Best Practices Manual-COGENERATION

B E S T P R ACT I CE MANU AL
COGE N E R AT I ON
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................2
1.1 BACKGROUND .........................................................................................................................................2
2 WHAT IS COGENERATION?.......................................................................................3
2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................3
2.2 HEAT-TO-POWER RATIO........................................................................................................................4
2.3 COGENERATION EQUIPMENT - COMBINATIONS ................................................................................4
3 TYPES OF COGENERATION SYSTEMS....................................................................6
3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................6
3.2 COGENERATION IN INDUSTRIES ...........................................................................................................6
3.3 COGENERATION TECHNOLOGY ............................................................................................................6
3.4 FACTORS FOR SELECTION OF COGENERATION SYSTEM...............................................................11
3.5 TECHNO-ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES OF COGENERATION TECHNOLOGY .....................................13
3.6 W HY COGENERATION FOR INDUSTRY ...............................................................................................13
4 COGENERATION WITH STEAM TURBINE CYCLE.................................................16
4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................16
4.2 PERFORMANCE OF STEAM TURBINES ..............................................................................................16
4.3 PRACTICES FOR OPTIMISING STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE ...................................................17
5 COGENERATION WITH GAS TURBINE CYCLE .....................................................19
5.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................19
5.2 PERFORMANCE OF GAS TURBINES ..................................................................................................19
5.3 PRACTICES FOR OPTIMAL GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE .............................................................20
5.4 SPECIFIC PRACTICES FOR OPTIMIZING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE .......................................21
5.5 W ASTE HEAT RECOVERY FOR STEAM GENERATION/HVAC/HEATING ........................................24
5.6 STEAM GENERATION/COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY ...........................................................................25
5.7 POINTS REQUIRING ATTENTION FOR OPTIMISATION .........................................................................25
6 COGENERATION WITH RECIPROCATING ENGINE CYCLE.................................29
6.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................29
6.2 RECIPROCATING ENGINES ..................................................................................................................29
6.3 PRACTICES FOR OPTIMISING RECIPROCATING ENGINE PERFORMANCE ....................................30
6.4 SPECIFIC PRACTICES FOR RECIPROCATING ENGINE PERFORMANCE ........................................31
7 CASE STUDIES ..........................................................................................................35
7.1 BACK-PRESSURE STEAM TURBINE AND BAGASSE FIRED BOILER-SUGAR MILL .......................35
7.2 EXTRACTION-CUM-BACK PRESSURE STEAM TURBINE AND LIGNITE/ COAL FIRED BOILERS -
CAUSTIC SODA INDUSTRY ..............................................................................................................................40
7.3 GAS TURBINE GENERATOR AND UNFIRED WASTE HEAT BOILER-PHARMACEUTICAL
INDUSTRY ...........................................................................................................................................................48
7.4 GAS TURBINE GENERATOR, STEAM TURBINE GENERATOR, UNFIRED WASTE HEAT
RECOVERY BOILER AND ABSORPTION CHILLER –COMMERCIAL BUILDING ............................................53
7.5 RECIPROCATING ENGINE GENERATOR AND UNFIRED WASTE HEAT BOILER- CHLOR ALKALI
INDUSTRY ...........................................................................................................................................................57
7.6 RECIPROCATING ENGINE GENERATOR, UNFIRED WASTE HEAT RECOVERY BOILER-
AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY ..................................................................................................................................62
7.7 INLET AIR COOLING FOR A COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT-PAPER INDUSTRY ..................68
8 LIST OF REFERENCES .............................................................................................70
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Cogeneration first appeared in late 1880.s in Europe and in the U.S.A. during the early parts of
the 20th century, when most industrial plants generated their own electricity using coal-fired
boilers and steam-turbine generators. Many of the plants used the exhaust steam for industrial
processes.
When central electric power plants and reliable utility grids were constructed and the
costs of electricity decreased, many industrial plants began purchasing electricity and stopped
producing their own. Other factors that contributed to the decline of industrial cogeneration
were the increasing regulation of electric generation, low energy costs which represent a
small percentage of industrial costs, advances in technology such as packaged boilers,
availability of liquid or gaseous fuels at low prices, and tightening environmental restrictions.
The aforementioned trend in cogeneration started being inverted after the first dramatic rise of
fuel costs in 1973. Systems that are efficient and can utilise alternative fuels have become
more important in the face of price rises and uncertainty of fuel supplies. In addition to
decreased fuel consumption, cogeneration results in a decrease of pollutant emissions. For
these reasons, governments in Europe, U.S.A. South East Asia and Japan are taking an
active role in the increased use of cogeneration.
In India, the policy changes resulting from modernized electricity regulatory rules have induced
710 MW of new local power generation projects in Sugar Industry.
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2 WHAT IS COGENERATION?
2.1 Introduction
By definition, Cogeneration is on-site generation and utilisation of energy in different forms

simultaneously by utilising fuel energy at optimum efficiency in a cost-effective and
environmentally responsible way. Cogeneration systems are of several types and almost all
types primarily generate electricity along with making the best practical use of the heat, which is
an inevitable by-product.
The most prevalent example of cogeneration is the generation of electric power and heat. The
heat may be used for generating steam, hot water, or for cooling through absorption chillers. In
a broad sense, the system, that produces useful energy in several forms by utilising the energy
in the fuel such that overall efficiency of the system is very high, can be classified as
Cogeneration System or as a Total Energy System. The concept is very simple to understand
as can be seen from following points.
o Conventional utility power plants utilise the high potential energy available in the fuels
at the end of combustion process to generate electric power. However, substantial
portion of the low-end residual energy goes to waste by rejection to cooling tower and
in the form of high temperature flue gases.
o On the other hand, a cogeneration process utilises first the high-end potential energy to
generate electric power and then capitalises on the low-end residual energy to work for
heating process, equipment or such similar use.
Consider the following scenario. A plant require 24 units of electrical energy and 34 units of
steam for its processes. If the electricity requirement is to be met from a centralised power plant
(grid power) and steam from a fuel fired steam boiler, the total fuel input needed is 100 units.
Refer figure-2.1 (top)
Figure 2-1: Cogeneration (Bottom) compared with conventional generation (top)
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If the same end use of 24 units of electricity and 34 units of heat, by opting for the cogeneration
route , as in fig 2.1 ( bottom), fuel input requirement would be only 68 units compared to 100
units with conventional generation.
For the industries in need of energy in different forms such as electricity and steam, (most
widely used form of heat energy), the cogeneration is the right solution due to its viability from
technical, economical as well as environmental angle.
2.2 Heat-to-Power ratio
Heat-to-power ratio is one of the most vital technical parameters influencing the selection of
cogeneration system. If the heat-to-power ratio of industry can be matched with the
characteristics of the cogeneration system being considered, the system optimisation would be
achieved in real sense.
Definition of heat-to-power ratio is thermal energy to electrical energy required by the industry.
Basic heat-to power ratios of the cogeneration system variants are shown in Table 2.1 below
along with some technical parameters. The steam turbine based cogeneration system can be
considered over a large range of heat-to-power ratios.
T able 2 -1 : Heat-to-Power ratios and other Parameters of Cogen Systems

Heat-to-power Power Output Overall
Cogeneration System ratio (as percent Efficiency
(kWth/kWe) of fuel input) %
Back-pressure steam turbine 4.0 – 14.3 14 – 28 84 – 92
Extraction-condensing steam 2.0 – 10 22 – 40 60 – 80
turbine
Gas turbine 1.3 – 2.0 24 – 35 70 – 85
Combined cycle (Gas plus steam 1.0 – 1.7 34 – 40 69 – 83
turbine)
Reciprocating engine 1.1 – 2.5 33 - 53 75 - 85
2.3 Cogeneration equipment - combinations
Cogeneration technology uses different combinations of power and heat producing equipment,
which are numerous. Most widely used combinations are mentioned below.
i. Steam turbine & fired boiler based cogeneration system
Boiler Steam turbine

Coal/Lignite fired plant Back-pressure steam turbine
Liquid Fuel fired plant Extraction & condensing steam turbine
Natural gas fired plant Extraction & back-pressure steam turbine
Bagasse/Husk fired plant
ii. Gas turbine based cogeneration system
Gas turbine generator Waste heat recovery

Natural gas fired plant Steam generation in unfired/supplementary
Liquid fuel fired plant fired/fully fired waste heat recovery boiler
Utilisation of steam directly in process
Utilisation of steam for power generation
From steam turbine generator
[Cogeneration-cum-combined cycle]
Absorption Chiller [CHP System]
Utilisation of heat for direct heating
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iii. Reciprocating engine based cogeneration system
Reciprocating engine Waste heat recovery

Liquid fuel fired plant Steam generation in unfired/supplementary
Natural gas fired plant fired waste heat recovery boiler
Absorption Chiller [CHP System]
Utilisation of steam directly in process
Utilisation of heat for direct heating
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3 TYPES OF COGENERATION SYSTEMS
3.1 Introduction
It is needless to mention that unless all required aspects are considered at the conceptual
stage of cogeneration system by the industry, no best practice would be able to provide and
maintain the optimum performance at its operational stage. Hence, it is essential to conduct
detailed feasibility study while selecting the cogeneration system for particular type of industry.
The cogeneration system suitable to one industry would not be found suitable for another
industry, though both would be manufacturing the same product. Choosing of right type of
cogeneration system would boost the industry’s economics, provide energy in reliable way,
improve environmental performance, etc. The feasibility study at conceptual stage is better
known as the optimisation study.
3.2 Cogeneration in industries
All continuous process chemical plants such as fertilizers, petrochemicals, hydrocarbon

refineries, paper and pulp manufacturing units, food processing, dairy plants, pharmaceuticals,
sugar mills, etc always require an uninterrupted input of energy in the form of electric power
and steam to sustain the critical chemical processes. It is established fact that if these types of
industrial plants set up the cogeneration systems with an appropriate power-and-heat balance,
they would be able to achieve optimum cogeneration plant efficiency with best possible use of
fuel, the primary source of energy.
Small continuous process chemical industrial units generally depend on the grid power, while
generating process steam through conventional fired industrial boilers. Large and medium
scale chemical industries can implement duly engineered feasible cogeneration system to meet
their requirement of essential energy inputs - power and steam (at a desired parameters)
achieving better availability, reliability and economics of the plant operations.
3.3 Cogeneration technology
A proper selection of a cogeneration system configuration, from a few basic system

configurations described below, makes it feasible to produce first either electrical energy or
thermal energy.
1 Steam turbine based cogeneration system

2 Gas turbine based cogeneration system
3 Combined steam/gas turbine based cogeneration system
4 Reciprocating engine based cogeneration system
Most widely used cogeneration systems in the chemical process industrial plants are based on
steam turbine, gas turbine or combined steam/gas turbine configurations with installations
based on reciprocating engine configuration in moderate number. These configurations are
widely accepted by the industries due to their proven track record and easy commercial
availability of required equipment. The cogeneration system based on sterling engine concept
is still under development stage and hence not described in further detail.
All combinations of cogeneration systems are based on the First and Second Laws of
Thermodynamics. Basic concepts of possible different configurations of cogeneration systems,
consisting of a primary energy source, a prime mover driven electric power generator and
arrangement to use the waste heat energy rejected from the prime mover, are briefly described
along with the system schematic diagrams.
3.3.1 Steam turbine based cogeneration system
This system works on the principle of Rankine cycle of heat balance. In Rankine cycle, the fuel
is first fired in a suitable boiler to generate high-pressure steam at predetermined parameters.
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The steam so produced is then expanded through a steam turbine to produce mechanical
power/ electricity and a low-pressure steam. The steam turbine could be of backpressure type,
extraction-cum-condensed type or extraction-cum-back pressure type depending on different
levels and parameters at which the steam is required by the chemical process in that particular
plant. Cogeneration system with backpressure steam turbine is schematically represented in
Fig.3.1.
Chimney Stack
HP steam to steam turbine

Backpressure
steam turbine
Fired generator
Boiler
Single PRV
Pressure
Bled
Steam
Fuel input Air

input Exhaust
steam
to process
Pr ocess
Deaer ator Consumer
Condensate return
to boiler
Boiler feed pump
F igu r e 3 -1 : Backpressure steam turbine based cogeneration system
In a conventional fossil fuel fired power plant, maximum fuel efficiency of about 35% is
achieved. Maximum heat loss occurs by way of the heat rejection in a steam condenser where
a straight condensing steam turbine is used. Some improvement in the efficiency could be
attained through extraction-cum-condensing steam turbine instead of straight condensing type
as shown in Fig.3.2. The steam so extracted could be supplied to either process consumer or to
heat the feed water before it enters into boiler. As seen from above, the rejected heat energy
from the steam turbine is most efficiently used to meet the thermal energy requirement of that
particular chemical process by adopting non-condensing steam turbine based cogeneration
system. The overall efficiency of around 80-85% is achieved in this type of plant configuration.
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Chimney Stack
HP steam to steam turbine
Extraction-cum-condensing
Steam turbine Generator
Fired PRV
Boiler
Single
Press Bled
Steam
Fuel input
Air input
CW out
Pr ocess S t eam
Consumer Condenser
Deaerator
CW in
Hot well
Boiler feed pump Condensate

extraction pump
F igu r e 3 -2 Extraction-cum-condensing steam turbine based cogeneration system
The selection of steam turbine for a particular cogeneration application depends on process
steam demand at one or more pressure/temperature levels, the electric load to be driven,
power and steam demand variations, essentiality of steam for process, etc. The steam to power
ratio also plays a role in selection of the steam turbine. Generation of very high-pressure steam
and low back pressure at steam turbine exhaust would result into small steam to power ratio.
Smaller value of ratio would indicate the lower utilisation value of steam for heating or process
purpose. The flexibility in steam to power ratio can be obtained by using steam turbines with
regulated extraction.
Steam turbine based cogeneration systems can be fired with variety of fossil fuels like coal,
lignite, furnace oil, residual fuel oil, natural gas or non-conventional fuels like bio-gas, bagasse,
municipal waste, husk, etc. Hence, the fuel flexibility for this type of system is excellent.
However, this configuration is not recommended for smaller installations as it is more expensive
and maintenance oriented. It is also not feasible to adopt this system if the chemical industry is
located nearer to a populated area, as it becomes a major source of environmental pollution
depending upon type of fuel used, i.e. coal, lignite or furnace oil.
3.3.2 Gas turbine based cogeneration system
This type of system works on the basic principle of Bryton cycle of thermodynamics. Air drawn
from the atmosphere is compressed and mixed in a predetermined proportion with the fuel in a
combustor, in which the combustion takes place. The flue gases with a very high temperature
from the combustor are expanded through a gas turbine, which drives electric generator and air
compressor. A portion of mechanical power is used for compression of the combustion air: the
balance is converted into electric power. The exhaust flue gases from the gas turbine, typically
0
at a high temperature of 480-540 C, acts as a heat source from which the heat is recovered in
the form of steam or hot air for any desired industrial application.
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Industrial gas turbine based power plants installed to generate only electric power operate at
the thermal efficiency of 25-35% only depending of type and size of gas turbine. Aero derivative
gas turbines operate at marginal higher efficiency than the conventional industrial heavy-duty
machines. With recovery of heat in exhaust flue gases in a waste heat recovery boiler (WHRB)
or heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) to generate the steam, overall plant efficiency of
around 85-90% is easily achieved. As an alternative, the heat of exhaust flue gases can also be
diverted to heat exchanger to generate hot water or hot air (District Heating purpose in foreign
countries) instead of generating steam. Figure 3.3 shows a schematic of Gas Turbine based
cogeneration system.
Main stack Steam to process
Pr ocess
Single PRV Consumer
Pressure
WHRB Bled
Steam Condensate
Return
Bypass stack
Deaerator
Damper
Supplementary
Fuel firing
Boiler feed pump
Fuel input to GT
Air input
Combustion
Chamber
Generator Turbine Compressor
Figure 3-3: Gas turbine based cogeneration system with supplementary fired WHRB
Compared to steam turbine based cogeneration system, the gas turbine based cogeneration
system is ideal for the chemical process industries where the demand of steam is relatively high
and fairly constant in comparison to that of steam.
Gas turbine based cogeneration system gives a better performance with clean fuels like natural
gas, or non-ash bearing or low ash bearing liquid hydrocarbon fuels like Naphtha, High speed
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diesel, etc. Though high ash bearing hydrocarbon based fuels like fuel oil, crude oil or residual
fuel oil can also be fired in the gas turbines, but with some inherent problems like frequent
cleaning of gas turbine, more maintenance and spares, etc.
Another major drawback is that when the demand of power drops below 80% of gas turbine
capacity, the specific fuel consumption increases and the steam output from WHRB also drops.
The steam output can be maintained by resorting to a supplementary fuel firing in WHRB. The
burners for supplementary firing are generally installed in the exhaust flue duct provided
between the gas turbine and WHRB, and are designed to enable WHRB to maintain full steam
output even when the gas turbine is partly loaded. This system ensures a high flexibility in
design and operation of the plant, as it is possible to widely vary ratio of steam to power loads
without very much affecting the overall plant efficiency. In case of exhaust duct based
supplementary firing, the fuel requirement is substantially reduced proportionate to additional
steam generated due to presence of about 15% hot unburned Oxygen in exhaust flue gases.
The gas turbine based cogeneration scheme with the supplementary-fired WHRB, with firing in
duct between gas turbine and WHRB, is shown in Fig. 3. If supplementary firing is not provided,
it is becomes a simple cogeneration system consisting of gas turbine generator and WHRB.
3.3.3 Combined steam/gas turbine based cogeneration system
It is clear from the title of system itself that it works on the basis of combination of both Rankine
and Bryton cycles, and hence it is called combined steam/gas turbine based cogeneration
system. In this system, fuel energy is first utilised in operating the gas turbine as described in
Gas turbine based cogeneration system. Waste heat of high temperature exhaust flue gases
from the gas turbine is recovered in WHRB to generate a high-pressure steam. This high-
pressure steam is expanded through a back-pressure steam turbine, or an extraction-cum-back
pressure steam turbine, or an extraction-cum-condensing steam turbine to generate some
additional electric power. The low-pressure steam available either from the exhaust of back-
pressure steam turbine or from extraction is supplied to the process consumer. Such
combination of two cycles gives a definite thermodynamic advantage with very high fuel
utilisation factor under various operating conditions.
When the ratio of electrical power to thermal load is high, the cogeneration plant based on
combined cycle principle provides better results than the plant based on only back pressure
steam turbine due to availability of additional power from steam turbine, besides low pressure
steam, without firing of any extra fuel. If supplementary firing is resorted to in WHRB, as
mentioned in case of Gas Turbine based system, to maintain steam supply during low loads on
gas turbine, the operational flexibility of such plants can be brought nearer to extraction-cum-
condensing steam turbine.
The process in which the demand of electricity remains very high even when the demand of
steam is very low, then extraction-cum-condensing steam turbine can be used instead of back
pressure steam turbine. The control concept is similar to that as mentioned above, except that
the steam turbine generator also participates in control of electrical output. The process steam
is controlled by steam turbine bypass valve. In case of zero process steam output, the control
range of electrical power output is extended by allowing almost total steam exhaust from steam
turbine to go to the condenser for that particular duration.
Process steam requirements at different parameters can also be satisfied in combined cycle
system by installing either a condensing steam turbine with double extraction, or a back
pressure turbine with one or two extraction.
Combined gas-cum-steam turbine system based cogeneration achieves overall plant efficiency
of around 90% with optional fuel utilisation. In addition to this, the combined cycle plants are
most economical in many cases due to very low heat rates, low specific capital cost of gas
turbine plants and availability of power from open cycle operation of gas turbine plant, as it
requires lesser time for erection. Major drawback of this system is less fuel flexibility as in case
of gas turbine based cogeneration system.
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3.3.4 Reciprocating engine based cogeneration system
In this system, the reciprocating engine is fired with fuel to drive the generator to produce
electrical power. The process steam is then generated by recovery of waste heat available in
engine exhaust in WHRB. The engine jacket cooling water heat exchanger and lube-oil cooler
are other sources of waste heat recovery to produce hot water or hot air. The reciprocating
engines are available with low, medium or high-speed versions with efficiencies in the range of
35 - 42 %.
Bypass stack Main stack

Steam to process
Damper
PRV
Was te
Air input Fuel input heat P r oces s
r ecover y Con s u m er
boiler
WHRB
Generator Engine
Boiler feed pump Deaerator
Fig.3.4 Reciprocating engine based cogeneration system with unfired WHRB
Generally, low speed reciprocating engines are available with high efficiencies. The engines
having medium and high speeds are widely used for cogeneration applications due to higher
exhaust flue gas temperature and quantity. When diesel engines are operated alone for power
generation, a large portion of fuel energy is rejected via exhaust flue gases. In cogeneration
cycle, practically all the heat energy in engine jacket cooling water and lube-oil cooler, and
substantial portion of heat in exhaust gases is recovered to produce steam or hot water. With
this, the overall system efficiency of around 65-75% is achieved. The system configuration is
shown in Fig. 3.4.
The heat rates of reciprocating engine cycles are high in comparison to that of steam turbine
and gas turbine based cogeneration systems. This system is particularly suitable for application
requiring a high ratio of electric power to steam.
Reciprocating engines can be fired only with hydrocarbon based fuels such as High speed
diesel, Light diesel oil, residual fuel oils, Natural gas, etc. The engines are developed in which
natural gas is also directly fired. In view of lower overall fuel efficiency as mentioned above, the
system is not economically better placed compared to steam turbine or gas turbine based
cogeneration systems, particularly where power and steam are continuously in demand.
Further to above, diesel engines are more maintenance oriented and hence generally preferred
for operating intermittently, or as stand by emergency power source. These are major
drawbacks preventing widespread use of diesel engine based cogeneration system.
3.4 Factors for selection of cogeneration system
Following factors should be given a due consideration in selecting the most appropriate
cogeneration system for a particular industry.
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• Normal as well as maximum/minimum power load and steam load in the plant, and duration
for which the process can tolerate without these utilities, i.e. criticality and essentiality of
inputs.
• What is more critical - whether power or steam, to decide about emergency back-up
availability of power or steam.
• Anticipated fluctuations in power and steam load and pattern of fluctuation, sudden rise and
fall in demand with their time duration and response time required to meet the same.
• Under normal process conditions, the step by step rate of increase in drawl of power and
steam as the process picks up - whether the rise in demand of one utility is rapid than the
other, same or vice-versa.
• Type of fuel available - whether clean fuel like natural gas, naphtha or high speed diesel or
high ash bearing fuels like furnace oil, LSHS, etc or worst fuels like coal, lignite, etc., long
term availability of fuels and fuel pricing.
• Commercial availability of various system alternatives, life span of various systems and
corresponding outlay for maintenance.
• Influence exerted by local conditions at plant site, i.e. space available, soil conditions, raw
water availability, infrastructure and environment.
• Project completion time.
• Project cost and long term benefits.
3.4.1 Typical Heat-to-Power ratio in various industries
As discussed, energy in forms of electricity and usable heat or cooling is generated in

cogeneration plant using a single process. Proportionate requirement of heat and power varies
from site to site. Hence, cogeneration system must be selected with due care and appropriate
operating schemes must be installed to match the demands as per requirement. Typical Heat-
to-Power ratios for certain energy intensive industries are provided in Table 3.1 below.
Table 3.1 Typical Heat-to-Power Ratios for Energy Intensive Industries

Industry Minimum Maximum Average
Breweries 1.1 4.5 3.1
Pharmaceuticals 1.5 2.5 2.0
Fertilizer 0.8 3.0 2.0
Food 0.8 2.5 1.2
Paper 1.5 2.5 1.9
Concept of cogeneration would be generally found most attractive with existence of following
circumstances in the industries.
• The demand of steam and power both is more or less equal, i.e. consistent with the range
of power-to-steam output ratios that can be obtained from a suitable cogeneration plant.
• A single industry or group of industries requires steam and power in sufficient quantum to
permit economies of scale to be achieved.
• Peak and troughs in demand of power and steam can be managed or, in case of power,
adequate back-up capacity can be obtained from the utility company.
It may be required to make certain assumptions while assessing various system alternatives
with reference to above aspects, as most of these specific factors may be unknown for general
considerations.
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3.4.2 Operating strategies for cogeneration plant
The cogeneration plant may be operated within three main operating regimes as follows to take
optimum techno-economic benefits.
• The cogeneration plant is operated as base load station to supply electric power and
thermal energy and short fall in power is drawn from the utility company and heat from
standby boilers or thermic fluid heaters.
• The cogeneration plant is operated to supply electric power in excess of the industry’s
requirements, which may be exported, whilst total thermal energy available is utilised in the
industry.
• The cogeneration plant is operated to supply electric power , with or without export, and
thermal energy produced is utilised in the industry with export of surplus heat energy, if
feasible, to nearby consumers.
3.5 Techno-economic advantages of cogeneration technology
Following techno-economical advantages are derived by making application of cogeneration

technology to meet the energy requirements of the industries.
i. First and foremost is the cogeneration technology’s conformance to vital and widely
discussed concept of energy conservation due to highly efficient use of fuel energy
through system optimisation studies prior to project execution.
ii. With relatively lower capital cost and low operating cost, due to high overall plant
efficiency, the cost of power and steam becomes economically quite attractive for the
industry. Recurring costs are also lesser.
iii. Industrial cogeneration plants supplement the efforts of the state electricity boards to
bridge the ever-widening gap between supply and demand of power by very efficient
power generation in-house.
iv. As electricity from a cogeneration system is generally not required to be transferred

over a long distances, the transmission and distribution losses would be negligible.
v. Reliability of cogeneration systems is very high, which also reduces dependency of

industries on the state electricity board grids for power requirements to bear minimum.
This would save the plant from unexpected disturbances of power system.
vi. Impact on environmental pollution from cogeneration system is low in comparison to

large size power plants due to less consumption of fuel and efficient operation.
vii. If cogeneration systems are implemented in sugar mills or rice mills, totally renewable
source of energy or waste fuel such as bagasse or rice husk can be used to fire the
boiler to generate steam. This steam can be used to drive the steam turbine. This
would save the precious national fossil fuel resources.
Table 3.2 shows a summary of relative advantages and disadvantages of present day widely
accepted different variants for cogeneration systems as a reference. Each system has got its
own merits and demerits, which is required to be considered on case-to-case basis while
selecting cogeneration system for a particular industry.
3.6 Why cogeneration for industry
It is universally accepted fact that the primary sources of energy like fuels are fast depleting as
they all are non-renewable in nature. The costs of these primary sources of energy have been
showing upward trend since last twenty years or so. Hence, it has become a challenge for all
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developing nations to save energy to a much greater extent so as that the primary sources of
energy last longer and longer.
Based on foregoing discussion, it can be authentically said that use of cogeneration system in
industrial sector is one of the best viable options for energy conservation in the most effective
and economical way. Depending on type of process or engineering industry, its requirement of
power and steam, their essentiality, etc., an appropriate cogeneration system can be easily
selected by considering all the factors described below.
T able 3.2 Advantages /Dis advantages of Cogener ation S ys tem Var iants
Variant Advantages Disadvantages
Back Pressure - High fuel efficiency rating - Little flexibility in design and
Steam Turbine - Very simple Plant operation
and Fuel firing in - Well suited to all types of fuels of - More impact on environment in
Conventional high or low quality case of use of low quality fuel
Boiler - Good part load efficiency - Higher civil construction cost
- Moderate relative specific capital due to complicated foundations
cost
Extraction-cum- - High flexibility in design and - More specific capital cost
Condensing operation - Low fuel efficiency rating, in
Steam Turbine - Well suited to all types of fuels, high case of more condensing
and fuel firing in quality or low quality - More impact on environment in
Conventional - Good part load efficiency case of use of low quality fuel
Boiler - More suitable for varying steam - Higher civil construction cost
demand due to complicated foundations
- High cooling water demand for
condensing steam turbine
Gas Turbine with - High fuel efficiency at full load - Moderate part load efficiency
Waste Heat operation - Limited suitability for low
Recovery Boiler - Very simple plant quality fuels
- Low specific capital cost - Not economical, if constant
- Lowest delivery period, hence low steam load a problem
gestation period
- Less impact on environment (with
use of clean fuels)
- Least maintenance option
- Quick start and stop
- Still better efficiency with
supplementary firing in Waste heat
recovery boiler
Least cooling water requirement
Combined Gas - Optimum fuel efficiency rating - Average to moderate part load
and - Relatively low specific capital cost efficiency
Steam Turbine - Least gestation period - Limited suitability for low
with Waste Heat - Less impact on environment quality fuels
Boiler - High operational flexibility - High civil construction cost due
- Quick start and stop to more and complicated
- Still better efficiency with foundations/buildings
supplementary firing in Waste heat - More cooling water demand with
recovery boiler condensing steam turbine
Reciprocating - Low civil construction cost due to - Low overall plant efficiency in
Engine and block type foundations and least nos. cogeneration mode
Waste Heat of auxiliaries - Suitability for low quality fuels
Recovery Boiler - High electrical power efficiency with high cleaning cost
with Heat - Better suitability as emergency - High maintenance cost
Exchanger standby plant - More impact on environment
- Least specific capital cost with low quality fuel
- Low cooling water demand - Least potential for waste heat
recovery
14
Out of all the variants, cogeneration systems based on combined cycle configurations with
cogeneration of power and heat permit the optimal utilisation of fuel energy in the true sense of
Second Law of Thermodynamics. Besides highest fuel efficiency and by virtue of its low capital
cost, the combined cycle based option has been found the most acceptable and economical
solution.
Steam turbine based cogeneration systems are of greater interest to the industries with
moderately large and stable steam demand, and further where it is necessary to use fuels of
lower quality like coal, lignite, furnace oil, etc which can not be directly fired in gas turbines.
Though high ash bearing dirty fuels like residual fuel oil or furnace oil can be fired in gas
turbines, but only to some limited extent due to inherent problems associated with it.
15
4 COGENERATION WITH STEAM TURBINE CYCLE
4.1 Introduction
The steam turbine based cogeneration is the oldest and most prevalent in our country. The
factors considered for choosing of steam turbine for different applications are reliability, variable
speed operation and possibility of energy savings. Besides power generation, the steam
turbines are used as prime-mover for many process equipment such as pumps, fans, blowers
and compressors. It is generally preferred to keep steam turbine driven equipment for running
critical services, where power tripping may cause serious problems.
For the continuous process plants requiring energy in the forms of power and steam in more or
less same quantum (ratio of power:heat generally around 1), the steam turbine based
cogeneration is an ideal solution to optimise the cogeneration system for energy saving and
economy. The electrical efficiency of industrial duty steam turbine generators varies over a wide
range depending on whether the steam turbine is extraction-cum-condensing type or back-
pressure type. However, it is feasible to achieve significantly high level of overall system
efficiency, more than 80%, through optimum use of heat energy available in extraction steam or
back-pressure exhaust steam. Thus, by utilising energy available in fuel, first to generate
electric power and then as steam, principle concept of cogeneration is satisfied to great extent.
For the plant having frequent power as well as steam load fluctuations, the steam turbines offer
the best solution for energy saving, as the load variation on steam turbine would not
significantly affect the heat rate. If fluctuation for power and steam would go hand in hand, the
best performance would be available from this system. In case, there is fluctuating steam load
with more or less constant power load, some steam may go to waste, which may marginally
decrease overall cogeneration efficiency.
The steam turbine based cogeneration plant consists of a steam turbine generator of back-
pressure, extraction-cum-back pressure or extraction-cum-condensing type in accordance with
requirement of steam for the process plant and a steam generator or boiler fired with
conventional fuels such as coal, lignite, fuel oil, natural gas, etc. or non-conventional fuels such
as bagasse, rice husk, etc. Single stage steam turbines are used where the power requirement
is low and multi-stage steam turbines are used for meeting high power requirements.
4.2 Performance of Steam turbines
Performance of steam turbines is expressed in terms of Theoretical Steam Rate (TSR) and
Actual Steam Rate (ASR), which is the quantity of heat in kJ required to generate one kWh of
electric power.
TSR and ASR can be determined from the power generation and the steam input log data.
Efficiency of steam turbine is directly proportional to the steam pressure drop through the
turbine, i.e. greater the steam pressure drop, greater will be the power output. A reduction in
steam turbine exhaust steam pressure results into more power generation than an increase in
pressure of steam at turbine inlet. Following technical factors may be noted in this regard.
♣ Specific steam consumption depends on the absolute pressure ratio of the turbine.
♣ Back-pressure steam turbines are providing better thermal efficiency in the range of 70 –
85%.
♣ Extraction-cum-condensing/back-pressure steam turbines are commonly installed for
total generation schemes due to their excellent flexibility to meet power requirement
coupled with the steam requirement at different levels. Such systems achieve thermal
efficiency in the range of 50 – 75%.
♣ Condensing steam turbines works at low thermal efficiency between 15 – 35% due to
wastage of substantial useful heat in condensing of the steam.
16
4.3 Practices for optimising steam turbine performance
The steam turbines operated in following mode would provide the optimum performance.
4.3.1 Design stage
In the continuous process industry, the demands of steam are generally very specific for a
given process and the capacity of the plant envisaged. The steam flow, pressure and
temperature levels are dictated by the equipment at the consumption point. Hence, the
pressure levels required from the steam turbine are fixed for extraction or extraction/back-
pressure. At the design stage of the system, the process steam demands and power demands
should be integrated – either electrical power or power for mechanical drive applications I in the
best possible manner, in a steam turbine, keeping in view the consideration for high basic
efficiency. Ideal solution is a back-pressure steam turbine. If the steam demand is such that,
less power is produced than the plant requirement, a condensing portion will have to be
considered along with extraction. This would result in lower efficiency, but would attain desired
balance of power and steam requirements.
4.3.2 Plant operating stage
i. Best operational mode
Power or heat operated - Depending on the total power load of the industry, number of
steam turbines are arranged on one line so that one or more steam turbines can be
operated according to demand of power. With such philosophy of operation, it is possible
to run the turbines close to the optimal operating range.
ii. Steam conditions
Decentralised cogeneration power plants of low and medium output in the range of 1 to
10 MW can be considered. Input steam conditions may be fixed between 30 - 70 bar and
0
live steam temperature may be fixed between 400 – 500 C to obtain desired steam
turbine performance.
iii. Steam quality
Maintaining of steam quality injected into a steam turbine as per specified parameters is
one of the vital factors for performance of equipment. Steam quality depends on the
quality of DM water and boiler feed water sent to the boiler. On-line monitoring of steam
conductivity is must as a part of instrumentation, which provides the data whether any
impurity is going to the turbine. Normally steam and water samples are collected at least
once in eight hours and analysed to ascertain the quality.
iv. Control for steam turbines
Control of the steam turbines can be achieved through the following optional facilities.
♣ A throttle valve in front of the steam turbine may be installed through which steam
pressure of flow leading from the steam line to the individual turbines as well as
their output would be controlled.
♣ A nozzle group control may be provided in the individual turbine, which would
permit individual nozzles before the first blade wheel (control wheel) to switch in or
off to control the mass flow rate of the other stages as well as to regulate the
output.
v. Monitoring for steam turbines
Continuous or on-line monitoring of following parameters would be vital to avoid fall in the
steam turbine performance.
17
♣ Monitoring of conductivity of steam to ensure silica content in steam, as silica
would deposit on the blades to adversely affect the output.
♣ Monitoring of axial differential expansion, vibrations, etc. must be carried out using
suitable microprocessor based instrumentation.
♣ Monitoring of lube-oil circulation in bearings along with continuous cleaning of lube-
oil through centrifuge is very important.
4.3.3 Plant maintenance stage
Generally, the periodic preventive maintenance of steam turbine is carried out as follows.
♣ Inspection of steam turbines and steam pipelines may be carried out at least once a
week for observing irregularities.
♣ Thorough inspection and overhauling may be resorted to every 5 years.
18
5 COGENERATION WITH GAS TURBINE CYCLE
5.1 Introduction
The gas turbine based cogeneration is relatively new entrant in our country existing since last
20 years or so. The factors considered for choosing of gas turbine for different applications are
reliability, quick start/stop, less maintenance, quick maintenance time, availability of useful heat
for direct heating or steam generation and possibility of energy savings. Besides power
generation, the gas turbines are used as prime-mover for process equipment such as pumps
and compressors.
The continuous process plants in need of more energy in the form of heat (or specifically as
steam), along with a need of energy in the form of electric power (power:heat ratio generally
less than 1), the gas turbine based cogeneration is an ideal solution to optimise the
cogeneration system for energy saving, as the electrical efficiency of industrial heavy duty gas
turbine generators is around 24 – 30% (depending on rating of gas turbine), more heat energy
would goes to waste as exhaust flue gases from the gas turbine generator. Recovery of heat
from the exhaust flue gases, if optimised, through technically feasible means, overall plant
efficiency achieved could be more than 80%.
However, the gas turbine is not the best choice for the plant having frequent process load
fluctuations, as the heat rate of gas turbine increases substantially when it is operated at less
than 80% of its rated capacity. Ideal situation for this system is constant power as well as heat
load to achieve the best performance.
The gas turbine based cogeneration plant consists of gas turbine generator and waste heat
recovery boiler (WHRB) of unfired, supplementary fired or fully fired type attached to it. It is also
feasible to set up cogeneration system consisting of gas turbine generator and absorption
chiller in which waste heat is used to generate chilled water.
The gas turbine is fired with conventional fuels such as natural gas, high speed diesel, light
diesel oil, naphtha, etc. Fuel like furnace oil can be fired in the gas turbine, but the performance
would not be at par when it is fired with other fuels. Coal gas is being tried out as fuel adopting
integrated gasification combined cycle technology, but its viability as fuel for normal operation
of the gas turbine is yet to be established. The steam is generated in WHRB through recovery
of waste heat available in exhaust flue gases emanating from the gas turbine. The steam is
utilised in the process or for running the steam turbine to generate power.
The efficiency of industrial heavy duty gas turbines is found in the range of 25 – 35%
depending on rating of gas turbine. Thus, if it would not be possible to recover substantial
amount heat available in the exhaust flue gases, the cogeneration plant would not achieve
optimum efficiency.
5.2 Performance of Gas turbines
Performance of gas turbines is expressed in terms of Heat rate, which is the quantity of heat in
kJ required to generate one kWh of electric power.
The performance of gas turbine would greatly depend on the ambient air conditions, fuel
quality, cooling water supply, water injection, site altitude.
♣ Heat rate (fuel input in kJ/kWh) of the gas turbine increases as the ambient temperature
increases. At higher temperature, the air density would reduce, which would reduce mass
of air entering into compressor. Due to reduction in overall mass of flue gases, the gas
turbine output would also decrease. The curves are provided by the manufacturers
indicting increase in heat rate vis-à-vis rise in ambient temperature.
♣ Similarly, at high altitudes, heat rate of the gas turbine increases due to consequent
reduction in density of air at higher altitudes.
19
♣ Quality of fuel and quality of air also adversely affect the performance of the gas turbine.
♣ When steam or water injection is done in the gas turbine to reduce NOx emission, the
power output increases with consequent reduction in availability of waste heat from the
exhaust flue gases.
5.3 Practices for optimal gas turbine performance
The performance evaluation of the new generation of gas turbines in cogeneration mode of
operations is complex and presents problems, which have to be addressed. The trend is being
slowly established in the industries to improve maintenance strategy and optimise performance.
This calls for total performance based planned maintenance philosophy of on-line condition
monitoring and management of main plant equipment.
Maintenance practices may be integrated with operational practices to ensure that the plants
have the highest reliability with optimum efficiency.
5.3.1 At designing stage
• Gas turbines of small capacity (50 kW) to large capacity (500 MW) are available. It would
be better to avoid small capacity gas turbines, as they work with least electrical efficiency,
unless it is possible to recover all the heat from the exhaust flue gases so that the plant
could achieve optimum overall performance.
• Thorough knowledge of fuel characteristics is intended to provide a background to fuel

suitability considerations. The gas turbine manufacturers may generally regard
conformance to the fuel specification mandatory, but as many characteristics are relevant
to each other, it is necessary for each fuel to be considered individually, for whether or
not it meets the specification requirements. Hence, the fuel specification may be provided
to the manufacturer after checking number of samples.
• If fuel not meeting the specification requirements in many respects is fired in the gas
turbine, certain limitation for performance may have to be observed. Hence, it is vital sort
out this issue at the design and pre-ordering stage so as to get optimum and consistent
performance.
• Knowledge of surroundings, air quality, humidity, etc. is a must so as to take necessary

actions to avoid effects on performance.
5.3.2 At operating stage
The gas turbines operated in following mode would provide the optimum performance.
i. Best operational mode
gas turbines are arranged on one line so that one or more gas turbines can be operated
according to demand of power. With such philosophy of operation, it is possible to run the
gas turbines close to the rated capacity so as to achieve optimum heat rate. Such
method of operation would avoid running of the gas turbine at less than 80% of its rated
capacity, which otherwise would result into higher heat rate.
ii. Control for gas turbines
Control of the gas turbines can be achieved through amount of fuel injected into the
combustion chamber of the gas turbine. The governing system for the gas turbine should
be very precise and extremely reliable, and hence it is always computerised.
iii. Monitoring for gas turbines
An on-line condition monitoring system shall be designed to provide extensive database

to ensure that it can achieve some or all of following goals depending on complexity of
20
system; high equipment availability, maintaining optimum efficiency level and minimising
performance degradation of equipment, extending time between inspections and
overhauls, estimating availability, etc. The system needs to be carefully tailored to
individual plant and equipment requirements and be able to obtain real time data.
Following parameters are vital for on-line monitoring.
♣ Monitoring of accurate fuel flow, pressure and temperature.
♣ Monitoring of flue gas temperature at turbine inlet, temperature spread around

exhaust manifold at turbine outlet, exhaust gas temperature is must in order to
monitor the performance. General relationship between load and exhaust
temperature should be observed and compared to data generated so far. High
exhaust temperature can be an indicator of deterioration of internal parts, gas
leaks.
♣ Monitoring of bearing vibrations must be carried out using suitable microprocessor

based instrumentation, if possible with analytical back-up. If gearbox is installed
between turbine and generator, a separate monitoring of vibrations on gearbox is
required.
♣ Monitoring of bearing temperatures and analysis, pressure and temperature of

lube-oil circulated in bearings is very important. Generally, lube-oil is replaced after
8000 hours of working.
♣ Monitoring of inlet air temperature is important, as higher the ambient air

temperature, lower would be the power output from the gas turbine or vice-versa.
5.3.3 At maintenance stage
i. Generally, the periodic preventive maintenance of gas turbine is carried out as follows.
♣ Washing of compressor, generally at an interval of one month or as specified by

the manufacturer, is a must to maintain the output, as washing removes dust
deposition on compressor blades occurred from ambient air drawn. Axial flow
compressor performance deterioration is major cause of loss in gas turbine output
and efficiency, typically 75-80% performance loss due to contaminant deposition
on blades working as fouling to reduce air flow through compressor and power
output. The gas turbine manufacturer specifies the type of compressor cleaning
agent to be used along with period for washing and cleaning. A specific discussion
is also provided elsewhere for inlet air system management.
♣ Thorough boroscopic inspection of turbine and compressor blades, hot-gas-path

components, bearings and overhauling may be resorted to every 9000-10000
running hours, and annual thorough maintenance program may be decided
accordingly.
♣ If fired with clean fuel natural gas, it may be necessary in industrial heavy duty gas
turbines to replace the turbine blades after 25000 running hours, i.e. the life of heat
resistant coating provided on the blades. Blade replacement interval may be
around 20000 hours for the gas turbine fired with liquid fuels high speed diesel,
kerosene oil. High ash bearing fuels like fuel oil reduces the blade life to just 10000
running hours.
5.4 Specific practices for optimizing gas turbine performance
Few specific practices discussed below are essential for the optimum gas turbine performance.
5.4.1 Evaporative cooling of inlet ambient air
Higher ambient air temperature reduces the power output from the gas turbine. The mechanical
work done by the gas turbine is proportional to the mass of flue gases entering the gas turbine,
21
and mass depends on quantity of ambient air supplied to the combustion chamber through
compressor. High temperature reduces the density of air, i.e. mass (weight of air). Thus, at
same compressor speed, less mass of air goes to the combustion chamber when the ambient
air temperature is high. This results into reduction of power output due to less mechanical work
done by the gas turbine. In order to improve or maintain the performance, ambient air is passed
through inlet cooling system to reduce the temperature, which makes it denser. This results
into either generation of additional power or maintaining of output as near as possible to
capacity.
There are two basic systems currently available for inlet cooling. First, and perhaps the most
widely accepted system is the evaporative cooler. Evaporative coolers make use of the
evaporation of water to affect a reduction in inlet air temperature. Another system currently
being studied is the inlet chiller. This system is basically a heat exchanger through which the
cooling medium (usually chilled water) flows and removes heat from the inlet air thereby
reducing the inlet temperature and increasing gas turbine output. In addition to the obvious
advantage of achieving extra power, the use of an evaporative cooler improves the
environmental impact of the machine. Increasing water vapor in the inlet air tends to lower the
amount of oxides of nitrogen produced in the combustion process and, therefore, lowers the
emissions of the machine.
A comparison of various inlet air cooling methods are summarised below.
Gas T ur bin e I nl et Air Ch il l in g S ys t em s Com par at ive Mat r i x

S ys tem T ype Media B as ed Fogging Mechanical Mechanical Abs or ption
Evapor ative Chilling, Water Chilling, Air Chilling, Water
Cooling Cooled Cooled Cooled
Evapor ative I nlet air s tr eam I nlet air s tr eam I nlet aooling is I nlet air s tr eam
cooling is is cooled cooling is accomplis hed cooling is
pr ovided thr ough the accomplis hed thr ough the accomplis hed
thr ough us e of dir ect infus ion thr ough the us e of an thr ough the
a fluted and us e of an electr ic us e of a
cellulos e bas e evapor ation of electr ic packaged lithium-
S ys tem media pads . minute water packaged chiller s ys tem br omide
des cr iption T he pads ar e par ticles into chiller s ys tem (air cooled, abs or ption
located within the als tr eam. (water cooled, typically fin fin chiller s ys tem
the filter hous e Heat fr om the colling water type cooler ) I n (water cooled,
air s tr eam and air s tr eam is s our ce or conj unction cooling tower )
wetted fr om an given up to the tower ) in with inlet air I n conj unction
acceptable s ite water dr oplets conj unction heat exchange with inlet air
s our ce. Heat evapor ation with inlet air coil (Chilled heat exchange
fr om the ther eby heat exchange Water or coil (Chilled
air s tr am is r educing inlet coil (Chilled Glycol). Water or
given up to the air Water or Glycol).
water in the temper atur e. Glycol).
evapor ative
media
Pr os and Cons
I ns talled cos t 25- 50 45- 70 200- 500 250- 550 300- 700
($/KW added)
Oper ating/main Low Low High High High
cos t
Heat r ate - 1.5 to – 3% - 1.5 to – 2.5% - 1 to – 2% - 1 to – 2% - 1 to – 2% *
change
* I f exhaus t
gas was te heat
can be applied
Power output 5 to 10% 5 to 10% Up to 15% Up to 15% Up to 20%
incr eas e
(var ies
w/ambient)
22
In Selecting Inlet Air Cooling As A Retrofit To An Existing Plant, Points to watch:
1. Check the generator capacity in order not to overload the generator.

2. Quality of raw water for the evaporative cooler
3. When using an existing demineralised water treatment plant, be careful about the
capacity and quality of available demineralised water
4. With an existing heat recovery steam generator, inlet air cooling will change the
behaviour of the existing HRSG, leading to a drop in steam production at high pressure
and increase in intermediate and low pressure steam
5.4.2 Air/fuel/water management
The longetivity of a gas turbine at site is determined by the extent of its operation within design
limits under mechanical and thermal loads as well as the effect of air, fuel and injected
steam/water on gas path surfaces in undermining component material properties. The
constituents entrained in air, fuel, etc. may affect the gas path components.
The concept of air/fuel/water management is represented schematically in Fig. 5.1, which

shows that instead of prescribing separate limits for air/fuel/water quality, limits for combined
concentrations of harmful contaminants comprising the total gas turbine environment are
specified. This allows to arrive at more realistic effect of critical contaminants and to decide
about greater flexibility to set up system for control.
Evaporative
Cooler
B
Air Fuel Water
T r eatment T r eatm ent T r eatment
Contaminants , gas /liquid/s olid
Chemical effects (oxidation/cor r os ion) Mechanical effects (er os ion/abr as ion)
Note: A in circle – Control of total contaminants

B in circle – Secondary control of evaporator cooling water
Figure 5-1:Schematic of air/fuel/water management
♣ Because of the wide range of environments that prevail all around country and difficulty to
have reliable data on airborne constituents, generally, concentrations of airborne
contaminants are estimated values. Contaminants entering the gas turbine can be in the
form of gas, liquid or solid particles.
♣ Airborne contaminants such as dust, salt, corrosive vapours, oil, etc. can cause erosion of
compressor blades, corrosion, fouling of components in hot section path, thereby reducing
their life. A careful attention should be paid to inlet arrangement and application of correct
materials and protective coatings.
♣ The air contaminants are removed by installation of good quality air filters at air inlet.
Detailed study of air quality at particular site may be made at design stage so as to install
air filter to get the best possible result. Regular cleaning of air filters and periodic
replacement would be essential to maintain the power output at desired level. Monitoring of
differential pressure across the filter bank provides good idea for condition of the air filters.
♣ In case of gas fuel, removal of condensate carry over is achieved by installing knock-out
drum at gas pipeline inlet point. Solid particles are trapped in on-line scrubber and filters
through which gas is passed after passing through knock-out drum. Finally, gas fuel is
passed through micro-fine filter place just before inlet to the gas turbine. Supply of clean
gas is a must in order to maintain the performance of the gas turbines.
23
♣ Liquid fuels such as HSD are filled in the day tank from bulk storage tank, in which it
remains for 24 hours to permit the sludge, mud, water, etc. to settle in the bottom. Then,
the liquid fuel is passed through centrifuge to remove remaining dirt, sludge, water
particles, etc. and filled in cleaned fuel tank. Thereafter, the liquid fuel is sent to the gas
turbine at required pressure through pump having the primary filter (20 microns) on suction
side and the secondary filter (5 microns) on discharge side to remove remaining solid
particles, whatever possible.
♣ In case of fuels such as naphtha, which are less viscous, the fuel additives are added to
increase its lubricity for achieving desired atomization and better mixing of air and fuel.
♣ The liquid fuels also contain corrosive trace metal contaminants like sulphur, vanadium,
lead, sodium, potassium, etc. in varying proportion. Extremely high temperature upon
combustion produces salts of these trace metals, which hit the heat resistant coating
provided on the turbine blades and corrodes it. The special additives are injected along with
fuel, which combines with trace metals to form ash. The ash gets deposited on turbine
blades without causing any degradation of coating. The ash is removed through periodic
washing as mentioned elsewhere in the manual.
♣ Water is injected into the gas turbine in order to control formation of oxides of nitrogen.
Water chemistry and treatment, a technology in itself, plays a critical role in maintaining the
gas turbine performance. Contaminants in water injected into the combustor for emissions
control can be considered as being equivalent to contaminants in fuel due to more or less
same quantity of both being used. As with air and fuel, two low-key concerns are corrosion
and deposition/fouling. Sodium and potassium, actively involved in hot corrosion, are
dissolved in water. Only DM water should be used for injection to overcome these problems
and to maintain the gas turbine performance.
♣ The purpose of this discussion is to provide general information relating to
combustion/cooling air, wide range of fuels and water, which may be sent to the gas
turbine. Because of importance of these inputs in determining the optimum performance of
the gas turbine, it is though fit to provide discussion as a part of good practice manual.
5.5 Waste heat recovery for steam generation/HVAC/heating
The technology employed for waste heat recovery from the gas turbine exhaust gases consists
of waste heat recovery boiler (WHRB) for production of steam, use of heat in absorption chiller
for generating refrigeration effect, or use of heat for direct heating process.
Mostly, water tube WHRB having configuration like unfired, supplementary fired or fully fired, is
used to generate the steam by utilising waste heat available in exhaust gases. Potential of
steam generation is the best practice to achieve the optimum cogeneration efficiency. Selection
of unfired, supplementary fired or fully fired WHRB is made based on the steam requirements
projected by the process. In order to make the operation of WHRB plant efficient, lot of all
round development has taken place in case of components, materials, control system, etc. The
control system has played significant role in vastly improving the WHRB performance.
Another aspect of consideration, like that in the fired boilers, is deployment of reliable control
system into WHRB and its integration with the gas turbine as to optimise the overall
cogeneration performance. Moreover, after achievement of such integration, it is also important
to make the operators conversant to the operating practices after deployment of controls,
otherwise there would be no meaning of going for sophisticated control system.
Many a times, the people ignore potential of waste heat recovery due to availability of less
quantum of heat. However, it is very vital not to ignore even this smallest of potential of heat
recovery to utilize it in whatever feasible manner, for example to heat up something. All
possibilities of waste heat recovery offer good opportunity to optimise the cogeneration system
performance. Following few causes greatly attribute to affect WHRB performance adversely, as
seen in case of fired boilers.
♣ lack of awareness of developments in boiler technology.

♣ inadequate evaluation of overall techno-commercial benefits.
♣ the fact that good practice projects often given second priority.
One should study and analyse various technological options available for waste heat recovery
irrespective of its potential. Few lines mentioned in the portion relevant to the fired boilers is
24
also applicable to WHRB. The unfired version of WHRB may not be found similar to the fired
boiler, but supplementary fired or fully fired versions of WHRB are more or less similar to the
independent fired boilers.
5.6 Steam Generation/Combustion Efficiency
i. To convert water into steam, the temperature must be raised to its boiling point
(saturation temperature) by adding sensible heat. Then the latent heat is added to turn
0
water into steam. For example, increase of temperature of 1 kg of water from 0 C to
0
100 C requires 419 kJ/kg of sensible heat. To convert 1 kg of water into steam requires
2258 kJ/kg of latent heat. When this large quantity of heat supplied to water can be
recovered by process at the point of use to its optimum, which is called system
performance optimisation.
ii. Total efficiency is defined as the effectiveness of any combustion apparatus to convert
the internal energy contained in the fuel into heat energy for utilisation by the process.
Any heat losses lower the efficiency of the process. Radiation losses from heat escaping
through the surface of WHRB walls are one example of losses.
iii. WHRB efficiency is the total heat contained per unit in the flue gases minus the energy
losses through radiation, convection, etc. as well as final loss in the form of energy
carried away by the flue gases finally leaving WHRB.
iv. In case of supplementary fired or fully fired WHRB, energy input would be sum of heat
contained per unit in flue gases and heat contained per unit in the fuel fired. Thus overall
efficiency also takes into consideration combustion efficiency. WHRB efficiency in such
case is the total energy input minus the energy losses through radiation, convection, etc.
as well as final loss in the form of energy carried away by the flue gases finally leaving
WHRB.
5.7 P oi n t s r equ i r i n g at t en t i on f or opt i m i s at i on
Following points are required due attention in order to optimise, maintain or improve the
performance of WHRB. These are the factors relevant to the design, operation and
maintenance of boilers, if considered at various stages as required, they play instrumental role
in enhancement of performance.
5.7.1 At designing stage
i Generally, the WHRB installed in cogeneration system is water tube type, as it is most
suitable for this specific application. Configurations for the water tube WHRB are
horizontal/vertical, single/double/triple pressure, supplementary fired/fully fired, etc. is
available. Hence, it is essential to go for very close scrutiny of steam requirements and
parameters for the plant and then to select type of boiler.
ii. The most vital factor to be taken into account during design stage is the fuel quality in
case of supplementary/fully fired WHRB, as it has to encounter fuel throughout its life.
Hence, all aspects of fuel composition should be invariably considered while designing
the combustion system components such as ducts, duct burners/burners, furnace, drum
selection, water circulation – natural or assisted, wall design, etc. Chemical and physical
composition of fuel greatly affects furnace and heat transfer area requirement. In case
the WHRB is to be fired with high ash bearing fuel such as fuel oil, it is vital to consider
presence of hydrogen, sulphur, trace metals, carbon, ash, calorific value, moisture, etc. at
the design stage. Physical properties such as viscosity, flash point, etc. also play an
important role. In order to arrive at the best average data of fuel composition for design
consideration, it may be necessary to test number of fuel samples.
iii. Once, fuel composition is established, next important stage is the selection of material for
tubes water wall, lining, etc. Surface area required for the optimum heat transfer from
burnt flue gases at different stages in the WHRB should be carefully considered to
optimize the combustion efficiency.
25
iv. Radiation losses depend on the temperature of the WHRB’s external surfaces. The
WHRB provided with inferior and poor quality of insulation and poor design
characteristics tend to have higher radiation losses. Now a day, insulating materials of
extremely high-class quality and characteristics are available, use of which has been
found highly cost effective due to reduction of radiation losses. Slight more capital
investment repays in no time.
i The best way to optimise the efficiency is to send all the flue gases total flue gases to
WHRB, i.e. not to divert flue gases to atmosphere by keeping a bypass stack damper
closed. This is the best way to ensure maximum recovery of waste heat from the flue
gases.
ii. Another important point is to maintain the quality of boiler feed water strictly as specified
by the WHRB manufacturer in order to minimise the scaling of tubes, deposition in
drums. Necessary chemical treatment should be provided to boiler feed water.
iii The best way to maximise combustion efficiency in supplementary/fully fired WHRB is to
measure oxygen and combustibles in the flue gas on a continuous basis. This requires
deployment of instrumentation for on-line continuous monitoring of flue gas composition
along with other relevant parameters. On observance of change in desired level of any
component, it would be possible to initiate corrective measure immediately, either
automatically or manually, to bring back that component to its desired level.
iv. Three essential components of combustion are fuel, oxygen and heat. Stoichiometric
combustion is defined as having just the right proportion of oxygen and fuel mixture so
the most heat is released from fuel. In most fossil fuels, the chemical elements that react
with oxygen to release heat are carbon and hydrogen contained by the fuel.
v. Oxygen requirement for combustion is obtained from air supplied to the boiler along with
fuel. Air contains about 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen by volume (neglecting carbon
dioxide, etc.). Hence, ideally, it is necessary to provide just the right amount of air to
completely burn all the fuel. The ratio of required volume of air for complete burning of
one cubic metre of fuel is known as stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.
• One cubic meter of methane (at standard pressure and temperature) requires 9.53
cubic meter of air for complete burning. Hence, stoichiometric air to fuel ratio for
methane is 9.53/1.0, i.e. 9.53.
List of stoichiometric air/fuel ratios and heats of combustion for few common fuels is provided in
Table 5.1 for reference.
Table 5-1: Combustion ranges for gaseous fuels

Stoichiometric
Heat of combustion
Fuel Air/fuel ratio 3
3 3 (MJ/m )
(m air/m fuel)
Hydrogen (H2) 2.38 12.2
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 2.38 11.36
Methane (CH4) 9.53 37.7
Propane (C3H8) 23.82 96.4
Natural gas 9.4 – 11.0 35.3 – 42.8
Coke Oven Gas 3.5 – 5.5 14.9 – 22.3
26
♣ However for all practical purposes, this proves elusive for a number of reasons,
including inadequate mixing of air and fuel, burner performance, fluctuating
operating and ambient conditions, burner wear and tear. Hence, to ensure that the
fuel is burned with little or no combustibles, some amount of excess air than
actually required is supplied. For ensuring supply of excess air in required amount,
excess oxygen in flue gas is continuously measured and necessary adjustments
are made through boiler control system. Similarly, to ensure the amount of
hydrogen and carbon monoxide in the flue gas is minimised, combustibles are also
measured.
vi. Heat losses through flue gases are the single largest energy loss in a combustion
process. It is impossible to eliminate total flue gas loss the products of combustion are
heated by the combustion process itself. But flue gas loss can be minimised by reducing
the amount of excess air supplied to the burner, as flue gas heat losses increase with
both increasing excess air and temperatures.
vii. Measuring oxygen alone may be sufficient to determine combustion efficiency because of
more or less constant operating conditions not affecting quantum of combustibles in the
flue gases. If possible, other components may also be measured for better picture.
Similarly, measuring combustibles alone does not provide sufficient data to make
continuous adjustments to combustion process. To maintain the combustion efficiency to
its optimum level, it is essential to measure both oxygen and combustibles in flue gas on
continuous basis and integrate it with control system.
ix. Another area of losses is through blow down given to boiler water. Dissolved salts enter
the boiler through the make-up water supplied from water treatment system. Continuous
evaporation of water in boiler leaves behind the salts in the boiler leading to continuous
increase
x. It can be concluded based on above discussion that fired WHRB monitoring and control
system should have a flue gas analyzer, which would effectively measure oxygen and
control the amount of excess air in flue gas and measure hydrogen, carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide, the components adversely affecting the combustion efficiency.
xi. Fuel preparation for supplementary/fully fired WHRB plays significant role to supplement
efforts towards optimising the performance.
♣ Fuel oil/LSHS – preparation

- carbon and hydrogen in FO, which are converted into carbon dioxide and water
vapour on combustion releasing large amount of heat. In the event of
incomplete combustion, carbon may be converted into carbon monoxide, which
results into liberation of lesser quantum of heat. Proper filtration and
0
preparation, i.e. heating to 50 – 60 C reduce viscosity, helps in better
atomisation on firing and mixing with air. This improves the combustion
process and performance.
- Spillages and leakages through negligence of faulty fittings in fuel pipeline
should be avoided in totality. Apart from being wastage, they can cause
accidents, pollution and fire-risk.
- The oil level indicator provided on the storage tank must be accurate.
- Redundant fuel lines in the storage area should be removed to avoid
unnecessary chances of spillages.
- The oil should be sent to the boilers through duplex oil filters, which should be
maintained regularly.
5.7.3 Reduction of losses
Elimination of losses is impossible, but reduction is possible to great extent. Various ways and
means to reduce the losses are briefly mentioned below.
i. Radiation losses depend on the temperature of the boiler’s external surfaces and are
independent of the load at which the boiler operates. Thus at low load, radiation losses
may account for a significantly high proportion of the total boiler losses. Hence, operation
of boiler at low load may be avoided to the extent possible to minimise undue losses.
27
ii. Radiation losses depend on the temperature of the boiler’s external surfaces and are
iii. Radiation losses depend on the temperature of the boiler’s external surfaces and are
iv. Proper provision of insulation on the steam and feed water pipelines and valves
contributes a lot towards WHRB performance optimisation by minimising radiation losses.
If insulation is removed for repairing, it should be immediately made good as soon as
repairing work is over. This is seldom done in most of the industries.
v. Similarly, it is essential to immediately attend to stop leakage of feed water and steam
from respective pipelines joints and valves to minimise the losses.
5.7.4 Inspection prior to outage for maintenance
A critical part of WHRB maintenance is the annual inspection. The team consisting of
maintenance engineer, water chemistry specialist and manufacturer’s engineer may be formed
for such inspection, as the representatives from different areas trained in different disciplines
look at different things from varied angles to provide far better assessment of parts. Such
inspections not only help to identify existing problems, they are also the best planning tools for
the next outage. The inspection may be planned well in advance of date of outage so that
adequate time is available to get the spare parts and engage a good contactor for
maintenance. Areas of inspection are briefly brought out below.
• Areas that commonly need to be repaired are holes in expansion joints, casing
penetrations, piping supports, leaking joints/valves, etc.
• Tubes in superheater, evaporator section, economizer, etc. for leaks, corrosion, deposits,
bending, etc.
• Steam drums for deposition, signs of consistent stable water levels, evidence of steam
leakage around baffles, drum penetrations, etc.
• Overhauling, certification and setting of all safety valves.
• Chemical cleaning of WHRB.
• Overhauling of all the pumps.
• Repairing of damaged insulation, cladding, etc.
• Inlet duct and the gas turbine expansion joint for hot spots and damage.
• Duct burners, bent runners, igniter condition, etc.
28
6 COGENERATION WITH RECIPROCATING ENGINE CYCLE
6.1 Introduction
The reciprocating engine based cogeneration has made in roads in our country with
introduction of large size engines fired with fuel oil, light diesel oil or natural gas as well. The
factors considered for choosing of reciprocating engine for different applications are reliability,
quick start and stop, low environmental impact and possibility of energy savings through
utilisation of waste heat. Duration of preventive maintenance would be comparatively less than
that in case of gas turbines and steam turbines. Besides power generation, the reciprocating
engines are used, generally to meet emergency needs, as prime-mover for process equipment
such as pumps, fans, blowers, etc. Still, the reciprocating engines have been considered as
standby emergency power supply equipment in most of the industries, however, the trend is
slowly changing to install and operate such plant as base load stations.
The plants in need of more energy in the form of electric power along with a moderate need of
energy in the form of heat (power:heat ratio more than 1), the reciprocating engine based
cogeneration is an ideal solution to optimize the cogeneration system for energy saving, as the
electrical efficiency of reciprocating engine generator is more than that of gas turbine generator.
Besides this, the plant having frequent process load fluctuations, the reciprocating engine offers
a good performance, as the drop in efficiency at reduced load running is not significant.
The reciprocating engine is also good choice for the plant having frequent process load
fluctuations, as the heat rate of reciprocating engines is not significantly affected on lower side,
when it is operated at lesser load than its rated capacity. Though, an ideal situation for this
system is constant power as well as heat load to achieve the best performance, as reduction in
availability of waste heat would be more in proportion to the reduction of power load.
Reciprocating engines embody mature technologies and have proven themselves for varied
applications; standby power, base load power, peaking power. They readily tolerate intermittent
start-stop duty and maintain good performance under variable cyclic loads. Additionally, the
engines remain compliant with air-quality regulations at a wide variety of altitudes and ambient
temperatures.
The reciprocating engine based cogeneration plant consists of reciprocating engine generator
and hot water generator, or waste heat recovery boiler (WHRB) of unfired, supplementary fired
or fully fired type, or absorption chiller attached to it.
The reciprocating engine is fired with conventional fuels such as natural gas, high speed diesel,
light diesel oil, fuel oil, etc. The waste heat available in exhaust flue gases is recovered in
WHRB to generate steam, or in hot water generator, or in absorption chiller to get refrigeration
effect.
6.2 Reciprocating engines
Performance of reciprocating engine is expressed in terms of Heat rate, which is the quantity of
heat in Btu, kJ or kcal required to generate one kWh of electric power. It is also expressed in
terms of Specific Fuel Consumption, which is quantity of fuel consumed in gms per BHP per
hour, or lbs per BHP per hour.
Performance of reciprocating engine would greatly depend on the ambient air conditions, fuel
quality, cooling water supply, site altitude, quality of lubricating oil and super-turbo-charger.
Reciprocating engines in industry operate under a variety of conditions. These range from low
speed at low steady outputs, through the more highly rated engines with variable outputs.
29
6.3 Practices for optimising reciprocating engine performance
The reciprocating engine based cogeneration operated and maintained in following mode
would provide the optimum performance.
i. Best operating mode

reciprocating engines are arranged on one line so that one or more engines can be
operated according to demand of power. With such philosophy of operation, it is possible
to run the reciprocating engines close to the rated capacity so as to achieve optimum
specific fuel consumption or heat rate. Such method of operation would avoid running of
the engine under capacity to the extent feasible, which otherwise would result into higher
heat rate.
ii. Normal operating state

The reciprocating engines of small capacity to large capacity are available. It would be
better to avoid small capacity engines except for emergency standby source of power, as
they offer almost no potential for heat recovery so as to operate in real cogeneration
mode. However, the principle factor for selection of size would be power:heat ratio as
explained elsewhere in the manual. Following points are worth noting for efficient and
trouble free operation of the engines.
♣ The operating temperature of the engine should be maintained within the normal
limits specified by the manufacturer. The oil temperature is normally maintained
0
between 65 – 70 C.
♣ Prolonged overload condition on the engine should always be avoided. Unbalance
load condition should be limited so that rated current is not exceeded in any phase
of the generator.
♣ It is desirable to provide suitable flywheel inertia to limit the cyclic irregularity.
♣ It is desirable to maintain the engine speed at normal level. Sudden load imposition
or shedding may abruptly change the speed and may damage some moving part.
0
♣ Do not allow the exhaust temperature to go above 430 C by preventing overloading
and restricting air supply to improve the fuel efficiency.
♣ Cooling water pH should be maintained between 7 – 8 to avoid corrosion and
scaling.
♣ Try to run the large rated engines at more than 50% and small rated engines at
60% of their rating to have better performance.
iii. Control for reciprocating engines

Control of the reciprocating engines can be achieved through amount of fuel injected into
the combustion chamber of the engine. The governing system for the reciprocating
engine should be very precise and extremely reliable, and hence it is always
microprocessor based computerised version.
iv. Monitoring for reciprocating engines

Continuous or on-line monitoring of following parameters would be vital to avoid fall in the
reciprocating engine performance.
♣ Monitoring of fuel flow, pressure and temperature.
♣ Monitoring of exhaust flue gas temperature is must in order to monitor the
performance of waste heat recovery system.
♣ Monitoring of bearing vibrations on engine and generator must be carried out using
suitable microprocessor based instrumentation.
♣ Monitoring of pressure and temperature of lube-oil sent to engine cylinders, crank
shaft, bearings lubrication is very important. Generally, lube-oil is replaced between
250-500 hours of working, or as specified by the manufacturer in accordance with
the specific engine requirement.
♣ Monitoring of inlet air temperature and pressure is important, as higher the ambient
air temperature, lower would be the power output from the reciprocating engine or
vice-versa.
30
6.3.2 At maintenance stage
Generally, the periodic preventive maintenance of reciprocating engines is carried out as

follows.
i. Major point of maintenance to be attended is replacement of lubricating oil on condition

basis, and not only on basis of norms of running hours prescribed by the manufacturer.
Field oil testing kits may be used for testing to support the decision whether to change
the oil. Specific discussion is provided in succeeding paragraphs in view of importance of
lubrication system for consistent performance of engine, which may be considered to
correctly understand the importance of this point.
ii. Avoid over lubrication to prevent deposits in the engine and on the turbo-charger blades.
iii. Thorough inspection of reciprocating engine components like cylinders, pistons, piston
rings, injectors, valves, bearings, etc. for clogged parts, excessive wear, pitting marks
may be carried out and overhauling may be resorted to after running hours prescribed by
the manufacturer.
iv. Check compression pressure regularly where such provisions are made.
v. Periodic cleaning/replacement of air filers, fuel filters, etc. is very important for desired
performance of the engine.
vi. Leakages of fuel and lube-oil, minor or major, are to be avoided at all costs, as they are
largely a major factor for higher fuel and lube-oil consumption.
vii. The heat exchangers for lube-oil and engine jacket cooling water may be cleaned at an
interval of around 500 hours depending on the water quality.
6.4 Specific practices for reciprocating engine performance
Following specific points are required due attention in order to optimise, maintain or improve the
performance of the reciprocating engine generator. These are the factors relevant to the
design, operation and maintenance of engines, if considered at various stages as required,
they play instrumental role in enhancement of performance.
i. At designing and installation stage
♣ Specific fuel consumption of engine varies with the change in ambient air (intake)
temperature and pressure. Ambient air pressure changes are related to the site
altitude. Hence, it is important to consider highly reliable site data as design basis to
decide engine rating correctly. The data for various correction factors is available for
super-charged and non-super-charged engines from engine manufacturers.
♣ Two stroke engines may be provided with extra long stroke for fuel economy.
♣ It is preferable to get the engine with advance digital electronic control for air:fuel
ratio, which marked improves the gas fired engine performance.
♣ The reciprocating engines, provided with radiators and engine driven cooling fan,
about 7 – 10% loss of engine bhp is found. Hence, such designs may be selected
where there is a shortage of cooling water supply.
♣ The engine exhaust system should be designed for proper fuel and engine efficiency
so that exhaust back-pressure is within permissible limits and is not exceeded. The
exhaust pipeline should have minimum nos. of smooth bends (bend radius 4 times
diameter of pipe). Higher than permitted back-pressure results into adverse effect on
the scavenging of engine and there would be less oxygen in the cylinder during the
subsequent compression stroke. The mechanical efficiency will reduce due to higher
exhaust pumping losses and will increase the specific fuel consumption.
♣ The engine rooms heat up during running of generator sets due to heat radiation
from the engine, generator, exhaust pipeline, and hot air from the radiator fans.
Increase in ambient temperature results in hot air inside the room, which increases
the fuel consumption due to decrease in the air:fuel ratio, as the mixture becomes
richer, there is drop in the fuel efficiency. It is therefore, very essential that the engine
room is provided with effective ventilation so that hot air is continuously removed by
31
circulation with cool air. Provision of roof ventilators or wall mounted exhaust fans on
upper side cane be considered.
♣ As much of the radiated heat is from the exhaust pipelines and manifolds, use of
some type of insulation lagging on these components reduces the heat radiated into
the room ambient.
0 0
♣ Please remember that the increase in intake air temperature from 25 C to 40 C
results in decrease in air:fuel ratio by about 5% and the specific fuel consumption
may increase in the range of 0.5 to 2% depending on the engine design.
ii. Engine lubrication practices
a. Principle function of engine oil or lubricant is to lubricate various moving parts of the
engine to reduce friction and wear and to provide smooth and trouble free
performance for increased length of time at site conditions. Besides reducing friction,
the engine oil has other functions –
• to keep the engine clean by sweeping away metal wear particles from fine
clearances and between surfaces in relative motion
• to supplement engine cooling by absorption of the frictional heat
• to prevent corrosion of parts
• to act as cooling media
b. Total lube-oil consumption in the engine is sum of -

• engine lube-oil consumption
• possible oil leakage in the system
• losses in centrifuging
• losses during change of oil
c. A series of different viscosity engine lubricating oils have to be available to cope with
the varying design requirements on many types of engines available. Following
properties of oil may be considered when making selection.
♣ The lubricating oil must possess good oxidation and thermal stabilities to
reduce formation of sludge and carbon deposits. This gives a long trouble free
service life to oil before it becomes necessary to have an engine oil change.
♣ In order to achieve functionally important properties, certain chemicals, known
as lubricant additives are used in small but appropriate quantities, since plain
mineral oils cannot perform all desired functions. The additives improve
lubrication and protect equipment from deposits, rust, corrosion, wears and ill-
effects of temperature extremes.
♣ The engines performing more arduous and heavy duty, it may be necessary to
have the oil with a detergent dispersant additive. High rated engines tend to
accelerate oil breakdown and formation of deposits. The oil with a high level of
detergent keeps the pistons clean and reduces the wear and tear rates of
piston rings and cylinder liners, thereby maintaining their performance besides
extending their service life. In particular, such additive prevents decomposed
products from being deposited on piston ring groves, oil paths and other engine
parts.
d. In order to improve effect of lubrication, the engine should be invariably equipped

with following accessories.
♣ Provision of good oil filtration in the engine is closely associated with long life
and maintaining of oil properties.
♣ The wear particles taken away by oil must be kept in suspension in the oil
together with dispersed decomposition and fuel combustion products until they
can be removed by the engine oil filtration system.
♣ Prior to engine start up, main difficulty is encountered with engine lubrication,
as fully stable oil circulation has not been established. As a good practice,
primary pumps are used, essentially on large engines, to ensure adequate flow
of lubricant established at start up.
0
♣ Arrangement for preheating of lubricating oil up to 60-70 C before start up can
reduce warm up period for engine. This would also provide a reduction of about
32
2 – 4% in Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC). Specifically for engines
with large sump capacities, top up oil should also be preheated. Use of
thermostatically controlled oil heaters is recommended for oil heating.
♣ Periodic testing of oil in the field is essential to know about deterioration of oil
properties.
♣ Provision of good oil filtration in the engine is closely associated with long life
and maintaining of oil properties.
e. It is absolutely necessary to change lube-oil as per the period specified by the

manufacturer. When the oil is used for prolonged duration, there is a risk that the
lube-oil starts to degrade and the additives are consumed. The limits are set for
various chemical and physical properties of the lube-oil to ensure its good quality.
Hence, the lube-oil should be changed when the condemning limit is reached. Limits
for various properties are mentioned below as information.
Property Implication Unit Condemning limit

Base number Prevent corrosion mg KOH/gm Min 15-20 (HFO operation)
Insolubles “Dirt in oil” % mass Max 2.0
0
Viscosity Increase fuel input cSt/100 C Max 25% increase
Water Damages bearings % vol Max 0.3
0
Flash point Explosion risk C Min 170 (open cup)
iii. Fuel Management practices
The fuels used in the reciprocating engines are all hydrocarbon based, as they are
extracted as byproducts of crude oil. The engines fired with natural gas experience least
problems due to gas being the cleanest fuel. The liquid fuels fired in the engines are
classified according to their evaporation rate or volatility. The engines are fired with less
volatile fuels high speed diesel (HSD), light diesel oil (LDO), etc., and residual oils
furnace oil, LSHS, etc. of varying viscosities. Following points relevant to fuels may be
paid due attention to get optimum performance from the engine.
♣ The diesel fuel quality is controlled in India in accordance with IS:1460 – 1974,
which covers two grades HSD and LDO. The quality of heavy or residual fuel oils is
covered under IS:1593 – 1983.
♣ Fuel oils are generally very difficult to vaporise and must be atomized or broken
into fine minute droplets in order to achieve desired mixture of air and fuel prior to
firing takes place.
♣ It is also necessary to control coking properties and sulphur content in heavy fuel
oils to avoid excessive sulphur deposits and corrosion due to sulphur compounds
under adverse conditions. If the fuel oil contains compounds of sodium, iron, nickel
or vanadium, the adverse effects of these trace metals may be taken into account.
♣ Viscosity of fuel plays a major role in optimising the performance of the engine. If
the viscosity is too low, or too high, the droplet size, spray pattern and so the
consumption and fuel efficiency would vary Too low viscosity introduces an
element of excessive wear, whereas too high viscosity results in incomplete
combustion besides frictional losses and increased load on fuel pumping system.
With viscous oils, it is necessary to reduce the viscosity before they can be
atomized. This is achieved by preheating of fuel to appropriate temperature to
obtain appropriate viscosity at the injector tips.
♣ It is necessary to ensure proper storage and handling for liquid fuels. Dirt and
contamination will adversely affect fuel quality. HSD or LDO may be passed
through the centrifuge before sending to day tank.
♣ The day tank should have conical bottom with a drain valve on darin pipeline,
so that sludge deposited at the bottom could be easily removed from time to
time. The engine supply line should be taken from the point above the conical
portion.
iv. Cooling system practices
The engine cooling system also plays an important role in maintaining the performance.
Following tips are provided to supplement the tips provided for other systems.
33
♣ Water cooled engines would work at lower specific fuel consumption with
provision of separate and independent cooling water circulation system
consisting of cooling towers, cooling water circulating pumps and heat
exchangers.
♣ The cooling water system should be designed to achieve and maintain difference
0
of 6 - 10 C in the cooling tower inlet water and outlet water temperature, which
results better fuel efficiency.
♣ The raw water should never be used in the engine cooling water system. It is
essential to circulate only soft water so as to avoid corrosion and scaling in the
pipelines.
34
7 CASE STUDIES
7.1 Back-pressure steam turbine and Bagasse fired boiler-Sugar Mill
Generally, in all sugar mills, the cogeneration systems having configuration of steam turbine
generator (back-pressure or extraction-cum-back-pressure type) and fired boiler are found
working , providing the best performance results. Moreover, such type of cogeneration system
fires non-conventional fuel bagasse (sugar cane waste) in the boiler and then also works at
optimum efficiency.
The case study is provided below is based on the system working in one of the largest sugar
mills in Gujarat state.
7.1.1 Equipments
The captive power plant (CPP) consists of major equipment detailed below.
a. 6 nos. of Back-pressure type, single stage steam turbine generator sets as per ratings
provided below.
i. 1 x 1500 kVA (1 x 1200 kW)

ii. 1 x 1875 kVA (1 x 1500 kW)
iii. 1 x 3125 kVA (1 x 2500 kW)
iv. 1 x 3750 kVA (1 x 3000 kW)
v. 2 x 3750 kVA (2 x 3000 kW)
b. 8 nos. of Bagasse fired steam generators as per ratings provided below.

2 0
i. 1 x 60 TPH, 30 Kg/cm , 375 C
2 0
ii. 1 x 50 TPH, 20 Kg/cm , 375 C
2 0
iii. 5 x 30 TPH, 20 Kg/cm , 375 C
2 0
iv. 1 x 25 TPH, 20 Kg/cm , 375 C
Cogeneration equipment data is mentioned below.
Steam turbine generator data

Parameter Unit Quantity - unit rating wise data
Steam turbine data
Type Back- Back- Back- Back-
pressure, pressure, pressure, pressure,
single stage single stage single stage single stage
Nos. installed 2 nos. 1 no. 1 no. 1 no.
(New)
Rating kW 3000 3000 2500 1500
Speed of turbine RPM 8250 6000 9100 10016
Reduction gearbox data
Speed ratio RPM 8250/1500 6000/1500 9100/1500 10016/1500
Type of gearbox Oil filled GL-45 Triveni Maag Triveni Maag
Oil filled Oil filled Oil filled
Steam parameters
2
Inlet live steam pressure Kg/cm 30 20 20 20
0
Inlet live steam temp C 370 370 370 370
Inlet live steam flow TPH
Steam parameters…..contd.
2
Exhaust steam pressure Kg/cm 1 1 1 1
0
Exhaust steam temp C 120 120 120 120
35
Specific steam Kg/ 11.5 14.75 10.65 8.35
consumption kWhr
Generator data
Rating for apparent power kVA 3750 3750 3125 1875
Power output at rated kW 3000 3000 2500 3000
power factor
Generation voltage Volts 420 440 440 440
Full load current Amp 5155 4900 4100 2580
(at rated power factor)
Rated power factor (lag) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Frequency Hz 50 50 50 50
Generator shaft speed RPM 1500 1500 1500 1500
Steam generator data
Nos. installed 1 No. 1 No. 5 Nos. 1 No.
Type of furnace Damping Spreader Horse shoe, Spreader
grate type stroker type rotary stroker type
feeders
Heating surface area sq. mtr. 1636 1799 1065 960
MCR steam flow TPH 60 50 30 25
2
pressure (g) Kg/cm 32 20 20 20
0
temperature C 375 375 375 375
Boiler accessories Superheater, Coil type Coil type Coil type
economizer, air integral integral integral
pre-heater superheater, superheater, superheater,
air pre-heater air pre-heater air pre-heater
Soot blowers provided provided provided provided
Boiler draft system Balanced draft Balanced draft Balanced draft Balanced draft
with FD & ID with FD & ID with FD & ID with FD & ID
fans fans fans fans
The fuel specification and other relevant technical data is provided below.
Fuel composition data

Main fuel - Bagasse
Fuel flow MT/hour 27
Higher heating value (Gross cal value) kCal/kg 2288
Lower heating value kCal/kg
Moisture M % w/w 50.27
Carbon C % w/w 21.71
Hydrogen H % w/w 3.09
Nitrogen N2 % w/w 0.20
Oxygen % w/w 23.23
Sulphur % w/w 0.00
Ash A % w/w 1.5
Auxiliary fuel – Furnace oil
Fuel flow Kg/hour Not fired usually
Higher heating value kCal/kg 9500
Lower heating value kCal/kg 9350
7.1.2 Normal operating philosophy
i. The sugar manufacturing plant works on seasonal basis, i.e. generally for a period of 8
months from September to April every year, when the sugarcane crop would be available
for crushing. In remaining 4 months, rigorous preventive maintenance of all the
36
equipment is carried out so that the plant works without any problem during ensuing
season.
ii. In the case study provided, generally, 2 x 3000 kW (new) Triveni steam turbine
generators with 60 TPH WIL boiler, and 1 x 3000 kW (old) Belliss steam turbine
generator and 1 x 2500 kW Triveni steam turbine generator with 50 TPH and 30 TPH
boilers in required numbers are operated at full load. As 2 x 3000 kW steam turbine
generators and 60 TPH boilers are matching with each other so far steam parameters is
concerned, i.e. it becomes one island. Second island is formed by remaining steam
turbine generators and boilers due to matching of steam parameters.
iii. Remaining equipment is operated either in the event of breakdown or shutdown of any of
the above units, or according to the power and steam load requirements by the
production. The CPP meets the total electric power and steam requirements of the
manufacturing plant as soon as the production is commenced consequent to availability
of sugarcane for crushing. The plant is working conforming to the concept of total co-
generation power plant technology, which is encouraged all around the world in a big way
due to conformance to very vital concept of energy conservation.
iv. The electric power generated in CPP is totally utilised to operate the process equipment,
utilities and plant/office/area illumination. During normal plant operations, the power
generation is maintained at more than 90% of machine rating and around 0.85 power
factor so as to get optimum efficiency.
7.1.3 Power Plant Performance Analysis
Refer figure 7.1.
i. Based on the plant operating data for last 12 months available for two co-generation
islands, the CPP performance has been arrived at as follows.
Electrical generation output = 2949 kW X 2 = 5898 kW

= 5898 x 860 x 4.18 kJ/h
= 2,12,02,130 kJ/h
Steam out put :
29 TPH x 2 = 58 TPH at 1.0 bar.

Enthalpy of steam at 1.0 bar = 642 kcal/kg
Energy in steam out put = 58 x 1000 x 642 x 4.18 kJ/h
= 15,56,46,480 kJ/h
Total energy output = 17,68,48,610 kJ/h
Total fuel input = 27 TPH bagasse

GCV of Bagasse = 2288 kCal/kg
Total energy input = 27 x 1000 x 2288 x 4.18 kJ/h
= 25,82,23,680 kJ/h
Overall efficiency = Total energy output/Total energy input

= 68.5%
Plant Load Overall

Factor Efficiency
Island#1
3000 kW Steam turbine generator #1 & 2 82.63% 68.5%
60 TPH Boiler
Island#2
2500 kW Steam turbine generator # 1 64.70% 66.74%
3000 kW Steam turbine generator # 1
50 TPH and 30 TPH Boilers
37
ii. The power load on new steam turbine generators is maintained almost constant due to
their better performance, the steam load is also maintained on the connected boiler, as
such the plant load factor and efficiency are observed better in this system. The power
load variations are generally taken care off by the system consisting of older steam
turbines and boilers, as such the plant load factor and efficiency have been observed
marginally in comparison to Island#1 mentioned above.
iii. The average age of the steam turbines and boilers is around 8 years. The specific steam
consumption derived based on the enthalpy difference method is found only marginally
offset from the data provided by the manufacturer, which could also be due to some
disparity between required and actual inlet steam parameters.
iv. There is no provision for measurement of actual quantity of Bagasse being fired in the
boilers. Hence, actual data for steam generation vis-à-vis fuel is not generated for the
CPP. Based on derivation of specific steam consumption, noted steam parameters such
as pressure and temperature, power load maintained and analysis of Bagasse, the fuel
consumption can be derived, which would provide reasonably accurate data. The
calibrated energy meters are provided for measurement of electricity.
iv. Heat balance diagram for Island#1 is provided on next page in Fig.7.1.
38
32 Kg/cm2 steam
T PH Kg/cm 2 1 Kg/cm2 steam
Water circuit
Deg C Kcal/kg
Deaerator steam
Steam to sugar manufacturing

process
29 1.0 29 1.0
120 642.4 120 642.4
3000 kW 3000 kW
420V G G 420V
Generator Generator
Back-
2949 kW pressure 2949 kW
actual 29 31 actual
steam
370 758
turbine
58 32
375 768.5
2 32
375 768.5
Chimney
Water PRV
stack
pre-heater
2 0.7
Bled steam 250 658.3
60 32
375 768.5
60T PH
Fired
boiler
61 6.0
Deaerator
45 45
Combustion air
63 1.0
90 90
61 6.0 63 35
55 55 110 110
Fuel: Bagasse
DM water pump 27 MT /hr
Boiler feed pump
DM water
Make-up
Fig. 7.1 Steam turbine based cogeneration system in sugar mill – I sland # 1
39
7.2 Extraction-cum-Back pressure steam turbine and Lignite/ Coal fired boilers -
Caustic Soda Industry
Another case study for steam turbine cogeneration plant is based on the cogeneration system
in the soda ash manufacturing continuous process chemical plant. The soda ash process is
one of the highly energy intensive chemical processes requiring power as well as steam almost
in same proportions, i.e. ratio of power:heat would be nearly one. Generally, in soda ash plants,
the extraction-cum-back pressure type steam turbine based cogeneration systems and fired
boilers are found working, providing the best performance results due to achievement of
extremely good heat balance due to excellent utilisation of energy in two different forms. The
high pressure boilers are generally fired with coal or lignite or fuel oil.
The case study is provided below is based on the system working in one of the largest soda
ash plants existing in Gujarat state.
7.2.1 Equipments
a. 3 nos. of Extraction-cum-backpressure type, single stage steam turbine generator sets as

per ratings provided below.
i. 2 x 13750 kVA (1 x 11000 kW), Single extraction-cum-back pressure

ii. 1 x 5250 kVA (1 x 4200 kW), Double extraction-cum-back pressure
b. 4 nos. of Lignite-cum-coal fired steam generators as per ratings provided below.

2 0
i. 3 x 70 TPH, 105 Kg/cm , 405 C
2 0
ii. 1 x 50 TPH, 105 Kg/cm , 405 C

Steam turbine data
STG # 1 and 2 STG # 3
Type Extraction-cum- Extraction-cum-
Back-pressure Back-pressure
Nos. installed Nos. 2 nos. 1 no.
Rating kW 11000 4200
Speed of turbine RPM 8250 11500
Speed ratio 8250/3000 11500/1500
Type of gearbox
Inlet steam parameters
2
Inlet live steam pressure Kg/cm 105 105
0
Inlet live steam temp C 500 500
Inlet live steam flow TPH 135 28.5
Specific steam Kg/
NA NA
consumption kWhr
Parameter Unit Quantity – unit rating wise data

st
1 Extraction steam parameters
2
Steam pressure Kg/cm 40 40
0
Steam temperature C 380 380
Steam flow TPH 50 2
nd
2 Extraction steam parameters
2
Steam pressure Kg/cm Not applicable 22
0
Steam temperature C Not applicable 325
Steam flow TPH Not applicable 12.8
40
Back pressure (exhaust) steam parameters
2
Steam pressure Kg/cm 22 2.2
0
Steam temperature C 280 161
Steam flow TPH 85 13.7
Generator data
Rating for apparent power kVA 13750 5250
Power output at rated kW 11000 4200
power factor
Generation voltage Volts 6600 6600
Rated power factor (lag) 0.8 0.8
Frequency Hz 50 50
Generator shaft speed RPM 3000 1500
Steam generator data
Boiler # 1, 2, 3 Boiler # 4
Nos. installed Nos. 3 1
Type of furnace Stocker Stocker
Heating surface area sq. mtr.
MCR steam flow TPH 70 70
2
pressure (g) Kg/cm 105 105
0
temperature C 505 505
0
Flue gas temperature C 150 max. 150 max.
entering the chimney
0
Feed water temperature C 150 150
entering economizer
Soot blowers provided provided

Component Unit Lignite Coal
Fuel flow MT/hour 9.34 4.0
Higher heating value (Gross cal value) kCal/kg 3894 5832
Lower heating value kCal/kg NA NA
Moisture M % w/w 32.16 5.58
Carbon C % w/w 31.78 64.07
Hydrogen H % w/w 3.48 5.17
Nitrogen N2 % w/w 2.82 1.08
Oxygen % w/w 14.43 11.93
Sulphur % w/w 2.53 0.95
Ash A % w/w 12.8 11.22
Ratio of fuel maintained for firing % 70 30
Fuel GCV based on 70:30 ratio considered for performance 4200
i. The soda ash plant is working round the clock having very critical continuous chemical
process. Interruption of more than half an hour in availability of energy either in the form
of electric power or steam creates enormous problems in the ongoing process resulting
into substantial production losses. One of the major process areas requiring power is
Lime Kiln, which must be kept burning under adverse circumstances, otherwise it proves
disastrous if the kiln dies down. In the stream of soda ash as final product, the screw
conveyers get jammed due to hygroscopic nature of the chemical. 2 nos. of continuously
rotating calciners are another drive requiring uninterrupted power and steam.
41
ii. In the case study provided, one no. 11000 kW steam turbine generator and 4200 kW
steam turbine generator along with three nos. of 70 TPH boilers are operated at around
80-85% of rated capacity.
iii. One no. 11000 kW steam turbine and one of the boilers are kept as standby to take into
service either in the event of breakdown or maintenance shutdown of any of the running
units. The standby is considered essential in view of criticality of chemical process and to
avoid production losses on this account.
iv. The CPP starts meeting requirement of electric power and steam of the plant as soon as
the production process is commenced. With starting of process equipment in sequence,
the power load increases, which provides more and more steam to process. Entire
scheme is so designed that power and steam requirements increase hand in hand
maintaining good efficiency of the CPP. The heat balance achieved is excellent. The
plant is working conforming to the concept of total co-generation power plant technology,
which is encouraged all around the world in a big way due to conformance to very vital
concept of energy conservation.
7.2.3 Utilisation of energy available in the extraction/back-pressure steam

2 0
i. Steam injection to steam turbine at 105 Kg/cm , 505 C
2 0
High pressure steam at 105 Kg/cm , 505 C temperature available from the boilers is sent
to a common header and from header to the steam turbines as follows. 3 boilers are
operated out of 4 nos. installed.
• 11000 kW steam turbine generator – 135 TPH

normally operated at 9000 kW load
• 4200 kW steam turbine generator – 28.5 TPH
normally operated at 3000 kW load
The steam turbines generate around 12000 kW electric power, which is utilised in the
plant production activities, offices, area illumination and also in the housing colony. This
is the primary utilisation of heat energy available in the steam.
2
i. Steam at 40 Kg/cm
From both, 11000 kW steam turbine and 4200 kW steam turbine, the steam at 40 bar
pressure is taken out via extraction as follows.
• From 11000 kW steam turbine generator extraction steam

2 0
50 TPH, 40 Kg/cm , 380 C
st
• From 4200 kW steam turbine generator 1 extraction steam
2 0
bear minimum 2 TPH, 40 Kg/cm , 380 C
The extraction steam is utilised as follows.
a. This extraction steam is injected into 3 nos. of back-pressure steam turbines, which
drive the screw compressors used to compress CO2 for sent to the process. The
2
back-pressure steam turbines provide the low pressure steam at 2.2 Kg/cm , 161
0
C temperature, which is taken to 2.2 bar steam header.
2
b. To further optimise the utilisation of 40 Kg/cm bar steam, around 4 TPH steam is
injected into a back-pressure steam turbine, which drives a large capacity boiler
feed water pump, common for all the boilers, under normal plant running
conditions. HT motor driven BF pump is utilised only during start-up of first boiler or
during maintenance/breakdown of turbine driven feed pump. Again the back-
2 0
pressure steam turbine provides the low pressure steam at 2.2 Kg/cm , 150 C
2
temperature, which is diverted to 2.2 Kg/cm header for further utilisation of heat in
the process.
42
The utilisation of steam to drive the plant auxiliaries has resulted into substantial saving
of electrical energy, which would have been otherwise required to drive very high
capacity compressors and large capacity BF pump using electric motor as prime-mover.
2 2
ii. Steam at 22 Kg/cm and 8 Kg/cm (Deaerator steam)
2
The steam at 22 Kg/cm is available in the system as follows from both the steam
turbines in operation.
• From 11000 kW steam turbine generator back-pressure or exhaust steam, 85

2 0
TPH, 22 Kg/cm , 280 C
nd
• From 4200 kW steam turbine generator 2 extraction steam
2 0
12.8 TPH, 22 Kg/cm , 325 C
2
The exhaust and extraction steam is utilised as follows through 22 Kg/cm header.
a. Major part of steam is utilised in 2 nos. of calciners for calcinations process of soda
ash. The steam is passed through de-superheating station to reduce the
0
temperature to 230 C, which is marginal loss of energy. Part of steam is absorbed
to convert sodium bicarbonate to sodium carbonate (2NaHCO3 + H2O = Na2CO3 +
2H2O) and balance comes out as condensate from Calciners. Thus, for steam used
in reaction, all heat available in 22 bar steam is utilised.
b. 22 bar steam, condensed as mentioned in a. above, is flashed to convert to 8

2 0
Kg/cm , 205 C steam. This steam is sent to the deaerator as pegging steam.
Mostly the deaerator steam is supplied in this manner and shortfall, if any, is
2
supplied through 22/8 Kg/cm PRDS as and when required. This system saves
good amount of energy, direct drawl of steam from the boiler for deaeration is
totally avoided.
2
c. Some part of 22 Kg/cm steam is supplied to HP feed water heater for heating of
boiler feed water before it is sent to the boiler and steam condensate available in
HP heater is sent to the deaerator for feeding to the boiler.
2
d. A part of 22 Kg/cm steam is directly sent to the process area for direct utilisation of
heat. The heat is almost utilised in the process and the condensate is recovered
and sent to the deaerator.
2
iii. Steam at 2.2 Kg/cm
2
The steam at 2.2 Kg/cm is available in the system as follows.
• From 4200 kW steam turbine generator back-pressure or exhaust steam, 13.7

2 0
TPH, 2.2 Kg/cm , 161 C
• From 3 nos. of steam turbines driving CO2 compressors exhaust
2 0
48 TPH, 2.2 Kg/cm , 161 C
• From a steam turbine driving BF pump exhaust
2 0
4TPH, 2.2 Kg/cm , 150 C
2
The exhaust and extraction steam is utilised as follows through 2.2 Kg/cm header.
2
a. The steam available at 2.2 Kg/cm from header is utilised in the process for heating
purpose to its condensing temperature, as such almost all energy available is
utilised and the condensate is sent back to the deaerator for onward feeding to the
boilers.
iv. Steam drawl through PRDS
Nos. of PRDS are installed, however these are taken in service in the event of
emergency, when steam at certain level may not be available due to non-availability of
2
steam turbine generator or mechanical drive turbines. Except 22/8 Kg/cm PRDS, other
43
PRDS are not operated under normal situation to save energy. This point is also worth
noting.
7.2.4 Utilisation of electric power
When the plant production is normal, 4200 kW steam turbine and one of 1100 kW steam
turbines are operated maintaining the electric power load of around 12 MW out of total capacity
of 15 MW available depending on number of equipment taking part in the process and the
colony load. The grid power is kept as standby. 4200 kW steam turbine is utilised to the tune of
nearly 80% its respective capacity, so that the steam extraction at different levels and back-
pressure is available, which would provide better efficiency. The variation in plant load is
2
absorbed by 11000 kW steam turbine generator. If 2.2 Kg/cm level steam would be obtained
through pressure reducing-cum-de-superheating station (PRDS), there would be loss of heat
energy available in HP steam sent to PRDS.
Refer fig 7.2.
Electrical generation output = 12000 kW

= 12000 x 860 x 4.18 kJ/h
= 4,31,37,600 kJ/h
Steam out put:
Steam utilised at Quantity Energy used

MT/h kJ/hr
22 bar to process 15 27149100
22 bar to HP heater 5 9049700
22 bar to Calciner 14 25339160
22 bar to Calciner 76.8 139003392
2.2 bar to process 65 117646100
Total energy in steam output = 31,81,87,452 kJ/h
Total energy output (Electricity + Steam) = 42,35,44,352 kJ/h
Total fuel input

Parameter Unit Lignite Coal
Fuel flow MT/hour 9.34 4.0
Higher heating value (Gross cal kCal/kg 3894 5832
value)
Total energy input = 9.34 x 1000 x 3894 x 4.18 +

4.0 x 5832 x 1000 x 4.18 kJ/h
= 74,87,20,294 kJ/h
Overall efficiency = Total energy output/Total energy input

= 56.6%
i. Based on the plant operating data available for the cogeneration plant, the performance
indices are observed as follows.
Plant Load Overall

Factor Efficiency
11000 kW Steam turbine generator #1 OR 2 85-90% around 57%

4200 kW Steam turbine generator
44
70 TPH Boiler, 3 nos. out of 4 nos.
ii. The data for efficiency of the boilers is provided to supplement the overall very good
efficiency levels maintained by the plant.
2 0
70 TPH, 105 Kg/cm , 505 C Boiler # 1 75-80 %
2 0
70 TPH, 105 Kg/cm , 505 C Boiler # 2 76-80 %
2 0
70 TPH, 105 Kg/cm , 505 C Boiler # 3 80-82 %
2 0
70 TPH, 105 Kg/cm , 505 C Boiler # 4 82-85 %
iii. The power load on the steam turbine generators is maintained to optimum feasible level
to achieve better performance, the steam load is maintained accordingly on the operated
boilers, as such the plant load factor and efficiency are observed very good for this
specific system. The power load variations are generally taken care off by 11000 kW
steam turbine generator maintaining almost full load on 4200 kW steam turbine
generator. No parallel operation with the grid is carried out.
iii. The average age of the steam turbine # 1 and 2 and boiler # 1, 2 and 3 is around 16
years. The steam turbine # 3 and boiler # 4 are relatively new taken into service before
around 8 years.
iv. There is provision of on-line weighing scales at starting point of conveyors for
measurement of actual quantity of coal and lignite fired in the boiler. Moreover, the
bunker levels are also monitored. The instrumentation system for measuring the steam
flow and total quantity is installed dedicated to each boiler. Thus, necessary data for
steam generation vis-à-vis fuel is generated for the CPP. For power measurement, usual
calibrated energy meters are installed dedicated to each generator. All these measuring
and monitoring systems greatly supplements efforts on the part of engineers to
continuously keep a watch on the performance of the CPP.
iv. Heat balance diagram for the system is provided in Fig. 7.2 and total scheme is
elaborated in Fig. 7.3 for understanding of system.
45
LEGEND Fuel qty fired: 40 T PH
14 105
T PH Kg/cm2 HP steam from 3 boilers out of 4 505 807.3
0
C kCal/kg
177.5 105
505 807.3
105 bar st eam header 105/22

PRDS
135 105 28.5 105
105/40 505 807.3 505 807.3
PRDS
T G# 1/2, 9 MW T G# 3, 3 MW
G G
85 22
50 40 2 40
280 708.7
380 755.8 380 755.8
12.8 22
325 733.3
40 bar st eam header

48 40
40/2.2 380 755.8 14 22
PRDS 22 bar st eam header 230 678.8
3 CO2
Comp
4 40 out of 4
380 755.8 running
15 22 Calciner
T urbine 48 2.2 230 678.8
Driven 161 665
BF pump
4 2.2 HP
150 661 T o process heater
T hro’ PRDS
2.2 bar st eam header 22/8
13.7 2.2
PRDS
60 2.2 161 665
160 662
T o process
Condensate
Return from 15 8 Flash steam,
process 200 677.8 Normally from
Calciner
Deaerator
F ig. 7.2 Heat balance diagr am f or cogen syst em in soda ash plant
46
105 bar S team 8 bar S team
40 bar S team 2.2 bar S team
22 bar S team F las h s team
105 bar s team fr om

S team gener ator s
S G# 4 T G# 3 T G# 2 S G# 3 S G# 2 S G# 1
T G# 1
105/22
PR DS
105/40
105 bar S team header
PR DS
105/22 105/22
PR DS PR DS
105/40
PR DS S team tur bine Gen # 2 S team tur bine Gen # 1
S team tur bine Gen # 3
11 11
MW MW
4.2
MW
Pr oces s line
Vent
Vent Pr oces s line

Vent Vent
40 bar S team header
40/2.2
PR DS
S team tur bine dr iven 22 bar S team header
B oiler feed pump S team tur bine dr iven F las h s team
CO2 Compr es s or s
22/8 HP Calciner
PR DS heater
15T PH
Vent
I s olating
8/2.2 Deaer ator
valve
PR DS
2.2 bar S team header
T o pr oces s
F i g. 7 .3 S t eam t u r bi n e bas ed Cogen er at i on P l an t an d S t eam di s t r i bu t i on i n S oda As h

P l an t
47
7.3 Gas turbine generator and unfired waste heat boiler-Pharmaceutical Industry
Generally, in continuous process industries requiring more energy in the form of steam than
electric power, power:heat ratio less than 1, the cogeneration systems having configuration of
gas turbine generator and unfired, or supplementary fired, or fully fired waste heat recovery
boilers are found working , providing the best performance results among various
cogeneration configurations. Moreover, in such type of cogeneration systems, it is possible to
achieve number of combinations to meet the industry’s specific needs of energy in different
forms besides achieving optimum cogeneration efficiency. The examples of such plants can
be seen in the petrochemical plants or pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities.
The case study is provided below is based on the system working in one of the largest
pharmaceutical plants in Gujarat state.
7.3.1 Equipments
a. 2 x 5250 kVA (2 x 4200 kW) industrial heavy duty gas turbine generator sets
2 0
b. 2 x 10.55 TPH, 9 Kg/cm , 200 C unfired waste heat recovery boilers.
Gas turbine generator data

Parameter Unit Quantity
Gas turbine data
Type Industrial heavy duty
Nos. of units installed Nos. 2
Rating kW 4200
Speed of turbine RPM 17120
Gas turbine compressor inlet design conditions
0
air temperature C 35
2
pressure Kg/cm 1.0332
altitude Above MSL 36.5 mtr
relative humidity % 60
diff. pressure - inlet air filter mbar 100
Gas turbine heat rate at designed conditions kCal/kWh 3164.09
Cogeneration heat rate at designed conditions kCal/kWh 969.01
Nos. of stages
air compressor Nos. of stages 12
gas turbine Nos. of stages 2
Exhaust flue gas flow Kg/sec 16.35
0
Exhaust flue gas temperature at turbine outlet C 548
Speed ratio 17120/1500

Generator data
Rating for apparent power kVA 5250
Power output at rated kW 4200
power factor
Generation voltage kV 11
Full load current Amp 278
(at ratedpower
Rated powerfactor
factor)
(lag) 0.8
Frequency Hz 50
Generator shaft speed RPM 1500
Excitation Self excited, brushless
48
Waste heat recovery boiler data
Type of WHRB Water tube, horizontal,
unfired, single pressure,
waste heat recovery boiler
Nos. installed Nos. 2
0
Exhaust gas temp at WHRB inlet C 542
0
Exhaust gas temp entering chimney C 140
Steam parameters at boiler exit
flow MT/hour 10.5
0
temperature C 200
2
pressure (g) Kg/cm 9
Feed water parameters at boiler inlet
MCR flow Kg/hour 12
0
temperature at drum inlet C 105
2
pressure Kg/cm 12.5
0
temperature at boiler inlet C 118
0
Feed water temperature entering economizer C 105
0
Make-up water temperature at pre-heater inlet C 48
0
Make-up water temperature at pre-heater outlet C 70
Exhaust flue gas composition
Average % CO2 v/v % 6.0
Average % O2 v/v % 11.0
Average stack gas temperature, T •C 230

Main fuel – Natural gas
3
Fuel flow NM /hour 1250
3
Higher heating value (Gross cal value) kCal/NM 9500
Moisture M % w/w 50.27
Carbon C % w/w 21.71
Hydrogen H % w/w 3.09
Nitrogen N2 % w/w 0.20
Oxygen O % w/w 23.23
Sulphur S % w/w 0.00
Ash A % w/w 1.5
Alternate fuel – High speed diesel
Fuel flow Kg/hour 1145
i. The pharmaceutical plant works round the clock for the medicinal products
manufactured using critical chemical process as well as certain products are
manufactured using the batch type process. Hence, the system is bound to experience
wide variation in the demand of power and steam from time to time. Moreover, even in
case of continuous process, the demand of power and steam is based on simultaneous
operation of number of plant sections producing same product depending on the
production level.
ii. In the case study provided, 2nos. of 4200 kW gas turbine generators along with 10 TPH
unfired WHRB are operated at full load with minimum back up for electric power from
the state utility. In case more steam is required than available from WHRB, existing
fired boilers are utilised as per demand of steam.
49
iii. The gas turbine generators are run in parallel with the state utility, which provides
advantage in the sense that in the event of tripping of one of the gas turbines, the plant
power load to that extent gets transferred on the grid without any interruption/voltage
fluctuation to critical process. For meeting short fall in the steam supply, natural gas
fuel, used to run the gas turbine, is fired in the existing fired boilers to generate the
steam. Whole process takes very nominal time without disturbance of any sort to the
critical drug manufacturing process.
7.3.3 Utilisation of power
i. The electrical energy generated from the CPP is totally utilised in operating the process
equipment such as large HT motor driven air compressor, agitators, mixers, pumps,
utilities and plant/office/area illumination. The production of antibiotics is extremely
critical continuous chemical process and production of formulations is carried out using
batch process. Thus, the industry imposes varying power load on the system. In order
to optimise the performance of CPP, the parallel operation with state grid is resorted to,
so that the gas turbines would always operate at full load passing the load variations on
the grid system automatically.
ii. When the gas turbines are operated at full load, they maintain optimum heat rate and
thereby efficiency. Moreover, the steam availability from WHRB is also maintained to
optimum requiring least occasions for operating fired boilers to meet steam
requirements. This plant has been found working at excellent efficiency level
maintaining attractive economics for the cost of power and steam.
7.3.4 Utilisation of steam
i. Maximum steam availability is 20 TPH from the cogeneration power plant. Major
quantity of steam is utilized to run the steam fired vapour absorption chiller machines
(VAM) in which the heat available in the steam is almost fully utilised. The chilled water
generated VAM is circulated around the fermenters, as microbial developed in the
fermentors requires temperature controlled environment for survival. Though the motor
driven compression chillers are installed in the plant, they are not operated resulting
into substantial saving of electrical energy.
ii. The chilled water is available in abundance, which is also sent to various plant and
office building for air-conditioning. Except for few window a/c units, there is central air-
conditioning plants working in the factory saving again electrical energy to great extent.
iii. The steam is also utilised for auto-clave of fermentors to make them free of any
bacteria as well as some quantity in the process for heating, etc. The condensate,
0
available from vapour absorption chillers at temperature of around 65 – 70 C is
recovered and sent back to the cogeneration plant for recycling. Thus the losses are
minimised to great extent.
i. Based on the plant operating data available for the cogeneration facility, the
performance indices are observed as follows.
Energy input Qty Unit

Natural gas 32000 Nm3/day for 1 turbines
1333.3 m3/h
2666.7 Nm3/hr for 2 turbines
Fuel calorific value 9500 kCal/Nm3

Energy input 253.33 lakh kCal/hr
Power output
Electric power 8000 kW
50
Heat output 68.8 Lakh kcal/h
Gas turbine
Elect efficiency 27.16 %
Steam output
Quantity 21.1 TPH
Enthalpy 676 kCal/kg
Heat output 142.64 kCal/hr
Total energy output 211.44 kCal/hr
Overall cogen efficiency

211.44 253.33
83.46 %
Plant Load Overall

Factor Efficiency
4200 kW Gas turbine generator #1 & 2 90-95% 83-85%

10.55 TPH Waste heat recovery boiler
#1&2
ii. The power load on new steam turbine generators is maintained almost constant due to
their better performance, the steam load is also maintained on the connected boiler, as
such the plant load factor and efficiency are observed better in this system. The power
load variations are generally taken care off by the system consisting of older steam
turbines and boilers, as such the plant load factor and efficiency have been observed
marginally in comparison to Island#1 mentioned above.
iii. The average age of the gas turbines and waste heat boilers is around 7 years. The
specific steam consumption derived based on the enthalpy difference method is found
only marginally offset from the data provided by the manufacturer, which could also be
due to some disparity between required and actual inlet steam parameters.
iv. There is latest instrumentation system installed in individual gas turbine for the
measurement of natural gas quantity as well as a separate instrument system for
measurement of total quantity supplied, which is quite useful for cross checking of
natural gas consumed. Actual data for steam generation vis-à-vis fuel is not generated
for the CPP. Based on derivation of specific steam consumption, noted steam
parameters such as pressure and temperature, power load maintained and analysis of
Bagasse, the fuel consumption can be derived, which would be reasonably accurate
data.
iv. Heat balance diagr am for the cogener ation s ys tem is pr ovided on nex t page
in Fig. 7.4
51
21.1 8 HP steam to process
200 676
T PH Kg/cm2 0.5 8 0.5 8
Deg C Kcal/kg PRV PRV
200 676 200 676
0.5 0.7 10.55 8 10.55 8 0.5 0.7

Bled steam to deaerator 200 676 200 676 Bled steam to deaerator
150 585 150 585
Main stack Main stack
10.8 6 10.8 6
82 82 82 82
Water Water
Preheater Preheater
DM Water DM Water
Make up Make up
Waste heat
recovery
DM water pump boilers DM water pump
unfired
Deaearator 2 Nos. Deaearator
11.05 9.5 11.05 9.5

95 95 95 95
Boiler feed pump Boiler feed pump

Bypass stack Bypass stack
Natural gas 1333 SM3/hr Natural gas 1333 SM3/hr
I nlet air I nlet air
Generator Generator
4200 kW 4200 kW
Combustion Combustion
11 kV 11 kV
chamber chamber
G G
Compressor Gas turbine Compressor Gas turbine

5 2t ur bine based cogener at ion syst em in phar maceut ical indust r y
Fig. 7.4 Gas
7.4 Gas turbine generator, steam turbine generator, unfired waste heat recovery
boiler and absorption chiller –Commercial Building
In downtown Chicago, M/s. OptimalPath (data center development group) and FlashPower
(energy system integrator) have joined hands and set up a combined cycle-cum-cogeneration
plant consisting of gas turbine generator, steam turbine generator, waste heat recovery boiler
and absorption chiller, to meet 100% of the telecom energy needs. Whenever the power is
surplus, it is sold to the grid.
7.4.1 Equipments
a. 1 x 8235 kVA (1 x 7000 kW) industrial heavy duty gas turbine generator set.
b. 1 x 3530 kVA (1 X 3000 kW) industrial extraction-cum-condensing steam

turbine generator
2 0
c. 1 X 17 TPH, 24 Kg/cm , 350 C unfired waste heat recovery boiler.
d. 1 no. Vapour absorption chiller

Make Kawasaki heavy Industries
Gas turbine heat rate at designed conditions kCal/kWh
Nos. of stages
air compressor Nos. of stages 14
gas turbine Nos. of stages 3
Exhaust flue gas flow Kg/sec 26.45
0
Exhaust flue gas temperature at turbine outlet C 548
Rating for power generation kW 7000
Rated power factor of generator 0.85
Input steam parameters
Flow TPH 17
2
Pressure Kg/cm 24
0
Temperature C 350
Extraction steam parameters
Flow TPH 14.5
2
Pressure Kg/cm 5.1
0
Temperature C 185
Power output at rated power factor kW 3000
Rated power factor (lag) 0.85
Frequency Hz 60
53
Type of WHRB Water tube, horizontal,
unfired, single pressure,
waste heat recovery boiler
0
0
flow MT/hour 17
0
temperature C 350
2
Vapour absorption chiller data
Capacity TR not provided
0 0
Comfort temperature to be maintained F/ C 60 / 15
The fuel fired in the plant is as follows. The fuel specifications are not provided in the article
and hence not projected.
Fuel data
Main fuel – Natural gas
Alternate fuel – Distillate No. 2
i. The telecom-type data center works round the clock providing extremely reliable
relevant services to customers. Main technical aspect to be noted is that, the system is
experiencing very nominal variations in the demand of power and steam.
ii. The gas turbine is fired with natural gas, however, the distillate No.2 can also be fired
as back-up fuel. The gas turbine generates 7 MW power. The surplus power, if any, is
sold to the grid.
iii. The exhaust flue gases from the gas turbine is diverted to the WHRB, which generates
2 0
17 TPH steam at 24 Kg/cm pressure and 350 C temperature. The steam is injected
into the steam turbine, which generates 3 MW power.
iv. The gas turbine generator is run in parallel with the grid, which provides advantage in
the sense that in the event of tripping of the gas turbine, the data center power load to
that extent gets transferred on the grid without any interruption/voltage fluctuation to
critical requirement.
i. Almost total electric power of 10 MW generated from the gas turbine generator and
steam turbine generator is utilised in telecom-type data center, which essentially
requires extremely reliable power to maintain its services without interruption of any sort
of smallest duration. Almost 100% back-up power facility is also set up in view of
requirement of extreme reliability.
ii. When the gas turbine is operated at full load, it maintains optimum heat rate and
optimum level to supply steam to the steam turbine and in turn to the absorption chiller
as well. This system has been observed working maintaining excellent efficiency level
and attractive economics for the cost of power and steam.
54
i. Maximum steam availability is 17 TPH from the WHRB. Total quantity of steam is
utilized to run the steam turbine, which generates 3 MW of power. Around 14.5 TPH
2 0
steam at 5.1 Kg/cm pressure and 185 C is taken out from the extraction stage of the
steam turbine and minimum balance quantity is permitted to condense finally.
ii. The extraction steam is sent to the steam fired absorption chiller system in which the
heat available in the steam is almost fully utilised. The chilled water generated in chiller
is circulated around the data center to maintain controlled environment at temperature
0
of 60 F. The computers in data center are typically mounted in racks on the raised floor
and cooled to maintain the said specified operating temperature. The condensate from
absorption chiller is taken back to the condenser for recycling along with the steam
condensate to the WHRB.
iii. In the event the steam turbine is not in service due to forced or maintenance outage,
the steam to absorption chiller plant is maintained at desired level through pressure
reducing and de-superheating station (PRDS), as the controlled environment is also
extremely critical requirement for the data center. Even back-up motor driven
compression chiller plants are also installed to work in the event of extreme emergency.
Though no factual data for the plant performance is projected in the magazine, but based on
the plant system and its operating philosophy, the performance indices are predicted as
follows. A point worth noting here is the design of entire system to provide 99.9% reliability
without depending on the back-up equipment and grid supply.
Plant Load Overall

Factor Efficiency
7000 kW Gas turbine generator 98-100% 85-90%

3000 kW Steam turbine generator
17 TPH Waste heat recovery boiler
Absorption chiller plant
Heat balance diagram for the cogeneration system is provided on next page in Fig. 7.5.
55
HP steam to
steam turbine
Chimney stack
G 3 MW Steam
Waste heat turbine
turbine generator
generator
recovery boiler
Extraction
Natural gas fuel steam
PRDS Condenser
Gas fuel M
compressor
Combustion Cooling tower

chamber
G
Steam to
chiller plant
7 MW Gas
turbine generator Electricity to
Data center
I nlet air
to GT comp
Condensate from chiller plant
Absorption
Chiller plant
Fig. 7.5 Cogener ation wit h gas tur bine, steam tur bine, WHR B and absor ption chiller
56
7.5 Reciprocating engine generator and unfired waste heat boiler- Chlor Alkali
Industry
Generally, in continuous process industries requiring more electric power than steam,
power:heat ration more than 1, the cogeneration systems having configuration of
reciprocating engine generator and unfired, or supplementary fired, or fully fired waste heat
recovery boilers are found working providing the best performance results among various
cogeneration configurations. Moreover, in such type of cogeneration systems, it is possible to
achieve number of combinations to meet the industry’s specific needs of energy in different
forms besides achieving optimum cogeneration efficiency. The examples of such plants can
be seen in the chemical process plants or in foundry units.
The case study is provided below is based on the actual system working in one of the largest
chloro-alkali manufacturing plants in Gujarat state.
7.5.1 Equipments
a. 3 x 7510 kVA (3 X 6000 kW) industrial heavy duty reciprocating engine generator sets
as per ratings provided below.
2 0
b. 3 nos. of 3.5 TPH, 11 Kg/cm , 250 C unfired waste heat recovery boilers as per ratings
provided below.
Reciprocating engine generator data

Engine data
Wartsila, 18V32
Rating bhp 8160
Speed of engine RPM 750
Engine inlet design conditions
0
2
Fuel fired - Primary Heavy fuel oil
Engine heat rate at designed conditions kCal/kWh 2042.21
Specific fuel consumption gms/kWh 180.5
Specific lube-oil consumption gms/kWh 0.8±0.3
Exhaust flue gas flow Kg/sec NA
0
Exhaust flue gas temperature at engine outlet C 405

Generator data
Power output at rated power factor and kW 6015
site conditions
Full load current Amp 394.6
(at ratedpower
Rated powerfactor
factor)
(lag) 0.8
Frequency Hz 50
57
Type of WHRB Water tube, single pass, vertical
unfired, single pressure, waste
heat recovery boiler
0
0
flow MT/hour 3 x 3.5 TPH
0
temperature C 200
2
pressure (g) Kg/cm 10.5

Main fuel – Heavy fuel oil
Higher heating value (Gross cal value) kCal/Kg 10200
Lower heating value (LHV) kCal/kg 9200
Moisture % w/w 1.0
0
Viscosity, max. cSt @ 100 C 55
0
cSt @ 50 C 730
0
Density, max @ 15 C gms/ml 0.991
Vanadium, max. mg/kg 600
Sodium, max. mg/kg 20-50
Sulphur, max. % w/w 5.0
0
Flash Point, Closed Cup, Pensky Martens C min. 60
0
Pour Point, upper max. C 30
Sediment, Percent by Mass, w/w%, max. 0.1
Ash % w/w 0.1
Start-up fuel – High speed diesel
Fuel flow Kg/hour
The lube-oil specification and other relevant technical data is provided below.
Lube-oil composition data

Type of lube-oil SAE 40
i. The chloro-alkali plant works round the clock for the production of caustic soda (Sodium
hydroxide, NaOH) as main product. Byproducts such as Hydrogen, Hydrochloric acid,
Chlorine, etc, are also produced. The process, continuous in nature, is highly energy
intensive and critical. In view of explosive nature of some products, it is essential to
maintain uninterrupted electric power supply from safety angle. The system is bound to
experience some variation in the demand of power and steam from time to time
depending on production level. Moreover, even in case of continuous process, the
demand of power and steam is based on simultaneous operation of number of plant
sections and utilities. With the use of membrane based technology in place of
conventional cell based electrolysis process, significant saving is achieved in electrical
energy consumption.
58
ii. In the case study provided, 3 nos. of 6015 kW reciprocating engine generators along
with 3.5 TPH unfired WHRB are operated at around 80-85% of their rated capacities
with no back up for electric power from the state utility. The existing fired boilers, used
prior to installation of CPP, have been retained to operate during extreme emergency
situations.
iii. The reciprocating engine generators are run in parallel with each other. In fact, there is
no provision of the gird supply at all. Such philosophy may prove disadvantageous to
the plant, as in the event of tripping of one of the engines, there would be shortage of
electric power. Moreover, due to sudden imposition of overload on remaining engines,
they may also trip. To avert such situation, the load management scheme is placed in
service, which immediately isolates the non-essential services in the first instant so as
to save other running engines to maintain essential plant power supply. For meeting
short fall in the steam supply, fuel oil fired existing boiler is taken into service to
generate the steam. Whole process takes very nominal time without disturbance of any
sort to the critical chemical manufacturing process.
i. The electrical energy generated from the CPP is totally utilised in operating the process
equipment such as membrane process for electrolysis, large HT motor driven
equipment, agitators, mixers, pumps, utilities and plant/office/area illumination. The
production of caustic soda is extremely critical continuous chemical process along with
other byproducts. In order to optimise the performance of CPP, minimum 80% load is
maintained on all 3 engine generators in operation. In the vent of low production level,
rd
more load is taken on 2 generators with stoppage of 3 one so as to maintain the plant
performance. The configuration is designed to achieve optimum performance from the
CPP under varied loading conditions.
ii. When the engines are operated nearly at 80-100% load, they maintain optimum heat
rate and thereby efficiency. Moreover, the steam availability from WHRB is also
maintained to as per the process plant requirements. No fired boiler is operated under
normal plant running situation. This plant has been found working at excellent efficiency
level maintaining attractive economics for the cost of power and steam.
i. Maximum steam availability is 10.5 TPH from the cogeneration power plant. Major
quantity of steam is utilized in the process for different purposes such as heating,
membrane process, etc. the steam is utilised to its condensing temperature in the
process. This shows good use of heat energy available as secondary product from the
CPP. The condensate is taken back to deaerator to again use as boiler feed water.
ii. The steam is also utilised for heating of heavy fuel oil fired in the reciprocating engines.
Earlier, electrical heaters were used for this purpose. With availability of steam from the
CPP, the steam heaters are deployed, which has resulted into good saving of electrical
energy. The condensate is recovered from FO heaters and sent back to the
cogeneration plant for recycling. Thus the losses are minimised to great extent.
i. The plant performance data is not available. However, based on the plant configuration
and utilisation of energy in different forms to optimum available from the cogeneration
facility, the performance indices can be theoretically derived as follows.
Parameter Qty Unit

Fuel oil 3.63 MT/hour
3630 Kg/hr
59
Fuel Cal value 9100 kCal/kg
Energy input 330.33 lakh kCal/hr
Parameter Qty Unit

Energy output
Ave. power 14780 kWh
Heat output 127.108 lakh kCal/hr
Electrical efficiency 127.108 330.33
38.48 %
Steam output
Steam generated and used 8.2 TPH
Enthalpy 664.18 kCal/kg

Energy used 54.46276 lakh kCal/hr
Total energy used 181.57076 lakh kCal/hr
Overall Cogen efficiency 181.57076/330.33

55 %
Plant Load Overall

Factor Efficiency
3 x 6015 kW Reciprocating engine generators 90-95% 65-70%

3 x 3.5 TPH Waste heat recovery boilers
ii. Another point to be worth noted is the maintaining of CPP performance and the plant
production levels even without back-up from the state grid for electric power supply.
This is very good example of efforts made by this company to supplement the cause of
energy conservation.
iii. The average age of the reciprocating engines and waste heat boilers is around 6 years.
iv. There is latest instrumentation system installed for individual engine for the
measurement of HFO quantity, which is the essential requirement to monitor the
performance. Actual data for steam generation vis-à-vis fuel is also generated
precisely.
v. The measurement and monitoring of generator parameters is carried out using latest
solid state metering system. The data base is generated for important performance
indices such as kWh so as to keep close watch on the performance for all the time.
Heat balance diagram for the cogeneration system is provided on next page in Fig. 7.6
60
T PH Kg/cm2
PRV 0.8 11.5
Deg C Kcal/kg
200 664.2 HP steam to process
0.8 0.9 Bled steam to deaerator

140 569 8.2 11.5
200 664.18
3 11.5 3 11.5 3 11.5

10.0 2
200 664.18 200 664.18 200 664.18
43 43
Main stack Main stack Main stack

DM Water
Make up
Waste heat
recovery
boilers
DM water pump unfired
3 Nos.
Deaearator
10.0 12.5 3.3 12.5 3.3 12.5 3.3 12.5

90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
Boiler
Feed pump Bypass stack Bypass stack Bypass stack
Furnace oil 3630 Kg/hr

for 3 engines
I nlet air I nlet air I nlet air
Generator 6000 kW
11 kV
4926 kW Actual load G G G
Reciprocating engine Reciprocating engine Reciprocating engine

Fig. 7.6 R ecipr ocat ing engine based cogener at ion syst em in chlor o-alkali indust r y
61
7.6 Reciprocating engine generator, unfired waste heat recovery boiler-Automobile
Industry
One of the new breed of gas fired reciprocating engine based industrial cogeneration projects
proliferating in France is The Peugeot CHP (combined heat and power) installation at
Mulhouse. This particular case study is taken from “Modern Power Systems” magazine and
hence the details available in the magazine are only be provided.
7.6.1 Equipments
The cogeneration power plant (CPP) consists of major equipment detailed below.
a. 10 x 2500 kVA (1 x 1830 kW) industrial heavy duty gas fired reciprocating engine
generator sets.
2 0
b. 1 X 11.2 TPH, 16 Kg/cm , 201 C unfired waste heat recovery boiler.
3 0 0
c. 2 x 550 m /hr, 78 C-88 C hot water generators.
Reciprocating engine generator data

Engine data
Wartsila, CW12V220
Rating bhp 2715
Speed of engine RPM 1500
Engine inlet design conditions
0
2
Fuel fired - Primary Heavy fuel oil
Engine heat rate at designed conditions kCal/kWh 2042.21
Specific fuel consumption gms/kWh 180.5
Specific lube-oil consumption gms/kWh 0.8±0.3
Exhaust flue gas flow Kg/sec NA
0
Exhaust flue gas temperature at engine outlet C 405
Generator data
Power output at rated power factor and kW 10 x 2033
ISO conditions
Power output at rated power factor and kW 9 x 2033
site conditions, 9 engines running
Total heat output kW t 9 x 1650
Generation voltage volt 400
Full load current Amp 3608.5
(at ratedpower
Rated powerfactor
factor)
(lag) 0.85
Frequency Hz 50
62
Generator data
Type of WHRB Water tube, single pass, vertical
unfired, single pressure, waste
heat recovery boiler
0
0
Exhaust gas temp entering hot water generator C 212
0
Exhaust gas temp at chimney C 125
flow MT/hour 11.2 TPH
0
temperature C 201
2
Hot water generator data
3
Quantity of hot water generated m /hr 2 x 550
0
Hot water temperature C 78 - 88
The fuel fired in the plant is as follows. The fuel specifications except methane index number
are not provided in the article and hence not projected.
Fuel data
Natural gas – methane index number greater than 72
i. The plant has been set up as joint venture Cummins Wartsila and Peugeot and the
operation and maintenance has been provided by Cummins Wartsila. Peugeot is car
manufacturing plant with capacity to manufacture 1600 cars per day. It is the largest
industrial facility in this region of France
ii. The reciprocating engines are fired with natural gas. Maximum power that the engines
can generate is 18.3 MW when 9 engines are in service with one standby. Heat energy
available in terms of MW t is 16.5 in the form of steam and hot water. The generators
are operated in parallel with each other with no back-up from the state grid.
iii. The exhaust flue gases from the reciprocating engines are diverted to the WHRB,
2 0
which generates 11.2 TPH steam at 16 Kg/cm pressure and 201 C temperature. The
steam is supplied to the car manufacturing plant.
iv. Balance heat available in the exhaust gases emanating from WHRB is utilised for
generation of the hot water. Further, the engines’ cooling systems are used to provide
the additional heat to generate the hot water via two heat exchangers. The hot water is
0
available within temperature range of 77 – 88 C. The hot water is also utilised in the
manufacturing plant.
i. Total electric power generated from the cogeneration plant is sent to the grid via
400V/20 kV step up generator transformer and Peugeot is continued to draw power via
grid as per the practice prior to setting of cogeneration facility.
ii. When the engines are operated at full load, the plant maintains optimum heat rate and
63
optimum level to supply steam to the manufacturing plant. This system has been
observed working maintaining excellent efficiency level and attractive economics for the
cost of power and steam due to utilisation of substantial energy available in primary
source fuel..
7.6.4 Utilisation of steam and hot water
i. The plant is major consumer of process steam heat, which is utilised in the car painting
process to its full potential. Wirth stoppage alternate sources of energy for painting,
substantial energy saving is also achieved.
ii. The plant is situated in one of France’s coldest regions. Hence, the space heating is a
must for the working personnel’s comfort. Utilisation of hot water has resulted into
saving of electrical energy used earlier for providing the space heating.
Some interesting data for the plant performance for six months has been provided in the
article, which is reproduced below.
Guaranteed electrical efficiency 41 %

Guaranteed cogen system efficiency 72 %
Electrical energy generated in cogen plant 647.608 lakh kWhe

Energy generated in the form of steam 169.337 lakh kWht
Energy generated in the form of hot water 258.213 lakh kWht
3
Primary energy consumed, natural gas 175.036 lakh Nm
Plant Overall
Heat rate Efficiency
Assuming LHV of natural gas 1221 kCal/kWh 70.4 %

3
7500 kCal/Nm , the heat rate
and cogeneration efficiency
Increasing competition in the motor industry is causing the leading players to focus
increasing various ways and means to reduce the production cost. Outsourcing of heat
energy adopted by the company as solution has resulted into saving of energy. Prior to
selection of reciprocating engine, the gas turbines were considered. The competitive
advantage of reciprocating engines derives from their higher electrical efficiency. For a
given set of conditions and with the same fuel consumption, the electric power
produced by reciprocating engines is more than that for turbines, resulting in better
economy. Moreover, the reciprocating engines require a lower gas feeding pressure
(around 4 bar against 17-20 bar for gas turbines). Hence, gas compressor was not
required saving enormous cost of the plant. Auxiliary consumption in reciprocating
based power plant is the least among all cogeneration systems.
iv. Heat balance diagram for the cogeneration system is provided on next page in Fig. 7.7.
64
T o P eugeot
plant 120 0C
S t eam
1 1.2 T P H
201 0C
Chimney
Generator Heat
transformer exchanger
400v/20kV Exhaust 125 0C
390 0C 212 0C
W HR B
Gas engine
generators
Gas E ngine E ngine

G 1 0 x 1 83 0 kW Cooling s ys t em
Natural gas Air cooler

H ot w at er
7 8-8 8 0 C
40 0C 5 50 m 3 / hr
Air cooler
30 0C Heat
exchangers
F ig. 7 .7 Gas f ir ed r ecipr ocat ing bas ed cogener at ion plant
66
7.7 Inlet Air Cooling for a Combined Cycle Power Plant-Paper Industry
The 165 MW nameplate rated combined cycle power plant located in Camden, New
Jersey, consists of one General Electric Frame 7EA gas turbine, one General Electric
auto extracting condensing steam turbine, one dual pressure heat recovery steam
generator, one multi-cell mechanical draft cooling tower, and balance of plant
equipment.
Steam is supplied to an adjacent paper-making facility and electric power is supplied

to Public Service Electric and Gas Corporation.
The project consisted of a complete inlet air cooling system and included a
mechanical chiller, cooling coils and their installation, chilled glycol/water pumps and
piping, condenser cooling water pumps, piping, electrical and mechanical tie-ins to
existing systems. The cooling system was required to meet the following performance
criteria:
Combustion turbine inlet air flow = 2,353,551 lbs/hr

Ambient dry bulb/wet bulb temperature = 72°/66°F
Desired inlet air temperature = 50°F
Allowable airside pressure drop = 1.0 inwc
The performance test was conducted and the average ambient conditions during the
test were as follows:
Dry bulb temperature = 78.7°F

Wet bulb temperature = 73.2°F
Barometric pressure = 1023 mbar
The other parameters recorded during the test are as follows:
Turbine inlet air temperature = 60.1°F

Duct temperature =59.1°F
Condenser cooling water:

Chiller, in = 86.9°F
Chiller, out = 97.7°F
Flow rate = 6,016 gpm
35% glycol/water mixture:

Chiller, in = 63.8°F
Chiller, out = 52.4 °F
Flow rate = 5,768 gpm
Airside pressure drop:

Prefilters and cooling coils = 0.45 inwc
Prefilters = 0.05 inwc
Power consumption:
Entire system = 1934.8 kW
Cooling water pump = 198.1 kW
Glycol/water pump = 262.3 kW
The standard airflow of 2,276,546 lb/hr at the inlet air temperature of 60.1°F was used
in all the calculations. It was verified by heat balance around the cooling coils and
from measured turbine exhaust flow.
68
Chiller Capacity
The chiller capacity was measured by various methods: a) based on the measured
glycol flow rate, b) based on measured condenser flow rate. The chiller capacity by
the two different methods was found to be 2,398 tons, 2,290 tons respectively.
A Schematic of Gas Turbine inlet chilling system is given below.
CONCLUSION
The concept of cooling the inlet air to increase the capacity of the combustion turbine
was successfully applied for the Camden Cogeneration plant. The installed inlet
cooling system consisted of a 2,000 ton electric driven chiller using R134a as the
refrigerant. The guaranteed total power consumption of the chiller, glycol pump and
condenser cooling water pump was 1932 kW for 2000 tons of cooling. The total
corrected measured power consumption of 1862.4 kW is 3.6 % less than the
guaranteed value. The measured chiller capacity of 2,102 tons exceeded the
guarantee requirement of 2,000 tons by 5.1%. The corrected measured pressure
drop increase of 0.42 inwc was 60% better than the guarantee value. Therefore, the
actual system performance was better than the predicted performance. Combustion
turbine performance with inlet air cooling met the expected increment of 7.0 MW at
the design ambient conditions.
69
8 LIST OF REFERENCES
i. Heavy Duty Gas Turbine Operating and Maintenance Considerations

E. J. Walsh, M. A. Freeman, GE Publication Ref. GER-3620
ii. Proceedings of Conference “COGEN INDIA 96”, held on 10/11 March 1996
iii. Proceedings of “WORKSHOP ON CAPTIVE POWER GENERATION” held

on 17 January 1993 in ELECRAMA-93
iv. Cogeneration – A Best Route for Energy Conservation

by Ashok R. Parikh
Published in Energy Conservation Quarterly
v. Gas Turbine Power Augmentation by Fogging of Inlet Air

by C. B. Meher-Homji, Thomas R.
Published by MEE Industries Inc., Monrovia, California, USA
vi. Considerations for Gas Turbine O&M Strategies

Published in Modern Power Systems, November 1996
vii. Outsourcing Route Pays for Peugeot

Published in Modern Power Systems, December 1999
viii. Introduction to Large-scale Combined Heat and Power

Good Practice Guide No. 43
Published under the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme, UK
ix. Cogeneration (CHP) – Technology Portrait

Institute of Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics, Austria
x. Gas Turbine Air/Fuel/Water Management

by L. L. Hsu, Solar Turbines
Paper presented in Turbomachinery Technology Seminar, 1999
xi. Power Generation & Diesel Gen-sets

Published by Petroleum Conservation Research Association
xii. Cogeneration, Chapter 7, Energy Efficiency in Thermal utilities, Guide Book 2

Bureau of Energy Efficiency, New Delhi
xiii. Cogeneration, Turbines (Gas, Steam), Chapter 3

Energy Efficiency in Thermal utilities, Guide Book 4
Bureau of Energy Efficiency, New Delhi
xiv. 10-MW Cogen Plant backed up to operate with 99.999% Reliability

by Irwin Stambler,
Published in Gas Turbine World, May-June 2001
70

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B E S T P R ACT I CE MANU AL

By definition, Cogeneration is on-site generation and utilisation of energy in different forms

Figure 2-1: Cogeneration (Bottom) compared with conventional generation (top)

2.2 Heat-to-Power ratio

T able 2 -1 : Heat-to-Power ratios and other Parameters of Cogen Systems

2.3 Cogeneration equipment - combinations

i. Steam turbine & fired boiler based cogeneration system

Boiler Steam turbine

ii. Gas turbine based cogeneration system

Gas turbine generator Waste heat recovery

Reciprocating engine Waste heat recovery

3.2 Cogeneration in industries

All continuous process chemical plants such as fertilizers, petrochemicals, hydrocarbon

3.3 Cogeneration technology

A proper selection of a cogeneration system configuration, from a few basic system

1 Steam turbine based cogeneration system

3.3.1 Steam turbine based cogeneration system

HP steam to steam turbine

Fuel input Air

F igu r e 3 -1 : Backpressure steam turbine based cogeneration system

HP steam to steam turbine

Boiler feed pump Condensate

3.3.2 Gas turbine based cogeneration system

Main stack Steam to process

Boiler feed pump

Generator Turbine Compressor

3.3.3 Combined steam/gas turbine based cogeneration system

Bypass stack Main stack

Boiler feed pump Deaerator

Fig.3.4 Reciprocating engine based cogeneration system with unfired WHRB

3.4 Factors for selection of cogeneration system

• Project completion time.

• Project cost and long term benefits.

3.4.1 Typical Heat-to-Power ratio in various industries

As discussed, energy in forms of electricity and usable heat or cooling is generated in

Table 3.1 Typical Heat-to-Power Ratios for Energy Intensive Industries

3.5 Techno-economic advantages of cogeneration technology

Following techno-economical advantages are derived by making application of cogeneration

iv. As electricity from a cogeneration system is generally not required to be transferred

v. Reliability of cogeneration systems is very high, which also reduces dependency of

vi. Impact on environmental pollution from cogeneration system is low in comparison to

3.6 Why cogeneration for industry

4.2 Performance of Steam turbines

4.3.1 Design stage

4.3.2 Plant operating stage

i. Best operational mode

ii. Steam conditions

iii. Steam quality

iv. Control for steam turbines

v. Monitoring for steam turbines

4.3.3 Plant maintenance stage

5.2 Performance of Gas turbines

5.3 Practices for optimal gas turbine performance

5.3.1 At designing stage

• Thorough knowledge of fuel characteristics is intended to provide a background to fuel

• Knowledge of surroundings, air quality, humidity, etc. is a must so as to take necessary

5.3.2 At operating stage

i. Best operational mode

ii. Control for gas turbines

iii. Monitoring for gas turbines