Bleaching Effect On Palm Oil

PROCESS DESIGN IN DEGUMMING AND BLEACHING OF
PALM OIL
RESEARCH VOTE NO: 74198
PROF. MADYA DR. NOOR AZIAN MORAD

PROF. MADYA MUSTAFA KAMAL ABD AZIZ
Rohani binti Mohd Zin
CENTRE OF LIPIDS ENGINEERING AND APPLIED RESEARCH

(CLEAR)
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
NOVEMBER, 2006
II
“I declare that thesis entitled PROCESS DESIGN OF DEGUMMING AND
BLEACHING OF PALM OIL is the result of my own research except for some
information which the source for each one has been stated.”
Signature of the author:…………………………………………..

Name of the author : ROHANI BINTI MOHD ZIN
Date : OCTOBER 2006
III
Dedicated to my beloved father, Haji Mohd Zin Haji Salleh for his constant
encouragement and motivation. To my beloved mother, Hajah Gayah Jali for her
inspiration and to my forever supportive family members.
Not to forget, this work is lovingly and respectfully in honour of my wonderful

husband, Mohd Nizar Mohtar
IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Noor Azian Morad and
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Khairiyah Yusop for their continuous guidance, advice and support
throughout this project.
I also wish to thank the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation

(MOSTI), Malaysia for the National Science Fellowship awarded to me and for IRPA
grant awarded to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Noor Azian Morad.
To all CLEAR staffs, Ms. Nurul Azlina, Mr. Zaidi, Mr. Asani, Mr. Shaipudin
and Mr. Rani the best colleagues anyone could ever ask for.
And last but not least, thank you to all who had assisted and making this project
a success.
v
ABSTRACT
Palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) industry is one of the major contributors to the
Malaysia economic growths. The palm oil supply from Malaysia has increased
apparently over the last two decades due to vast increase in production. Crude palm
oil (CPO) obtained from the mesocarp of palm oil fruit undergoes several stages of
refining processes in order to produce refined, bleached palm oil (RBDPO).
Currently, in Malaysia, the type of refining used is physical refining. This method
involved the processing stages of degumming, bleaching and deodorization. From
refiners point of view, degumming and bleaching processes are recognized as critical
areas in the palm oil refinery and need to be carefully monitored, because any
imperfection during these processes will tremendously affect the later stages of
refining processes and finally affect the finished product. These stages are identified
as the major contributors to the total operating cost of the plant due to the cost of
chemicals (phosphoric acid and bleaching earth) that are being used in these
processes. In this research, a process model for degumming and bleaching operation
will be designed in order to help the refiners to predict the exact ratio of phosphoric
acid and bleaching earth to the crude palm oil. By doing so, we hope to reduce the
operating costs and time of the overall palm oil refining process. Therefore at the end
of this research, with the ANN model designed, the bleaching and degumming
efficiency can be improved thus can help to boost the Malaysian palm oil industry.
Key researchers :
Prof. Madya Dr. Noor Azian Morad
Prof. Madya Mustafa Kamal Abd Aziz
ROHANI BINTI MOHD ZIN
.E − mail : azian@citycampus.utm.my
Telephone no. : 03−2615 4894
Vote no. : 74198
vi
ABSTRAK
Industri kelapa sawit (Elaeis guineensis) adalah merupakan salah satu

penyumbang terbesar kepada pembangunan ekonomi Malaysia. Bekalan minyak
kelapa sawit dari Malaysia telah meningkat dengan ketaranya sejak dua dekad yang
lalu disebabkan oleh peningkatan yang besar di sektor penghasilan. Minyak kelapa
sawit mentah yang disuri daripada bahagian mesorkapa buah kelapa sawit akan
diproses melalui beberapa peringkat penapisan dan penulenan bagi menghasilkan
minyak kelapa sawit tertapis, terluntur dan ternyahbau (RBDPO). Kini di Malaysia,
kaedah yang digunakan adalah kaedah Proses Penulenan Fizikal. Proses penulenan
secara ini melibatkan beberapa peringkat iaitu pennyah-gam degumming, pelunturan
dan penyulingan. Pada pendapat mereka yang terlibat dalam industri penulenan
kelapa sawit ini, mereka dapati bahawa peringkat degumming dan pelunturan adalah
merupakan bahagian-bahagian yang kritikal bagi proses penulenan kelapa sawit,
dimana pemantauan secara teliti adalah diperlukan kerana sebarang
ketidaksempurnaan semasa peringkat-peringkat ini akan teruk menjejaskan peringkat
seterusnya dan akhirnya memberi impak kepada hasil akhir. Peringkat-peringkat
proses ini juga dikenalpasti sebagai penyumbang besar kepada keseluruhan kos
operasi penulenan kelapa sawit disebabkan bahan-bahan kimia yang digunakan
didalam peringkat-peringkat ini iaitu asid fosforik dan bleaching earth. Oleh itu,
didalam projek penyelidikan ini, satu peoses model bagi operasi degumming dan
pelunturan, akan direkabentuk bagi membantu refiners meramalkan nisbah yang tepat
bagi asid fosforik dan bleaching earth kepada minyak kelapa sawit mentah. Dengan
begiitu, kami berharap dapat mengurangkan kos operasi dan masa bagi keseluruhan
proses penulenan kelapa sawit. Oleh itu, di akhir penyelidikan ini dengan ANN
model yang direkabentuk maka efinsensi operasi degumming dan pelunturan dapat
diperbaiki dan dapat membantu meningkatkan industri minyak kelapa sawit Malaysia.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

TITLE PAGE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xx
GLOSSARY xxiii
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research Background 1
1.2 Research Objective and Scope 5
1.3 Problem Statement 7
1.4 Research Contribution 8
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Palm Oil (Elaeis guineensis) 9
2.1.1 Palm Oil Fruit Composition 12
2.1.2 Uses of Palm Oil 13
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2.2 What is Crude Palm Oil (CPO)? 14

2.2.1 Composition and Constituents of Crude Palm Oil 15
2.2.2 Quality of CPO 17
2.3 Finished Products (RBDPO) Quality 21
2.4 Typical Analysis of CPO, DBPO and RBDPO 21
2.5 Refining Methods of Palm Oil 24
2.5.1 Chemical (Alkaline) Refining 27
2.5.1.1 Gum conditioning and Neutralization 27
2.5.1.2 Bleaching and Filtration 27
2.5.1.3 Deodorisation 28
2.5.2 Physical Refining 29
2.5.2.1 Pre-treatment- Degumming and Bleaching 30
2.5.2.2 Deodorisation 31
2.6 Physical Refining Versus Chemical Refining for Palm Oil 32
2.6.1 Environmental & Health Issues 32
2.6.2 Number of Processing Stages 33
2.6.3 Cost Advantage 33
2.7 Factors Affecting Degumming and Bleaching Processes
of Crude Palm Oil 34
2.7.1 Quality of CPO 34
2.7.2 Bleaching Time 35
2.7.3 Bleaching Temperature 36
2.7.4 Bleaching Earth Dosage 39
2.7.5 Phosphoric Acid Dosage 43
3 THEORY OF DEGUMMING AND BLEACHING

3.1 What is Degumming? 44
3.1.1 Types of Degumming 45
3.1.1.1 Dry Degumming 45
3.1.1.2 Water Degumming 46
3.1.1.3 Acid Degumming 47
3.1.1.4 Enzymatic Degumming 48
3.1.1.5 EDTA-degumming 49
ix
3.1.1.6 Membrane Degumming 50

3.1.2 Process Theory of Degumming 52
3.2 What is Bleaching? 55
3.2.1 Types of Bleaching Methods 56
3.2.1.1 Heat Bleaching 56
3.2.1.2 Chemical Oxidation 56
3.2.1.3 Adsorption 56
3.2.2 Process Theory of Bleaching 57
3.2.3 Mechanisms of Bleaching Process 60
3.2.4 Bleaching Agents 61
3.2.4.1 Acid –Activated Bleaching Earth 61
3.2.4.2 Natural/Neutral Bleaching Earth 62
3.2.4.3 Activated Carbon 63
3.2.4.4 Synthetic Silicates 63
3.2.5 Mode of Bleaching / Equipments for Bleaching 64
3.2.5.1 Batch Bleaching 64
3.2.5.2 Continuous Bleaching 65
3.2.6 Degumming and Bleaching Approaches in Malaysia
Refineries 68
4 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS (DOE) & ARTIFICIAL NEURAL

NETWORK (ANN)
4.1 Design of Experiments (DOE) 70
4.1.1 Response Surface Methodology 72
4.1.2 Central Composite Design 74
4.2 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) 75
4.2.1 ANN Definition 75
4.2.2 Network Topology/Architecture 77
4.2.3 Components of a Node 78
4.2.3.1 Inputs and Outputs 79
4.2.3.2 Weight Factors 79
4.2.3.3 Internal Threshold 79
4.2.3.4 Transfer Functions 79
4.2.4 Back-propagation Neural Network 80
x
4.2.5 Neural Network Development 82

4.2.6 Strengths of ANN 84
4.2.7 Limitations of ANN 85
5 METHODOLOGY
5.1 Overall Research 87

5.2 Operational Conditions 92
5.2.1 Operating Temperature 92
5.2.2 Operating Pressure 93
5.2.3 Contact Time 93
5.2.4 CPO Sample Quality 94
5.2.5 Bleaching Earth and Phosphoric Acid Quality 94
5.2.6 Quality Parameters 94
5.3 Experimental Equipment of Degumming and Bleaching 95
5.3.1 Experimental Procedures 96
5.4 Experimental Procedures for Quality Parameters 98
5.4.1 FFA 98
5.4.2 DOBI 100
5.4.3 Peroxide Value 101
5.4.4 Phosphorus Content 103
5.4.5 Moisture Content 106
5.4.6 Iron Content 107
5.5 Design of Experiment Application in Estimating Optimum
Number of Experiment 109
5.5.1 Optimum Number of Experiment 109
5.6 Model Development 109
5.6.1 Selection of Input and Output Variables 109
5.6.2 Neural Network Modelling 110
5.6.2 Model Comparisons 117
xi
6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1 Results Overview 119
6.2 Experimental Results Analysis 120
6.2.1 Effects of Phosphoric Acid and Bleaching Earth Dosage
on Free Fatty Acid (FFA) 121
on Deterioration of Bleachability Index (DOBI) 124
on Peroxide Value (PV) 126
on Phosphorus Content 129
on Moisture Content 132
on Iron Content 135
6.3 Conclusion on Experimental Data Analysis 138
6.4 ANN Modeling Results Analysis 139
6.4.1 Model Performance and Comparisons 139
6.4.2 Model Evaluation 139
6.4.3 Model Selection 142
6.4.4 Weight and Bias 142
6.5 Conclusion on ANN Model Analysis 150
7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Conclusions 151
7.2 Recommendations 152
REFERENCES 153
APPENDICES 159
xii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLES NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 World Major Producers Of Palm Oil : 1994 - 2003 2
1.2 World Major Exporters Of Palm Oil : 1994 - 2003 3
2.1 General Compositions Of Crude Palm Oil 15
2.2 Typical composition of the main components

of Malaysian crude palm oil 16
2.3 Refinability of CPO according to DOBI values 19
2.4 PORAM Standard Specifications for Refined Palm Oils 21
2.5 Typical Analysis of Crude, Degummed & Bleached

and RBD Palm Oil 22
2.6 Ideal quality targets of Crude Palm Oil 34
3.1 Composition of Phospholipids of Palm Oil (mole %) 54
5.1 Details on the plant visit activities conducted 89
5.2 Optimum operating condition for a typical configuration

palm oil refinery in Malaysia 92
5.3 Experiment sequence by DOE 96

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5.4 Weight of sample for palm oil acidity test 97
5.5 List of independent variables 112
5.6 Input variables and output response factor for model

development data and model validation data 113
5.7 The Detailed MISO and MIMO network structure 117
6.1 Training and Validation Error of MISO and MIMO

networks for various number of nodes in hidden layer. 141
6.2 The value of biases and weight for back-propagation model

for MISO 1 and MISO 2 network 144
6.3 Initial weight values for MISO 1 146
6.4 Initial weight values for MISO 2 147
6.5 The value of biases and weight of back-propagation model

for MIMO network 148
6.6 Initial weight values for MIMO 149

xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 Cross-section of palm oil fruit 1
2.1 Palm Oil Tree 10
2.2 Elaeis guineensis 10
2.3 Tenera Hybrid obtained from Dura and Pisifera Parents 11
2.4 Composition of Palm Oil Fruit 12
2.5 Composition of Palm Oil Mesocarp 12
2.6 Variety of palm oil-based food products 13
2.7 Flowchart of crude palm oil (CPO) production. 14
2.8 Chemical and physical refining routes. 26
2.9 Simplified Flowsheet of Physical Refining 29
2.10 The flow chart for physical refining versus chemical refining
for palm oil 32
2.11 Effect of Bleaching Time on Oil Colour, Peroxide Value (PV)

and Free Fatty Acid (FFA) 35
2.12 Effect of Bleaching Temperature on Oil Colour 36

xv
2.13 Effect of Bleaching Temperature on Free Fatty Acid 37
2.14 Effect of Bleaching Temperature on PV and AV of Palm Oil 38
2.15 Effect of Bleaching Dosage on Colour of Palm Oil 39
2.16 Effect of Bleaching Dosage on PV and AV of Palm Oil 40
2.17 Effect of Bleaching Dosage on Phosphorus Content of Palm Oil 42
2.18 Effect of Phosphoric Acid Dosage on PV of Palm Oil 43
3.1 Flow diagram of dry degumming process 45
3.2 Flow diagram of water degumming process 46
3.3 Flow diagram of acid degumming process 47
3.4 Flow diagram of Enzymatic-degumming process 48
3.5 Flow diagram of EDTA-degumming process 49
3.6 Flow diagram of membrane degumming process 51
3.7 Chemical structure of Phosphatides ` 53
3.8 Adsorption Isotherms 58
3.9 Bleaching effect of an oil dependent on different processing

parameters 59
3.10 Acid Activated Bleaching Earths 62

xvi
3.11 Activated Carbon 63
3.12 Batch Bleaching Unit 64
3.13 Continuous Bleaching Plant (Type 1) 65
3.16 Process flow diagram of bleaching and degumming

carried out in different vessels 68
3.17 Process flow diagram of bleaching and degumming

carried out in the same vessel 69
4.1 General Topology of three-layer perceptron ANN 77
4.2 Simple model of a Node 78
4.3 Layers and connections of a feed-forward back propagating

artificial neural network 81
5.1 Overall methodology of the research. 91
5.2 Rotavapor unit used for deguming and bleaching process 95
5.3 Titration method for FFA experiment 99
5.4 Spectrophotometer for determination of DOBI value 100
5.5 Porcelain dish containing CPO sample and magnesium oxide 103
xvii
5.6 Furnace used for the determination of phosphorus content

experiment 104
5.7 Desiccator for moisture content experiment 106
5.8 Modelling a network methodology 107
5.9 Back-Propagation Feed Forward Topology of

MISO Neural Networks 115
5.10 Back-Propagation Feed Forward Topology of

MIMO Neural Networks 116
6.1 FFA Content of CPO Before & After Degumming

and Bleaching Processes at 0.5 wt % of Phosphoric Acid 121
6.2 FFA Content of CPO Before & After Degumming

6.3 DOBI Value of CPO Before & After Degumming

6.4 DOBI Value of CPO Before & After Degumming

6.5 PV of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching

Processes at 0.5 wt % of Phosphoric Acid 126
6.6 PV of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching

Processes at 1.0 wt % of Phosphoric Acid 126
6.7 Phosphorus Content of CPO Before & After Degumming

6.8 Phosphorus Content of CPO Before & After Degumming

6.9 Moisture Content of CPO Before & After Degumming

xviii
6.10 Moisture Content of CPO Before & After Degumming

6.11 Iron Content of CPO Before & After Degumming and

Bleaching Processes at 0.5 wt % of Phosphoric Acid 135
6.12 Iron Content of CPO Before & After Degumming and

Bleaching Processes at 1.0 wt % of Phosphoric Acid 135
xx
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AAS - Atomic Absorbance Spectrophotometer

Abs - Absorbance value
ANN - Artificial Neural Network
AOCS - American Oil Chemists’ Society
AOTD - Analytical Olecochemical Technology Division
AV - Anisidine Value
BE - Bleaching Earth
CF - Calibration factor
CPO - Crude Palm Oil
Cu - Copper
DBPO - Degummed Bleached Palm Oil
DG - Diglycerides
DOBI - Deterioration of Bleachability Index
DOE - Design of Experiment
E - Error
EDTA - Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid
Fe - Iron
FFA - Free Fatty Acids
FFB - Fresh Fruit Bunches
g - gram
GDP - Gross Domestic Products
H2O - Water
IV - Iodine Value
kg - kilogram
meq - milliequivalent
xxi
MG - Monoglycerides
MIBK - Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
M&I - Moisture and Iodine
ml - milliliter
ML - Moisture loss
mm - millimeter
mmHg - millimeter mercury
MPOB - Malaysia Palm Oil Board
MT - metric tonne
N - normality of solution
Na - sodium
NaOH - sodium hydroxide
NN - neural network
nm - nanometer
NPO - Neutralized Palm Oil
NHP - Non-Hydratable Phosphatides
P - Phosphorus
PA - Phosphatidyl acid
PC - Phosphatidyl choline
PE - Phosphatidylethanolamine
PFAD - Palm Fatty Acid Distillate
pH - potential hydrogen
PI - Phosphatidylinositol
PIPOC - Proceedings of International Palm Oil Congress
PORAM - Palm Oil Refiners Association of Malaysia
PORIM - Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia
POFP - Palm Oil Familiarization Programme
ppm - part per million
PV - Peroxide Value
RBDPO - Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil
RF - Refining Factor
RM - Ringgit Malaysia, monetary unit of Malaysian
RMS - root mean square
T - Temperature
xxii
TG - Triglyceride
UV - Ultraviolet
V - volume of NaOH solution used in ml
Vs - volume in ml of sodium thiosulphate solution of
normality N used for the determination
Vb - volume in ml of sodium thiosulphate solution of
normality N used for the blank test.
W - weight of sample/test portion
α - Alfa
β - Beta
γ - Gamma
d - Delta
c - quantity of residual substance dissolved
K - constant unrelated to the amounts of solute and
adsorbent
m - quantity of adsorbent
n - constant unrelated to the amounts of solute and
adsorbent
x - quantity of substance adsorbed
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AAS - Atomic Absorbance Spectrophotometer

Abs - Absorbance value
ANN - Artificial Neural Network
AOCS - American Oil Chemists’ Society
AOTD - Analytical Olecochemical Technology Division
AV - Anisidine Value
BE - Bleaching Earth
CF - Calibration factor
CPO - Crude Palm Oil
Cu - Copper
DBPO - Degummed Bleached Palm Oil
DOBI - Deterioration of Bleachability Index
DOE - Design of Experiment
E - Error
EDTA - Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid
Fe - Iron
FFA - Free Fatty Acids
FFB - Fresh Fruit Bunches
g - gram
GDP - Gross Domestic Products
H2O - Water
IV - Iodine Value
kg - kilogram
meq - milliequivalent
MIBK - Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
M&I - Moisture and Iodine
ml - milliliter
ML - Moisture loss
mm - millimeter
mmHg - millimeter mercury
MPOB - Malaysia Palm Oil Board
MT - metric tonne
N - normality of solution
Na - sodium
NaOH - sodium hydroxide
NN - neural network
nm - nanometer
NPO - Neutralized Palm Oil
NHP - Non-Hydratable Phosphatides
P - Phosphorus
PA - Phosphatidyl acid
PC - Phosphatidyl choline
PE - Phosphatidylethanolamine
PFAD - Palm Fatty Acid Distillate
pH - potential hydrogen
PI - Phosphatidylinositol
PIPOC - Proceedings of International Palm Oil Congress
PORAM - Palm Oil Refiners Association of Malaysia
PORIM - Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia
POFP - Palm Oil Familiarization Programme
ppm - part per million
PV - Peroxide Value
RBDPO - Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil
RF - Refining Factor
RM - Ringgit Malaysia, monetary unit of Malaysian
RMS - root mean square
T - Temperature
TG - Triglyceride
UV - Ultraviolet
V - volume of NaOH solution used in ml
Vs - volume in ml of sodium thiosulphate solution of
normality N used for the determination
Vb - volume in ml of sodium thiosulphate solution of
normality N used for the blank test.
W - weight of sample/test portion
α - Alfa
β - Beta
γ - Gamma
d - Delta
c - quantity of residual substance dissolved
K - constant unrelated to the amounts of solute and
adsorbent
m - quantity of adsorbent
n - constant unrelated to the amounts of solute and
adsorbent
x - quantity of substance adsorbed
xxiii
GLOSSARY
Acid Conditioning Precipitation of hydratable and non-hydratable phosphatides

and trace metals by mixing and reacting crude oil with acid.
Caustic may also be added to neutralize the acid and create a
small amount of soap.
Antioxidant A substance that slows or interferes with the reaction of a fat

or oil with oxygen. The addition of antioxidants to fats or
foods containing them retards rancidity and increases stability
and shelf life.
Anisidine Value A measurement of a triglyceride’s secondary oxidation

determined by the amount of aldehydes formed as peroxides
decompose.
Bleaching Removal of color and oxidizing bodies, residual gums, soap

and trace metals by mixing oil with special adsorbents (silica
and/or bleaching earth). The adsorbents containing the
mentioned impurities are then removed by filtration.
Carotenoids A large group of isoprenoid structures with different numbers,

positions and configurations of conjugated double bonds. β –
carotene is a precursor of vitamin A in animals.
Chlorophyll A natural, green coloring agent vital to a plant’s

photosynthesis process which is removed from the oil through
the neutralizing and bleaching processes.
Degumming A step in the refining of oils and fats. The addition of

phosphoric acid to the crude oil results in the separation of all
or some of phospholipids which present.
xxiv
Deodorization A process of removing the fatty acids, odor, flavor and

destabilizing impurities, as well as some color bodies by
subjecting the oil to high vacuum and temperature, augmented
by direct steam agitation, under conditions so that the
impurities are vaporized and removed while the oil remains
liquid
Dewaxing Removal of small amounts of high melting components

(waxes) that cloud the oil at storage temperature. The term
is typically associated with processing of sunflower and rice
bran oils. The oil is chilled then mixed with filter aid. After
holding the oil for a certain period, the waxes become solid
(crystallize) and can be removed by filtration. In some cases
centrifugal separation is used in combination with
degumming, neutralizing or water washing instead of
filtration.
Diglyceride The ester resulting from the chemical combination of glycerol

and two fatty acids.
Elaeis guineensis The oil palm, which is the source of palm oil (from the
mesocarp) and palm kernel oil (from the kernel). It is native to
Africa. Mainly grown in South East Asia and Africa.
Experiment A set of measurements carried out under specific and

controlled conditions to discover, verify, or illustrate a theory,
hypothesis, or relationship. Experiments are the cornerstone of
statistical theory, and are the only method for suggesting
causal relations between variables. Experimental hypotheses
cannot be proved using statistics; however, they can be
disproved. Elements of an experiment generally include a
control group, randomization, and repeat observations.
Fractionation Removal of higher melting fractions (stearin) that solidify at

higher than desired temperatures. This is done by cooling the
oil or fat so that the stearin forms crystals that can be
separated, usually by filtration. The term is mainly associated
with processing of palm and similar highly saturated oils.
Free fatty acid Fatty acid in unbound (underivatised) form. Oils and fats are
mainly triacylglycerols contain in their natural (crude) state
small amounts of free acids which may removed by
processing.
Hydration Precipitation and agglomeration of phosphatides by mixing

and reacting acid conditioned or crude oil with water.
xxv
Hydrolysis The chemical reaction of a triglyceride with water forming

glycerine and free fatty acids
Iodine value Classical method to obtain information on degree of

unsaturation in fats and oils. An iodine-bromide (Hanus
reagent) or iodine monochloride (Wijs reagent) reagent is
reacted with the double bond and excess reagent (as iodine) is
titrated with sodium thiosulphate solution.
Lauric acid Dodecanoic acid, 12:0. It is a major component of oils such as

coconut and palm kernel. Oils rich in lauric acid are generally
known as lauric acid
Lauric oils Oils containing 40-50% lauric acids (C 12 ) in combination

with other relatively low molecular weight fatty acids.
Coconut and palm kernel oils are principal examples
Lecithin A mixture of naturally occurring phosphatides which has

emulsifying, wetting, and antioxidant properties, a principal
source of which is crude soybean oil
Linoleic acid An important C18 diene acid, 9C, 12C-18:2, present in most
seed oils, often in high proportions. It is the first member of
the (n-6) family of polyenoic acids and is an essential fatty
acid.
Lipoprotein Any of the class of proteins that contain a lipid combined with
a simple protein.
Lovibond value A system to express the colours of refined oils and fats. Red
and yellow galsses are used, of which the red glasses are
standardised
Monoglyceride The ester resulting from the combination of glycerol and one
fatty acid
Neutralization A removal process of free fatty acids (FFA), hydratable and

non-hydratable phosphatides, trace metals and color bodies
(precipitated by mixing and reacting with caustic) by
centrifugal separation. The process is most often preceded by
acid conditioned.
Oleic acid Trivial name for 9-cis-octadecanoic, 18:1 (19-C). It is the most
widely distributed of all fatty acids and serves biosynthetically
as the precursor to the (n-9) families of acids. Present in high
xxvi
amounts in olive oil and high-oleic sunflower and safflower

oils.
Oxidation The reaction of oxygen with an oil or fat causing rancidity
Peroxide value Oxidised fats contain hydroperoxide which liberate iodine

from acidified potassium iodide. This is basis of an analytical
method for measuring oxidation and the peroxide value is
usually expressed as milliequivalents of active oxygen/kg (or
mmoles of active oxygen/2 kg)
Phospholipids A general description of lipids containing phosphoric acid (or

other phosphorus containing acids) in appropriate ester form
such as glycerophospholipids..
Phosphatides The chemical combination of an alcohol (typically glycerol)

with phosphoric acid and a nitrogen compound; synonymous
with phospholipids. Commonly referred to as gums.
ppm This concentration parameter expresses the amount of e.g solid

particles in a solvent. 100 parts (e.g grams) of iron, Fe in
RBDPO means that in 1 million parts (e.g grams) of RBDPO,
100 parts (e.g grams) of Fe are dissolved.
Refining process Industrial technology to obtain edible oils from crude oils
through processing steps such as degumming, neutralisation,
bleaching and deodorization.
Refining Factor A parameter is used to asses the efficiency of various stages of

a refining process. This factor is dependent upon the yield of
the product and the quality of the input and it is calculated as:
oil loss %
RF =
FFA %
Soapstock The by-product from the neutralizing step of chemical refining

consisting of soap, hydrated gums, water, oil, and other
impurities.
Tocopherol A naturally occurring antioxidant found in many vegetable oils
Triglyceride The chemical combination of glycerol and three fatty acids

xxvii
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research Background
The oil palm, Elaeis guineensis, is native to Africa. The commercial values
of this crop lies mainly in the oil that can be obtained from the mesocarp of the fruit -
palm oil and the kernel of the nut - palm kernel oil. In fact, oil palm is the only fruit
that can give these two types of oil. Both are edible oils but with very different
chemical composition, physical properties and applications.
Palm oil is used mainly for cooking such as cooking oil, margarine and
shortening but also has non-food applications such as soap, detergent, cosmetics.
Figure 1.1 shows the cross-section of palm oil fruits indicating the mesocarp and
kernel of the fruit.
Mesocarp
Kernel
Figure 1.1: Cross-section of palm oil fruit

2
Although oil palm is native to Africa, Malaysia was the first country to
embark on large-scale planting and processing. It had to develop its own technology
and adopt innovative policies in order to boost production.
The first commercial oil palm estate in Malaysia was set up in 1917 at
Tennamaran Estate, Selangor. However, it was only in the 1960s, oil palms were
commercially cultivated in large scale in order to avoid over dependence on natural
rubber which are major commodity during previous years. Since then, palm oil
industry has expended rapidly and has emerged as the most remunerative agricultural
commodity, overtaking the natural rubber (Arrifin and Fairus 2002).
The growth of the industry has been phenomenal and Malaysia is now the
largest producer and exporter of palm oil in the world, accounting for 52 percent of
world production and 64 percent of world exports in 1999. Table 1.1 and Table 1.2
below, shows world annual production and annual exports of palm oil according to
the respective countries.
Table 1.1 : World Major Producers Of Palm Oil : 1994 - 2003 ('000 TONNES)
Country 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Malaysia 7,403 7,221 8,386 9,069 8,319 10,554 10,842 11,804 11,909 13,354
Indonesia 3,421 4,008 4,540 5,380 5,361 6,250 7,050 8,030 9,200 9,750
Nigeria 645 640 670 680 690 720 740 770 775 785
Colombia 323 353 410 441 424 501 524 548 528 543
Cote d'Ivoire 310 300 280 259 269 264 278 220 240 251
Thailand 297 316 375 390 475 560 525 620 600 630
Papua New Guinea 223 225 272 275 210 264 336 329 316 325
Ecuador 162 178 188 203 200 263 222 201 217 247
Costa Rica 84 90 109 119 105 122 138 138 140 144
Honduras 80 76 76 77 92 90 97 108 110 112
Brazil 54 71 80 80 89 92 108 110 118 132
Venezuela 21 34 45 54 44 60 73 80 80 79
Guatemala 16 22 36 50 47 53 65 70 81 91
Others 1,265 1,676 815 869 844 832 879 919 922 940
TOTAL 14,304 15,210 16,282 17,946 17,169 20,625 21,877 23,947 25,236 27,383
Source : i) Oil World Annual (1999 - 2003) & Oil World Weekly (12 December, 2003)
ii) MPOB - For data on Malaysia.
3
Table 1.2 : World Major Exporters Of Palm Oil : 1994 - 2003 ('000 TONNES)
Country 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Malaysia 6,750 6,513 7,212 7,490 7,465 8,911 9,081 10,618 10,886 12,248
Indonesia 2,173 1,856 1,851 2,982 2,260 3,319 4,140 4,940 6,379 6,830
Papua New Guinea 231 220 267 275 213 254 336 328 324 325
Cote d'Ivoire 148 120 99 73 102 101 72 75 65 63
Colombia 20 21 29 61 70 90 97 90 85 105
Singapore* 328 399 289 298 241 292 240 224 220 256
Hong Kong* 234 275 305 173 103 94 158 192 318 206
Others 876 791 711 860 680 787 884 1,107 956 1,083
TOTAL 10,760 10,195 10,763 12,212 11,134 13,848 15,008 17,574 19,233 21,116
Note : * - Includes Re-Exporting Countries
Source : i) Oil World Annual (1999 - 2003) & Oil World Weekly (12 December, 2003)
ii) MPOB - For data on Malaysia
Obviously now, palm oil has become an increasingly important vegetable oil
in the world market and today is the largest traded vegetable oil in the world. It was
recorded that in 2002, a trade surplus for palm oil industry is RM 54.1 billion
compared to RM 50.9 billion in 2001. It shows that palm oil industry plays an
important role in Malaysia’s economy.
The palm oil refining industry is today among the most important
manufacturing sectors in the country. Besides contributing to the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) and increasing employment opportunities in the country. The refining
sector has contributed significantly to the growth of palm oil industry in Malaysia
(Arrifin and Fairus 2002).
The palm oil industry can be divided into several main sectors according to
their activities, namely:
(i) plantations - planting of the oil palm and harvesting of the fresh fruit
bunches (FFB)
(ii) palm oil mills – processing of the FFB into crude palm oil (CPO) and
palm kernels
(iii) palm kernel mills – extraction of the palm kernel oil
(iv) palm oil processing – refining and fractionation, production of
downstream products
4
This research study will focus on the degumming and bleaching processes of
the processing sector, which is in the refining process of palm oil.
Malaysia’s refining industry first started in 1972, where there were only 4
refineries in operation during that time, but at the end of 2002, there are already 47
refineries in operation with total refining capacity of 16.14 million tonnes of CPO
per annum. Most of these refineries are located close to the ports to facilitate exports
for example in southern region of Malaysia most of the palm oil industry are located
in Pasir Gudang , Johor where the port is situated.
When the palm oil refining industry first started in 1970’s, it had employed
mainly alkali or chemical refining process as alkali refining was the more establish
process for edible oil at that time. This mode produced neutralized palm oil (NPO)
and its products. In the late of 1970s however, physical refining began to be
preferred method as it is more cost effective (Ahmad and Mohammad, 1993). Further
elaboration on physical and chemical refining will be explained in Section 2.5 of
Chapter 2: Literature Review, in this thesis.
Currently in Malaysia, all palm oil refining plants are using physical refining
method as it is proven to be more cost effective compared to chemical refining
method. In general, physical refining of palm oil consists of 2 stages namely pre-
treatment stage and deodorization stage. Pre-treatment stage involves degumming
and bleaching of palm oil where the aim of the processes is to remove the undesired
impurities that affect the stability of final oil products. The aims of degumming and
bleaching processes are achieved by means of chemicals used to react and adsorb the
unwanted impurities. The chemicals used for these processes are phosphoric acid and
bleaching earth. Detailed elaboration on degumming and bleaching methods will be
further discussed in Chapter 3: Theory of Degumming and Bleaching.
.
5
1.2 Research Objective and Scope
The objective of this research is to design a process model for physical

refining of degumming and bleaching operation of palm oil refinery that is able to
predict the suitable ratio of phosphoric acid and bleaching earth to the crude palm oil.
This process model should be able to operate at various quality of crude palm oil fed
and yet ensuring efficient separation. By doing so, we hope to reduce the operating
costs and time of the overall palm oil refining process.
In achieving the objective of the research there are a few important tasks need
to be carried out and three research scopes have been identified for accomplishing
the objective. The scopes are:
1. Identification of the most optimal operating parameters and conditions for

degumming and bleaching processes. This is done through surveys and plant
visits to palm oil refineries throughout Malaysia. Initially questionnaires were
distributed to all registered palm oil refineries in Malaysia. Then, based on
responses obtained; the most optimal operating temperature, pressure,
retention time, most common chemicals used, acceptable quality of crude
palm oil (CPO) as feed and refined bleached deodorized palm oil (RBDPO)
as the output are identified. At the same time, plant visits are also conducted
in order to get overview from refiners and to familiarize with plant operation.
2. Design a lab scale experiment for degumming and bleaching in order to get
the data for modelling. This lab scale experiment is designed as degumming
and bleaching processes are carried out simultaneously and based on the most
optimal conditions and parameters identified. During this stage, the number
of experiments need to be run are determined through the design of
experiment (DOE) method.
3. In experimental stage, some suitable quality checking experiments for the

crude palm oil (CPO) and degummed bleached palm oil (DBPO) quality are
also being identified during this stage. The parameters that are being
measured in this experiment are; (i) FFA (free fatty acid) content, (ii) DOBI
6
(deterioration of bleachability index) value, (iii) peroxide value,

(iv) phosphorus content, (v) iron content and (vi) moisture content. The
deguming and bleaching process are carried out for 30 minutes, under 50 torr
vacuum and temperature of 100oC, using rotavapor unit. Based on the
experimental results obtained, some deductions would be done on predicting
the suitable ratio of phosphoric acid and bleaching earth to be added in the
degumming and bleaching processes.
3. Develop feed forward back propagation neural networks modelas by using

artificial neural networks (ANN) toolbox from Matlab V.7.0 to model and
simulate processes and thus predicting the suitable ratio of phosphoric acid
and bleaching earth to the crude palm oil. In this study, comparison of
deductions between experimental findings and model developed would be
done and a concrete conclusion will be made based on that.
7
1.3 Problem Statement
From refiners’ point of view, degumming and bleaching process stage are
recognized as critical areas in the palm oil refinery. Separation of minor components
at these stages must be carefully monitored because any imperfection during these
processes will tremendously affect the later stages of refining processes and finally
affect the finished product. These stages are considered critical as it is identified as
major contributors to the total operating cost of the plant due to the cost of chemicals
(phosphoric acid and bleaching earth) that are being used in these processes.
In addition, Borner et al. (2003) also reported that bleaching is one of the
most cost-intensive processes for refining vegetable oils caused mainly by the
consumption of bleaching agents like bleaching earth and activated carbon, oil losses
in the spent bleaching and in certain cases for disposal of the spent agents. Therefore,
it’s become an interest of all refineries to reduce the consumption of bleaching earth
as much as possible. It is estimated about 20% of total operating cost are due to
bleaching and degumming process and currently the price of bleaching earth is RM
700-800 per MT and RM 3000 per MT for phosphoric acid.
In current situation the amounts of chemicals added in are usually fixed

within typical ranges of doses usually used throughout certain period. It means that,
even though the incoming CPO has lower impurities or minor components content,
the amount of chemicals added would not be changed. There is no system that can
estimate the right amount of chemicals to be added in accordance with the quality of
CPO used.
Thus, it important to have a process model which can suggest a suitable ratio of
phosphoric acid and bleaching earth for the varying CPO quality.
8
1.4 Research Contributions
Even though application of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are now

extensively employed in different branches of science and technology but in palm oil
industry it is relatively a new scenario. Therefore, based on
(i) the present knowledge of palm oil processing method,

(ii) optimal operating parameters for the production of refined bleached
degummed palm oil (RBDPO),
(iii) deduction from experimental findings and
(iv) the application of ANN technology in this research study,
it would introduce and enable transfer of this advanced technology to palm oil
refiners. It is anticipated that once the ANN technology on palm oil processing have
been developed, it will significantly reduced the operating cost of the plant since this
technology will help the palm oil refiners easily predict the exact amount of
phosphoric acid and bleaching earth to be used to refine the CPO fed in.
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Palm Oil (Elaeis guineensis)
In 1434, a Portugese sailor, Gil Eannes first reported about oil palms (Elaeis
guineensis) (Bockish, 1998). Today, they flourish mainly in the western part of
Africa, Indonesia, Malaysia and most recently in Brazil and Colombia. Oil palm tree
(Figure 2.1), grow up to 20 meter in height and grow best at temperature of 24-27oC.
Oil palm tree require a humid climate and the cultivated oil palm carry fruit from
their fourth year onward and can be harvested for 40-50 years (Bockish, 1993).
Palm oil is derived from the fleshy part or the mesocarp of the fruit of the
palm species Elaeis guineensis (Figure 2.2). However in Malaysia, Tenera (hybrid of
Dura X Psifera) palm fruit is widely cultivated due to commercial and processing
viability as harvesting becomes easier since the palm trees are relatively shorter,
producing good fruit bunch and higher fruit oil content (Noor Azian, 1995).
10
Figure 2.1: Palm Oil Tree
Figure 2.1: Elaeis guineensis

11
Figure 2.3 shows three genotypes of palm oil where clear differences in their
fruit morphology are revealed. The dura fruit form has a thick shell or endocarp
surrounding the kernel whereas psifera form has no shell. The hybrid between the
two, the tenera fruit form has a shell of intermediate thickness and a surrounding of
fibre strands in the mesocarp (Noor Azian, 1995).
Dura (Thick-Shelled) Pisifera (Shell-less)
Pericarp
Seed (Fruit-Wall)
(Kernel)
Exocarp (skin)
Testa
Mesocarp
Endosperm (oil bearing tissue)
(oil bearing tissue)
Fibre
Embryo
Endocarp (shell)
Figure 2.3: Tenera Hybrid obtained from Dura and Pisifera Parents
(Noor Azian, 1995).
12
2.1.1 Palm Oil Fruit Composition
Mesorcarp accounts for about 60% of the total composition of palm oil fruit
and crude palm oil is derived from this part. Figure 2.4 below shows overall
composition of palm oil.
Composition of Palm Oil Fruit
Skins and
Stems
29%
Mesocarp
60% Nuts
11%
Figure 2.4: Composition of palm oil fruit (Bockish, 1993).
Figure 2.5 below shows the composition of mesocarp where the oil accounts
for 39 % of the overall composition. Crude palm oil (CPO) is obtained from the
mesocarp part of palm oil fruit after undergoing through several processes such as
sterilization process, stripping, extraction and purification.
Composition of Palm Oil Mesocarp
Oil Water
39% 41%
Fiber
20%
Figure 2.5: Composition of Palm Oil Mesocarp (Bockish, 1993).

13
2.1.2 Uses of Palm Oil
As mentioned, the oil palm produces two types of oils, palm oil from the
fibrous mesocarp and palm kernel oil from the palm kernel. Palm oil and palm kernel
oil have a wide range of applications; about 80% are used of food applications while
the rest is feedstock for a number of non-food applications (Salmiah. 2000).
Among the food uses, refined, bleached and deodorised (RBD) olein is used
mainly as cooking and frying oils, shortenings and margarine while RBD stearin is
used for the production of shortenings and margarine. RBD palm oil, which is the
unfractionated palm oil, is used for producing margarine, shortenings, vanaspati
(vegetable ghee), frying fats and ice cream (Salmiah. 2000).
Figure 2.6 shows some examples of a number of palm-based food

applications;
Figure 2.6: Variety of palm oil-based food products (Salmiah. 2000).

14
2.2 What is Crude Palm Oil ?
Crude palm oil (CPO) is the oil obtained from the mesocarp part of palm oil
fruit. Figure 2.7 shows the processes undergone by fresh fruit bunches (FFB) to
produce CPO. The crude palm oil (CPO) produced, is further processed to yield
either red or bleached cooking oil or detergents.
Fresh fruit FFB enters the plant

bunches (FFB) mills for processing
Stripping in rotating Sterilization in large

drum “Stripper” pressure vessels / cages
Extraction in a Purifications in a
homogenous oil mash continuous
clarification tank
Refining Crude Palm

process Oil
(CPO)
Figure 2.7: Flowchart of crude palm oil (CPO) production.

15
2.2.1 Composition and Constituents of Crude Palm Oil
Higuchi (1983), stated that crude vegetables oil commonly consists of

desirable triglycerides, unsaponifiable matter together with small amount of
impurities. Most of these impurities contribute undesirable effects to the oil, for
instance colour, flavour, odour, instability and foaming. These impurities should be
removed by a purification step in order to produce good quality of refined oil with
minimal possible oil loss or damage to the oil and desirable materials such as
tocopherols and carotenes.
The compositions of crude palm oil can be classified as a mixture of 5 main

chemical groups (Abdul Azis, 2000) as per shown in Table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1: General Compositions Of Crude Palm Oil (Abdul Azis, 2000).
Group Components in the group

Oil - Triglyceride, Diglyceride , Monoglyceride
- Phospholipids, Glycolipid and Lipoprotein
- Free fatty acids
Oxidized Products - Peroxides, Aldehydes, Ketones, Furfurals (from
sugars)
Non-oil (but oil solubles) - Carotene
- Tocopherols
- Squalene
- Sterols
Impurities - Metal particles
- Metal ions
- Metal complexes
Water Solubles - Water (moisture)
- Glycerol
- Chlorophyll pigments
- Phenols
- Sugars (soluble carbohydrates)
16
Some of these chemical groups need to be removed partially or completely

through the refining process in order to produce good edible oil that have better
stability and keepability. Thus, in palm oil refineries the CPO produced undergoes
degumming, bleaching and deodorization to order to obtain refined, bleached and
deodorized oil (RBDPO).
Table 2.2 below, shows the typical composition of the main constituents of
Malaysian crude palm oil. (Noor Azian, 1995)
Table 2.2: Typical composition of the main components

of Malaysian crude palm oil (CPO)
Constituent Crude Palm Oil

Triglycerides, % 95
Free Fatty Acids, FFA, % 2-5
Red Colour (5 ¼ ” Lovibond Cell) Orange red
Moisture & Impurities, % 0.15 – 3.0
Peroxide Value, PV (meq/kg) 1 -5.0
Anisidine Value, AV 2–6
β-carotene content, ppm 500-700
Phosphorus, P, ppm 10-20
Iron (Fe), ppm 4-10
Tocopherols, ppm 600-1000
Diglycerides, % 2-6
17
2.2.2 Quality Of Crude Palm Oil
In general, quality of crude palm oil is dependant on the contents of free fatty
acids, moisture, heavy metals, DOBI, oxidized products and minor constituents such
as phosphatides, carotenes and tocopherols.
(i) Free Fatty Acid (FFA)
The FFA content of crude palm oil is always used as an index of oil quality
by the commercial oil refiners in Malaysia. FFA are formed when the bound fatty
acids in triglyceride, diglyceride and monoglyceride molecules are split either by
chemical or enzymatic hydrolysis.
According to Formo et al. (1979), the high moisture content of palm oil fruit
is favourable to the enzyme action; hence this material should be processed promptly
in order to yield oil with low free fatty acid (FFA) content. Palm oil fruits are
susceptible to deterioration. Their lipolytic enzymes are so active that even under
favourable conditions palm oil seldom produced with free fatty acid content less than
2 %.
Thus, crude palm oils that have low FFA are indicating that, the oil are being
processed from fresh, unbruised fruits and carefully handled during production,
storage and transportation. High FFA content must be avoided, as it will result in
higher refining losses and possible bleachability problems during refining (Formo et
al., 1979).
(ii) Moisture
The miscibility of oils and water, under certain conditions will hydrolyzed
the triglycerides of oils to free fatty acids and glycerol (Formo et al.,1979)
C3H5(OOCR)3 + 3HOH C3H5(OH)3 + 3 HOOCR

18
But under practical conditions, the rate of hydrolytic splitting of triglyceride

molecule to produce FFA is negligible at 0.1 % moisture content. Therefore as
quality control measure; crude palm oil should be stored with moisture content of
below 0.1 % to prevent an increase in FFA and subsequent quality deterioration due
to oxidation (Goh, 1991).
(iii) Heavy (trace) Metals
Heavy (trace) metals such as iron (Fe) and copper (Cu) are usually resulted
from corrosion and mechanical wear at the mills and refineries. These metals are pro-
oxidant and thus, detrimental to the oil quality.
Trace metals may be present as complexes surrounded by proteins,

phospholipids and lipids or non-lipid carriers. In crude palm oil, trace metals can
originate from contamination by soil and fertilizers. Trace metals can also be picked
up from the palm oil mill, storage tanks, road tankers, pipelines and ships’ tanks.
The use of stainless steel for certain mill machineries which are subjected to constant
wear and tear should help to reduce metal contamination.
Heavy (trace) metals catalyse the compositions of hydroperoxides to free

radicals. Iron (Fe) increases the rate of peroxide formation while copper (Cu)
accelerates the hydroperoxides destruction rate thereby increasing the production of
secondary oxidation products (Sambanthamurthi, 2000).
Other metals reported in palm oil are manganese, cadmium and lead. These
metals are found in very low concentrations and their effects on oxidation appeared
to be negligible.
19
(iv) DOBI
DOBI (Deterioration of Bleachability Index) is simple parameter indicating the

oxidative status of crude palm oil, its shelf life and refinability (Siew 1994). It is
affected by quality of oil pal fruits, ripeness of fruits, post harvest storage period of
fruits and storage of palm oil (Siew 1994).
DOBI is an indication of the bleachability of the crude palm oil based on the
amount of carotenes still present in the crude oil and the amount of secondary
oxidation products. A good easily bleached crude palm oil will have a DOBI of 4,
while average quality crude will exhibit a DOBI of 2.5 to 3.
Table 2.3 below, shows the refinability of CPO according to DOBI values.
Table 2.3: Refinability of CPO according to DOBI values (Siew 1994).
DOBI Grade
< 1.7 Poor
1.8-2.3 Fair
2.4-2.9 Good
3.0-3.2 Very good
> 3.3 Excellent
There are two factors affecting DOBI, namely (Siew 1994):
• Quality of fresh fruit bunches (FFB)

DOBI values are significantly affected by freshness of FFB where in
general, storage of oil palm bunches over four days normally shows
significant reduction in DOBI values. Bruised fruits, under-ripe and
over-ripe fruits are also affecting the DOBI values.
20
• Storage of crude palm oil (CPO)

Generally, period of storage of CPO are also affecting the DOBI
values as the period of storage are longer, DOBI values becomes
poorer.
(v) Oxidized products
The formation of oxidized products, which are difficult to remove, will result
in poor bleachability during refining and consequently will lead to refined oils will
poor stability and keepability. Apart from that, off-flavours and odours in oils are
normally caused by the reaction of oxygen with double bond of unsaturated fatty
acids. Therefore, it is vital to prevent or minimize the deterioration in crude oils by
avoiding aeration of the oil and by avoiding gross contamination with iron or copper.
The oxidation conditions can also be hindered by avoiding the oil from exposure to
light, elevated temperature and the presence of pro-oxidants.
(vi) Minor Constituents
Although present in small quantities in the palm oil, these minor constituents,
to a certain extent, will affect the bleachability, stability and nutritional value of the
palm oil. Phospholipids, which are complex esters that contain phosphorus, nitrogen
bases, sugars and long-chain fatty acids, are the main culprit that needs to be
removed during degumming by coagulating the phosphatides contents with
phosphoric acid. The importance of removing this component will be discussed
further in the next section on physical refining.
21
2.3 Finished Products (RBDPO) Quality
In Malaysia, the generally accepted trading specifications for crude palm oil
are; 5 % maximum FFA; 2.5 % maximum moisture and impurities (Goh, 1991),
while the Palm Oil Refiners Association of Malaysia (PORAM) standard
specifications for refined palm oils are given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: PORAM Standard Specifications for refined palm oils
Parameter RBD Palm Oil

Free Fatty Acids, FFA, ( % as Palmitic) 0.1 max
Moisture and Impurities (%) 0.1 max
Iodine Value (Wijs) 50-55
Melting Point (oC- AOCS Cc 3-25) 33-39
Colour (5.25” Lovibond Cell) 3 or 6 Red max.
2.4 Typical Analysis of CPO, DBPO and RBDPO
It is a goal for a refiner to maintain the quality of the palm oil products at the
levels acceptable to the buyers or producing a better quality of finished product
while minimizing the operating costs.
Therefore, to achieve this goal, quality control are applied at each important
process stage in refining where suitable analysis are carried out in order to evaluate
the efficiency of each process stage. Typical analysis for crude, bleached degummed
oil and refined bleached deodorized oil are shown in Table 2.4 below (Er, 1985).
22
Table 2.4: Typical Analysis of Crude, Degummed, Bleached and RBD Palm Oil
(Er, 1985).
Crude Palm Degummed Bleached RBD Palm

Parameters
Oil (CPO) Palm Oil (DBPO) Oil (RBDPO)
FFA 2-5% 3–5% ~ 0.05
M&I 0.15 – 3.0 % ~ 0.2 % ~ 0.02
PV 1.5 -5.0 Nil Nil
AV 2–6 2–6 ~ 2.0
β-carotene content 500-600 ppm - -
DOBI 2 – 3.5 - -
Phosphorus 10-18 ppm ~ 4 ppm ~ 3 ppm
Iron (Fe) 4-10 ppm ~ 0.15 ppm ~ 0.15 ppm
Copper (Cu) ~ 0.05 ppm ~ 0.05 ppm ~ 0.05 ppm
Colour
- - Red 2.0
(5.25” Lovibond Cell)
In this study, the focus of the research is on the degumming and bleaching
process. Therefore, it is important to monitor the quality of CPO input and the
output of degumming and bleaching process, which is degummed and bleached
palm oil (DBPO).
After degumming and bleaching processes, it is expected that there will be a

small rise in FFA content due to the acidity of the phosphoric acid used. Moisture
and impurities content in degummed and bleached oil (DBPO) should be reduced up
to 0.02 % in order to avoid hydrolysis triglycerides, which will result in more FFA.
Peroxide content in DBPO is totally being removed during the bleaching process.
The heavy metal impurities such as copper and iron are removed up to about
0.05 ppm and 0.15 ppm respectively in order to prevent excessive oxidation at olefin
bonds of the oleic and linoleic acids resulting in rancidity.
23
Phosphorus content in CPO should be reduced up to about 4 ppm during

bleaching in order to maintain the stability of oil produced. It is important to ensure
that the DBPO qualities are within the desired quality range in order to monitor the
efficiency of degumming and bleaching processes and hence will not affect the later
stage of refining, deodorisation.
24
2.5 Refining Methods of Palm Oil
Refining process is a necessary step for the production of edible oils and fats
products. The objective of this process is to remove the impurities and other
components, which will affect the quality of finished product. The qualities of the
finished product that need to be monitored are flavour, shelf-life stability and colour
of the products (Leong, 1992).
In industry perspective, the main aim of refining is to convert the crude oil to
a quality edible oil by removing objectionable impurities to the desired levels in the
most efficient manner. This also means that, where possible, losses in the desirable
components are kept minimal and cost effective.
The objectionable substance or impurities in palm oil maybe biogenic i.e

synthesised by plant themselves but they can be impurities taken up by the plants
from their environment (Borner et al., 1999). The impurities maybe acquired during
upstream of bleaching process which are extraction, storage or transportation of the
crude palm oil from mill to the refinery.
It is important to have proper refining process in order to produce high

quality of finished products with specified quality range and meet users’
requirements. There are 2 basic types of refining technology available for palm oil:
(i) Chemical (alkaline) refining

(ii) Physical refining
The differences between these 2 types are basically based on the type of
chemicals used and mode of removing the FFA.
25
In its early years of inception, the palm oil refining industry of Malaysia was
mainly alkali-refining based. Alkali refining then was the more established process
for edible oil. It was not until the late 1970s, that physical refining of palm oil in
Malaysia started to emerge as a better alternative, in many ways, to alkali refining
(Yusoff and Thiagarajan, 1993). Over the years, physical refining has proven to be
very successful for palm oil and modern refineries in Malaysia are mainly using
physical refining routes.
Physical refining appears to practically replace the use of chemical (alkali)

refining in palm oil as the consequence of high acidity content (FFA) in chemically
refined oil. The deacidification (deodorisation) process stage in the physical refining
is able to overcome such situation. Apart from that, according to the literature, this
method is preferred because it is acknowledged to be suitable for low-content
phosphatides vegetable oil such as palm oil. Thus, physical refining is proven to
have a higher efficiency, less losses (refining factor (RF) < 1.3), less operating cost,
less capital input and less influent to handle (Yusoff and Thiagarajan 1993).
Refining factor (RF) is a parameter used to assess the efficiency of various

stages of a refining process. This factor is dependent upon the yield of the product
and the quality of the input and it is calculated as:
oil loss %
RF =
FFA %
The RF is usually quantified for various stages of refining process

individually and monitoring of the RF in the refinery is usually by means of weight
calculated from volumetric measurements adjusted for temperature or by using
accurate cross-checked flow meters (Leong, 1992).
In general, chemical refining requires more processing stage, more

equipment and more chemicals compared to the physical refining. The processing
routes for chemical and physical refining are as per illustrated in Figure 2.6.
26
Crude Palm Oil
Physical Refining Chemical Refining
Degumming Gums Degumming
Soap Alkali
Bleaching Stock Neutralization
Splitting
Deodorization Bleaching
FFA
Deodorization
Palm Fatty Refined

Acid Bleached
Distillates Deodorised
(PFAD) Palm Oil
(RBDPO) Neutralized,
Bleached,
Deodorized
Palm Oil
(NBDPO)
Figure 2.6: Chemical and physical refining routes.

27
2.5.1 Chemical (Alkaline) Refining
Chemical refining or also known as alkali refining is a conventional method

used to refine the crude palm oil (CPO). Its normally involves 3 stages of refining
processes namely;
2.5.1.1 Gum Conditioning and Neutralization
In this process stage, the phosphatide portion of oil is either removed or

conditioned during this stage by addition of some additives/agents under specific
condition. The most common additives for this purpose are phosphoric acid and citric
acid.
A specified quantity of any one or mix of such additives/agents is mixed in

the oil charge for a specific period and process parameters. This causes a separation
of phosphatides from oil and they are removed after certain settling time. Sometimes
these separated gums are not directly removed but with soap stock formed during
neutralisation.
The oil mass is then neutralised with alkali for removal for free fatty acid in
the form of soap stock. This soap stock is removed from oil mass by gravity
separation method. For removal of alkali traces, oil is washed with hot water. The
chemical reaction involved in this operation is as follows:
R-COOH + NaOH RCOONa + H2O
2.5.2.1 Bleaching and Filtration
The neutralised washed oil is then taken to the second step in refining, which
is bleaching. In this operation, the oil is taken into cylindrical vessel with agitator
called `Bleacher' and kept under vacuum and heated up to 90oC with steam.
28
The moisture from oil is thus evaporated and oil becomes dry. The dried oil
is treated with bleaching earth (fuller's earth) and carbon. These bleaching agents will
adsorb most of the residual colour of the remaining oil after neutralisation.
The mixture of oil and bleaching agent is filtered through a standard plate
and frame press for separation. The clear oil obtained is bleached oil and is very
much lighter in colour than the neutralised oil.
The oil charge is dehydrated under vacuum to avoid any further deterioration
due to oxygen. In this operation, the coloured pigments in oil are adsorbed by certain
bleaching agents under specific conditions.
2.5.2.3 Deodorisation
The oil after bleaching is practically pure, but contains minute quantities of
original odoriferous matter and also the chemicals used during neutralisation process.
This bleached oil are then sent to a cylindrical vessel called `Deodoriser'.
The Deodoriser is kept under very high vacuum and the bleached oil is then
heated at high temperature 200oC with high-pressure steam and open steam is passed
through the oil. The volatile materials are evaporated off with some carrier
(commonly direct steam).
This oil is then cooled and clarified through a Filter Press to get sparkling oil.
The purpose of deodorisation is to make oil blend and tasteless. In this process, the
peroxide value of oil is brought down as minimum as possible.
29
2.5.2 Physical Refining
Physical refining is a modern alternative for processing crude palm oil where
the removal of free fatty acid is by distillation at higher temperature and low vacuum.
This replaces chemical reaction mode using an alkali (caustic soda) in chemical
refining.
Physical refining is also known as deacidification (deodorisation) by steam

distillation in which free fatty acids and other volatile components are distilled off
from the oil using effective stripping agent which is usually steam under suitable
processing conditions. (Meirelles and Ceriani, 2005).
In physical refining FFA is removed during the final stage; deodorisation, in

form of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) including the carotenoids pigments,
volatiles impurities and oxidation products.
The advantages of this physical refining method over the chemical refining
method of palm oil refinery are;
• Better yields
• High Quality of fatty acids as by-products
• Good oil stability
• Simultaneous distillation of fatty acids and deodorization
• Lower cost of equipment
• Simplicity of operation
Figure 2.7 shows the simplified flowsheet of physical refining which consists
of pre-treatment stage (degumming and bleaching) and deodorization stage.
29
Figure 2.7: Simplified Flowsheet of Physical Refining

30
2.5.2.1 Pre-treament - Degumming and Bleaching Process
Degumming Process
The main objective of this degumming is to remove the unwanted gums,

which will interfere the stability of the oil products in later stage. The objective is
achieved by treating the crude palm oil (CPO) with the specified quantity of food
grade acid normally phosphoric or citric acid of certain concentration.
The main component of contained in the gums, which has to be removed, is

phosphatide. It is vital to remove the phosphatides content in the crude oil because
the presence of this component will impart undesirable flavor and color, and shorten
the shelf life of oil. The phosphatides emulsifying action is the main culprit that
causes the oxidative instability of the crude palm oil (CPO).
In this unit operation, the incoming crude palm oil is first heated up to a
temperature of about 90oC - 110oC before it is treated with phosphoric acid. The
dosage of phosphoric acid normally used is within the range of 0.05 – 0.1 % of oil
weight with acid concentration approximately about 80 - 85 %. It is meant to
decompose the non-hydratable phosphatides as well as to coagulate the phosphatides
making them insoluble and thus easily removed during bleaching.
Excessive amount of phosphoric acid are need to be avoided as it may cause

rise in phosphorus acid and this excessiveness may be difficult to be removed and
contribute to further refining problems.
Bleaching Process
During bleaching process in palm oil refinery, degummed oil is treated with
bleaching earth and heated up to a temperature of about 100oC before entering the
vacuum bleacher. The dosage of acid activated clay used is typically within the
range of 0.5 – 2.0 % by weight of oil and the contact time with continuous agitation
is about 30 minutes.
31
During this stage, trace metal complexes such as iron and copper, pigments,
phosphatides and oxidation products are removed by adsorptive effect of the
bleaching earth. Any residual of phosphoric acid are removed during this stage too.
The bleached oil is then filtered on industrial filters such as plate and frame filter
press or vertical leaf pressure filter.
2.5.2.2 Deodorisation
The filtered oil (DBPO) is then channelled into the deodorizer for the
deacidification and deodorisation treatment. This process utilises a combination of
high temperature heating approximately about 240 - 260oC, under vacuum (2 - 4
mmHg) and direct steam injection of about 2.5 - 4.0 % by weight of oil (Leong,
1992).
During this deodorization process, free fatty acid (FFA) in the form of palm
fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is removed as refining waste, at the upper section of
deodorizer. Apart from FFA, carotenoids pigments, primary and secondary oxidation
products are also being removed as it may contribute to off-flavours. The deodorised
oil is then cooled before it is filtered by means of a polishing filter and sent to
storage tanks.
32
2.6 Physical Refining Versus Chemical Refining for Palm Oil
Physical Refining vs Chemical Refining
Why?
Environment Number of Cost

& Health Processing Stages Advantage
Issues
Figure 2.8: The flow chart for physical refining versus chemical refining
for palm oil.
2.6.1 Environment & Health Issues
It is likely that when chemical refining were invented, environmental pollution

and chemical usage in food processing industry were not become such main issues
and thus, the chemical refining steps involved seem to have been fully acceptable.
However, as consumers become more concern in health implications when
consuming chemically refined oil and the legislation authorities becoming more
stringent on environmental pollution, physical refining seems to be a better
alternative for food processing (Noor Azian, 1995).
33
2.6.2 Number of Processing Stages
According to Noor Azian (1995), chemical refining requires more processing

stages than physical refining and the processes involved in physical refining are
simpler since it involves fewer step. From Figure 2.6, it can be clearly seen that,
physical refining requires 4 processing steps to produce refined bleached deodorized
palm oil (RBDPO) whereas chemical refining requires 5 processing steps to produce
neutralized bleached deodorized palm oil (NBDPO).
2.6.3 Cost Advantage
Fewer processing steps, indicates that operating cost is considerably

minimised. Thus, apparently physical refining requires less operating cost compared
to chemical refining. Apart from that, chemical refining have to deal with the
problem of disposing soapstock, which involves a high energy and high effluent
treatment cost. Hence, its make chemical refining least favourable towards palm oil
refiners (Noor Azian, 1995).
34
2.7 Factors Affecting Degumming and Bleaching Processes of

Crude Palm Oil
There are several factors affecting the refining process of crude palm oil, the
factors that are mentioned here are particularly focussed on the upstream operation of
the refining process, which are degumming and bleaching. The factors are, quality
of CPO, bleaching time, operating temperature, operating pressure, phosphoric acid
dosage and bleaching earth dosage.
2.7.1 Quality of CPO
The quality of the crude palm oil is of utmost importance to the refiners as it
relates directly to the processing cost and the product’s shelf life (Wong, 1983). This
is because refiners are requested to meet stringent specifications. Refiners want a
crude palm oil (CPO), which can be easily processed to a bland and light coloured oil
with good oxidative and colour stability. All requirements should preferably be
obtained at the minimum refining cost, in other words, low oil losses with minimal
use of bleaching aids. Therefore, an ideal CPO should posses the quality as shown in
Table 2.5 below;
Table 2.5: Ideal quality targets of Crude Palm Oil (Ai, 1990)
Parameters Crude Palm Oil

(maximum)
FFA, % 3.5
M & I,% 0.25
Peroxide value, meq/kg 1.0
Anisidine value 5
β-carotene content,ppm 500-800
DOBI 2.5
Phosphorus,ppm 15
Iron (Fe),ppm 5
Copper (Cu),ppm 0.1
Colour (5.25” Lovibond Cell) -
35
2.7.2 Bleaching Time
Bleaching time/period is one of the variables that can be controlled although

it is often restricted by the production rate constraints. Based on Howes et al. (1991)
works, from on Figure 2.9 below, it can be clearly seen that colour and FFA content
continue to fall with increasing bleaching earth, but the peroxide value are minimizes
after 30 minutes. The continuing fall of colour is attributed to the “heat bleaching
effect”.
Figure 2.9: Effect of Bleaching Time on Oil Colour, Peroxide Value (PV) and
Free Fatty Acid (FFA)
36
2.7.3 Bleaching Temperature
Bleaching temperature is one of the factors that affecting the performance of

bleaching and degumming processes of crude palm oil. Bleaching temperature is
discovered to be affecting the colour of oil, the FFA content of the oil and the PV
and AV values of the oil.
Figure 2. 10: Effect of Bleaching Temperature on Oil Colour
Based on the Figure 2.10, it can be noted that the bleached oil colour tends to
continuously fall as the temperature is increased, but the deodorized oil colour
reaches a minimum when the bleaching temperature is about 100oC. It is also
deduced that, the fall in bleached colour with increasing temperature is due to the
heat bleaching effect.
37
Figure 2. 11: Effect of Bleaching Temperature on Free Fatty Acid (FFA)
From Figure 2.11, it can be clearly seen that the FFA of bleached oil is
minimised when the bleaching temperature is about 110oC.
38
Figure 2. 12: Effect of Bleaching Temperature on PV and AV of Palm Oil
Figure 2.12 shows the effect of bleaching temperature on peroxide value (PV)
and anisidine value (AV) of palm oil. From the graph, it can be seen that the
peroxide value decreases with increasing bleaching temperature, however it effect is
vice versa for anisidine value as the AV value rises rapidly as temperature increases
particularly at temperature above 1110oC. This indicates that the secondary oxidation
products are not effectively being removed at higher temperature. The total oxidation
of the oil is seems to be minimum at temperature about 100oC (Howes et al., 1991).
39
2.7.4 Bleaching Earth Dosage
Bleaching earth dosage is also one of the factors that can influence the
efficiencies of degumming and bleaching processes. This factor is one of the easiest
variables to modify.
Figure 2. 13: Effect of Bleaching Dosage on Colour of Palm Oil
From Figure 2.13, it can be seen that the colour of bleached and deodorized
oil continue to fall with increasing earth dosage. It is claimed that at high bleaching
earth dosage, the bleached oil colour reduction is mainly due to the carotene
adsorption which could be remove more cost-effectively during deodorization stage
(Howes et al., 1991). The optimum earth dosage will depend on the quantity and the
nature of impurities in the crude palm oil.
40
Figure 2. 14: Effect of Bleaching Dosage on PV and AV of Palm Oil
Figure 2.14 shows the effect of bleaching dosage on peroxide value (PV) and
anisidine value (AV) of palm oil. Based on this graph, it can be deduced that PV and
AV are reduced with increasing bleaching earth dosage. This condition is contrast
with the reduction in PV alone when high bleaching temperature is utilized.
41
Figure 2. 15: Effect of Bleaching Dosage on Phosphorus Content of Palm Oil
Based on figure 2.15, it is found out that the phosphatides removal are
improved by increasing the bleaching earth dosage.
42
2.7.5 Phosphoric Acid Dosage
Figure 2. 16: Effect of Phosphoric Acid Dosage on PV of Palm Oil

43
Figure 2. 17: Effect of Phosphoric Acid Dosage on PV of RBDPO

44
Figure 2. 18: Effect of Phosphoric Acid Dosage on FFA of RBDPO

45
45
CHAPTER 3
THEORY OF DEGUMMING AND BLEACHING
3.1 What is Degumming ?
Technically, degumming is referred as an operation of purification of seed

oils, which normally contain impurities in the colloidal state or dissolved in them
(Bernardini, 1985).
Fats and oils contain complex organo-phosphorus compounds referred to as

phospholipids (phosphatides) or more usually, as gums. Phospholipids should be
removed because of their strong emulsifying action and if they are not removed, the
oil will went through undue darkening during deodorization at high temperature
(Kim et al.,2002). The phospholipids (phosphatides) are removed during processing
by a variety of treatments collectively referred to as degumming. The treatment
usually involves hydration with water,orthophosphoric acid, and polybasic organic
acids either singly or in combination, followed by centrifuging the precipitated
material or by its adsorption on bleaching earth or filter.
In more simple words, degumming is a process of removing the unwanted

gums, which will interfere the stability of the oil products in later stage. The
objective is achieved by treating the crude palm oil (CPO) with the specified quantity
of food grade acid normally phosphoric or citric acid of certain concentration.
46
3.1.1 Types of Degumming
There are 6 types of degumming process in vegetable oil industry. The

differences between all these types are based on methods of processing, chemicals
used and the content of phosphatides in the crude vegetable oil. The types of
degumming process are ;
3.1.1.1 Dry Degumming
Dry degumming process involved removal of gums through precipitation by

acid conditioning and via filtration during the bleaching process, not via centrifugal
separation. This process is used for low-phosphatides oil such as palm oil, lauric oils,
edible tallow and suitable to be used for preparing oils for subsequent physical
refining. This type of process eliminates bleaching, as separate processing step thus,
it is cost-advantage and it is a well-proven process. Figure 3.1 below shows the flow
diagram of water-degumming process.
Low Phosphatide Oil
HEATING 90-100 oC
PHOSPHORIC
MIXING
ACID
BLEACHING
MIXING
EARTH
BLEACHING under vacuum
FILTRATION SPENT
EARTH
DRY-DEGUMMED OIL
Figure 3.1: Flow diagram of dry degumming process

47
3.1.1.2 Water Degumming
Water degumming is a process of removing gums through precipitatation by

pure water hydration of crude oil via centrifugal separation. This method is used
when extracting gums for production of lecithin, soybean oil and for crude oil with
200ppm phosphorus content. In this process, water is the main agent used to remove
the hydratable phosphatides from vegetable oils and it can be carried out in batch or
continuous procedure depending on the type of the oil the be degummed and amount
of oil to be processed.
This process is insufficient to be used for subsequent physical refining.

Figure 3.2 below shows the flow diagram of water-degumming process
Crude Oil
HEATING 80-100 oC
WATER MIXING 15-30 minutes
HOLDING
SEPARATING
DRYING WET GUMS
DRYING
WATER
DEGUMMED OIL
COMMERCIAL
LECITHIN
Figure 3.2: Flow diagram of water degumming process

48
3.1.1.3 Acid degumming
In this acid degumming process, gums are precipitated by some form of acid
conditioning process and subsequently removed by centrifugal separation. In this
process method, the gums can be hydrated at temperature higher than 40 oC and the
process may lead to some dewaxing which usually associated with processing of
sunflower and rice bran oils. In organic refining process, dilute organic (citric) acid is
normally used and the removal of residual phosphatides is by bleaching using silica
hydrogel.
Crude Oil
HEATING > 40oC
CITRIC ACID / MIXING

DILUTE ACID
HOLDING
SEPARATING
DRYING GUMS
ACID
DEGUMMED OIL
Figure 3.3: Flow diagram of acid degumming process

49
3.1.1.4 Enzymatic degumming
Enzymatic degumming is a special degumming that enhanced by using some

food-grade enzymes. Types of oil that uses this process method are soybean oil and
rapeseed oil. The advantage of enzymatic degumming is no soapstock is produced so
no oil losses due to soapstock separation.
50
3.1.1.5 EDTA- degumming
EDTA degumming is a physico-chemical degumming process. It involves a

complete elimination of phospholipids by a chelating agent, Ethylene Diamine
Tetraacetic Acid (EDTA), in the presence of an emulsifying additive.
Crude Oil
HEATING 75-80 oC
EDTA
(WETTING AGENT) MIXING
HOLDING 20-30 minutes
SEPARATING
DRYING GUMS
EDTA-DEGUMMED OIL
Figure 3.5: Flow diagram of EDTA-degumming process

51
3.1.1.6 Membrane degumming
Membrane degumming process is usually used in extraction plant. According

to Lin et al. (1997), membrane separation is primarily a size-exclusion-based
pressure-driven process. It separates different components according to the molecular
weights or particles sizes and shapes of individual components and dependent on
their interactions with membrane surfaces and other components of the mixture.
During oil processing, miscella, which contain 25-30% of crude oil and 70-
75% hexane are obtained from extraction prior to solvent removal. Phospholipids can
be separated from triglyceride in the miscella stage using appropriate membrane.
The membrane-based crude oil degumming produces permeate and retentate

containing triglyceride and phospholipids, respectively. The majority of the coloring
materials and some of the FFAs and other impurities are included in phospholipids
micelles and removed as well (Lin et al., 1997).
This processing method is typically used for cottonseed oil. Figure 3.6 below
shows the flow diagram of membrane degumming of crude vegetable oils.
52
FLAKES/CAKE
EXTRACTION MISCELLA 80-100 oC
PRE-FILTRATION
FINES 15-30 minutes
PERMEATE
1ST MEMBRANE RETENTATE MEMBRANE

FILTRATION FILTRATION
1ST PERMEATE RETENTATE
2ND MEMBRANE HEXANE EVAPORATION

RETENTATE FILTRATION
LECITHIN
HEXANE EVAPORATION
Figure 3.6: Flow diagram of membrane degumming process

53
3.1.2 Process Theory of Degumming
Theoretically, phospholipids, proteins and carbohydrates, vegetable gums and

colloidal components have negative influence towards the keepability of oil. They
are considered as undesirable substances in refining because they increase the oil loss
and hamper other operations. Therefore, oils that have certain amount of these
substances should be degummed in order to remove all those substances.
There are 2 kinds of phospholipids exists, those that hydratable and those that
cannot be hydrated (non-hydratable phosphatides -NHP). Hydratable phospholipids
can be removed easily by the addition of water where the process can be conducted
rapidly at elevated temperature or slowly at low temperature. However the
temperature should stay below the temperature at which the phospholipids hydrate
starts to become liquid crystals (usually ~ 40 oC). By taking up water, phospholipids
lose their lipophilic character and become lipophobic and thus precipitate from oil
(Bockish, 1998).
Whereas, for non-hydratable phospholipids, its have to be converted to

hydratables ones. The conversion of non-hydratable phospholipids to hydratable is
done usually through acidulation followed by neutralisation. Traditionally, acids that
are being used are usually sufficiently strong to hydrate phospholipids without
hydrolyzing the triglycerides. At present, citric or phosphoric acid is normally being
used for any type of vegetable oil. However, phosphoric acid is more preferred by
the palm oil refiners in Malaysia because of lower unit cost and easier handling
(Thiagarajan and Tang., 1991).
54
The main component of phospholipids is phosphatides. Figure 3.7 shows the

chemical structure of phosphatides.
X = choline (phosphatidyl choline or PC)

X = ethanolamine (phosphatidylethanolamine or PE)
X = inositol (phosphatidylinositol or PI)
X = hydrogen (phosphatidyl acid or PA)
Figure 3.7: Chemical structure of Phosphatides
Composition of phospholipids of palm oil is shown in table 3.1 below;
Table 3.1: Composition of Phospholipids of Palm Oil (mole %)
Phospholipid Percentage
Phosphatidylcholine (PC) 36
Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) 24
Phosphatidylinositol (PI) 22
Phosphatidylglycerol 9
Disphosphatidylglycerol 4
Phosphatidic Acid (PA) 3
Lysophosphatidylethanolamine 2
Phosphatidylserine trace
Lysophosphatidylcholine trace
55
Phospholipids are present in relatively small quantities of about 5 – 130 ppm

in palm oil as compared with other vegetables oils. Sambanthamurthi et al., (2000)
mentioned that the solvent extracted mesocarp oil usually contained 1000-200 ppm
phospholipids , however it only present at level of 20-80 ppm in commercial crude
palm oil.
Phospholipids have been reported to show antioxidant affects. Their

antioxidant-synergistic effects can be attributed to the sequestering of soluble pro-
oxidant metal ions to form inactive species. Hudson and Maghoub also showed a
synergism between phospholipids and naturally occurring antioxidants such as α-
tocopherol and quercetin. Hydratable insoluble metal ions could also dispersed by
phospholipids through miscellar action. Since phospholipids and glycolipids cause
reverse micelle, vesicle or emulsion droplet formation, phospholipids can remove
metal ions and their hydrophilic salts from the lipid phase to reduce oxidation.
56
3.1.3 Degumming Agents
There are two types of degumming agents that are usually being used in palm
oil refining industry, which are phosphoric acid and citric acid.
3.1.3.1 Phosphoric acid
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4), is a colourless and odourless liquid. A food grade

phosphoric acid with concentration of 85% is normally used palm oil refining
process. It a colourless and odourless liquid .
3.1.3.2 Citric acid

57
3.1.4 Phosphoric Acid Versus Citric Acid as Degumming Agent for Palm Oil
Refining
Phosphoric Acid vs Citric Acid
Why?
Cost Factor Handling Factor
Figure 3.9: The flow chart for phosphoric acid versus citric acid as
degumming agent for palm oil refining
3.1.4.1 Cost Factor
Cost factor is vital to be considered in running a refinery plant. Price of citric

acid at the current market is much higher than the price of phosphoric acid.
Nowadays, 1 MT of phosphoric acid cost abit RM 3000 whereas citric acid cost
about RM 3400 per MT.
3.1.4.2 Handling Factor

58
3.2 What is Bleaching?
The term bleaching refers to the treatment that is given to remove colour-
producing substances and to further purify the fat or oil. The usual method of
bleaching is by adsorption of the colour producing substances on an adsorbent
material. There a lot of adsorbent materials are being used in vegetable oil industry
for examples; acid activated bleaching earth, natural bleaching earth, activated
carbon and synthetic silicates.
Acid activated bleaching earth (fuller’s earth) or clay, sometimes called

bentonite, is the adsorbent material that has been used most extensively. This
substance consists primarily of hydrated aluminium silicate. Usually, bleaching earth
does not remove all the colour producing materials, much of which are actually
removed by thermal destruction during the deodorization process. Activated carbon
is also used as a bleaching adsorbent to a limited extent.
3.2.1 Types Bleaching Methods
There are 3 types of bleaching methods can be used in edible oil industry
(Gunstone and Norris, 1983) , namely :
3.2.1.1 Heat bleaching
Some pigments, such as the carotenes become colorless if heated sufficiently.

However this will leaves the pigment molecules in the oil and may have adverse
effect on oil quality. According to Gunstone and Norris, if this oil come into contact
with air colored degradation products such as chroman-5,6-quinones from γ-
tocopherol present, may be formed. These are very difficult to remove.
3.2.1.2 Chemical Oxidation
Some pigments for example carotenoids are made colorless or less colored by
oxidation. But such oxidation invariably affects the glycerides and destroys natural
antioxidants. Consequently, it is never used for edible oil but restricted to oils for
technical purposes, such as soap-making
59
3.2.1.3 Adsorption
Adsorption is the common method usually used for bleaching the edible oil
by using bleaching agents. Examples of bleaching agents are bleaching earths,
activated carbon and silica gel. Bleaching agents normally posses a large surface
that has a more or less specific affinity for pigment-type molecules, thus removing
them from oil without damaging the oil itself.
60
3.2.2 Bleaching Process Theory
“Bleaching” process is always being misunderstood as just a mere process

of decolourisation of oil and fats. In fact, “bleaching” is a process of selective
removal of pigments and impurities by the physical and chemical (chemisorptions)
interaction of an adsorbent with an oil or fat to improve its quality (Brooks, 1999).
This process refers to the art of removing not only the colour pigments but also dirt,
trace metals and various organic impurities that promote oxidation. Another term that
can be used to describe bleaching process is purification process of vegetable oils.
Effective adsorption requires a large surface and practically high specific

surface area (m2/g) of a very porous adsorbent is should be used. The channels by
which molecules reach this surface must be negotiable by the molecules concerned.
The nature of the process must allow acceptably firm bonds, chemical or physical,
between it and the adsorbate (Patterson, 1992).
Therefore, in order have maximum attainment of bleaching performance, an

efficient bleaching earth is produced which having surfaces of the correct chemical
composition and pore distribution selectively attractive to the detrimental
components present in crude triglyceride oils.
Mathematically, bleaching or purification process follows the Freundlich

adsorption isotherm. Adsorption isotherm is the equilibrium relationships between
the concentration in the fluid phase and the concentration in the adsorbent particles at
a given temperature. For the cases involving liquids, the concentration is often
expressed in mass units such as part per million (ppm). The concentration of
adsorbate on the solid is given as mass adsorbed per unit mass of original adsorbent.
61
Figure 3.11 below shows arithmetic graphs of some typical isotherm shapes
(McCabe, 1993). Linear isotherm indicates the amount of adsorbed is proportional to
the concentration in fluid. Favourable process is achieved when the isotherms are
convex upward because a relatively high solid loading can be obtained at low
concentration in the fluid. The isotherm for this favourable adsorption process is
Langmuir Isotherm. The assumption made when deriving the Langmuir isotherm is
that the process happens at uniform surface. However this relation only works well
for gases that a weakly adsorbed (McCabe, 1993).
Langmuir
Isotherm
Freundlich
Isotherm
Figure 3.11: Adsorption Isotherms (McCabe, 1993).
For adsorption from liquids, Freundlich isotherm is applicable. This isotherm

is of the strongly favourable type. Bleaching of palm oil falls under this type of
isotherms as the bleaching process are involving liquids (oils). The equation for
Freundlich isotherm for bleaching process can be illustrated as per below (Rossi et
al., 2003);
x
= Kc n …..3.1
m
Where x = quantity of substance adsorbed
m = quantity of adsorbent
c = quantity of residual substance dissolved
K and n = constants unrelated to the amounts of solute and
adsorbent
62
This Freundlich equation relates the specific adsorption (x/m), i.e the amount
of substance adsorbed per unit of adsorbent weight, to residual solute concentration
(c), at the equilibrium for a given temperature ((Rossi et al., 2003).
Equation 3.1 can be also expressed in logarithmic form;

x
log = log K + n log c …..3.2
m
When graph of (x/m) vs. c is plotted, a straight-line graph is obtained with a

slope equal to n and an intercept equal to K. The value of K determines the
adsorption capacity of the adsorbent for specific solute whereas the value of n
determines the ranges of bleaching in which adsorbent show its greatest effect.
According to Rossi et al., if the n is high, the adsorbent will be effective for
removing the first portions of colour but less efficient for reaching highest bleaching
degree and if n is low it is vice versa. The value of K and n depend on the kinds of
adsorbent and oil and also the operating conditions of bleaching process.
Figure 3.12: Bleaching effect of an oil dependent on different processing parameters

(Patterson, 1992)
63
3.2.3 Mechanisms of Bleaching Process
Oils and fats are bleached in order to remove undesired colorants because
these colorants can negatively affect the taste of the oil and in part because the colour
would disturb the consumers, therefore on the whole, these colorants limit use and
marketability. In addition to that, some particles or pigments that promote
deterioration to oil quality is also being removed during bleaching process mainly
due to their pro-oxidative properties that promotes oxidation (Bockish, 1998).
During bleaching or purification, the oil is brought into contact with a

surface–active adsorbent, and then the undesired particles or other components are
selectively retained on the pore surface and triglycerides escapes. Gradually, the
concentration of undesired particles on the available surface-active of the adsorbent
and the concentration remaining in the oil come into balance, so further exchange is
negligible.
Best temperature for oil/adsorbent (clay) must be chosen, as well as duration

of contact because an excess of either factor will impart undesirable side effects to
the process. In order to have efficient use of adsorbent, any material like gum or soap
should be removed at earlier stage (degumming) as the presence of these particles
will compete for room on the adsorbent surface. That explains why an effective
degumming process is required in refining process of vegetable oils.
Theoretically, coloured particles (or substances) that should be removed

during bleaching are present in the oil either in dissolved or in a colloidal form. For
both types, the process reaction happens at the surface of bleaching agent.
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3.2.3 Bleaching Agents
There are few types of bleaching agents that are being used in vegetable oil
industry such as acid activated bleaching earth, natural bleaching earth, activated
carbon, synthetic silicates and synthetic resins.
3.2.4.1 Acid Activated Bleaching Earth
In general, bleaching earth is a decolourising agent, which will change the

tint of any coloured oil to a lighter shade by changing the basic colour units in oil,
without altering the chemical properties of the oil. Bleaching earths are normally
used in the bleaching of vegetable oils and in the refining of mineral oils.
While some of these earths are naturally bleaching, some have to be treated
with mineral acids. This activation results in the replacement of some of the
aluminium ions by hydrogen ions from the acid. This further results in the creation of
net negative charges on the clay lattice structure and creates the cation adsorption
properties of the acid-activated bleaching earths clays. (Hymore, 1996)
According to Howes et al. (1991), acid activated bleaching earths (Figure

3.13) are in general produced from naturally occurring high-purity montmorillonite
clays. The structural features of the clay are modified by treatment with acid. During
this process the physical structure and chemical composition are altered in a
controlled way to maximize specific properties.
Bleaching earth works based on its character of adsorption and ion exchange.
The adsorption process is influenced by some factors as follow :
• particle size
• adsorbent polarity
• surface area
• pore volume
• pore size.
65
Figure 3.13: Acid Activated Bleaching Earths
3.2.4.2 Natural/Neutral Bleaching Earth
Natural bleaching clays are found in special strata and are naturally active.
This material is also used for bleaching. According to Rossi et al. (2003), they are
excellent metal adsorbents as they are able ;
(i). to decrease the levels of chlorophyll and colour bodies
(ii). to remove soaps and phospholipids
(iii). to minimizes free fatty acid increase during bleaching.
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3.4.2.3 Activated carbon
Figure 3.14: Activated Carbon
Activated carbon can be derived from a variety of coal s such as wood-based

carbons and peat-based carbons. All the activated carbon ( Figure 3.14) contain some
micropore, mesopores and macropores characteristics but their proportions to one
another vary substantantially depending upon the kind of starting material and the
production procedures (Patterson, 1992). The bleaching action seems to be due to
the large adsorbent surface of carbon. This large surface held in a small volume,
would influence the surface tension of the compounds with which will comes into
contact, thus causing adsorption. There are a large number of commercial grades of
activated carbon that are used for adsorbing gasses and vapours, odours and
colouring materials (Berdardini, 1985)
3.4.2.4 Synthetic silicate
Synthetic silicates are now commonly used in edible oil bleaching. Although
synthetic silicates has a moderate capacity for pigment removal, small amounts of it
are used in combination with bleaching clay and due to their synergic action the
amount of bleaching clays needed to optimize the bleaching processes is reduced
(Roosi et al., 2003). Silica had the capability of enhancing the earth’s ability to
remove colour bodies, phosphorus and other minor components that affect the colour
stability of the oil (Siew et al., 1994).
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3.2.5 Acid Activated Earth Versus Natural/Neutral Earth for

Palm Oil Refining
As mentioned previously, bleaching process is a crucial step in the refining of

palm oil. This is because it is not only removes the colored compounds and
impurities but also influence the stability of the final products. Refiners have a wide
choice of adsorbents to be use and their selection of main criteria are cost and
performance of the adsorbent materials. Numerous studies has been made for
regarding the bleaching performance and the relationship between physicochemical
properties of adsorbents and adsorption of trace constituents in palm oil (Cheah and
Siew, 1999).
Studies on the performance of acid activated and natural/neutral-bleaching

earth has been conducted by Howes et al., (1991) and Cheah and Siew (1999). In
their studies, they found out that natural/neutral bleaching earths (non-activated)
were less efficient in removing peroxides during bleaching. Based on Figure 3.15
(Howes et al., 1991) below, it can be clearly seen that for typical quality of palm oil,
acid activated earths were more effective in removing peroxides.
Figure 3.15: PV stability of Palm Oil as a Function of Bleaching Earth Type

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Based on Cheah and Siew (1999) study, they concluded that in general, acid
activated earths were more efficient in removing color components. This conclusion
can be supported by Howes et al. (1991) study, where they plotted a graph of colour
stability of palm oil as a function of bleaching earth type (Figure 3.16). From the
graph, we can see that the colour pigments were removed better by using acid
activated earth instead of natural/neutral (non-activated) bleaching earths.
Figure 3.15: Color stability of Palm Oil as a Function of

Bleaching Earth Type
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Conclusion
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3.2.6 Mode of Bleaching / Equipments for Bleaching
3.2.6.1 Batch Bleaching
A : Bleacher A1 : Oil inlet

B : Barometric condenser B1 : Oil adsorbent outlet
C : Vacuum pump C1 : Steam inlet
D1: Condensate outlet
E1 : Bleaching Material inlet
F1: Water Inlet
Figure 3.14: Batch Bleaching Unit
Figure 3.4 shows a conventional batch bleaching unit where its operation is
rather simple. The bleacher is fed by a set amount of oil and heated by steam while
the apparatus is maintained under vacuum by the barometric condenser and vacuum
pump. When the desired temperature is reached, the mechanical agitator of the
bleacher is put into action until moisture present in the oil is completely removed.
During this stage the bleaching kettle will act as dryer. After drying, a metered
amount of bleaching is added to the mass and the adsorbent is pulled into the vessel
by the vacuum existing therein. Upon completion of bleaching, the oil-bleaching
earth suspension is pumped to filtration section where the two components are
separated (Bernardini, 1985)
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3.2.6.2 Continuous Bleaching
A: Crude Oil Inlet 1: Continous bleacher

B: Oil-Earth suspension to be filtered 2: Earth tank
C: Bleached oil inlet 3: Earth dosing unit
D: Bleached oil outlet 4: Mixer
E: Water Inlet 5: Earth-oil pump
F: Steam Inlet 6: Heat Exchanger
7: Cooling Unit
8: Barometric condenser
9: Vacuum Pump
10: Heat Exchanger
Figure 3.15: Continuous Bleaching Plant (Type 1)
There are a few types of continuous bleaching plant as per illustrated in

Figure (3.5 - 3.7).
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1: Heater 9: Cooling Unit

2: Degasifier 10: Oil-Earth Pump
3: Heat Exchanger 11: Vacuum System
4: Heater
5: Bleaching Unit A: Raw Oil inlet
6: Earth Tank B: Bleached Oil inlet
7: Earth dosing unit C: Bleached Oil Outlet
8: Mixer D: Oil-earth suspension to filtering
Figure 3.6 shows the simplified process flowsheet of a continuous bleaching

plant. In this plant, the crude oil to be bleached is heated by means of steam in the
exchanger and is sucked as very small drops in the lower part area (2) of vacuumed
bleacher which operation is ensured by the presence of barometric condenser and
ejectors. Dry steam is injected to the oil mass in order to facilitate the operation and
also to keep the mass in agitation. The oil is then taken by a pump and is sent to a
series of heat exchanger to raise its temperature to a desired level and then sent to
upper part area (5) of bleacher. The oil remains in contacts with the earth for a
specified period of time and then the suspension is sent to filtering (Bernardini,
1985).
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1: Earth Tank 8 : Heat Exchanger

2: Earth oil Mixer 9 : Heater
3: Degasifier section
4: Bleaching Section A: Crude Oil Inlet
5: Barometric Condenser B: Oil-earth Outlet
6: Vacuum pump C: Bleached oil inlet
7: Heater D: Bleached oil outlet
Figure 3.7 shows another type of continues bleaching plant. The main
advantage of this type of plant is that the bleaching earth is loaded on the ground
floor. The operation of this type of plant is nearly the same as the previous one.
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3.2.7 Degumming and Bleaching Approaches in Malaysia Refineries
As mentioned earlier in Chapter 1, the scope of this research study is

narrowed down to the first 2 stages, which are degumming and bleaching process.
Currently, based on the survey conducted, it is found that nowadays in Malaysia the
processes of degumming and bleaching are being carried out together but in two
different approaches.
(a) For the first approach (refer to Figure 3.18 below), the phosphoric acid is
mixed with small amount of crude palm oil in the mixer before it is sent to
degumming vessel for more efficient mixing. This mixture will be further
sent to bleaching vessel where the bleaching earth is added. The process
will continue with filtration where the gums and spent bleached earth are
separated from the degummed and bleached oil.
Figure 3.18: Process flow diagram of bleaching and degumming

carried out in different vessels
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The second approach that is found from the survey is described as below;
(b) For this second approach (refer to METHOD B below), small quantities
crude palm oil (CPO) is mixed with phosphoric acid and bleaching earth in
2 separate mixers before entering the bleaching vessel. No degumming
vessel is required. Degumming and bleaching took place simultaneously in
bleaching tank. Filtration similar to the first approach is carried out after
that.
Figure 3.19: Process flow diagram of bleaching and degumming

carried out in the same vessel
The second approach of processing (METHOD B) will be modelled in this

research because of its simplicity. The model will be used to verify the performance
of both methods of processing (METHOD A and METHOD B). If the performance
of both approaches of processing can be predicted by this model, this proved that the
second approach of processing is superior.
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CHAPTER 4
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT (DOE) & ARTIFICIAL NEURAL

NETWORK (ANN)
4.1 Design Of Experiments
Design of Experiment (DOE) is a technique to lay out experimental research

studies plan in most logical, economical and statistical way. Through this technique
researchers can determine the most desirable design of product, best parameters
combination for the required process, most robust recipe for formulation, most critical
validation /durability test conditions and most effective data collection plan.
DOE consists of a set of Experimental runs, which each run defined by the
combination of each factor level (variables) and the analysis of the experiments. DOE
helps to make product and processes more robust. DOE is a proven technique that
continues to show increasing usage in chemical process industries especially for fast, cost
saving and accurate result.
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Historically, DOE technique was first developed by R. A Fisher in the 1920s to

study the effect of multiple variables simultaneously (Dowey and Matthews, 1998). In his
early applications, Fischer wanted to find out how much rain, water, fertilizer, sunshine
are needed to produce the best crop and since that a lot of DOE technique developments
has been done for industrial applications.
DOE technique now has become a very useful statistical tool to help us
understand process characteristics and to investigate how inputs affect responses based
on statistical backgrounds. In addition, it has been used to systematically determine the
optimal process parameters with fewer testing trials (Park and Ahn, 2004). Thomas
(1997) pinpointed that, the advantages of statistical design are ;
(i) to provide more information per experiment than unplanned

experiments
(ii) to organize data collections and analysis information
(iii) to assess the information reliability in the light of experimental and
analytical variation
(iv) to view the interaction of experimental variables, leading to more
reliable predictions of the response data in areas not more directly
covered by experimentation
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4.1.1 Response Surface Methodology
There a several experimental design techniques that can be used in DOE such as
Factorial design, Response Surface Method (RSM) design, Mixture design and Taguchi
design. In order to select the best design method to be used, one must be carefully
consider the objectives /goals for an experiment.
The types of experimental designs classified according to the experimental

objective they meet; either it is for comparative objective or screening objective or
response surface objective.
In response surface objective, the experiment that are designed are used;
• to hit a target
• to maximize or minimize a response
• to reduce variation by locating a region where the process is easier to
manage
• to make a process robust
In this study, the objectives are; to hit a target (to find the exact dosage of
phosphoric acid and bleaching earth and phosphoric acid to be added to CPO fed) and to
maximize a response (to optimize degumming and bleaching process).
Therefore, Response Surface Method (RSM) technique is discovered to be is the

most suitable design technique to be applied in this research study. RSM is also used as
its analyze problems which response is influence by several variables and its measure the
quality characteristics of a system. This method is based on polynomial surface analysis
and it is a collection of mathematical and statistical techniques that are useful for the
mode ling and analysis of problems in which a response of interest is influenced by
several variables.
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According to Dey et al., (2001) and Prado et al., (2004), the chosen method for
optimisation of the response factor was efficient, relatively simple with time and material
saving by using response surface methodology. It is found out that, the RSM technique
has been successfully applied in the field of quality experimental work (Muralidhar et al.,
2001; Amin and Anggoro, 2003; Varnalis et al., 2004; Jose et al., 2004).
Response surface method is created from factorial design and there are two
categories of quadratic factorial designs, namely; central composite design (CCD) and
Box-Behnken design. CCD contains an imbedded factorial or fractional factorial design
with center points that is augmented with a group of `star points' that allow estimation of
curvature.
Whereas, the Box-Behnken design is an independent quadratic design in that it

does not contain an embedded factorial or fractional factorial design. In this design the
treatment combinations are at the midpoints of edges of the process space and at the
center. These designs are rotatable (or near rotatable) and require 3 levels of each factor.
The designs have limited capability for orthogonal blocking compared to the central
composite designs.
Thus, due to the limited capability of orthogonal blocking of Box-Behnken

design, Central Composite Design is employed in this study,
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4.1.2 Central Composite Design
A designed training data sets are more desirable than random experimental sets,
due to their higher orthogonality (Lanouette et al., 1998 and Kapur et al., 2004 ). Central
Composite Design (CCD) is well-liked among researchers to design the training data set
and to analyze the influence of variables due to its ability to show which variables
significantly affect each response. The central composite designs satisfy the general
requirements of response surface designs, which are (Mead, 1992);
1. that the parameters of the model to be fitted can be estimated

2. that the number of treatment combinations is not allowed to become
too large
the observation are spread fairly evenly over the region within which information
about the surface is required.
Peng et al.(2002) point out that, to have a robust model for optimization, the
CCD, generally is the best design for RSM optimisation. CCD allows us to show which
variables significantly affect each response and performs optimisation on the value of
variables that are found significant.
For example, CCD with three experimental factors employed 16 experiments. The
experiments contain eight runs at two level (-1, +1), six star point (-∗, +∗) and two
replicates at the centre point (0) to allow estimation of the error and provide a check on
linearity.
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4.2 Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
ANN modelling is a relatively new non-linear statistical technique where it can be

used to solve problems that are not suitable using conventional statistical methods. Apart
from that, application of ANN in modelling is about 20 times faster than numerical
integration of a differential equations system (Parisi and Laborde, 2001). Therefore the
application of ANN in various branches of science and process technology has become
an attention by the researchers.
4.2.1 ANN Definition
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is a data-processing technique simulating

human brain analytical function, which has ability to learn by experience and is used
when no exact mathematical relationship is available and when linear and nonlinear
prediction problems must be solved. It is a computing tool made up of a number of
simple but highly connected nodes (Baughman and Liu, 1995).
Neural networks posses the ability to learn what happens in the process without
actually modelling the physical and chemical laws that govern the system. The success in
obtaining a reliable and robust network depends strongly on the choice of the process
variables involved as well as the available set of data and the domain used for training
purposes (Nascimento, 1997).
One of the advantages of neural networks is less time demanding to be developed

than the traditional mathematical models because ANN can also obtain a highly accurate
mathematical model of the system without detailed knowledge of the system (Shene et
al., 1999).
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The goal of a neural network is to map a set of input patterns onto a

corresponding set of output patterns. The network accomplishes this by first learning
from a series of examples that contain the behaviour of an unknown function. The
network then applies what it has learnt to a new input pattern. The network model should
have the same behaviour as the desired function, predicting the appropriate output.
Artificial neural networks consist of a number of simple interconnected

processing units, also called neurons, which are analogous to the biological neurons. Two
important features of neural networks (NN) are;
1. the ability of supplying fast answers to a problem and

2. the capability of generalising their answers, providing acceptable results for
unknown samples.
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4.2.2 Network Topology/Architecture
An ANN consists of several different layers. A general topology/architecture of

an ANN is shown in Figure 4.1 . The network consists of three layers, an input layer, a
hidden layer and an output layer. .
Node Node Node
Input Layer Hidden Layer Output Layer
Figure 4.1: General Topology of three-layer perceptron ANN
There are a few functions that can be used in the neural e.g. Radial Basis
Function, feed forward neural network (also know as preceptron) and Fuzzy Logic. A
feed forward neural network is most commonly used because it is most applicable to
science and engineering, least complicated and most straightforward to implement
(Braughman and Liu, 1995).
84
Baughman and Liu (1995), stated that the feedforward connection is used where
the outputs from a node feed into nodes in the subsequent layer .The first layer is the
input layer which it receives information from an external source and feeds it into the
network for processing. The second layer is called the hidden layer. It receives
information from the input layer and processes it. The third layer is the output layer
which receives the processed information from the hidden layer and sends the results to
an external receptor.
4.2.3 Components of A Node
As mentioned previously, the node (neuron) as an input layer is the elementary

component of an ANN. The function of a node is to process information from external
inputs by its dynamic state response. This is why sometimes the node is also called as
processing element.
The output from the node is then transferred to the next processing nodes called
the hidden layer. A simple model of a node and its components is shown in Figure 4.2
below;
Tj, Internal Threshold

Inputs W1j
a1
W2j
a2 f(xj) bj, Output
•
•
•
Transfer
Wnj
an Function
Weight Factors
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Figure 4.2: Simple model of a Node (Baughman and Liu, 1995).
4.2.2.1 Inputs and Outputs
The input to the node are represented by an input vector, an. The node manipulates
these inputs to give the output, bj. This output then forms part of the input to another
node
4.2.2.2 Weight Factors
Each node usually will receive several inputs at the same time. There is also a
weight factor, wij that affects the output from the node besides the component value of
the input vector. According to Baughman and Liu (1995), every input vector is
multiplied by its weight factor and the node uses the weighted input to perform further
calculations.
The weight factors will determine how much each input will affect the output
from the node. If the weight factor is large, it will excite the node. If the weight factor is
small, it will inhibit the node and that input signal has little effect on the output
4.2.2.3 Internal Thresholds
The function of the internal threshold, Tj is to control the activation of a

particular node. The total activation can be calculated by subtracting the internal
threshold value from the sum of all weighted inputs. If Tj is large, node firing will be
inhibited and vice versa.
4.2.2.4 Transfer Functions
The transfer function is the final factor governing the output from a node. The
node calculates the dot product of the weight factor, wij and input vector, ai.
Afterwards, it subtracts the threshold Tj from it. This result will then be passed on to a
86
transfer function, f(). The transfer function changes this result to an output. The
function is generally chosen to be continuous and non-linear. Some of useful functions
are the sigmoid, hyperbolic tangent and radial basis transfer function
4.2.4 Back-propagation Neural Network
The most common form of learning utilized in neural networks nowadays is

error-correction learning. Previously, this technique is being neglected by mathematicians
due to its incapability to work with neural networks with hidden layers. However, now
through a technique called back-propagation, we can apply the error-correction learning
to neural networks with hidden layers. According to Baughmann and Liu (1995), back-
propagation requires a perceptron neural network defined as a network with only feed-
forward interlayer connections (no intralayer or recurrent connection). Each layer must
feed sequentially into the next layer.
The goal of back propagation training is to change iteratively the weights between
the neurons in a direction that minimizes the error E, defined as the squared difference
between the desired outputs of the actual outputs of the outputs output nodes, summed
over the training patterns (training data set) and the output neurons according to the
steepest descent method (Marini et al, 2003).
In back-propagation ANN, the structure of neural network consists of three

fundamental layers;
(1) an input layer, where each neuron is associated to an experimental factor

and receive information/signal from outside world, usually in the form of a
data file
(2) layers of processing neurons, called hidden layers or intermediate neurons
contained in one or more hidden layers allow nonlinearity in the data
processing.
87
(3) an output layer, where each neuron is associated to the response and
provide an answer for a given set of input values.
The signal moves from the input layer towards the output layer as per shown in
Figure 4.3, and in this process each neuron uploads all the neurons of the successive
layers, transferring a portion of the signal that has been accumulated. The portion of
signal transferred is regulated by a transfer function (Marengo et al., 2004).
A feed-forward back-propagating ANN structure as illustrated in Figure 4.3 was

used to develop yield prediction models. Data move through the layers in one direction,
from the input through the hidden to the output layers, without loops as opposed to
feedback networks.
Figure 4.3: Layers and connections of a feed-forward back propagating

artificial neural network.
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In fully connected back-propagation ANN, each neuron in a given layer is

connected to each neuron in the following layer by an associated numerical weight
(Marini et al., 2003). The weight that connecting two neurons serves to regulate the
magnitude of a signal that passes between them. Each neuron then possesses numerical
bias term corresponding to an input of –1, whose associated weight has the meaning of
threshold value.
Generally, feed-forward networks may be based on linear or non-linear transfer
functions that affect the output from the input and hidden layers. Non-linear networks
may be trained using supervised learning, learning by example with outputs, or
unsupervised learning, self-organizing without outputs. Supervised learning uses known
outputs to train the ANN and is more commonly used than unsupervised learning
Back propagation is a form of supervised learning where the error rate is sent
back through the network to alter the weights to improve prediction and decrease error.
The general process to build a neural network model included creating data sets for
training and testing, training multiple networks with varied parameters, analyzing
network results, and testing the models
4.2.5 Neural Network Development
The process of neural network development can be divided in three main phases
(Baughman and Liu 1995);
(1) Design and training/learning of neural network

(2) Recall phase
(3) Generalisation phase
Prior to these three phases of neural network development, a few steps need to be
taken first, which are database collection, normally through experimental works or obtain
from literature review and also analysis and pre-processing of the data gained.
89
The design and training of neural network is the first phase of neural network
development process. At this phase, the network is fed with a set of known input-output
patterns. The weight factors of the nodes are adjusted until each input yields the desired
output.
In learning phase, it is where the actual process of adjusting the weights factors
until the desired outputs are obtained. In this way, the neural network (NN) needs to learn
about the problem under study. This process usually starts with random values for the
weights of the NN. As mentioned earlier, there are two types of learning method;
supervised learning, learning by example with outputs, or unsupervised learning, self-
organizing without outputs and back-propagation is a form of supervised learning.
In recall process, the performance of the network is checked and evaluated once
the training phase is completed. The network is given an array of input patterns that was
previously seen during the training phase. The output error from the network is then
assessed. A well-trained network should produce outputs that deviate very little from the
desired value.
The generalisation phase is where a new set of input patterns, which the network
has not seen before, is introduced to it. The network output is then compared to the
desired output. Therefore, the performance of the neural network in predicting new input
patterns can be evaluated
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4.2.6 Strengths of ANN
Even though application of ANN in modeling can be used to solve problems that
are not suitable using conventional statistical methods but ANN is not a solid solution for
all modeling problems and therefore it is important to understand the strengths and
limitations of ANN with compared to first principle models or other empirical models.
Baughman and Liu (1995) has stated that the strengths of ANN are :
1. Information is distributed over a field of nodes.

In symbolic processing, the information is held at one fixed location but in
ANN the distribution of information are wide and thus provides greater
flexibility.
2. ANN has the ability to learn.

There is an error-correction training technique in ANN, in order to encounter
with any error occurred by adjusting the related signals and effectively the
system will “learn” and in future will be working properly and better.
3. Neural network allow extensive knowledge indexing.

Knowledge indexing is the capability to store large amount of data and can be
easily being accessed. The network stores the informations in two forms which
is the connection between nodes and the weights of every connection.
4. Neural networks are better suited for processing noisy, incomplete or

inconsistent data.
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In ANN, each node encodes a microfeature of input-output pattern, where it

implies that each node will only affect the input-output pattern slightly and
therefore minimizing the effects of noisy or incomplete data in any given node.
5. Automated abstraction
ANN can determine the essentials of input-output relationships automatically as
it will not need any domain expert (an expert in a problem-solving domain) to
develop the knowledge base.
6. Potential for on-line use.

The potential of the trained ANN for producing the result instantaneously has
make it a desired feature for the on-line use.
4.2.7 Limitations of ANN
Baughman and Liu (1995) have described the limitations of ANN as follows:
1. Long training time

Training time for ANN can consumed a lot of time especially for large networks
and complex problems
2. Large amount of training data.

ANN requires large amount of historical input-output data for a better model
generalisation. If there is little amount of input-output data exists, ANN may not
be suitable for modelling the system.
3. No guarantee to optimal results.

92
There is no guarantee that the resulting model is perfect for the system, even
though the network contains parameters that can be tuned by the training
algorithm. It can be that tuned model may be accurate in one region but
inaccurate in another.
4. No guarantee of 100 % reliability

The ANN model can be unreliable particularly when there is a limited training
data.
5. Good sets of input variables.

Selecting the input variables to give proper input-output mapping is difficult
because it is not apparent that which input variable will give best results. Usually
some trial and error method will be required in doing the selection. .
.
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CHAPTER 5
METHODOLOGY
5.1 Overall Research
The whole research study can be divided into 5 main parts:
(1) Identification of optimal operating parameters for bleaching and

degumming processes from the surveys and plant visits conducted to
refineries throughout Malaysia.
(2) Determination of optimum number of testing trials to obtain
experimental data through Design of Experiment (DOE) method which
using statistical tool, MINITAB 14.
(3) Determination of data of DOBI, FFA, peroxide value (PV),
phosphorus content, moisture content and iron content of CPO and
DBPO samples through experimental works.
(4) Models development of degumming and bleaching process using
artificial neural network toolbox in MATLAB 7.0.
(5) Comparisons deductions between experimental findings and ANN
model.
The main objective of this research study is to develop a model that can
suggest a suitable ratio of phosphoric acid and bleaching earth dosage for
degumming and bleaching processes. The research started with identification of
optimal operating parameters for bleaching and degumming processes based on the
surveys distributed to refineries throughout Malaysia and also based on plant visits
conducted.
Surveys are done by distributing questionnaires to all the registered palm oil
refineries in Malaysia. There are 2 set of questionnaires (refer to Appendix A and
Appendix B) that has been distributed, with the objectives;
• to get on overall overview of the actual refining processing of palm

oil available in Malaysia.
• to get preliminary related data on the refining operating process and
• to obtain further information on the operation of degumming and
bleaching
Questions constructed in this survey were emphasizing on the degumming

and bleaching section where some useful information are obtained such as:
Few plants visits are conducted in order to get familiarize with actual plant
operation and to have a closer look at degumming and bleaching operation. The
visits were accompanied by the supervisors, lecturers and research officers. During
the visits, discussions are made with the industrial expertise in order to get their
opinions, suggestions and feedback from their point of view regarding the proposed
research.
Site visiting accompanied by the engineers are also conducted in which we

are able to see the actual processing of palm oil, equipments used and controlling
system of the refinery plants. Below are the details on the plant visits conducted:
Table 5.2: Details on the plant visit activities conducted.
Plant Visited Date and time

1. Felda Oil Products Sdn Bhd, Date : 25th March 2004
Lot 82, Jalan Besi Dua, Time : 10.30 a.m –1.00 pm
81700 Pasir Gudang,
Johor
2. Soctek Edible Oil Sdn Berhad, Date : 25th March 2004
Plo 8 & 9 Jalan Timah, Pasir Gudang, Time : 2.00 p.m – 4.30 pm
Industrial Estate,
81700 Pasir Gudang
Johor.
3. Delima Oil Products, Date : 22nd May 2004
Pandamaran Industrial Estate, Time : 2.30 p.m – 4.30 pm
P.O Box 204, Pandamaran,
42009 Port Klang,
Selangor.
4. Golden Jomalina Food Industries Date : 5th October 2004
Sdn. Bhd. Time : 11.00 a.m –1.00 pm
Batu 9, Jalan Banting – Klang,
42500 Telok Panglima Garang
Industrial Estate,
Selangor.
Afterwards, experimental rigs using rotavapor were set up according to
optimum operating conditions of degumming and bleaching processes. During this
stage, DOE study was also conducted in order to determine optimum number of
experiments to be run. There are 20 set of experiments need to be run with 6 quality
checking parameter experiments each for both samples; crude palm oil (CPO) and
degummed bleached palm oil (DBPO).
Based on the experimental data, 2 studies were conducted:

(i) Experimental data findings analysis
(ii) ANN models development
In this study, 3 models of ANN were developed, and performance of each model is
evaluated in term of error generated and model fitness.
Finally, based on the deduction from experimental findings analysis and

ANN model, a conclusion will be derived which at the end will suggest some
improvements to the degumming and bleaching practices in Malaysia’s refineries.
Figure 5.1 shows the overall methodology of the research study.
Start
Survey on the current Extensive literature Plant Visits & Plant

palm oil refinery review Familiarization
practices in Malaysia by
distributing
questionnaires
Determination of optimum Equipments & chemicals Design of

operating conditions of ordering, experimental Experiment
degumming & bleaching rig set up (DOE) study
processes
Quality checking experiment of

degummed & bleached oil:
Collect CPO sample Degumming • FFA
from refineries & Bleaching • DOBI
Experiment • Peroxide Value (PV)
• Phosphorus (P)
• Moisture (H2O)
Quality checking • Iron (Fe)
experiments of CPO:
• FFA Experimental
• DOBI Data
• Peroxide Value (PV)
• Phosphorus (P)
• Moisture (H2O)
• Iron (Fe)
Neural network model (ANN) Data analysis
Deduction from ANN Model Deduction from experimental findings
Compare
Conclude
Figure 5.1: Overall methodology of the research.

5.2 Operational Conditions
One of the main parts of this research study is to identify the optimal
operating parameters for bleaching and degumming processes. There are various
operating conditions for degumming and bleaching processes of palm refining. Based
on preliminary studies through surveys and literature it is found that the optimal
operating conditions for a typical configuration of palm oil refinery are identified as
per shown in Table 5.1 below;
Table 5.1: Optimum operating condition for a typical configuration

of palm oil refinery
Parameters Operating Conditions

Temperature 100oC
Pressure Vacuum (50 torr)
Contact time 30 minutes
5.2.1 Operating Temperature
Higher temperature encourages a better adsorption process between the

bleaching earth and impurities inside the degummed oil and promotes a better
bleaching process. But, at temperature higher than 150 oC, changes in structure of
fatty acids might occur and isomerization might also start (Bockish, 1993). Thus, in
order to maintain the efficiency of bleaching process, it is safer to maintain an upper
limit of 110 oC for bleaching operating temperature because it will minimizes the
probability of chemical or physical changes in triglycerides (Patterson, 1992). And
based on the preliminary survey studies, most of refineries in Malaysia operate
bleaching process at temperature of 100oC. Therefore, it can be concluded that, a
typical configuration of palm oil refining process, 100 oC is identified as the most
optimal operating temperature for bleaching and degumming processes.
5.2.2 Pressure
It is found out that from the preliminary survey, the bleaching and
degumming processes is conducted under vacuum condition of about 50 torr.
Operating under vacuum condition is desired in the operation of bleaching process
while removing all the unwanted gums (from precipitation during degumming), trace
metals, peroxides and some volatile and oxidized products in order to keep the
moisture level low. It is important in order to keep the moisture level low as high
level of moisture must be avoided since it might hydrolyzed the triglycerides causing
more formation of free fatty acids and thus affecting the stability of oil.
5.2.3 Contact Time
From the preliminary studies survey, 30 minutes of contact time is the normal
time cycles used for bleaching process by the refiners in Malaysia. Although, higher
efficiency of bleaching process can be achieved by increasing the bleaching time but
by increasing the contact time between bleaching earth and the degummed oil, the
daily production of a refinery will be affected, as the overall refinery operating time
will be increased. And consequently affect the profit of a refinery, since it will
reduce the daily production. Therefore, a commercial equilibrium balance should be
considered between the lower cycle times and higher daily production. Thus, it can
be concluded that the optimal bleaching and degumming time for a typical
configuration of palm oil refinery is 30 minutes.
5.2.4 CPO Samples Quality
The crude palm oil (CPO) samples used in this research study were obtained
from Pandamaran Delima Oil, Klang (for high FFA content) and Golden Jomalina
Food Ind., Sdn Bhd, Banting (for low FFA content). Due to the inconsistent content
of FFA content in CPO samples obtained, the samples were divided into 3 main
categories namely;
(1) Category A: CPO with FFA content less than 2.5%
(2) Category B: CPO with FFA content between 2.6 –3.5%
(3) Category C: CPO with FFA content more than 3.6%
5.2.5 Bleaching Earth and Phosphoric Acid Quality
Bleaching earth and phosphoric acid used were obtained from Pandamaran
Delima Oil, Klang Selangor. Bleaching earth used is acid activated clays and
phosphoric acid is 85% concentrated.
5.2.6 Quality Checking Parameters
Based on preliminary studies, there are 6 important parameters that are

usually being checked by the analysis lab of the palm oil refineries either it is on
daily basis, weekly basis or monthly basis. The parameters are;
(i) Free Fatty Acid (FFA) content
(ii) Deterioration of Bleachability Index (DOBI) value
(iii) Peroxide Value (PV)
(iv) Phosphorus Content
(v) Moisture Content
(vi) Iron Content
All these experiments except iron content were conducted at CLEAR (Center
Lipids Engineering & Applied Research).
The ranges of these parameters are set as per tabulated in Table 3.1 below.
These ranges are identified based on the maximum acceptable and allowable values
used by the refiners.
Table 5.2: Ranges of parameters
Parameters Range
Dosage of phosphoric acid Maximum : 1.00 % (per 1MT of CPO)
Dosage of bleaching earth Maximum : 2.00% (per 1MT of CPO)
FFA Maximum: 5 %
Quality of CPO Moisture Maximum : 2 %
DOBI 2-3.5
Peroxide Value 1.5-5 meq/kg
Phosphorus 10-18 ppm
Iron (Fe) 4-10 ppm
5.3 Experimental Rigs of Degumming and Bleaching
Experimental rigs are designed and set up, according to the optimal
conditions for a typical a typical configuration of palm oil refinery, which are 100oC,
under vacuum of 50 torr and contact time of 30 minutes;
5.3.1 Equipment
Rotavapor unit is used to carried out the experiment of degumming and

bleaching processes, Figure 5.2 shows the image of rotavapor used in this study.
Vacuum Pressure
Indicator
Vacuum Pressure
Controller CPO Samples
Heating Element
Temperature Controller
& Indicator
Figure 5.2: Rotavapor unit used for deguming and bleaching process
5.3.2 Experimental Procedure for Degumming and Bleaching Processes
In this study, the CPO sample used for degumming and bleaching processes
is 500g for each run. The CPO sample, bleaching earth and phosphoric acid are put
into a conical flask before it is attached to rotavapor unit.
Heating element used in this experiment is silicon oil. The silicon oil is
initially heated up to 100oC and vacuum is set to 50 torr before attaching the conical
flask containing the CPO sample, certain dosages of bleaching earth and phosphoric
acid.
The dosages of bleaching earth and phosphoric acid are added accordingly
based on the experimental arrangement given by the DOE as shown later in Table
5.3, in section 5.3.
When 100oC temperature and 50 torr vacuum are achieved, the bleaching and
degumming processes will be carried out for 30 minutes and the mixture will be
rotated continuously in order to have complete mixing between CPO, phospohoric
acid and bleaching earth.
After 30 minutes, the degummed and bleached oil (DBPO) will be filtered
with Whatman filter paper under vacuum as soon as possible in order to prevent any
undesirable oxidation. Thereafter, the further quality checking experiments will be
carried out for analysis.
5.4 Quality Checking Parameters Experiment & Experimental Procedures
The experiments for CPO and DBPO qualities are conducted based on the
standard method by PORAM and AOCS.
5.4.1 FFA Experiment
Free fatty acids content in the crude palm oil or degummed and bleached oil
can be determine by using titration method according to the PORIM Test Methods
(1995). The experimental procedures for the FFA content determination are as
follow;
(a) Prepare the sample for the analysis by melting the sample at 60 oC to 70
o
C and thoroughly homogenise it before sampling
(b) Determine the size of sample from the following table
Table 5.3: Size of sample for palm oil acidity test
Acidity Weight of sample Weighing accuracy

(+/- 10 %), grams (grams)
0 to 1 20 0.05
1 to 4 10 0.02
4 to 15 5 0.01
15 to 75 2.5 0.01
75 and over 0.5 0.001
(c) Weigh the specified amount of sample into a Erlemeyer flask

(d) Add 50 ml of neutralised solvent and place the flask on the hot plate and
regulate the temperature of about 40 oC
(e) Shake the sample gently while titrating with standard alkali (sodium
hydroxide) to the first permanent pink colour. The colour must persist
for 30 seconds.
(f) The results can be expressed as below:
FFA % as palmitic acid = 25.6 x N x V

(for palm oil and fractions) W
where N = normality of NaOH solution

V = volume of NaOH solution used in ml
W = weight of sample
Sodium
Hydroxide
DBPO
sample
Figure 5.3: Titration method for FFA experiment

5.4.2 DOBI Experiment
DOBI can be measured using UV-visible spectrophotometer and it is a

numerical ratio of spectrophotometric absorbance at the wavelength at 446 nm to
absorbance at 269 nm. The measurement is carried out on 1% concentration solution
of palm oil in isooctane.
The experimental procedures for the determination for DOBI value are as
follows:
(a). Weigh about 0.1 g of completely melted and homogenised palm oil sample
into 25 ml volumetric flask. Dissolve in so-octane or n-hexane (0.5 –1.0 %
concentration) and make-up to the desired volume.
(b). Fill a 10 mm cuvettes with oil solution and measure its absorbances at 269
nm and 446 nm against pure solvent using spectrophotometer (Figure 5.4)
Spectrophotometer
Cuvettes
Figure 5.4: Spectrophotometer for determination of DOBI value
(c). Calculate the DOBI value using the equation below;
DOBI = Abs 446 in a 10mm quartz cell

Abs 269
5.4.3 Peroxide Value Experiment
The peroxide is a measure of those substances in a sample, expresses in terms

of milliequivalents of active oxygen per kilogram which oxidize potassium iodide
under conditions test
The procedures of this experiment are according to PORIM Test Methods

(1995) and are described as follows:
(a) Sample collected should be analysed as soon as possible or should kept in

a cool dark place before analysis
(b) Weigh to the nearest 0.1 mg 5.00 +/- 0.05 g of the sample into the 250 ml
flask
(c) Add 30 ml of acetic acid –chloroform solution. Swirl the flask until
sample is dissolved in the solution.
(d) Add 0.5 ml of saturated potassium iodide with graduated pipette. Swirl
for 1 minute and then add 30 ml of distilled water. For freshly produced
oil, add a few drops of starch solution
(e) Titrate the solution with 0.01 N sodium thiosulphate solution adding it
gradually and with constant vigorous shaking. Add thiosulphate solution
dropwise until the blue color just disappears.
(f) Carry out a blank test with determination. The blank titration must not
exceed 0.1 ml of the 0.01 N sodium thiosulphate solution
(g) The peroxide value content can be calculated as (the results is expressed
in milliequivalent of active oxygen per kilogram of sample) :
PV = (Vs – Vb) N x 1000

W
where ;
Vs = volume in ml of sodium thiosulphate solution of normality N
used for the determination
Vb = volume in ml of sodium thiosulphate solution of normality N
used for the blank test.
W = weight in grams of the test portion
N = normality of sodium thiosulphate solution
5.4.4 Phosphorus Content Experiment
This method determines total phosphorus content by charring and ashing in the
presence of magnesium oxide followed by colorimetric measurement as
phosphovanadomolybdic complex. The procedures are described as below:
(a) Prepare the sample by melting the palm oil at 60 oC to 70 oC and

thoroughly homogenise it before taking a test portion.
(b) Weigh to within 1 mg exactly 0.1 g of magnesium oxide into crucible or
porcelain dish (Figure 5.6).
(c) Weigh about 5 g of fat into the same crucible (or according to its
presumed phosphorus content)
(d) Burn off the fat by ignite it to white ash on the furnace (Figure 5.5) at 800
o
C to 900 oC for 2 hours
Figure 5.5: Furnace used for the determination of phosphorus content experiment
Mixture of CPO &
magnesium oxide
Figure 5.6: Crucible porcelain containing CPO sample and magnesium oxide
(e) Dissolve the magnesium-containing ashing exactly 5 ml of the aqueous

nitric acid solution.
(f) Add exactly 20 ml of a mixture of 10 ml of aqueous ammonium vanadate
solution and 10 ml of acidic aqueous ammonium molybdate solution. Mix
and allow stand for 20 minutes.
(g) Prepare blank test, not containing the fat exactly the same conditions
(h) Transfer the test solution into the cell of spectrophotometer (Figure 5.4).
Measure extinction at 400 nm against blank solution. Read the
absorbance. The ppm phosphorus in the fat can be calculated as:
ppm Phosphorus = CF x 25 x Abs

weight of oil (g)
where CF = calibration factor

Abs = Absorbance value
5.4.5 Moisture Content Experiment
For this experiment, the moisture content experiment will be conducted

according to AOCS Recommended Practice Ca 2f-93 method. The experimental
procedures are as follows:
(a) Weigh accurately about 15-20 g of well-mixed palm oil sample into
tared filter flask containing a magnetic bar as a part of tared weight.
(b) Add 5 ml acetone, using graduated cylinder. Stoppered the flask and
placed in glycerol bath which is heated by means of electric hot plate.
(c) The flask is placed under vacuum and with continuous stirring, heated
to 100 oC for 20 min
(d) Remove the flask from the hot bath and cooled at the room temperature
while maintaining the vacuum.
(e) Carefully release the vacuum and dry the flask. Place the flask in
desiccator (Figure 5.6) for a few minutes and weighed.
Figure 5.6: Desiccator for moisture content experiment
(f) The moisture content can be calculated by using equation below:
Moisture and volatile matter % = loss in mass, g x 100

Mass of sample, g
5.4.6 Iron Content Experiment
For iron content experiment, we sent the sample to AOTD (Analytical

Oleochemical Technology Division), Bangi, Selangor for testing. This is because the
experiment requires the use of atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) but the
equipment is not available at CLEAR.
The experiment measures iron in palm oil dissolved in methyl isobutyl ketone
(MIBK). The method used will be based on the PORIM Test Methods (1995). The
principal of this experiment is analysing the iron by direct aspiration. The
experimental procedures are divided into 2 parts:
Preparation of Standards 100 ppm Stock Standard in Oil
(a) Weigh exactly 250.00 gn of RBD palm oil in a clean 500 ml round
bottom flask
(b) Weigh 0.1581 g of Ferric acetlacetone in a clean 50 ml beaker
(c) Dissolve the salt in approximately 25 ml ethanol and transfer
quantitatively to the flask. Wash the beaker thoroughly with a further 25
ml ethanol into the flask.
(d) Evaporate all the ethanol from the oil using rotary evaporator under
vacuum at 60 oC until constant weight.
Working Standard in Oil
(a) Prepare working standards of 1,2,3,4,5,6,8 and 10 ppm by diluting (w/w)

the 100 ppm stock standard with ‘metal-free’ RBD palm oil
(b) Weigh 2.50 g of melted samples and RBDPO containing working
standards into 25 ml volumetric flasks. Dilute with MIBK and mix. Keep
the solutions in an oven maintained at 40 oC
(c) Set up instrument for analysis of iron with air-acetylene-organic solvent
flame at wavelength 248.3 nm and slit width of 0.2 nm
(d) Aspirate ‘metal free’ RBDPO solution, allow the absorbance meter
reading to be stable and set absorbance to be zero. The zero setting may
fluctuate within ± 0.005 absorbance unit. The instrument must be
recalibrated if values outside this limit are obtained.
(e) Aspirate the working standards and samples and record the absorbance
readings. Take the average of three absorbance readings.
(f) Concentration of iron can be determined by plotting the calibration curve
versus absorbance of standard solution and read the concentration of iron
sample from the graph.
5.5 Design of Experiment Application in Estimating Optimum Number of
Experiments
Design of Experiment (DOE) was applied to arrange the number of

experiments run for the study. With the help of DOE method, there are 20 set of
experiment were arranged. All the 20 set of experiments with 6 quality checking
experiments each, has been determined through Central Composite Design (CCD)
technique via Response Surface Method (RSM) using Minitab 14 environment.
5.5.1 Optimum Number of Experiment
Table 5.4 below, shows the arrangement of experimental sequence given

DOE method. In total, there are 120 numbers of experiments to be run, for each CPO
(crude palm oil) and (DBPO) degummed bleached palm oil with 3 repetitions for
each experiment in order to get a good result.
Table 5.4: Arrangement of experiment sequence by DOE
Run Bleaching Earth Phosphoric Acid * FFA FFA

Order Dosage (wt%) Dosage (wt%) Content Category
1 1 0.5 3 B
2 1 0.5 1 A
3 0 1.0 1 A
4 2 0.5 3 B
5 2 1.0 5 C
6 2 1.0 1 A
7 1 0.5 3 B
8 1 0.0 3 B
9 2 0.0 1 A
10 1 0.5 3 B
11 0 0.0 1 A
12 1 0.5 3 B
13 1 0.5 3 B
14 1 0.5 3 B
15 0 0.0 5 C
16 0 1.0 5 C
17 1 1.0 3 B
18 0 0.5 3 B
19 2 0.0 5 C
20 1 0.5 5 C
* FFA content 1: Category A of CPO

FFA content 2: Category B of CPO
FFA content 3: Category C of CPO
5.6 Model Development
Using MATLAB Neural Network Toolbox and MATLAB environment, a

feed forward neural network was designed and back-propagation training algorithm.
In this study, 3 models of back-propagation feed forward network were developed in
MATLAB 7.0 environment. The models are MISO 1, MISO 2 and MIMO. The
details on each model will be discussed later in; Neural network modeling section.
5.6.1 Selection of Input and Output variables
The most important task in developing a NN model is to select the most

significant variables as estimator inputs. In the process of degumming and beaching
of palm oil, there are a lot of variables that can affect the efficiency of system.
Therefore, in order to simplify the model structure, input variables that gave
dominant impact to the process outputs were selected while the others were
neglected. The independent experimental variables selected are FFA content,
DOBI, Peroxide Value (PV), Phosphorus (P) content, moisture content and iron (Fe)
content for each CPO and DBPO. The outputs were phosphoric acid and bleaching
earth dosages.
5.6.2 Neural Network Modelling
From the 20 set experiments arranged by response surface method, 14

experimental data are employed for model development (training) data set and 6
experimental data are employed for validation (generalization) data set, based on rule
of thumb of ratio 70:30.
The developments of neural network are accomplished by following the all

the process phases as discussed previously in section 4.2.5: Neural Network
Development. The overall steps of neural network modelling are shown in the
flowcharts (Figure 5.7) below;
Divide the experimental data for:
(a). Testing Data
(b). Validation Data
Normalization of Testing Data and

Validation Data, from 0 to 1.
Set up MISO 1 network and present the

training data and target values to the
network
Train the network
Test the network in the recall and

generalisation phase
Check RMS error
Repeat all steps for ;

(1) MISO 2 network set up
(2) MIMO network set up
Compare the % error obtained between;

(1) MISO 1 network
(2) MISO 2 network
(3) MIMO network
Select the best network based

on the smallest RMS error
generated
Figure 5.7: Modelling a network methodology

In this study, there are 12 independent experimental variables identified
because it involved 6 quality parameters for each CPO and DBPO for degumming
and bleaching processes. The independent experimental variables are as per listed in
Table 5.5 below;
Table 5.5: List of independent variables
Independent Variables Symbol

FFACPO X1
FFADBPO X2
DOBICPO X3
DOBIDBPO X4
PVCPO X5
PVDBPO X6
PCPO X7
PDBPO X8
MoistureCPO X9
MoistureDBPO X10
FeCPO X11
FeDBPO X12
* P: Phosphorus
Fe: Iron
The response factors or outputs were phosphoric acid dosage (Y1) and
bleaching earth dosage (Y2).
In modelling a neural network, after dividing the experimental data for
training and validation, the next step is to do normalization of experimental data.
This is because the process inputs for neural network models were inconsistent in
term of their magnitudes. Therefore, these input data were scaled to be within a
consistent range (from 0 to 1), before introducing them to the input layer of the
network to ensure that each data was given a fair contribution in determining the
network output. The data scaling method employed in this research is shown as
follows:
X i - X i min
X is =
X i max - X i min
where, X is is scaled input and X i is the actual input before scaling whereas X i min and
X i max are the minimum and maximum values of the inputs respectively. The
maximum and minimum values of the input were selected based on training data.
As mention previously, there are two types of networks were developed and
studied namely;
(i) Multi-Input Single-Output (MISO) network
(ii) Multi-Input Multi-Output (MIMO) network.
Two MISO (MISO 1 and MISO2) and one MIMO networks were developed,
as per shown in Figure 5.7. A back-propagation feed forward neural network was
employed for both networks.
Figure 5.7 :
The selection criterion is dependent on the efficiency of the two networks in
predicting the process output. Therefore, the performance of both networks were
tested and compared. The best network with smallest error was chosen to represent
the process.
The M-file for MISO network of each response factors (phosphoric acid
dosage (Y1) and bleaching earth dosage (Y2) are shown in Appendix C and D.
Whereas, the M-File for MIMO network is shown in Apendix E.
Neural Network toolbox in MATLAB 7 was used to design and simulate the
networks. The transfer functions employed in the networks were log-sigmoid transfer
function and purelin transfer function and the networks were trained using
Levenberg-Marquardt learning algorithm (Trainlm).
In order to select the best network topology/architecture a systematic trial and

error was utilized where each of the studied neural network topology was carried out
for 10 times runs. The information was then propagated forward to the output layer
where the output was calculated and compared to the actual value in order to
calculate the prediction error.
The network with smallest root mean sum of squares of the errors (RMSE)
was selected to represent the process. The values of weights and biases associated to
each connection between neurons of adjacent layers of chosen network were
obtained. The RMSE is defined as
∑ (Observed − Pr edicted )
2
RMSE =
No. of Data
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.4 Feed Forward Neural Networks Topology (a) MISO Neural Networks
(b) MIMO neural Networks
5.6.2.1 MISO network model

5.6.2.2 MIMO network model
5.7 Design of Experiment Application in Estimating Optimum Number
of Experiments
There were 22 experimental data used to develop the neural networks models
where 16 experimental data arranged by response surface methodology were
employed as training data and six experimental data were used as generalized data or
validation data
5.8 Model Development

5.8.1 Selection of Input and Output variables
5.8.2 Neural Network Modelling
5.8.2.1 MISO network model
5.8.2.2 MIMO network model
5.8.3 Model Comparisons
Experimental Outputs
Data
ANN
Figure 5.5 : General scheme of neural network architecture

W1
W2
FFAi
W3
DOBIi W4
W5
PVi
W6
Pi W7
(a)
W8
H2Oi
W9
Fei W10
W11
FFAo
W12
DOBIo W13
W14
PVo
W15
Po W16
W17
H2Oo
W18
W19
Feo
W20
b1
W21
W22
Bias 1
W23
W24
119
CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.1 Results Overview
In this research, there are two methods in the determining the suitable ratio of
phosphoric acid and bleaching earth dosage to be added to degumming and bleaching
process of palm oil refining, which is via experimental works and through modelling
of ANN.
The degumming and bleaching experiment were carried out at optimum

operating conditions, with different dosage of phosphoric acid (PA) and bleaching
earth (BE), which were specified by design of experiment (DOE) method. The
category of crude palm oil (CPO) are divided into category A, B and C. The
parameters that are being monitored in this experiment are FFA content, DOBI
value, peroxide value (PV), phosphorus content, moisture content and iron content.
For ANN modelling part, the experimental data obtained are also then be
used as the input vectors to the network. Three NN models (two MISO and one
MIMO) were developed and compared in which the best model will be selected best
on the smallest error generated.
These results will at the end gives some valuable information that would
suggest some improvements to the degumming and bleaching practices in Malaysia’s
palm oil refineries.
120
6.2 Experimental Results Analysis
In this section, experimental results will be analysed and discussed based on

each parameter involved. Degumming and bleaching processes was done at optimum
temperature (100oC), pressure (vacuum – 50 torr) and contact time (30 minutes) in
order to study the effects of phosphorus acid and bleaching earth dosages on each
parameter studied namely; FFA content, DOBI value, PV value, phosphorus content,
moisture content and iron content. During experiment, each sample was run 3 times
in order to get good average results.
The graphs are plotted based on varying the bleaching earth dosage at
constant phosphoric acid dosage at 0.5 wt% and 1.0 wt% for each parameter
involved.
121
6.2.1 Effects of Phosphoric Acid and Bleaching Earth Dosage on FFA
Category Before Degumming After Degumming

B 2.84 3.28
A 1.21 1.42
B 2.9 3.14
C 3.74 3.97
B 3.05 3.4
4.5
4.0
FFA Content (%)
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 1 1 1 2
BE dosage
Before degumming & bleaching After degumming & bleaching
Figure 6.1: FFA Content of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching
Processes at 0.5 wt % of Phosphoric Acid

A 1.48 2.3
C 3.69 4.48
B 3.04 3.11
A 1.35 1.42
C 3.81 4.07
5.0
FFA Content (%)
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0 0 1 2 2
BE dosage
Figure 6.2: FFA Content of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching
122
FFA is the amount of fatty acid occurring naturally or produced during

storage or processing that exists in edible oils as a distinct chemical unit in an
uncombined state (Wan and Wakelyn, 1997). The quantity of FFA present is a good
measure of the quality of the crude oil.
FFA levels in crude oils can be adversely affected by bleaching earth

conditions and acidity of the adsorbent (bleaching earth) as well as nature properties
of the phosphoric acid used. Small changes in FFA levels can have a great impact on
oil loss. Mathematical models show that a FFA rise of 0.1%for a refinery with a
production rate of 1000 tonnes per day will result in an annual loss of 365 tonnes
(Brooks, 1999).
Higher FFA means lower triglyceride (TG) since FFA is derived from
triglycerides (TG). In addition, high FFA not only infers lower extractable oil but
also corresponds to the higher content of emulsifiers namely diglycerides (DG) and
monoglyceride (MG) and significant presence of DG and MG has shown effects on
crystallization of oil during fractionation process (Abdul Azis, 2000).
Figure 6.1 and 6.2 show the effects on FFA content on all categories of CPO
(A, B and C) by varying the bleaching earth dosage at 0.5 wt% and 1.0 wt%
phosphoric acid dosage respectively.
Generally, the graph in Figure 6.1 shows the content of FFA is found higher
after degumming and bleaching processes, for all points due to acidic nature of
phosphoric acid added and due to splitting or hydrolysis of triglyceride by heating.
The reaction is shown as below, (Gapor and Chong, 1985);
Triglycerides + H2O FFA + Glycerides. . . . . .6.1
From the graph, when phosphoric acid is added at 0.5 wt % but with no bleaching
earth the increment of FFA content is highest about 0.44 %. This is because no
adsorption process occurs due to the absence of bleaching earth.
123
However, even though bleaching earth are added during the degumming and
bleaching process there is still some rise (about 0.2 - 0.35%) of the FFA content in
degummed oil. Traces of phosphoric acid remaining in the oil after degumming
treatment are said to be responsible for such situation to occur (Rossi et al. 2003).
For this graph, the lowest FFA increment detected is for category A of oil at 1.0 wt%
of bleaching earth with 0.5 wt% phosphoric acid which is about 0.21% Figure 61.
Figure 6.2 shows the effect on FFA content at various dosage of bleaching
earth at 1.0 wt% of phosphoric acid. From the graph, it can be observed that similar
trend with the previous graph, where when there is no bleaching earth added to the
degumming and bleaching treatment (means adsorption process), the rise in FFA
content is quite high, about 0.8% in average. This rise of FFA is also attributed to the
higher acidity of phosphoric used during the treatment which is 1.0 wt%.
However at high dosage of bleaching earth of 1-2 wt%, the increment is

quite insignificant. This is because the increase in FFA content is apparently being
adsorbed by the bleaching earth and with that amount of bleaching earth, it does not
allow further splitting of triglycerides to occur. In addition, during adsorption process
impurities such as FFA are retained on the pore surface of the bleaching earth,
however when molecules are not adsorb triglycerides escapes. Gradually, the
concentration of the of the impurities on available surface of the bleaching earth and
the concentration remaining in the oil is in equilibrium, so further exchange is
negligible (Patterson, 1992). It is said optimum condition is achieved.
Based on the both graphs it can be deduced that the optimal dosage of
bleaching earth and phosphoric acid for all categories of CPO (A,B and C) is 1.0 –
2.0 wt% and 0.5 –1.0 wt% respectively
124
6.2.2 Effects of Phosphoric Acid and Bleaching Earth Dosage on DOBI

B 2.43 1.98
A 3.84 1.61
B 3.00 1.80
C 3.00 2.21
B 2.35 1.62
4.5
4.0
3.5
DOBI Value
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 1 1 1 2
BE Dosage
Figure 6.3: DOBI Value of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching

A 2.38 1.97
C 2.39 2.05
B 3.17 1.99
A 3.20 1.92
C 2.22 1.58
3.5
3.0
2.5
DOBI Value
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 0 1 2 2
BE Dosage
Figure 6.4: DOBI Value of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching
125
According to Abdul Azis (2000), all refineries will undoubtedly prefer crude
palm oil (CPO) exhibiting good DOBI value which is minimum of 2.3 and the value
will equate nicely with reduced bleaching earth requirement. Low DOBI value
relates to high oxidation products. High oxidation products require high dosage of
bleaching earth.
Therefore, with high oxidation products (low DOBI) and with increase of
FFA, the cost of utilities on a per tonne basis of RBDPO production will
subsequently increased. The deodorization conditions may have to be reformatted to
ensure complete removal of stubborn volatiles (oxidized products, moisture, carotene
and its derivatives) and all remnants of FFA. These measures will associate with
higher utility requirements (Abdul Azis, 2000).
Figure 6.3 and 6.4 show the effects on DOBI value on all categories of CPO
(A, B and C) by varying the bleaching earth dosage at 0.5 wt% and 1.0 wt%
Generally for the graph in Figure 6.3, all the CPO samples used exhibit a
good DOBI value which is higher than 2.3. This indicates that all the samples used
have low oxidation products. After degumming and bleaching processes, the DOBI
values are generally reduced. However, the reduction in DOBI value is quite small,
when there is no bleaching earth is added to the process. Thus, no adsorption process
of oxidized products can take place due to the absence of bleaching earth. But, it
seems that an effective degumming and bleaching process happen for category A of
oil when the bleaching earth added is at 1.0 wt% where the reduction of DOBI value
is more than half of its initial value (from 3.84 to 1.61).
Whereas for the samples used for the second graph in Figure 6.4, all the
samples except for the last sample (category C) of oil, exhibit good DOBI values. An
effective degumming and bleaching process seems to happen for category B and A of
oil when the bleaching earth added is at 1.0 wt% and 2.0 wt% respectively. The
reduction of DOBI values for both categories is about 1.2.
126
6.2.3 Effects of Phosphoric Acid and Bleaching Earth Dosage on PV

B 1.78 1.53
A 2.4 0
B 1.97 0
C 3.41 0
B 2.11 0
4.0
3.5
3.0
PV (meq/kg)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 1 1 1 2
BE Dosage
Figure 6.5: PV of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching


A 2.9 2.83
C 3.38 3.14
B 1.46 0
A 1.4 0
C 3.29 0
4.0
3.5
3.0
PV (meq/kg)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 0 1 2 2
BE Dosage
Figure 6.6: PV of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching

127
Peroxide value (PV) is an indicator of primary oxidation of the oil. PV is

already reduced by degumming treatment and it is further lowered after the bleaching
process (Rossi et al., 2003). During bleaching stage, peroxides are removed by
adsorptive effect of the bleaching earth.
The efficiency of adsorption of oxidation products such as peroxides is

dependant on the starting quality of crude oils. If the content of oxidation products is
relatively high, a greater dosage of clays is needed (Wei et al., 2003)Bleaching earth
clays can adsorb peroxides as well as catalyze peroxide degradation into secondary
oxidation products (Rossi et al., 2003).
Figure 6.5 and 6.6 show the effects on peroxide value (PV) on all categories
of CPO (A, B and C) by varying the bleaching earth dosage at 0.5 wt% and 1.0 wt%
Unlike FFA, the variations in bleaching earth and phosphoric acid dosage
affecting values of PV, the graphs will be discussed together. Overall, for both
graphs the peroxide value (PV) decreases after degumming and bleaching processes.
For both graphs, the decrease in PV is quite small when no bleaching earth is added
at 0.5 wt% of phosphoric acid. This proves that degumming treatment by itself
reduces only slightly the PV value.
At high bleaching earth dosages, which are 1 – 2 wt%, the PV value is

undetectable due to high adsorption capacity of bleaching earth and due to double
actions of degumming and bleaching processes. This observation were supported by
Wei et al., (2003), based on their research work, where they also claimed that the PV
value is reduced to undetectable value with the bleaching earth dosages greater than
0.8wt%.
128
According to Er (1985), it is desired to have no PV in degummed and

bleached palm oil (DBPO) but this cannot be achieved with degumming treatment
alone with the absence of bleaching earth in the processes. This indicates that both
degumming treatment and bleaching process take places effectively and
accomplished desired value of PV in DBPO. It can be concluded that the reduction
of PV is mainly attributed to bleaching
129
6.2.2 Effects of Phosphoric Acid and Bleaching Earth Dosage on Phosphorus

B 11.05 9.87
A 10.3 4.18
B 10.18 4.14
C 14.2 4.1
B 10.72 3.52
Phosphorus Content (ppm)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 1 1 2
BE Dosage
Figure 6.7: Phosphorus Content of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching

A 12.02 10.5
C 18.2 16.7
B 11.38 3.54
A 10.46 3.14
C 16.84 3.1
Phosphorus Content (ppm)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 0 1 2 2
BE Dosage
Figure 6.8: Phosphorus Content of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching
130
The total phosphorus content is a measurement of total phosphatides, such as

phospholipids and some inorganic phosphates present in the oil (Wei, 2003).
Phosphorus in oil has been considered as an oxidative impurity and a catalyst poison
(Gee et al., 1985).
It is absolute necessary to obtain a good quality of degummed bleached palm

oil for physical refining. It is proposed that the very secure standard that the
phosphorus content of the crude degummed oil should not exceed 20 ppm and the
phosphorus content of pretreated oil immediately prior to physical refining should
not exceed 5 ppm (Patterson, 1992).
The use of high dosage of phosphoric acid results in a higher phosphorus

content in the oil, which cannot then be reduced by bleaching clay treatment at a
reasonable level (Zschau, 1983). According to Wei et al.,(2003), the reduction of
phosphorus is proportionate to the dosage of clay used. Kheok and Lim (1982),
suggested that the mechanism for phosphors reduction was adsorption of phosphorus
ions on the lattice structure of the clay.
Figure 6.7 and 6.8 show the effects on phosphorus content on all categories of
CPO (A, B and C) by varying the bleaching earth dosage at 0.5 wt% and 1.0 wt%
In general, for both graphs, the phosphorus content is higher before the
degumming and bleaching processes. After the degumming and bleaching process,
the phosphorus content is generally reduced. However, for both graphs when there is
no bleaching earth added, the amount of phosphorus reduction is considered small
about 1-2 ppm. This is because no adsorption of phosphors can occur due to the
absence of bleaching earth
However, when high dosage of bleaching earth is added during degumming

and bleaching, noticeable reduction of phosphorus content is observed. The
phosphorus content is reduced up to acceptable level of DBPO, which is less than 5
ppm.
131
From the graph in Figure 6.7, an effective degumming and bleaching

processing for phosphorus reduction is discovered at bleaching earth of 1.0 wt% with
0.5 wt% of phosphoric acid, where the reduction is about 10 ppm.
Whereas, for the graph in Figure 6.8, the reduction of phosphorus occurred
efficiently at bleaching earth of 2 wt % with 1.0 wt% of phosphoric acid. This proves
the deduction made by Wei et al., (2003), that the reduction of phosphorus is
proportional to the bleaching earth dosage; higher bleaching earth dosage the better
the reduction of phosphorus in oil.
132
6.2.2 Effects of Phosphoric Acid and Bleaching Earth Dosage on Moisture

B 1.87 2.38
A 0.92 0.16
B 2.11 0.17
C 0.42 0.19
B 0.75 0.19
2.5
Moisture Content (%)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 1 1 1 2
BE Dosage
Figure 6.9: Moisture Content of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching

A 0.1 0.98
C 2.78 3.57
B 2.05 0.14
A 2.26 0.19
C 2.51 0.20
4.0
3.5
Moisture Content (%)
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 0 1 2 2
BE Dosage
Figure 6.10: Moisture Content of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching
133
The main reactions that cause the quality deterioration of palm oil are
hydrolysis and oxidation. Among the factors that causing these reactions are the
presence of moisture and trace metals content (Gapor and Chong, 1985).
The presence of moisture could cause the hydrolysis of palm oil triglycerides
resulting in the formation of free fatty acids (FFA) and partial glycerides (Gapor and
Chong, 1985) and the reaction is as per shown in equation 6.1 earlier.
One of the vital roles of bleaching earth is to adsorb undesirable

impurities such as moisture content (Hamilton, 1995). Theoretically, solely
hydrolytic deterioration can be prevented if the oil is as dry as possible. It is
important to consider the effect of hydrolysis because apart from increasing the FFA
content and associated with refining losses; hydrolysis also results in formation
partial glycerides, which would significantly influence the crystallization behaviour
and stability of emulsion (Jacobsberg, 1983).
However, moisture content has shown opposite effects on the oxidation

reactions. It has been reported that dissolved water could affect the oxidation process
hydration of trace metals, hence decreasing their catalytic activity, promoting the
recombination of free radicals and by hydration of hydroperoxides, thus slowing
down their breakdown (Gapor and Chong, 1985).
Therefore, a compromise in moisture level (final product RBDPO) for

storage and transportation has been suggested by Jacobsberg, (1983), where he
concluded that 0.1 % level are optimal for reducing the chemical splitting rate at
normal storage and transportation temperature. Thus, to ensure that this optimum
level are obtainable in RBDPO, an efficient degumming and bleaching process is
important to assure that moisture in degummed and bleaching oil (DBPO) is within
the acceptable range level of 0.2% (Er, 1985).
Figure 6.9 and 6.10 shows the effects of phosphoric acid and bleaching earth
dosage on moisture content during degumming and bleaching processes for all
categories of CPO (A, B and C).
134
From Figure 6.9 it can be observed that there is a significant increase in

moisture content after degumming and bleaching processes when phosphoric acid
added at 0.5 wt% but no bleaching earth. This is due to moisture content already
present in phosphoric acid added and there is no adsorption process of moisture
occurred due to the absence of bleaching earth.
When the bleaching earth dosage is added at 1wt% and 2 wt%, the moisture
content is reduced up to acceptable level of DBPO between 0.16 – 0.19 %. From
Figure 6.9, it seems the moisture adsorption process on bleaching earth surface
occurred effectively at the dosage of 0.5 wt% phosphoric acid and 1wt % bleaching
earth, as it reduces the level of moisture content from 2.11 % to 0.27%.
Same trend are observed in Figure 6.10, where the moisture level becomes
higher after degumming and bleaching processes when 1.0 wt% phosphoric acid are
added but with absence of bleaching earth. Nevertheless, the increase of moisture
content is relatively higher (0.7 - 0.9 %) compared to when 0.5 wt% of phosphoric
acid (0.5 %) with no bleaching earth are added to the CPO. This is because higher
moisture content in 1wt% of phosphoric acid compared to 0.5 wt% of phosphoric
acid.
135
6.2.2 Effects of Phosphoric Acid and Bleaching Earth Dosage on Iron

B 0.28 0.15
A 0.54 0.28
B 0.15 0.11
C 4.56 0.63
B 0.23 0.12
5.0
4.5
Iron Content (ppm)
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 1 1 1 2
BE Dosage
Figure 6.11: Iron Content of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching

A 0.65 0.04
C 3.96 0.44
B 0.44 0.29
A 0.34 0.24
C 4.59 2.07
5.0
4.5
Iron Content (ppm)
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 0 1 2 2
BE Dosage
Figure 6.12: Iron Content of CPO Before & After Degumming and Bleaching
136
Trace metals such as iron and copper, present in palm oil are chiefly present
in the form of metal soaps produced by the action of free fatty acids on storage tanks
and other metallic equipment (Shaw and Tribe, 1983). It is believed that, these
metals exhibit pro-oxidant effect on the oil by being catalyst to the decomposition of
hydroperoxides. Equation 6.2 below shows the decomposition of hydroperoxides due
to iron;
FeII + ROOH FeIII + OH- + RO• ……6.2
A concentration as low as 0.03 ppm of iron content is capable of producing

noticeable oxidative effect is (Higuchi, 1983).
It can be envisaged that two possible mechanisms exists for iron and copper
removal (Shaw and Tribe, 1983);
• adsorption of these metal complexes by the bleaching earth or

• metal exchange by double decomposition between bleaching earth
clay and the metal complex
According to Shaw and Tribe, (1983) treatment of palm oil with bleaching
earth with phosphoric acid followed by bleaching earth gave residual iron levels
much lower than bleaching earth alone or phosphoric acid alone. Thus, it is important
to have combination process of degumming and bleaching to give optimum
performance, in order to obtain the desired level of iron in DBPO and to produce an
excellent decolourised and purified palm oil with good stability towards
autoxidation.
Figure 6.11 and 6.12 shows the effects phosphoric acid and bleaching earth
dosage on iron content during degumming and bleaching processes for all categories
of CPO (A, B and C).
137
From the graph in Figure 6.11, when there is no bleaching earth are added in
the process, the reduction in iron content is not much significant as the removal
process of iron is due to degumming treatment alone. However, when both
degumming and bleaching processes occurred at 1.0 –2.0 wt% of bleaching earth and
0.5 wt % of phosphoric acid the removal process of iron is effective.
Similar trend can be observed, in Figure 6. 12, but by looking at category C

of oil with 0 wt % of bleaching earth and 1 wt % of phosphoric acid the reduction in
iron content is quite significant. This is maybe due to higher dosage of phosphoric
acid used at this particular point. Effective removal of iron also can be observed
when both degumming and bleaching processes occurred at 1.0 –2.0 wt% of
bleaching earth with 1.0 wt % of phosphoric acid.
138
6.3 Conclusion on Experimental Data Analysis
Based on the experimental data analysis done, it can be concluded that the
removal or reduction level of moisture, phosphorus, peroxide value (PV) and DOBI
are mainly due to bleaching treatment process. Whereas degumming treatment is
responsible for influencing the increment in FFA level in CPO and DBPO. For iron,
both degumming and bleaching processes are essential to ensure the removal process
run effectively.
Based on the analysis, the range of suitable dosage of phosphoric acid to be

used is about 0.5 - 1.0wt% and bleaching earth dosage is about 1.0 - 2.0 wt%.
In general, the contributions of both degumming and bleaching treatment

processes are more preferred rather than being run separately since it will save a lots
of time and save more costs.
139
6.4 ANN Modeling Results Analysis
In this study, three layers of MIMO and MISO network were developed the
model for prediction of phosphoric acid and bleaching earth dosage.
6.4.1 Models Performance and Comparisons
The performance of the networks can also be improved or even worsen by

constructing the network to be MISO and MIMO networks. The comparison among
these networks are based on training and validation error generated. In this study,
two MISO network and one MIMO network of each response factor combination
were evaluated.
6.4.2 Models Evaluation
From Table 6.1, it can be observed that the validation error increased as the
number of nodes in hidden layer increased. For example, in MISO 1 network, the
validation error increased from 0.6305 to 1.1924 when number of nodes in hidden
layer increased from 24 to 26.
Same trend was also observed for MISO 2 and MIMO network. In MIMO
network, the validation error increased from 0.9991 to 1.0950 when the number of
nodes in hidden layer increased from 24 to 26 nodes. As a result, it can be concluded
that the higher the number of nodes in hidden layer, higher validation error was
achieved in MIMO and MISO network.
It is most likely caused by overfitting. When the number of nodes increased,

the network became more complicated due to the increasing number of weight and
biases in the network that linked to each other. That is the reason why validation
error increased as number of nodes in hidden layer increased.
140
From Table 6.1, it also can be observed that, the smallest validation errors of
MISO 1, MISO 2 and MIMO networks were observed when 24 nodes available in
the hidden layer with 0.6305, 0.0026 and 0.9991 respectively.
However, MIMO network performance was different. The training error

fluctuate as the number of nodes increased. As the number of nodes increased from
24 to 25 the training error is increased from 2.8760e-004 to 0.0026 but as the number
of nodes increased from 25 to 26 the training error dropped from 0.0026 to 0.0012.
But still the smallest error is generated by the MIMO network with 24 nodes.
In addition, the value of validation error of MIMO network was larger than
MISO 1 and MISO 2 network. This was most likely caused by the over trained
network due to the complexity of the network that allow too many iterations.
From the analyses done, it can be concluded that, the optimum hidden layer
nodes for MIMO and MISO network is 24 nodes. Interesting observation was
obtained in which the validation error and training error increased as the number of
nodes increased after the network reached its optimum network for MISO networks.
This is perhaps due to the result of over trained network which occur when the
capacity of the ANN for training is too great to allow too many training iterations
(Yin et al., 2003)
141
Table 6.1: Training and Validation Error of MISO and MIMO networks for various number of nodes in hidden layer.
No. of Nodes 24 25 25
Training Error Validation Training Error Validation Training Error Validation

Network Structure
Error Error
Error
MISO 1 3.0057e-005 0.6305 4.5975e-005 0.8826 6.7970e-005 1.1924
MISO 2 1.0193 e-005 0.0026 2.7973e-004 0.5553 4.6238e-005 0.9472
MIMO 2.8760e-004 0.9991 0.0026 0.9996 0.0012 1.0950

142
6.4.3 Model Selection
The criterion to select the most optimum network among the networks tested
is based on the smallest cross-validation errors produced. Thus, from the result in
Table 6.1, the optimum MISO network for response factor of phosphoric acid dosage
and bleaching earth dosage prediction were selected from topologies with 12 input
nodes, 24 hidden layer nodes and one output node. The selection of the network was
based on the smallest validation error among other hidden layer nodes.
6.4.4 Weight and Bias
The model equation of a single neuron can be written as follows:
y lpi = ∑ (wij aij ) + b j

n
………………………………………..6.3
i =1
where wij , aij and b j represent weight, input and bias of i row in j layer. Once the
node was calculated, it passed the result to the transfer function, f ( y ) . The functions
used in this study were sigmoidal function and purelin function because the
normalization value of training and validation data for this simulation were in the
range of 0 to 1. Thus, the complete node calculation for a sigmoidal function was:
1
f ( y) = …………………………………..6.4
1 + e−y
and for purelin function was:
f ( y) = y ……………………………………..6.5
As a result, the model equation of each response factor was presented in a

value of weight of each layer.
143
Therefore, the input weight, layer weight and biases for all the input namely
FFA, DOBI, PV, Phosphorus, moisture, and iron are presented in Table 6.2 for
optimum MISO network of 12 input nodes, 24 hidden layer nodes and one output
node with phosphoric acid dosage and bleaching earth dosage respectively. The
initial value of weights and biases were set to 0 for all MISO networks.
In addition, Table 6.5 shows the input weight, layer weight and biases for
MIMO network to predict hydrogen selectivity and H2/CO ratio. The initial value of
weights and biases were also set to 0 for MIMO network.
144
Table 6.2: The value of biases and weight for back-propagation model for MISO 1 and MISO 2 network
Input biases Layer weight Layer

Input weight
[1 x 24] [24 x 1] bias
3.8076
-3.2642
-3.0170 Columns 1 through 9
-2.7032
2.3636 0.8476 0.0923 0.2623 0.0686 -0.6295
-2.2543
-1.7443 -0.0477 0.0030 0.2455 0.4980
Phosphoric Refer to Table 6.3 -1.5053
1.1024
Acid -0.8244
0.7833
Columns 10 through 18
Dosage -0.3874
-0.1838 -0.9316 -0.2888 1.2398 0.3311 -0.5409
(MISO 1) 0.9276
0.3723 1.0028 -0.2718 -0.0698 1.0064
-0.9117
1.1216
-1.2967
-2.0356
-2.6445 0.8068 -0.2802 -1.4940 -0.2896 -1.1511
2.5204
3.0226 - 0.6698
-3.2656
3.5141
145
3.7843
3.3615
3.1318 Columns 1 through 9
-2.6985
-2.4426 -0.5640 -0.0027 -0.8642 0.0691 -0.3999
2.1195 0.7023 1.3788 -0.7725 0.5487
-1.4090
-1.4335
-1.1400
Bleaching -0.8856
Columns 10 through 18
Earth Refer to Table 6.4 0.8565 -0.7506
-0.1284 -0.8471 -1.0427 -0.3500 -0.1677 -0.6376
Dosage 0.1057 0.3788 -0.0418 0.7541 0.8467
0.5493
(MIMO 2)
0.7458
-1.4247
1.8070 0.3356 0.2461 0.5496 0.8463 0.9447
2.0467
-2.4080 0.3717
2.7698
-2.9673
-3.3607
-3.6404
146
Table 6.3: Initial weight values for MISO 1
-1.6567 0.7457 0.4149 -1.31 0.3496 0.8274 0.9474 1.2256 0.88 1.3469 0.8047 1.3556
1.7544 1.037 0.8621 -0.6345 0.8843 1.718 0.8107 -0.7724 0.5217 0.7824 1.6136 -0.377
1.4493 1.1046 -1.429 0.3825 -0.7679 0.1984 1.2193 1.3727 0.2202 -1.4927 -1.2004 0.1121
0.3466 0.5758 -0.2428 -1.0961 -0.798 -1.6295 -0.9711 -1.3313 -0.8546 -1.4456 -1.2704 -1.065
-1.0007 -1.2545 -0.5194 0.7495 1.1472 0.5503 -0.148 -1.4932 1.5043 -1.6587 1.3063 0.2439
1.2495 -0.5733 -1.2435 -1.1301 0.9608 1.0781 -1.5311 -0.8079 -0.9555 -1.2022 0.7806 -0.0822
0.0513 0.4545 1.2006 0.316 1.7568 1.7249 1.2697 1.5581 0.914 0.0559 0.5472 0.5755
1.0708 0.2247 1.6425 -0.0005 -0.1681 -1.2209 0.1709 -2.1207 0.8449 -0.1239 1.2252 0.8401
-0.3072 -1.7456 -0.1903 -0.1563 1.5735 0.7946 -0.71 -0.9088 -1.1213 0.7952 0.6568 1.8125
1.5357 -1.4586 1.5659 0.0767 -0.0386 0.0869 -0.3727 1.8196 0.414 0.3122 1.4072 -1.0003
-1.2322 -0.8338 -1.0361 1.6503 0.9969 1.3029 1.3413 -1.0051 0.2831 0.0089 -0.675 -1.2371
Input weight 0.1545 -0.3529 1.7727 -1.0874 1.3574 1.2331 -0.8683 -0.1195 0.8776 -2.1219 -0.4833 -0.0253
-0.763 -0.0896 0.8867 -0.299 -1.1695 -0.9255 -1.5598 -0.7997 -1.1648 -1.0854 -1.0349 1.6885
1.3369 1.6293 -0.1038 -0.8871 -0.4742 -0.2997 -1.0915 0.7711 0.5109 -0.5683 -1.8235 -1.7235
-0.4865 0.1466 0.1147 -0.2996 -0.2517 -1.1269 -1.8556 1.5388 -1.1326 -0.5793 -1.4749 1.2503
0.6014 -0.5697 1.5629 -0.7337 0.7553 1.6655 0.1793 0.9022 0.1099 0.9686 1.2081 -1.6769
-2.2206 -0.0248 0.8853 -0.5531 0.3267 -0.8633 -1.8088 0.762 0.4954 -1.2167 -0.9778 0.0228
-0.6982 0.4993 -1.1478 -0.0081 -0.2217 -2.0029 0.0043 -1.8058 1.0095 0.7705 -0.1169 -1.4448
0.0022 -1.2377 -0.6005 0.8018 -0.1781 0.929 -1.3598 -1.5295 0.5991 1.7143 1.4813 0.6739
-0.286 1.2876 -1.2324 -0.5166 -1.1096 1.4393 0.9272 -1.4463 1.4122 0.1203 -0.7209 -0.593
-0.0989 1.81 0.1095 -1.4032 -0.3115 -0.9999 -0.5032 -0.3343 -1.7492 1.3459 1.0503 1.7691
0.5383 0.4956 -0.4399 -0.1924 -0.6205 -1.1745 1.4725 1.4778 -0.8654 1.5576 0.7542 -1.6433
-1.0637 -1.4128 0.1726 0.0027 -0.6313 1.3303 -1.2969 1.724 0.9342 1.3452 1.2329 0.4253
1.2495 1.1547 0.5046 -1.5873 1.028 -1.1684 0.3248 -1.263 -0.5957 -1.3201 -0.1206 1.5126
147
Table 6.4: Initial weight values for MISO 2
-1.2845 1.9211 0.8418 -1.0545 -0.1736 -1.4542 0.1363 0.3052 0.8041 0.0221 -0.0187 1.8057
-1.3545 0.1571 -1.2698 0.3053 -1.8491 -0.1139 -0.5626 -0.8984 1.0779 1.2813 1.4905 -0.2534
-0.603 0.0174 0.8144 2.1803 1.5369 0.4509 -0.9895 0.7374 -0.0471 -0.7793 1.2632 1.0373
1.6548 1.5711 -0.5478 0.4088 -0.1311 -1.0396 -0.4274 0.5144 -1.4933 0.8904 0.6096 1.6472
1.6281 -0.9379 0.5305 -1.4496 1.0161 0.1241 0.7338 1.4883 0.2807 -1.066 -0.5722 -1.398
-1.2763 -0.7118 0.1165 -1.2838 1.3403 0.6116 1.2424 -0.7909 1.3262 1.1618 -0.7465 -1.3493
0.9874 1.103 1.4139 -0.7306 0.7502 0.2754 -1.4638 -1.8554 -0.262 -1.4025 1.1286 0.581
0.05 1.406 -1.5171 1.0991 -0.5003 0.5477 -0.3304 -1.3809 1.1996 1.5264 -0.4637 -1.229
0.5453 0.5548 -0.2707 -1.8244 -1.3503 -0.4453 -0.7656 1.6226 1.2284 0.165 -1.2608 -1.5033
1.5111 -0.3449 1.357 -1.5764 0.5141 0.7969 1.329 -0.3882 0.6019 -0.1205 1.5476 -1.0946
-1.6761 1.3617 0.0545 -1.2584 -1.6574 -1.2073 0.8451 -0.1959 1.3976 -0.838 0.6656 0.1457
Input weight 1.4523 0.8545 1.078 -0.189 -0.4095 0.6548 1.2031 -1.4698 0.8372 1.5971 0.3872 -1.3358
0.7989 0.8457 -0.9474 0.9449 0.0907 1.2707 -1.4718 1.6473 -0.7802 0.7849 1.4075 0.6738
1.5587 0.7188 1.5397 -1.0779 0.7716 -1.3317 1.4042 1.6623 -0.0889 0.0569 -0.2108 0.6772
0.1028 1.8551 1.1812 -1.0316 -1.5239 -0.2876 0.1122 -0.3821 1.7928 0.2023 0.824 1.1461
-0.7109 -1.4798 1.4704 0.2912 1.175 0.9636 1.3765 0.9377 -1.0545 -0.6769 -0.5868 1.2511
-0.5725 1.5055 -0.8804 -0.5986 1.3724 1.1875 -0.152 0.719 -1.5786 0.7594 1.54 0.7421
0.2734 -0.7969 1.8669 -1.0559 -1.591 0.9419 0.5943 0.2302 -0.7334 0.3311 0.3362 -1.829
1.1379 1.2909 0.6285 1.5511 -0.6078 -1.3762 -0.0369 1.4864 -0.526 -1.5601 -0.2705 -0.5676
-0.8796 -0.7366 -0.16 -0.7869 0.8761 -1.3573 1.5735 1.3129 -1.537 0.9678 -0.9008 -0.5984
0.2181 0.9123 0.6171 -0.3502 0.0993 -1.5719 1.3115 -1.3089 -0.6539 -1.3321 1.5347 0.9842
-0.5823 0.8943 -1.7538 -1.2649 0.4946 1.2428 -0.294 1.4481 -0.9649 -1.1994 0.9452 0.6755
-0.1889 -1.3159 -1.3838 0.4747 0.7957 0.9406 0.9631 0.3606 -1.6267 -1.8313 0.2699 -1.0248
-0.4934 -1.9808 1.205 0.9834 0.6658 0.6883 -0.0484 -0.988 -0.8976 -0.0118 1.8441 0.8577
148
Table 6.5: The value of biases and weight of back-propagation model for MIMO network
Input weight Input biases Layer weight Layer bias

-3.6636
-3.3429
3.2057 Columns 1 through 9
-2.4122 0.0817 -0.3220 0.3446 -1.0607 0.4677
-2.5010
-1.8897 0.2858 -1.3240 0.5639 -0.7723
1.4573
1.3680
Phosphoric Acid Columns 10 through 18
-1.2361
and Refer to Table -0.7666 0.4105 -0.6183 0.6813 0.0767 1.7221 - -0.6958
-0.6790
Bleaching Earth 6.6 1.5932 -0.0777 0.4103 0.3883
0.0179
Dosage -0.2228
0.1630
1.1435
-1.1639
1.7737 -1.1388 0.3304 -0.0875 0.4984 -0.2473
2.0150 1.1032
2.3490
2.7152
-3.1045
-3.5458
3.3361
149
Table 6.6: Initial weight values for MIMO

0.8421 1.0898 0.5823 1.251 -0.6398 0.3796 -0.2826 0.3678 -1.7508 -0.0186 -1.7559 1.604
1.5517 0.4854 0.9002 1.3432 -0.5298 -0.433 0.179 0.2982 1.8816 -0.3507 1.959 0.0331
-1.7561 0.3265 0.7549 0.6214 1.5738 -0.1337 -0.7204 1.0178 -0.4598 0.5464 1.6162 1.0032
0.5632 -0.4156 -0.5648 -0.9678 -0.6254 -1.7659 1.0667 1.3197 -1.1697 1.2999 1.0634 -1.6055
Input weight 1.2162 0.1569 -0.7474 -1.8219 0.8057 -0.9951 0.9135 0.6311 1.838 1.3271 -0.2569 -0.0621
0.8845 0.7198 -1.1873 -1.2438 -1.5267 -1.0829 1.1972 0.8615 0.5755 -1.5894 -0.5916 -0.1037
-0.6966 0.8782 1.0854 2.091 1.2435 -0.7068 1.1489 0.2214 -0.3061 -1.1691 1.2779 1.2177
-1.1521 -1.6973 0.3412 -1.3405 1.3299 -0.9281 -0.2076 0.1061 -1.4279 1.0322 1.1855 0.1897
0.5182 1.538 -0.8803 0.4301 1.3102 -1.8408 -0.6124 0.1872 0.3032 1.0544 0.6228 1.4917
1.7336 0.8325 0.1129 1.9424 0.4046 0.2672 -0.3883 -1.0583 1.0081 -1.2227 1.2439 0.5695
1.7173 -1.2133 1.1573 -1.3668 0.1972 0.8203 0.4381 -0.1938 -1.4275 -0.0926 0.3925 2.0075
-0.812 0.2156 -1.5441 -0.4929 -1.7589 -0.5852 -0.8771 0.6547 -0.4494 -0.9445 1.8766 0.6674
0.437 -1.8999 -0.9557 0.9491 0.1497 0.6255 1.201 0.2423 1.9211 0.3239 1.5883 -1.1475
1.2533 0.5641 -0.4919 -0.6743 -1.5464 0.5986 -0.8889 -0.423 -1.003 -2.1441 -0.7213 1.5739
-2.2203 0.5275 1.7057 -0.3229 -1.821 -0.5086 0.363 -1.2057 0.9396 -0.3769 0.9679 -1.5467
1.3789 -0.3477 -0.695 -1.5084 -0.7181 0.8689 -1.541 -1.5639 0.071 -0.9286 -1.2246 -0.7018
-1.0196 -1.4675 1.8415 0.7059 -0.7507 -1.3863 1.6635 -0.9306 -0.5871 0.3062 -0.6851 -1.224
0.1792 0.3237 0.8088 0.7392 1.6735 0.1378 -0.3425 -1.5372 -0.0723 -1.2723 -1.9184 1.262
1.8813 -1.3963 -0.8964 0.0533 1.2412 -1.7608 -0.5555 -1.2308 -0.0606 -0.0714 -0.704 -0.1993
0.5708 1.2072 0.7805 1.0265 0.5159 1.5579 -0.9761 1.0355 0.3306 -0.2906 -1.865 -0.7993
0.4639 -1.6887 0.7967 0.8796 -1.9485 -0.8025 -0.1436 0.2138 -0.8579 1.5689 -1.0017 0.3036
-1.573 0.368 0.0005 1.4588 0.8769 1.7625 -0.236 -1.2315 0.4217 0.5327 -0.2484 1.3516
-0.7059 0.9768 -1.8318 0.5529 -1.763 0.8606 0.47 0.8686 -0.3061 1.0494 -0.226 0.9819
1.0846 -1.944 1.5007 0.9901 -1.1079 -0.2605 1.3611 -0.883 1.9582 0.4276 -0.233 -0.2145
150
6.5 Conclusion on ANN Model Analysis
In this study three ANN models were developed, which are two MISO
networks and one MIMO network. The criterion of selection for the best model is
based on the least validation error generated among these network. Thus, the
optimum network for response factor of phosphoric acid dosage and bleaching earth
dosage prediction were selected from topologies of MISO network with 12 input
nodes, 24 hidden layer nodes and one output node.
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusions
From observations of this study the following principles can be concluded;
1. The optimal operating conditions for these process operation of degumming

and bleaching processes is about 100 oC , under vacuum (~50 torr) and 30
minutes of contact time for a palm oil refinery that operating using physical
refining method.
2. The optimum number of experiment to be run for the study was determined
through Design of Experiment (DOE) method. There are 20 set of experiment
were arranged. All the 20 set of experiments with 6 quality checking
experiments each, has been determined through Central Composite Design
(CCD) technique via Response Surface Method (RSM) using Minitab 14
environment.
3. The removal or reduction level of moisture, phosphorus, peroxide value (PV)

and DOBI are mainly due to bleaching treatment process, whereas
degumming treatment is responsible for influencing the increment in FFA
152
level in CPO and DBPO. For iron, both degumming and bleaching processes
are essential to ensure the removal process run effectively.
4. Based on the experimental analysis, the range of suitable dosage of

phosphoric acid to be used is about 0.5 - 1.0wt% and bleaching earth dosage
is about 1.0 - 2.0 wt%.
5. The optimum network for response factor of phosphoric acid dosage and
bleaching earth dosage prediction were selected from topologies of MISO
network with 12 input nodes, 24 hidden layer nodes and one output node.
6.2 Recommendations
Based on the results, discussions and experimental data analysis done, these
recommendations can be taken into considerations to upgrade future studies of
degummming and bleaching processes;
1. A further study can be conducted in developing a more complex neural

network model such as stacked-neural network in order to obtain more
accurate model in predicting the amount of phosphoric acid and bleaching
earth to be added in degumming and bleaching processes of palm il refining.
159
APPENDIX A
MISO 1: MULTIPLE INPUT AND SINGLE OUPUT (PHOSPHORIC ACID DOSAGE)
clear
clc
% ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% INITIAL VALUES OF WEIGHT AND BIAS SET UP
%-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
net.IW{1,1} = [0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
net.b{1,1}= [ 0; 0; 0; 0;0; 0;0; 0; 0; 0; 0;0; 0];
net.b{2,1}=[0];
net.LW{2,1}= [ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% OBJECTIVE: TO CREATE DATA FOR TRAINING
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ffa=[ 3.05 1.21 1.35 2.90 3.69 1.48 3.12 3.23 1.36 3.09 2.90 3.76 3.81 3.65]; % input FFA in;
dobi = [3.000 3.835 2.375 2.345 2.218 3.203 2.980 2.222 3.038 2.986 2.977 2.380 2.390 3.001];
% input DOBI in;
moisture = [2.11 0.92 0.1 0.75 2.51 2.26 2.08 0.94 2.54 2.05 2.10 2.99 2.78 0.41]; % input
moisture in;
peroxide = [1.97 2.40 2.90 2.11 3.29 1.40 2.04 1.17 2.84 1.84 2.17 3.63 3.38 3.43]; % input
peroxide value in;
phosphorus = [10.18 10.30 12.02 10.72 16.84 10.46 11.14 10.46 11.06 10.51 11.03 16.00 18.2
13.44]; % input phosphorus in;
iron = [0.15 0.54 0.65 0.23 4.59 0.34 0.17 0.38 0.78 0.17 0.21 3.2 3.96 4.09]; % input iron in;
ffao=[3.40 1.42 1.42 3.14 4.48 2.30 3.32 3.84 1.39 3.46 3.30 3.97 4.07 3.87]; % input FFA out;
dobio = [1.798 1.610 1.972 1.622 1.578 1.920 1.810 2.030 3.808 1.813 1.805 2.788 2.047 1.820];
% input DOBI out;
moistureo = [0.27 0.16 0.98 0.19 0.25 0.39 0.25 0.63 2.46 0.24 0.29 2.82 3.57 0.15]; % input
moisture out;
peroxideo = [0 0 2.83 0 0 0 0 0 2.64 0 0 3.32 3.14 0]; % input peroxide value out;
phosphoruso = [4.14 4.18 10.5 3.52 3.1 3.14 4.21 10.24 10.18 4.21 4.11 15.4 16.7 11.88]; % input
phosphorus out;
160
irono= [0.11 0.28 0.04 0.12 2.07 0.24 0.13 0.13 0.49 0.12 0.18 3.19 0.44 1.31]; % input iron out;
pa = [0.5 0.5 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5 0 1 0]; % input bleaching earth;
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% OBJECTIVE: SCALED UP THE TRAINING DATA IN A RANGE OF 0 TO 1
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% minffai=1.21;
% maxffai=3.81;
[ffas,minffai,maxffai]=premnmx(ffa);
% mindobii=2.222;
% maxdobii=3.835;
[dobis,mindobii,maxdobii]=premnmx(dobi);
% minmoisturei=0.10;
% maxmoisturei=2.99;
[moistures,minmoisturei,maxmoisturei]=premnmx(moisture);
% minperoxidei=1.36;
% maxperoxidei=3.63;
[peroxides,minperoxidei,maxperoxidei]=premnmx(peroxide);
% minphosphorusi=10.18;
% maxphosphorusi=18.2;
[phosphoruss,minphosphorusi,maxphosphorusi]=premnmx(phosphorus);
% minironi=0.15;
% maxironi=4.59;
[irons,minironi,maxironi]=premnmx(iron);
% min ffaoi=1.39;
% max ffaoi= 4.48;
[ffaos,minffaoi,maxffaoi]=premnmx(ffao);
% mindobioi=1.610;
% maxdobioi=3.808;
[dobios,mindobioi,maxdobioi]=premnmx(dobio);
% minmoistureoi=0.15;
% maxmoistureoi=3.57;
[moistureos,minmoistureoi,maxmoistureoi]=premnmx(moistureo);
% minperoxideoi=0;
% maxperoxideoi=3.32;
[peroxideos,minperoxideoi,maxperoxideoi]=premnmx(peroxideo);
% minphosphorusoi=3.1;
161
% maxphosphorusoi=16.7;
[phosphorusos,minphosphorusoi,maxphosphorusoi]=premnmx(phosphoruso);
% minironoi=0.04;
% maxironoi=2.07;
[ironos,minironoi,maxironoi]=premnmx(irono);
% minpai=0;
% maxpai=1;
[pas,minpai,maxpai]=premnmx(pa);
M=14;
tinput(1,1:M)=ffas(1,1:M); % input FFA in

tinput(2,1:M)=dobis(1,1:M); % input DOBI in
tinput(3,1:M)=moistures(1,1:M); % input moisture in
tinput(4,1:M)=peroxides(1,1:M); % input peroxide in
tinput(5,1:M)=phosphoruss(1,1:M); % input phosphorus in
tinput(6,1:M)=irons(1,1:M); % input phosphorus
tinput(7,1:M)=ffaos(1,1:M); % input FFA out

tinput(8,1:M)=dobios(1,1:M); % input DOBI out
tinput(9,1:M)=moistureos(1,1:M); % input moisture out
tinput(10,1:M)=peroxideos(1,1:M); % input peroxide out
tinput(11,1:M)=phosphorusos(1,1:M); % input phosphorus out
tinput(12,1:M)=ironos(1,1:M); % input iron out
toutput(1,1:M)=pas(1,1:M); % input bleaching earth
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% OBJECTIVE: TO CREATE DATA FOR VALIDATION
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ffav =[1.25 2.94 3.10 3.04 2.84 3.74]; % input FFA in;
dobiv = [2.851 3.030 3.019 3.172 2.43 3.000]; % input DOBI in;
moisturev = [0.34 2.14 2.12 2.05 1.87 0.42]; % input moisture in;
peroxidev = [2.33 2.24 2.09 1.46 1.78 3.41]; % input peroxide value;
phosphorusv = [10.52 11.24 11.17 11.38 11.05 14.2]; % input phosphorus in;
ironv=[0.68 0.19 0.25 0.44 0.28 4.56]; % input iron in;
ffaov=[1.40 3.37 3.50 3.11 3.28 3.97]; % input FFA out;
dobiov =[1.938 1.779 1.910 1.994 1.978 2.214 ]; % input DOBI out;
162
moistureov = [0.18 0.31 0.26 0.64 2.38 0.19]; % input moisture out;
peroxideov = [0 0 0 0 1.53 0]; % input peroxide value out;
phosphorusov = [8.16 3.87 4.19 3.54 9.87 4.1]; % input phosphorus out;
ironov=[0.28 0.16 0.21 0.29 0.15 0.63]; % input iron out;
pav = [0 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5]; % input bleaching earth;

bev = [2 1 1 1 0 1]; % input bleaching earth
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% OBJECTIVE: SCALED UP THE VALIDATION.DATA IN A RANGE OF 0 TO 1
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% minffaiv=1.25;
% maxffaiv=3.74;
[ffavs,minffaiv,maxffaiv]=premnmx(ffav);
% mindobiiv=2.43;
% maxdobiiv=3.172;
[dobivs,mindobiiv,maxdobiiv]=premnmx(dobiv);
% minmoistureiv=0.34;
% maxmoistureiv=2.14;
[moisturevs,minmoistureiv,maxmoistureiv]=premnmx(moisturev);
% minperoxideiv=1.46;
% maxperoxideiv=3.41;
[peroxidevs,minperoxideiv,maxperoxideiv]=premnmx(peroxidev);
% minphosphorusiv=10.52;
% maxphosphorusiv=14.20;
[phosphorusvs,minphosphorusiv,maxphosphorusiv]=premnmx(phosphorusv);
% minironiv=0.25;
% maxironiv=4.56;
[ironvs,minironiv,maxironiv]=premnmx(ironv);
% min ffaoiv=1.40;
% max ffaoiv= 3.97;
[ffaovs,minffaoiv,maxffaoiv]=premnmx(ffaov);
% mindobioiv=1.779;
% maxdobioiv=2.214;
[dobiovs,mindobioiv,maxdobioiv]=premnmx(dobiov);
% minmoistureoiv=0.18;
% maxmoistureoiv=2.38;
163
[moistureovs,minmoistureoiv,maxmoistureoiv]=premnmx(moistureov);
% minperoxideoiv=0;
% maxperoxideoiv=1.53;
[peroxideovs,minperoxideoiv,maxperoxideoiv]=premnmx(peroxideov);
% minphosphorusoiv=4.1;
% maxphosphorusoiv=9.87;
[phosphorusovs,minphosphorusoiv,maxphosphorusoiv]=premnmx(phosphorusov);
% minironiv=0.15;
% maxironiv=0.63;
[ironovs,minironoiv,maxironoiv]=premnmx(ironv);
% minpaiv=0;
% maxpaiv=1;
[pavs,minpaiv,maxpaiv]=premnmx(pav);
X=6;
vinput(1,1:X)=ffavs(1,1:X); % input FFA in

vinput(2,1:X)=dobivs(1,1:X); % input DOBI in
vinput(3,1:X)=moisturevs(1,1:X); % input moisture in
vinput(4,1:X)=peroxidevs(1,1:X); % input peroxide in
vinput(5,1:X)=phosphorusvs(1,1:X); % input phosphorus in
vinput(6,1:X)=ironvs(1,1:X); % input iron in
vinput(7,1:X)=ffaovs(1,1:X); % input FFA out

vinput(8,1:X)=dobiovs(1,1:X); % input DOBI out
vinput(9,1:X)=moistureovs(1,1:X); % input moisture out
vinput(10,1:X)=peroxideovs(1,1:X); % input peroxide out
vinput(11,1:X)=phosphorusovs(1,1:X); % input phosphorus out
vinput(12,1:X)=ironovs(1,1:X); % input iron out
voutput(1,1:X)=pavs(1,1:X); % input bleaching earth
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% OBJECTIVE: NETWORK SETUP
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
S1=24; % Number of nodes
net=newff(minmax(tinput),[S1 1],{'logsig' 'purelin'},'trainlm');
net.trainparam.epochs=500; % Max epoch number
net.trainParam.goal=1e-5;
net.trainParam.show=10;
164
net.trainParam.max_fail=10;
net=init(net);
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
% Objective: to train, error calculation and predict the output for validation and training
% an= predicted data for training
%van=predicted data for validation
% error= predicted data- onserved data
% trainrmse= root mean square training error
% valmse= root mean square validation error
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
[net,tr]=train(net,tinput,toutput);
initIW=net.IW{1,1};
initB=net.b{1,1};
initLW=net.LW{2,1};
an=sim(net,tinput);
error=an-toutput;
trainmse=sumsqr(error)/M;
trainerr=sumsqr(error);
trainrmse=sqrt(trainerr/M);
van=sim(net,vinput);
verror=van-voutput;
valmse=sumsqr(verror)/X;
valerr=sumsqr(verror);
valrmse=sqrt(valerr/X);
165
APPENDIX B
MISO 2: MULTIPLE INPUT AND SINGLE OUPUT (BLEACHING EARTH DOSAGE)
clear
clc
% ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
net.IW{1,1} = [0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
net.b{1,1}= [ 0; 0; 0; 0;0; 0;0; 0; 0; 0; 0;0; 0];
net.b{2,1}=[0];
net.LW{2,1}= [ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ffa=[ 3.05 1.21 1.35 2.90 3.69 1.48 3.12 3.23 1.36 3.09 2.90 3.76 3.81 3.65]; % input FFA in;
dobi = [3.000 3.835 2.375 2.345 2.218 3.203 2.980 2.222 3.038 2.986 2.977 2.380 2.390 3.001];
% input DOBI in;
moisture = [2.11 0.92 0.1 0.75 2.51 2.26 2.08 0.94 2.54 2.05 2.10 2.99 2.78 0.41]; % input
moisture in;
peroxide = [1.97 2.40 2.90 2.11 3.29 1.40 2.04 1.17 2.84 1.84 2.17 3.63 3.38 3.43]; % input
peroxide value in;
phosphorus = [10.18 10.30 12.02 10.72 16.84 10.46 11.14 10.46 11.06 10.51 11.03 16.00 18.2
dobio = [1.798 1.610 1.972 1.622 1.578 1.920 1.810 2.030 3.808 1.813 1.805 2.788 2.047 1.820];
% input DOBI out;
moistureo = [0.27 0.16 0.98 0.19 0.25 0.39 0.25 0.63 2.46 0.24 0.29 2.82 3.57 0.15]; % input
moisture out;
166
phosphorus out;
be = [1 1 0 2 2 2 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 2]; % input bleaching earth;
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% minffai=1.21;
% maxffai=3.81;
% mindobii=2.222;
% maxdobii=3.835;
% minironi=0.15;
% maxironi=4.59;
% min ffaoi=1.39;
% max ffaoi= 4.48;
% mindobioi=1.610;
% maxdobioi=3.808;
% minperoxideoi=0;
167
% minironoi=0.04;
% maxironoi=2.07;
% minbei=0;
% maxbei=2;
[bes,minbei,maxbei]=premnmx(be);
M=14;


toutput(1,1:M)=bes(1,1:M); % input bleaching earth
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ffav =[1.25 2.94 3.10 3.04 2.84 3.74]; % input FFA in;

168
bev = [2 1 1 1 0 1]; % input bleaching earth;
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% minffaiv=1.25;
% maxffaiv=3.74;
% mindobiiv=2.43;
% maxdobiiv=3.172;
% minironiv=0.25;
% maxironiv=4.56;
% min ffaoiv=1.40;
% max ffaoiv= 3.97;
% mindobioiv=1.779;
% maxdobioiv=2.214;
169
% minperoxideoiv=0;
% minironiv=0.15;
% maxironiv=0.63;
% minbeiv=0;
% maxbeiv=2;
[bevs,minbeiv,maxbeiv]=premnmx(bev);
X=6;


voutput(1,1:X)=bevs(1,1:X); % input bleaching earth
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
170
net=init(net);
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
initIW=net.IW{1,1};
initB=net.b{1,1};
initLW=net.LW{2,1};
an=sim(net,tinput);
error=an-toutput;
verror=van-voutput;
171
APPENDIX C
MIMO 1: MULTIPLE INPUT MULTIPLE OUPUT
clear
clc
% ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
net.IW{1,1} = [0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
net.b{1,1}= [ 0; 0; 0; 0;0; 0;0; 0; 0; 0; 0;0; 0;0];
net.b{2,1}=[0];
net.LW{2,1}= [ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ffa=[ 3.05 1.21 1.35 2.90 3.69 1.48 3.12 3.23 1.36 3.09 2.90 3.76 3.81 3.65]; % input FFA in;
dobi = [3.000 3.835 2.375 2.345 2.218 3.203 2.980 2.222 3.038 2.986 2.977 2.380 2.390 3.001];
% input DOBI in;
moisture = [2.11 0.92 0.1 0.75 2.51 2.26 2.08 0.94 2.54 2.05 2.10 2.99 2.78 0.41]; % input
moisture in;
peroxide = [1.97 2.40 2.90 2.11 3.29 1.40 2.04 1.17 2.84 1.84 2.17 3.63 3.38 3.43]; % input
peroxide value in;
phosphorus = [10.18 10.30 12.02 10.72 16.84 10.46 11.14 10.46 11.06 10.51 11.03 16.00 18.2
dobio = [1.798 1.610 1.972 1.622 1.578 1.920 1.810 2.030 3.808 1.813 1.805 2.788 2.047 1.820];
% input DOBI out;
moistureo = [0.27 0.16 0.98 0.19 0.25 0.39 0.25 0.63 2.46 0.24 0.29 2.82 3.57 0.15]; % input
moisture out;
172
phosphorus out;
pa = [0.5 0.5 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5 0 1 0]; % input phosphoric acid;
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% minffai=1.21;
% maxffai=3.81;
% mindobii=2.222;
% maxdobii=3.835;
% minironi=0.15;
% maxironi=4.59;
% min ffaoi=1.39;
% max ffaoi= 4.48;
% mindobioi=1.610;
% maxdobioi=3.808;
% minperoxideoi=0;
173
% minironoi=0.04;
% maxironoi=2.07;
% minpai=0;
% maxpai=1;
% minbei=0;
% maxbei=2;
M=14;


toutput(1,1:M)=pas(1,1:M); % input phosphoric acid
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ffav =[1.25 2.94 3.10 3.04 2.84 3.74]; % input FFA in;

174
pav = [0 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5]; % input phosphoric acid;
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% minffaiv=1.25;
% maxffaiv=3.74;
% mindobiiv=2.43;
% maxdobiiv=3.172;
% minironiv=0.25;
% maxironiv=4.56;
% min ffaoiv=1.40;
% max ffaoiv= 3.97;
175
% mindobioiv=1.779;
% maxdobioiv=2.214;
% minperoxideoiv=0;
% minironiv=0.15;
% maxironiv=0.63;
% minpaiv=0;
% maxpaiv=1;
% minbeiv=0;
% maxbeiv=2;
X=6;


voutput(1,1:X)=pavs(1,1:X); % input phosphoric acid
176
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
net=init(net);
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
initIW=net.IW{1,1};
initB=net.b{1,1};
initLW=net.LW{2,1};
an=sim(net,tinput);
error=an-toutput;
verror=van-voutput;
153
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MISO 2: MULTIPLE INPUT AND SINGLE OUPUT (BLEACHING EARTH DOSAGE)
clear
clc
% ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
net.IW{1,1} = [0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
net.b{1,1}= [ 0; 0; 0; 0;0; 0;0; 0; 0; 0; 0;0; 0];
net.b{2,1}=[0];
net.LW{2,1}= [ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ffa=[ 3.05 1.21 1.35 2.90 3.69 1.48 3.12 3.23 1.36 3.09 2.90 3.76 3.81 3.65]; % input FFA in;
dobi = [3.000 3.835 2.375 2.345 2.218 3.203 2.980 2.222 3.038 2.986 2.977 2.380 2.390 3.001];
% input DOBI in;
moisture = [2.11 0.92 0.1 0.75 2.51 2.26 2.08 0.94 2.54 2.05 2.10 2.99 2.78 0.41]; % input
moisture in;
peroxide = [1.97 2.40 2.90 2.11 3.29 1.40 2.04 1.17 2.84 1.84 2.17 3.63 3.38 3.43]; % input
peroxide value in;
phosphorus = [10.18 10.30 12.02 10.72 16.84 10.46 11.14 10.46 11.06 10.51 11.03 16.00 18.2
dobio = [1.798 1.610 1.972 1.622 1.578 1.920 1.810 2.030 3.808 1.813 1.805 2.788 2.047 1.820];
% input DOBI out;
moistureo = [0.27 0.16 0.98 0.19 0.25 0.39 0.25 0.63 2.46 0.24 0.29 2.82 3.57 0.15]; % input
moisture out;
phosphorus out;
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% minffai=1.21;
% maxffai=3.81;
% mindobii=2.222;
% maxdobii=3.835;
% minironi=0.15;
% maxironi=4.59;
% min ffaoi=1.39;
% max ffaoi= 4.48;
% mindobioi=1.610;
% maxdobioi=3.808;
% minperoxideoi=0;
% minironoi=0.04;
% maxironoi=2.07;
% minbei=0;
% maxbei=2;
M=14;


%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ffav =[1.25 2.94 3.10 3.04 2.84 3.74]; % input FFA in;

%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% minffaiv=1.25;
% maxffaiv=3.74;
% mindobiiv=2.43;
% maxdobiiv=3.172;
% minironiv=0.25;
% maxironiv=4.56;
% min ffaoiv=1.40;
% max ffaoiv= 3.97;
% mindobioiv=1.779;
% maxdobioiv=2.214;
% minperoxideoiv=0;
% minironiv=0.15;
% maxironiv=0.63;
% minbeiv=0;
% maxbeiv=2;
X=6;


%-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
net=init(net);
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
initIW=net.IW{1,1};
initB=net.b{1,1};
initLW=net.LW{2,1};
an=sim(net,tinput);
error=an-toutput;
verror=van-voutput;
MISO 1: MULTIPLE INPUT AND SINGLE OUPUT (PHOSPHORIC ACID DOSAGE)
clear
clc
% ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
net.IW{1,1} = [0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
net.b{1,1}= [ 0; 0; 0; 0;0; 0;0; 0; 0; 0; 0;0; 0];
net.b{2,1}=[0];
net.LW{2,1}= [ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ffa=[ 3.05 1.21 1.35 2.90 3.69 1.48 3.12 3.23 1.36 3.09 2.90 3.76 3.81 3.65]; % input FFA in;
dobi = [3.000 3.835 2.375 2.345 2.218 3.203 2.980 2.222 3.038 2.986 2.977 2.380 2.390 3.001];
% input DOBI in;
moisture = [2.11 0.92 0.1 0.75 2.51 2.26 2.08 0.94 2.54 2.05 2.10 2.99 2.78 0.41]; % input
moisture in;
peroxide = [1.97 2.40 2.90 2.11 3.29 1.40 2.04 1.17 2.84 1.84 2.17 3.63 3.38 3.43]; % input
peroxide value in;
phosphorus = [10.18 10.30 12.02 10.72 16.84 10.46 11.14 10.46 11.06 10.51 11.03 16.00 18.2
dobio = [1.798 1.610 1.972 1.622 1.578 1.920 1.810 2.030 3.808 1.813 1.805 2.788 2.047 1.820];
% input DOBI out;
moistureo = [0.27 0.16 0.98 0.19 0.25 0.39 0.25 0.63 2.46 0.24 0.29 2.82 3.57 0.15]; % input
moisture out;
phosphorus out;
pa = [0.5 0.5 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5 0 1 0]; % input bleaching earth;
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% minffai=1.21;
% maxffai=3.81;
% mindobii=2.222;
% maxdobii=3.835;
% minironi=0.15;
% maxironi=4.59;
% min ffaoi=1.39;
% max ffaoi= 4.48;
% mindobioi=1.610;
% maxdobioi=3.808;
% minperoxideoi=0;
% minironoi=0.04;
% maxironoi=2.07;
% minpai=0;
% maxpai=1;
M=14;


toutput(1,1:M)=pas(1,1:M); % input bleaching earth
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ffav =[1.25 2.94 3.10 3.04 2.84 3.74]; % input FFA in;

pav = [0 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5]; % input bleaching earth;

bev = [2 1 1 1 0 1]; % input bleaching earth
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% minffaiv=1.25;
% maxffaiv=3.74;
% mindobiiv=2.43;
% maxdobiiv=3.172;
% minironiv=0.25;
% maxironiv=4.56;
% min ffaoiv=1.40;
% max ffaoiv= 3.97;
% mindobioiv=1.779;
% maxdobioiv=2.214;
% minperoxideoiv=0;
% minironiv=0.15;
% maxironiv=0.63;
% minpaiv=0;
% maxpaiv=1;
X=6;


voutput(1,1:X)=pavs(1,1:X); % input bleaching earth
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
net=init(net);
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
initIW=net.IW{1,1};
initB=net.b{1,1};
initLW=net.LW{2,1};
an=sim(net,tinput);
error=an-toutput;
verror=van-voutput;
MIMO 1: MULTIPLE INPUT MULTIPLE OUPUT
clear
clc
% ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
net.IW{1,1} = [0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
net.b{1,1}= [ 0; 0; 0; 0;0; 0;0; 0; 0; 0; 0;0; 0;0];
net.b{2,1}=[0];
net.LW{2,1}= [ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0];
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ffa=[ 3.05 1.21 1.35 2.90 3.69 1.48 3.12 3.23 1.36 3.09 2.90 3.76 3.81 3.65]; % input FFA in;
dobi = [3.000 3.835 2.375 2.345 2.218 3.203 2.980 2.222 3.038 2.986 2.977 2.380 2.390 3.001];
% input DOBI in;
moisture = [2.11 0.92 0.1 0.75 2.51 2.26 2.08 0.94 2.54 2.05 2.10 2.99 2.78 0.41]; % input
moisture in;
peroxide = [1.97 2.40 2.90 2.11 3.29 1.40 2.04 1.17 2.84 1.84 2.17 3.63 3.38 3.43]; % input
peroxide value in;
phosphorus = [10.18 10.30 12.02 10.72 16.84 10.46 11.14 10.46 11.06 10.51 11.03 16.00 18.2
dobio = [1.798 1.610 1.972 1.622 1.578 1.920 1.810 2.030 3.808 1.813 1.805 2.788 2.047 1.820];
% input DOBI out;
moistureo = [0.27 0.16 0.98 0.19 0.25 0.39 0.25 0.63 2.46 0.24 0.29 2.82 3.57 0.15]; % input
moisture out;
phosphorus out;
pa = [0.5 0.5 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5 0 1 0]; % input phosphoric acid;
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% minffai=1.21;
% maxffai=3.81;
% mindobii=2.222;
% maxdobii=3.835;
% minironi=0.15;
% maxironi=4.59;
% min ffaoi=1.39;
% max ffaoi= 4.48;
% mindobioi=1.610;
% maxdobioi=3.808;
% minperoxideoi=0;
% minironoi=0.04;
% maxironoi=2.07;
% minpai=0;
% maxpai=1;
% minbei=0;
% maxbei=2;
M=14;


toutput(1,1:M)=pas(1,1:M); % input phosphoric acid
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ffav =[1.25 2.94 3.10 3.04 2.84 3.74]; % input FFA in;
pav = [0 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5]; % input phosphoric acid;
%--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% minffaiv=1.25;
% maxffaiv=3.74;
% mindobiiv=2.43;
% maxdobiiv=3.172;
% minironiv=0.25;
% maxironiv=4.56;
% min ffaoiv=1.40;
% max ffaoiv= 3.97;
% mindobioiv=1.779;
% maxdobioiv=2.214;
% minperoxideoiv=0;
% minironiv=0.15;
% maxironiv=0.63;
% minpaiv=0;
% maxpaiv=1;
% minbeiv=0;
% maxbeiv=2;
X=6;


voutput(1,1:X)=pavs(1,1:X); % input phosphoric acid
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
%-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
net=init(net);
%---------------------------------------------------------------------
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
initIW=net.IW{1,1};
initB=net.b{1,1};
initLW=net.LW{2,1};
an=sim(net,tinput);
error=an-toutput;
verror=van-voutput;

Bleaching Effect On Palm Oil

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Bleaching Effect On Palm Oil

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PROCESS DESIGN IN DEGUMMING AND BLEACHING OF

RESEARCH VOTE NO: 74198

PROF. MADYA DR. NOOR AZIAN MORAD

CENTRE OF LIPIDS ENGINEERING AND APPLIED RESEARCH

“I declare that thesis entitled PROCESS DESIGN OF DEGUMMING AND

Signature of the author:…………………………………………..

Not to forget, this work is lovingly and respectfully in honour of my wonderful

I also wish to thank the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation

Industri kelapa sawit (Elaeis guineensis) adalah merupakan salah satu

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

2.2 What is Crude Palm Oil (CPO)? 14

3 THEORY OF DEGUMMING AND BLEACHING

3.1.1.6 Membrane Degumming 50

4 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS (DOE) & ARTIFICIAL NEURAL

4.2.5 Neural Network Development 82

5.1 Overall Research 87

6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

TABLES NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 World Major Producers Of Palm Oil : 1994 - 2003 2

1.2 World Major Exporters Of Palm Oil : 1994 - 2003 3

2.1 General Compositions Of Crude Palm Oil 15

2.2 Typical composition of the main components

2.3 Refinability of CPO according to DOBI values 19

2.4 PORAM Standard Specifications for Refined Palm Oils 21

2.5 Typical Analysis of Crude, Degummed & Bleached

2.6 Ideal quality targets of Crude Palm Oil 34

3.1 Composition of Phospholipids of Palm Oil (mole %) 54

5.1 Details on the plant visit activities conducted 89

5.2 Optimum operating condition for a typical configuration

5.3 Experiment sequence by DOE 96

5.4 Weight of sample for palm oil acidity test 97

5.5 List of independent variables 112

5.6 Input variables and output response factor for model

5.7 The Detailed MISO and MIMO network structure 117

6.1 Training and Validation Error of MISO and MIMO

6.2 The value of biases and weight for back-propagation model

6.3 Initial weight values for MISO 1 146

6.4 Initial weight values for MISO 2 147

6.5 The value of biases and weight of back-propagation model

6.6 Initial weight values for MIMO 149

FIGURES NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 Cross-section of palm oil fruit 1

2.1 Palm Oil Tree 10

2.2 Elaeis guineensis 10

2.3 Tenera Hybrid obtained from Dura and Pisifera Parents 11

2.4 Composition of Palm Oil Fruit 12

2.5 Composition of Palm Oil Mesocarp 12

2.6 Variety of palm oil-based food products 13

2.7 Flowchart of crude palm oil (CPO) production. 14

2.8 Chemical and physical refining routes. 26

2.9 Simplified Flowsheet of Physical Refining 29

2.11 Effect of Bleaching Time on Oil Colour, Peroxide Value (PV)

2.12 Effect of Bleaching Temperature on Oil Colour 36

2.13 Effect of Bleaching Temperature on Free Fatty Acid 37

2.14 Effect of Bleaching Temperature on PV and AV of Palm Oil 38

2.15 Effect of Bleaching Dosage on Colour of Palm Oil 39

2.16 Effect of Bleaching Dosage on PV and AV of Palm Oil 40