which, though perhaps rather affected, is not
an unpleasing attitude.
The next division of the manuscript contains
the Psalter, with Litany, etc., ornamented with a
profusion of miniatures of various scenes from the
Life of Christ, followed by a series of the Resurrec-
tion and Last Judgment, and figures of the saints
and martyrs, besides initials and miniature-initials
and borders, all illuminated in the very first style
with brilliant colours and burnished gold. The
drawing of these miniatures is also of the highest
44
amy
•K
15.
excellence and the general character of the sumptu-
;
ously decorated pages of this part of the volume

may be seen from the coloured Plate 15, which
may be pronounced a successful reproduction. It
represents the Last Judgment, standing at the com-
mencement of the Litany. In it we have the full
miniature within a border, the miniature -initial
with its pendants, and the commencement of the
text with its own ornament. But, in addition to
these highly illuminated miniatures, this portion
of the volume has in the lower margins a series
of tinted drawings executed in the style of the
series of Bible illustrations which occupy the first
part. The subjects of these drawings are of a
most varied character. Hunting scenes, pictures
of animal life, escapades of Reynard the Fox,
illustrations of
popular stories, dancing groups,
combats of grotesque creatures, sports
tilting scenes,
and pastimes, follow one another in endless variety,
and are succeeded by miracles of the Virgin and
scenes from the lives and passions of the saints.
In the drawing at the foot of the plate, Saul is
receiving the letters to Damascus for the persecu-
tion of the saints. The possession of such a master-
piece as Queen Mary's Psalter gives us cause to
regret that the modesty of the illuminators of the
Middle Ages forbade them to append their names
to their works.
45
Ill
Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries
Ô period of the history of illu-

mination in England is of
greater importance than the
first half of the fourteenth
century upon which we entered
at the close of the last article.
In those fifty years the art
culminated, and the finest work
was the production of that time.
It is now that the drawing becomes free and casts
off the rigidity of the earlier period there is more
;
action and movement in the figures and the decora-

;
tion, though it has lost much of the refinement and

exactness of the thirteenth century, has greater
play
and more invention in details. Compared witn
productions of the same class in the neighbouring
continental countries, English work of this time
appears, in our judgment, to have the advantage
not only in elegance of drawing, but also in delicacy
of colouring.
_
But before proceeding with the detailed descrip-
tion of examples which are to illustrate the
present
article, we may briefly trace the growth of the
^
decoration, as distinguished from the subject-draw-

ing, of the fourteenth century, and follow its course
into the fifteenth, when
purely English illumination
died out. In this we shall have to consider the
46
decoration of the miniature (by which term we here
mean the actual picture, without accessories, such
as the border in which it is framed), and the
decoration of the initial and border. Decoration
could, of course, enter into, and form a part of, a
miniature only in the times when the miniature
was still regarded rather as an ornament for the
book than as a work of art in itself, and before
the knowledge of perspective and a proper under-
standing of landscape-painting raised it to the im-
portant artistic position which it attained in the
second half of the fifteenth century. Such decora-
tion naturally invaded and occupied the background,
and in that position it played a very important part
in the general effect. And it will be understood
that what is here said of the miniature or indepen-
dent picture also applies to the miniature which so
often occupies the body of the initial letter.
In the coloured facsimile, Plate 15, which ac-
companied the preceding article we have examples
of different styles followed by the illuminators
of the early fourteenth century in dealing with
the decoration of the miniature. In the upper
compartment the background is of burnished gold
pounced or punctured with a hard point; that
of the lower compartment is filled with diaper-
work and the initial is treated with a combina-
;
tion of the two styles, the interior of the R

being gilt, while the square upon which it is laid,
as on a background, is diapered. Gilding and
diapering form the chief methods of ornarnentation
in such positions in the fourteenth century, subject,
however, to certain modifications. The gold is
always brilliant, and is generally pounced in various
patterns, sometimes very elaborately. It must,
however, be understood that such ornamented gild-
47
ing is not confined to the period which we are

discussing, for it extends back into the thirteenth
century and continues in fashion even into the
fifteenth century. Nor are we claiming the diaper
for this time alone, for we have already seen it in
full development in the thirteenth century, and it
continues in use to a much later time. We are
here only laying stress on the common employment
of these two kinds of ornamentation either side by
side or alternatively in manuscripts of the four-
teenth century. With regard to the patterns of the
diaper-work, there seems to have been no end to
the invention which was exercised in elaborating
new designs and, of course, geometrical lines lend
;
themselves to an interminable variety of combina-

tions. No doubt the illuminators were conscious
of the necessity of putting forth their strength on
so conspicuous a feature as the background, and of
introducing a full variety of patterns in order to
guard against the danger of monotony. The best
proof of their success is that we never tire of
examining their work.
Gilding and diapering gradually gave way before
the growth of the landscape but we wonder at
;
the slowness of that growth. We have seen the

conventional trees and rough mounds which did
duty for landscape scenery in the English manu-
scripts before the Norman Conquest. There was
no advance on this primitive style in the succeed-
ing centuries. In the thirteenth century a conven-
tional tree or hillock isstill considered enough to
represent natural scenery in the fourteenth century

;
very little more progress is made, and the gilt

or diapered background still fills the space which
should be occupied by the distant view and the
sky. It is not until the fifteenth centuiy that the
48
landscape really makes progress but our native

;
English manuscripts fail us at this period, and we

have to go to French and Flemish and Italian
illuminations to learn the last stages of the struggle
between the ornamental background and the land-
scape. Early in the century we may certainly find
a picture of natural scenery only, without any
conventional background but more frequently
;
the diaper or conventional background still holds

some part of the field. And, in those instances
where the landscape prevails, the drawing remains
without perspective, and the artist crowds the scene
with unproportioned details in his attempt to re-
present the distant view. It was only when the
horizon was found, after the middle of the cen-
tury, that the conventional background entirely
disappeared. When the artist had once discovered
the power of rendering nature in true perspective,
the need for such adventitious aids as a gilt or
diapered background no longer existed the incon-
;
gruity of applying such decoration became self-

evident ;
and the miniature, emancipated from
decoration, was treated in the hands of the skilled
painters of the late fifteenth century as an artistic
work.
No doubt development of the miniature was
this
also in some degree due to the expansion of litera-
ture, which gave a wider field for the e.xercise of the
miniaturist's art. He was not now confined to
religious service books, as he had been almost
exclusively in the earlier centuries. Romances,
translations from Greek and Latin authors, and
original works of general literature, now came into
vogue and invited a style of illustration altogether
different from that which had been followed in
manuscripts of a religious or liturgical character.
G 49
Thus, while the latter still demanded their share of
attention and while the artist had still to satisfy the
fashionable demand for sumptuous Books of Hours
and others of a like nature, he could now give more
rein to his imagination in the production of minia-
tures suitable for the new secular literature and;
this liberty no doubt reacted in some degree on the

conventional ideas which the practice of so many
centuries had connected with the illumination of
sacred works. Had the latter continued to form
the only vehicles for the expression of the minia-
turist's art, it is not improbable that the decorative
side of his work would have still held its ground to
the exclusion of landscape other than conventional.
We may find an analogy to this in our modern
feeling with regard to the stained-glass
windows of
our churches. The dim, religious light of our
places of worship is not suited to our dwelling-
houses and public buildings and accordingly the
;
designs on stained glass are almost always required

for sacred purposes. Hence convention has been
established, and will probably be maintained as
long as Gothic architecture holds sway and the
;
artist reverts to mediaeval examples for his inspira-

tion. So rooted has this idea of reversion to the
designs of the Middle Ages become, not only for the
treatment of figures, but also for details of orna-
ment and for accessories, that the introduction of a
modern style in a church window offends the senses
as being totally inappropriate even in a modern
building.
The forms of decoration of the miniature which
have just been described are not confined to
England, but are common to the countries of North-
western Europe. The gilt background and the
diaper are found in manuscripts of France and
so
ENGLISH ILLUMIiNATED MANUSCRIPTS
Flanders, very similar in style to those of this

country ;
differences in colouring and treatment,
however, affording criteria for distinguishing the
nationality of the several examples. In the decora-
tion of the ornamental initial and border the
divergence is far greater; and, in course of time,
a style is developed which is peculiarly English.
While in France there developed the lightly-
sprinkled ivy-leaf border, which is one of the dis-
tinguishing marks of the early fifteenth century
manuscripts of that country and while the artists,
;
of the Low Countries, first following the same lines,

afterwards gradually introduced natural objects,
fruits, flowers, insects, etc., and in the end produced
those richly-worked frame-borders which are so dis-
tinctive of Flemish book-decoration ;
in England
there is a strange development from the conven-
tional three-pointed leaf and simple buds into leaves
and flowers which more resemble feathery scrolls
than any growth in nature.
It will be remembered that the border takes its
rise from the pendant of the initial ;
and so strongly
had this principle of growth, if it may so be termed,
been impressed on the mind of the mediaeval artist,
that we see the connection between the border and
the parent initial still kept up even when the
original small pendant had developed into a border
surrounding the entire page, and when the artistic
balance between the two members of decoration is
overthrown. We have seen the pendant of the
thirteenth century terminating in a bud, which, in
the pendant of the fourteenth century, has burst
into a leaf. After this the development of the
border quickly receives a great impetus. In the
case of ordinary initials, which are only minor
decorations for ordinary pages, the pendant, it is
SI
true,never grows to any very extended length, and
usually envelopes at most only a portion of the text,
forming what is termed a partial border but, wher-
;
ever the artist desired to produce a handsomely-

ornamented page, he carried the branches of the
pendant entirely round the text, so as to form a
complete frame for it ; and, still further, as a
common mode of writing the text was the arrange-
ment of double columns, a separate branch was also
carried between them. The full-grown border was,
moreover, not infrequently further enlarged, in pages
which the artist specially desired to signalise as
of importance, in a form which altogether dis-
guises the origin from the pendant. The slender
branches are widened into a broad, solid frame, the
several parts of which are internally divided into
sections variously ornamented, or are filled with
other designs and yet the recollection of the origin
;
of the frame is not lost, for shoots and sprays

bearing conventional leaves and flowers are applied
to its edges by way of further decoration. Nor,
even in this artificial stage of development of the
branching border, is the connection between it and
the parent initial always severed, for we still find
many instances of the solid frame issuing from the
extremities of the large ornamental letter, just as
the primitive pendant sprang from the same points
in the initial of earlier date. The solid frame-
border had already developed as early as the first
half of the fourteenth century, and became more
conventional and artificial as time proceeded.
The more general form of border, however, is
of simpler construction. Following in this respect
the analogy of a natural growth, the extremities of
the initial from whence the branches, or, to give
them a better name, the stems are to issue are pro-
52
16.
vided with a clustering mass of conventional foliage
or a broad expanding blade or some such basis out
of which the stems spring and as they grow along
;
the margin the latter throw out leaves and flowers,

and are more or less embellished with backgrounds
of colours and gold. When the top and bottom
of the page is reached, and the border has to be
carried along the upper and lower margins, a new
starting-point is created by forming an ornamental
corner-piece, as for example by interlacings and
foliage, from whence a new stem s])rings, and the
process is repeated at each point A\here a turn is
made. From the conditions of space, the stems
have little room to imitate nature in pHant move-
ments, and soon fall into the straight lines of the
margins. Late in the fourteenth century they
become rigid, and are almost invariably formed of
two narrow bars welded together, the one in colours
and the other gilt, which serve as a frame to sup-
port the sprays of foliage and flowers and other
decorations of the border. And it is at the same
period when the foliage and flowers take that dis-
tinctive feathery form which has been referred to
above, and which can be better understood from the
specimens given in the plates than from any verbal
description.
Having now followed the general course of
development of the decoration of English manu-
scripts in the period covered by this article, we
proceed to give examples of the art both of the
draughtsman and the illuminator from some of the
best manuscripts of the British Museum.
The first is presented as a pleasing specimen of
the outline drawing of the first half of the fourteenth
century not so refined as the art of Queen Mary's
;
Psalter, but still of a high order. It is selected

S3
from the Royal ms. 19 B. xv. This beautiful
manuscript contains a French version of the Apoca-
in England in the
lypse, with commentary, written
cursive style of hand which was used for charters and
legal documents, and may be dated about the year
1330. It is illustrated throughout with a series of
drawings by two different hands, the one being

very inferior to the other. The best hand has pro-
duced a most charming set of miniatures, very
simple in treatment, and generally very delicate in
the drawing. The colouring of the details of the
figures and general accessories is light, but the
designs are brought out in relief by the stronger
colours of the background. Two of these minia-
tures form the subjects of Plate 16. In the upper
one the artist has produced, with singular simplicity
of drawing, a beautiful figure of the mighty angel
'
'
casting a stone like a great millstone into the sea

(Rev. xviii. 21). The figure is altogether in outline
without colour, and the nimbus alone is gilt. The
sea is indicated by waving bands, coloured alter-
nately straw-yellow and glass-green and the back-;
ground is of a
very deep blue, with a broad frame
of vermilion. In the other picture we have the
representation of Heaven, where the Apostle heard
'a great voice of much people' (Rev. xix. 1-4).
Here again the worshipping figures and the sur-
rounding clouds are left white and are thrown up in
strong relief by the deep blue of the background.
The symbols of the Evangelists in the four corners,
'
'
modified representations of the four beasts that
fell down and
worshipped God that sat on the
'
throne,' are likewise in white against a background

of vermilion and the quarter-circle bands which
;
mark off their compartments are in green. God

the Father, holding the Lamb in His right hand
S4
^p3:4
w^^ zt:
mmfffnuiTc-i
oiiftteDo;iDnbmTm8r irrmmmus Camoosm

fiTiu ittfm KDniP mriffttre
iP»
'! . -
|aurti ojaiallVt ^Drnmiisa Dotn^ Dec.
^ -'<si
^
M %% &ibuaDirmnaru)n«)^
Sw%r— Kplcbttnuiias^conqu/
\miMmQ'M .
%wtaprmixmmiiStm
fi ttmrcmr m ma Dibit:
^popima cmlrautr ta
e UmipnnpiumDifuir.
^^
5:^;;i=3
+
l^DomnuisDnbrmos \' tunstiiemfjjiemim^'
feieaDfrmsmfisr »
j^©DTUf ponam miraiof

tr^ûtnoamtuu^
m)8:Qabdluûtium
^fwâmmmmsTiifc H
rtvam oris arfônrbnlm
urttDuimmiwip?tucm.
S îfei
mirifilfeb4)cum^
ImmrqmimDu
'lummsTufmCpimdaHj ^m:
jtefeff imro aim liutft^' ame'li 'tDfaDEEtns
.-^
/4
'U
A.
~^.
17.
and with His left hand placed upon the globe, is
enthroned within a vesica; the robes are tinted
russet, green, and violet and the cruciform nimbus
;
is vermilion and green. The broad band of the

vesica is left white the background within it is
;
gilt, crossed with lattice-work in black lines and;
the external corner-pieces are decorated with white

leaves on a vermilion ground. The charm of these
drawings altogether in their simplicity.
lies There
is a minimum of decoration, and the artist has
relied only upon the clearness and firmness of his
outlines to attain the desired effect.
The next example (Plate 17) is of quite a
different character. It is chosen for the
purpose of
illustrating the development of the border in the
early part of the fourteenth century. The volume
from which it is selected is the Arundel MS. 83,
the date of which can be pretty nearly ascertained.
It contains the Psalter, with a calendar
prefixed in
the usual manner but at the end a second calendar
;
and a series of remarkable miniatures of scenes

from the Life of Christ, etc., have been added. These
additions were clearly not intended to be part of
the original manuscript, but they are of the same
period and are ornamented in the same style as
the Psalter, and we are quite justified in
treating
them as contemporary. A note inserted in the
second calendar (under 25th November) records the
gift of the book, in 1339, by Robert de Lyle to
his daughters, with remainder to the nuns of
Chicksand Priory in Bedfordshire: 'Joe Robert
de Lyle donay cest lyvere sus cest jour en Ian
nostre signour mil cccxxxix a ma fiUe Audere ove
ma beneyssoun. Et apres soen deses a Alborou
sa soer et issy de soer en soer taunk come ascune
de eles vyvont. Et apres remeyne a touz jours a
55
lesdames de Cheqesaundes. Escrit de ma meyn."
But the occurrence of the shields of England and
France in the first border of the Psalter would lead
us to infer that it was executed for the King or
some member of the royal family.
The colour of the large D is vermilion heightened
with white, and within its compass the two first
Persons of the Trinity are enthroned under two
architectural canopies, and are clad in robes tinted
delicately with shades of blue, pink, vermilion,

violet, and straw-yellow. The Holy Spirit, in the
form of a dove, isseen descending in the middle.
The background is of bright gold, pounced. The
letter is laid on a square of diapered patterns, which
are worked on grounds of blue and lake alternately
at the four corners. It will be seen that each of
the two marginal extremities of the letter ends in a
broad leaf encircled by the shoot on which it grows.
These terminals, together with their broader back-
grounds of gold and colour, form sufficient founda-
tions on which to plant the stems for the border,
which are seen to spring from a conventional foli-
ated sheath and to throw out leaves in the progress
of their growth upwards and downwards in the
margin and the whole design receives stability
;
and breadth from a background of gold and colours

which is shaped to the requirements of the stems.
Coming to the corners of the page, fresh starting-
points have to be devised, as explained above, and
accordingly a broad foundation is again created for
each by an interlaced knot or other ornament, pro-
duced from the stem itself, and then a new stem
springs as before from its conventional sheath.
And so the process is repeated at each point where
a junction is required and, for the sake of sym-
;
metry, also at the top of the page at the point

56
where the two columns of writing are divided,
although no new stem springs thence as it does
from the corresponding point in the lower
margin.
As in the decorative backing of the large initial,
the colours in the border are almost
entirely con-
fined to blue and lake and pounced
;
gold is liber-
allyemployed, and particularly so at the corners.
A very pleasing feature in English decoration
of this period is the introduction,
among conven-
tional flowers and foliage, of others drawn more
closely after nature. A
favourite flower thus treated
is the daisy, which one may nearly
always count
upon to appear in an illuminated manuscript of the
fourteenth century of English execution. In this
plate we have daisies, oak leaves and acorns, and
hrêl nuts simply drawn and coloured. This prac-
tice may be strictly
against the canon forbidding
the mingling of the natural with the conventional,
but, notwithstanding, there is something refreshing
in finding such simple objects
breaking out, just as
in the department of
botany Nature will sometimes
assert herself by throwing out a shoot or leaf of the
native strain from some plant of artificial cultiva-
tion.
One word may be said about the miniatures in
this manuscript,although the limits necessarily im-
posed on the number of our illustrations do not
allow of the reproduction of any of them. They
form a very instructive series for the study of the
miniaturist's method of work at this period. There
is a full number of examples showing the variety
which skill could produce in diapered backgrounds,
and there are some notable specimens of elaborately
patterned gold work both of which styles of decora-
;
tion have been referred to above as

specially prac-
tised at this time. It is noticeable that a portion of
H 57
the series is composed of a set of leaves, each of
which covered on both sides with a set of sub-
is
jects, six on a page. The backgrounds are alter-

nately in diaper and gold, but so disposed that a
gilt background never lies immediately behind a gilt
background on the other side of the leaf. Thus the
artist avoided making the leaf too thick by over-
laying it on both sides with gold, and also guarded

against injury to his work.
It is remarkable, though perhaps only accidental,
that comparatively few illuminated manuscripts of
the first rank have survived from the time of
Edward the Third. The manuscript which has
just been described belongs to quite the beginning
of that reign, and has still the characteristics of the
early years of the fourteenth century. The Louterell
Psalter, a highly decorated volume which was
executed before the year 1345, and which is de-
scribed, with plates, in Vettista Mommienta, vol. vi.,
is of a more advanced
type but it does not appear
;
that any great stimulus was given to the art of

illumination till the reign of Richard the Second,
when we discover a school of painting which is
remarkable for its fine colouring and richness of
decoration.
Accordingly our next examples take us to the
end of the century, and we see what a change the
course of time has effected. Plate 18 is repro-
duced from a remarkably handsome volume, a
very large Bible in the Royal collection, numbered
I E, ix., which measures as much as 24 by 17
inches. It is splendidly illuminated with minia-
ture-initials and initials and borders, the beginning
of every Book having one or more of such decora-
tions and the workmanship is the best of its kind.
;
The plate reproduces the initial which adorns St.

58
r -
^
_
r-
ô
t-i 23
s g c
S
S- s; /S fs
'S
*t; ss'
s »p:
la;
•;*
=f ^
c c r^ — •'
1^ VC ^^ u 3^
,*s>
Ni«^^ =5~HE o-f'^^-r- -^cJcrSoJ C o as
.vfijSliS &i5 s 5 & i feei a I

Jerome's prologue to the First Book of Chronicles,

together with a small portion of the border which
proceeds from it. The saint, dressed in a white
under-robe, over which is a sleeveless upper-robe
delicately coloured with lake, and wearing
a broad
hat brightly coloured with vermilion, is seated at
a book-case (in which, in passing, we may notice
the usual disposal of the volumes on their sides),
and is apparently putting away his books. The
background is worked in small square patterns of
gold, red, or white on deep blue. The finished
modelling of the features of the saint's face and
the care with which the flesh tints have been applied
are characteristic of English work of this period,
and stand in strong contrast to the light strokes
which were deemed sufficient to indicate the fea-
tures of the human face in the drawings of the
thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. This
careful treatment is probably quite a native develop-
ment the method of French miniatures in this
;
respect is altogether different;

and it is to France
rather than elsewhere that we should look for the
source of foreign influence in English art at this
time. We have, however, observed a very similar
treatment in the contemporary miniatures of the
Netherlands which have come under our notice, and
we are inclined to see in our English work of this
of painting which
period a connection with the style
afterwards, in the course of the second half of the
fifteenth century, distinguished the Flemish school,
so famous for the softness and depth of its colour-
flat and hard style affected by the
ing, from the
miniaturists of France.
The letter itself is of vermilion, worked up in
a floral pattern which fills the breadth of the bow,
and it is set in gold with an edging of blue. And
59
in this specimen we have an instance of the simpler
border described above in which the main stems
are formed of two combined narrow bars, the one
gilt and the other coloured, and of the peculiar
shape which the conventional foliage of English
decoration had now assumed. The clustering of
leaves at the points from whence the border-stems
emerge is here in full force blue, red, and lake,
;
relieved with
white, being the leading colours.
Unfortunately the page of the manuscript is too
large to be brought, even on a reduced scale, within
the scope of a plate. We
can only conclude our
remarks on the border by asking the reader to
repeat in imagination at the four corners of the
page the round-flower ornament shown in this plate,
and to take, as a sample of the twin stem which
forms the square frame-work of the border, the
small section here presented. Nor must we pass
by in silence the very pretty ornamental spray
which issues from the initial, with its delicate little
flowers. It is not uncommon to meet examples of
this fine work in company with more heavily laden
borders.
Astill better idea of the decoration of this
manuscript, as applied to the border and orna-

mental-initial (to be distinguished from the minia-
ture-initial of the last plate), may be gained from
the second specimen which we give in Plate 19.
Here the lower section of a column is reproduced,
which shows a remarkably well designed initial P,
standing at the head of the prologue to the Gospel
of St. Mark, together with a portion of the lower
line of the border and a portion of the stem which
is carried between the columns. The letter itself
is painted in sections of blue and lake, worked
up
with white, and is filled with interlaced branches of
60
f-* C5 IJS S
n ô *r.
conventional foliage; and the whole is laid upon
a square background of burnished gold. In the
details of the scrolls and of the border we have
blue, lake, and vermilion as the leading colours,
with the usual proportion of gold ;
and here the
various forms of the foliage may be studied the :
curious feather-like curling leaf, the spoon-shaped

leaf with its end well turned back, and, though
less common, the bell-shaped flower —
all of which,
together with others not here represented, are met

with as usual details of decoration in the English
manuscripts of the time.
It is to be regretted that we know nothing of
the history of this handsome, volume, beyond the
fact that it formed part of the library of the kings
of England ;
and still more so, for our present
purpose, that there is no record of the names of
the artists employed on its embellishment. Even
at this comparatively advanced time the practice of
the artists of the earlier centuries not to attach their
names to their works was still observed, and there
are few exceptions. A notable one occurs, however,
in the case of an English illuminator of this period
who bore the name of John Siferwas, and to whom
we owe a Lectionary (Harley ms. 7026) now in the
British Museum, which he executed for John, Lord
Lovel of Tichmersh, who died in the year 1408,
and also a still more important manuscript, the
Sherborne Missal, now owned by the Duke of
Northumberland.
Of a somewhat later date than the manuscript
Bible which has just been laid under contribution
is the volume which supplies the next illustration.
It alsobelongs to the Royal collection, numbered
and contains the Hours of the Virgin
2 A. xviii.,
and the Psalter in Latin. The manuscript is orna-
61
mented throughout with illuminated initials and
borders and at the beginning is a series of minia-
;
tures of saints and the very beautiful Annunciation

which is here given (Plate 20) in coloured facsimile.
It was executed early in the fifteenth century, as is
evident both from the general style of illumination
and from the costume of the two kneeling figures
in the plate, the high-standing collar and long
sleeves being typical of the dress of the reign of
Henry the Fourth. These two figures, so refined
in their treatment and adding so much charm to
the miniature, are no doubt portraits of the husband
and wife for one of whom the manuscript was
executed, and we may almost assume that they were
members of the family of Grandison, for in the
calendar and fly-leaves entries of several obits of
persons of that family have been added. Besides
these entries, there are others of a later date which
record births, marriages, and deaths, with other
events, in the families of Henry the Seventh and
Henry the Eighth whence it appears most pro-
;
bable that the volume belonged at this later time

to some person attached to the Court of the Tudor
kings.
The miniature of the Annunciation has been
selected for reproduction in colours as one of the
best specimens of this class of English work that
have survived. The drawing is very delicate and
graceful, and the colouring soft and refined. The
architectural setting is in keeping with the fashion
of the day. We see the same style followed in
French illumination, some of the best examples
being found in the Book of Hours which was
executed in France for the Regent John Duke of
Bedford and which is now one of the greatest
treasures of the British Museum. But to have
62
grafted on the solid stone work of the architectural

canopy the meagre sprays of conventional leaves
and flowers is a fault in composition which is pro-
bably due to a division of labour. The miniaturist
who painted the figures, and no doubt also the
canopy, would hardly have weakened the effect of
his production by such extraneous additions. The
illuminator who decorated the text with initials
and borders surely added these sprays to fill up the
blank spaces of the margins and the same course
;
has been followed with the other miniatures of the

series. The modelling of the features of both the
Virgin and the Angel Gabriel is here again as care-
fully treated as that in the miniature of St. Jerome
described above, with a very pleasing result. Nor
is there any shortcoming in the finish of the two
kneeling figures both are delicately drawn and
;
coloured, and combine harmoniously with the minia-

ture.^
A few details of a minute character in this plate
may escape observation unless they are pointed out.
Such details not only prove the utmost pains that
the mediaeval painter took to give the most com-
plete finish to his work, but also suggest the very
close examination which such works must have
received from the eyes of our forefathers. Modern
art has trained us to use our eyes in such a different
way, to look so much more at general effect than
at detail, that we have almost lost the
faculty of
taking into view the minute points which delighted
the painter of the Middle Ages. In the upper left-
hand corner in a cloud of blue appears God the
Father with accompanying angels, and from Him
'
Compare the painting of the faces in this miniature with that of the
portrait of Richard the Second in the Diptych at Wilton House, pubhshed by
the Arundel Society and described by Sir George Scharf, 1882.
63
proceed delicate rays, at the extreme end of which

the Holy Spirit, represented by the smallest possible
white dove, hovers just above the Virgin's forehead.
In the border of the nimbus round the Virgin's
'
head is the inscription Sancta [Marjia virgo,

:
'
intercede pro [nobis] and round the Angel's head

;
' '
may be read : Sancte Gabriel, ora [pro nobis] ;
'
along the edge of the canopy is Maria, plena

'
:
gracie, mater misericordie the open book has

;
:
'
Ecce ancilla domini, fiat michi secundum [verbum
'
tuum] (Luke i. 38) and, lastly, on the green cloth

;
of the table is embroidered Omnia levia sunt

:
'
amanti Si quis amat non laborat,' perhaps the

:
expression of the artist's happiness in his work a

—
labour of love. But there is something more. The
last inscription is followed by two words, de daer,'
'
which may be only random letters to fill the line.

It may, however, be suggested, although with much
hesitation, that they should be reversed and that
they then disclose the name of the artist, 'Ed. Read.'
But all this promise of the English school of
the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries was
unfortunately unfulfilled. The long wars with France
and the domestic convulsions of the War of the
Roses seem to have extinguished the rising flame.
The style which we have seen in such beauty in our
last two examples gives place to one which is alto-
gether French, so much
so indeed that, but for
internal indications of English origin, the manu-
scripts which are decorated in this new manner
might, in many instances, pass for the productions
of French artists. A
well-known example is the
great volume of romances of chivalry which John
Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, presented to Margaret
of Anjou on her marriage with Henry the Sixth in
1445. The miniatures are of the hard and meagre
64
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21.
type which is often so conspicuous in the French

school of the fifteenth century, and the decoration
is borrowed from the same source. The favour for
this foreign style makes itself evident in the Books
of Hours which were so much in demand at this
time and, when it begins to die out, there is no
;
return to a native style, but the latter part of the

century is marked by the predominating influence
of the Flemish school. Whatever of purely
English miniature painting exists at all of a later
date than the early part of the fifteenth century is
only in a rather coarse and rustic form a proof
:
that native art of this character received little

encouragement. It is needless to speculate as to
the development which it might have received under
more kindly conditions we can only say that in the
;
productions of English artists, such as those which

have been placed before us, there is evidence of
powers which might have successfully competed
with the best work of the continental schools of
Western Europe in the latter part of the fifteenth
century.
In the department, however, of the more
mechanical work of the decorative border we still
have instances of development in the course of
the fifteenth century ;
and we place before the
reader in Plate 21 the reproduction of a very
fine specimen, executed before the year 1446. The
volume from which it is obtained is the Arundel
MS. 109, a Missal which was given to the Church
of Saint Laurence in the Old Jewry by William
Melreth, alderman of London, who died in that
year. In this border we have a combination of the
broad frame with the narrow stem design and the ;
more florid character of the details of the foliage, as

compared with that of fifty years earlier, marks a
I 6s
natural development. The principle of construc-
tion,however, still remains. Still the initial is
the source and starting-point of the frame of the
border and we still have the massed foliage
;
appended to the marginal extremities of the letter

to form a sufficient foundation. The full develop-
ment of curling, feather-like foliage is to be seen
in the four corner circles, here forming in each
instance the casing-leaves of a kind of pomegranate
or nondescript conventional fruit. The narrow
stems, as in the earlier examples, are still formed of
two members joined together, the one in colours,
the other gilt blue, vermilion, lake, and green
;
being employed in their decoration. The three

broad sides of the frame are divided into compart-
ments enclosing feather scrolls twined round rods ;
the colours used being green, grey-blue, vermilion,

lake, and rose, and burnished gold being applied
at the edges and largely at the corner-joints and
middle sections. The .same colours and gold are
repeated in the conventional foliage. It is indeed
a very handsome and effective piece of work, as a
decorative page but the design is poor as com-
;
pared with those of the early part of the century,

and the colouring cannot stand by the side of the
rich and glowing hues of that promising period of
our native school of illumination.
In the three articles which have now been con-
tributed to these pages on the subject of English
Illuminated Manuscripts the rise and growth of the
art of book-decoration in this country have been
briefly traced. We
have seen that from the earliest
times there was no lack of either mechanical or
artistic skill. The wonderful decoration of the
Irish school was practised successfully in the eighth
century and the freehand drawing of our artists
;
66
under the Anglo-Saxon kings was incomparably
superior to the dead copies from Byzantine models
which were in favour abroad. The artistic instinct
was not destroyed, but rather strengthened, by the
incoming of Norman influence and of the twelfth
;
and thirteenth centuries there is abundant material

to show that English book-decoration was then at
least equal to that of neighbouring countries. For
our art of the early fourteenth century we claim
a still higher position, and contend that no other
nation could at that time produce such graceful
drawing. Certainly inferior to this high standard
of drawing was the work of the latter part of that
century but still, as we have seen, in the minia-
;
tures and decorations of this time we have examples

of a rising school of painting which bid fair to
attain to a high standard of excellence, and which
only failed from political causes.
67
/O
PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY
ND Thonqpson, (Sir) Edward Maunde

3128 aiglish illinni nated
TA8 mantis cripts

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What are the two distinct styles of illumination mentioned in the text?

What are the two distinct styles of illumination mentioned in the text?

What evidence is given that shows the powers of English artists?

What evidence is given that shows the powers of English artists?

I'*

of 7i>liich this is No.t-f- w

T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty

from the Lindisfarne Gospels or

about a.d. 700.

(Cottonian ms., Nero D. iv.) .

Augustine's Psalter early 8th ;

Century. (Cottonian ms., Vespasian

turies. (Additional ms. 24199 and ;

Cottonian ms., Cleopatra C. viii.) .

about A.D. 970. (ms. of the Duke

tury. (Cottonian MS. Claudius B.iv.),

Scenes from the Life of David, from

MS., Nero C. iv.) . 3^

12. Page from the Psalter of Alphonso,

14. Scenes from the Life of Joseph, from

Queen Mary's Psalter' ; early 14th

20. The Annunciation, from a Book of

MS. 2 A. xviii ) Frontispiece . . .

21. Page from the Missal of St. Lau-

(Arundel ms. 109)

From the Eighth Century to the Norman

^>2kviQ p<r^<^:^^?^ HR history of illumination and

its origin in the north, the other developing in the

degree successfully, cultivated ;and, at the same

and it has a very pleasing result.

its own course, and there is nothing in the fully-

developed work to indicate external influence, as we

of Irish manuscripts to be formed (i) simply by the

(2) by simple lines, straight

step-like, angulated patterns (4) by

laced zoomorphic patterns and (7) by the various

spiral patterns, which are by far the most

of book-ornament spreading over a fairly extended

conjecture to what remote period we

the date of which is about the year 700. The

the lines, a translation in English a priceless

must bear in mind that he writes more than two

Simeon of Durham, who wrote early in the twelfth

The ornamentation of the volume is most perfect.

designs, with borders and on a leaf prefixed to

each Gospel and on one accompanying the first

the features are marked out with lines of

Capitula or tables of sections which accompany

titles of the Evangelists in Greek would at first

sight appear to support this view. But we think

MATTHEUS,' o AGius MARCUS,' indicate that the

actual Greek drawings and inscriptions did not come

by any mechanical process the exquisite colouring

stem are in black and white. The birds and lacer-

ordinary creature's hind-legs and tail are at the

ought to apologise for this detailed and, we fear,

the actual colours in our plate, a literal description

Nothing can excel the harmony of the whole com-

is more probable, the connection between Lindis-

by side with it, an instance of the adaptation of