SEALED LEAD-ACID BATTERIES

TECHNICAL HANDBOOK

F E AT U R E S
Sealed/Maintenance-Free

Compact

The valve regulated, spill-proof construction of the

Power-Sonic battery allows trouble-free, safe operation
in any position. There is no need to add electrolyte, as
gases generated during over-charge are recombined in a
unique oxygen cycle.

Power-Sonic batteries use state of the art design, high

grade materials, and a carefully controlled plate-making
process to provide excellent output per cell. The high
energy density results in superior power/volume and
power/weight ratios.

Long Shelf Life

A low self-discharge rate permits storage of fully charged
batteries for up to a year at room temperature before
charging is required. Lower storage temperatures enhance
shelf life characteristics even further.

High Discharge Rate

Low internal resistance allows discharge currents of up to
ten times the rated capacity of the battery. Relatively
small batteries may thus be specified in applications
requiring high peak currents.

Design Flexibility
Batteries may be used in series and/or parallel to obtain
choice of voltage and capacity. Due to recent design
breakthroughs, the same battery may be used in either
cyclic or standby applications. Over 50 models are available to choose from.

Wide Operating Temperature Range

Power-Sonic batteries may be discharged over a temperature range of -40C to +60C (-40F to +140F) and
charged at temperatures ranging from -20C to +50C
(4F to +122F).

Deep Discharge Recovery

Special separators, advanced plate composition, and a
carefully balanced electrolyte system have greatly
improved the ability of recovering from excessively deep
discharge.

Economical
The high watt-hour per dollar value is made possible by
the materials used in a sealed lead-acid battery: they are
readily available and low in cost.

Easy Handling
No special handling precautions or shipping containers
surface or air are required due to the leak-proof construction. Classified as non-hazardous commodity.

Rugged Construction
The high impact resistant battery case is made either of
non-conductive ABS plastic or styrene. Large capacity
batteries frequently have polypropylene cases. All of
these case materials impart great resistance to shock,
vibration, chemicals and heat.

Long Service Life

Under normal operating conditions, four or five years of
dependable service life can be expected in stand-by applications, or between 200-1000 charge/discharge cycles
depending on average depth of discharge.

CONSTRUCTION
Color coded terminal
connection

Terminal

Electrolyte
Cosmetic
top cover

Immobilized dilute sulfuric acid: H 2 SO 4.

Polarity
marking

One-way
self-sealing
vent

Container
Case material is either ABS, a high-impact proof plastic
resin, styrene, or a polypropylene-polyethylene copolymer with resistance to chemicals and flammability.

Polystyrene
inner cover

Leakproof Design & Operational Safety

Power-Sonic batteries have been approved for shipment
by air, both by D.O.T. and I.A.T.A.. U.L.s component
recognition program for emergency lighting and power
batteries lists Power-Sonic under file number MH 20845.

Molded-in
plastic cell
divider
Two volt
element

Terminals

Hi-impact
polystyrene case
Lead calcium
alloy grid

Plates (Electrodes)

Depending on the model, batteries come either with AMP

Faston type terminals made of tin plated brass, post type
terminals of the same composition with threaded nut and
bolt hardware, or heavy duty flag terminals made of lead
alloy. A special epoxy is used as sealing material surrounding the terminals.

Microporous
glass fiber
separator

Figure 1

Plate construction is the key to producing a good battery.

Recognizing this, Power-Sonic utilizes the latest technology
and equipment to cast grids from a lead-calcium alloy
free of antimony. The small amount of calcium and tin in
the grid alloy imparts strength to the plate and guarantees durability even in extensive cycle service. Lead
oxide paste is added to the grid to form the electrically
active material. In the charged state, the negative plate
paste is pure lead and that of the positive lead oxide.
Both of these are in a porous or spongy form to optimize
surface area and thereby maximize capacity.

Relief Valve
In case of excessive gas pressure build-up inside the battery (usually caused by abnormal charging) the relief
valve will open and relieve the pressure. The one-way
valve not only ensures that no air gets into the battery
where the oxygen would react with the plates causing
internal discharge, but also represents an important safety device in the event of excessive overcharge. Vent
release pressure is between 2-6 psi; the seal ring material is neoprene rubber.

Separators

Case Sealing

Power-Sonic separators are made of woven glass fiber

cloth with high heat and oxidation resistance. The material further offers superior electrolyte absorption and
retaining ability, as well as excellent ion conductivity.

Depending on model, the case sealing is tongue and

groove with polyurethane, epoxy, or heat seal.

THEORY OF

O P E R AT I O N

The basic electrochemical reaction equation in a lead-acid battery can be written as follows:
Pb

2H2SO4

PbO2
(porous lead)
(sulfuric acid) (porous lead dioxide)
active material
electrolyte
active material
of negative plate
of positive plate

Discharging
Charging

Discharge

PbSO4
(lead sulfate)
active material
of negative plate

2H2O
(water)
electrolyte

PbSO4
(lead sulfate)
active material
of positive plate

Power-Sonic defines deep discharge as one that allows

the battery voltage under load to go below the cut-off (or
final) voltage of a full discharge. The recommended
cutoff voltage varies with the discharge rate for a 6 volt
battery, for example, it is 5.25V at the 20-hour (0.05C)
rate, 5.10V at the 4-hour (0.2C) rate, and 4.5V at the
1/2- hour(1.0C) rate.

During the discharge portion of the reaction, lead dioxide

(positive plate) and lead (negative plate) react with sulfuric acid to create lead sulfate, water and energy.

Charge
During the recharge phase of the reaction, the cycle is
reversed: the lead sulfate and water are electro-chemically converted to lead, lead oxide and sulfuric acid by an
external electrical charging source.

It is important to note that deep discharging a battery at

high rates for short periods is not nearly as severe as discharging a battery at low rates for long periods of time.
To clarify, lets, analyze two examples:

Oxygen Recombination
To produce a truly maintenance-free battery, it is necessary that gases generated during overcharge are recombined in a so-called oxygen cycle. Should oxygen and
hydrogen escape, a gradual drying out would occur,
eventually affecting capacity and battery life. During
charge, oxygen is generated at the positive and reacts
with and partially discharges the sponge lead of the negative. As charging continues, this oxygen recombines
with the hydrogen being generated by the negative,
forming water. The water content of the electrolyte thus
remains unchanged unless the charging rate is too high.

Battery A is discharged at the 1C rate to zero volts.

C for a 4 AH battery, for example, is 4 amps. Full
discharge is reached after about 30 minutes when the
battery voltage drops to 1.5V/cell. At this point, only
50% of rated capacity has been discharged (1C amps x
0.5 hrs = 0.5C Amp. Hrs.) Continuing the discharge to
zero volts will bring the total amount of discharged
ampere-hours to approximately 75% because the rapidly declining voltage quickly reduces current flow to a
trickle. The battery will recover easily from this type
of deep discharge.

In case of rapid generation of oxygen gas exceeding the

absorbing capacity of the negative plate, the pressure
relief valve will open to release excessive gas.

Battery B is discharged at the 0.01C rate to zero

volts. 0.01C for a 4 AH battery is 40mA. Full discharge
is reached after 100+ hours when the terminal voltage
drops to 1.75 V/cell. At this point, the battery has
already delivered 100% of its rated capacity (0.01 x
100 hrs = 1C Amp. Hrs.). Continuing the discharge to
zero volts will keep the battery under load for another
4-5 days(!), squeezing out every bit of stored energy.

Deep Discharge
The Power-Sonic battery is protected against cell shorting by the addition of a buffering agent that insures the
presence of acid ions even in a fully discharged state.
The need for expensive circuitry in the design of a system to prevent deep discharge and possible cell shorting
is thereby reduced considerably.

This type of deep discharge is severe and is likely to

damage the battery. The sooner a severely discharged
battery is recharged, the better its chances to fully
recover.

C A PA C I T Y
As an example, Model PS-610, with a rated capacity of
1AH will deliver 50 mA (1/20 of 1AH, or 0.05C ) for 20
hours before the voltage drops from 6.45 to 5.25 volts.

The capacity of a battery is the total amount of electrical

energy available from a fully charged cell or cells. Its
value depends on the discharge current, the temperature
during discharge, the final (cut-off) voltage and the general history of the battery.

By cycling the battery a few times or float charging it for

a month or two, the highest level of capacity development is achieved. Power-Sonic batteries are fully charged
before leaving the factory, but full capacity is realized
only after the battery has been cycled a few times or been
on float charge for some time.

Capacity, expressed in ampere-hours (AH) is the product

of the current discharged and the length of discharge
time. The rated capacity (C) of a Power-Sonic battery is
measured by its performance over 20 hours of constant
current discharge at a temperature of 68F (20C) to a
cutoff voltage of 1.75 volts.

Rated

@ 0.05C rate
(20 Hr. Rate.)

@0.1C rate
(9 Hr. Rate)

@0.2C rate
(4 Hr. Rate)

The table in Figure 2 shows capacities for various multiples of the 20-hour discharge current.
@0.5C rate
(1.3 Hr. Rate)

Capacity

Current Capacity
Amps. Amp. Hrs

Current
Amps.

Capacity
Amp. hrs.

Current
Amps.

Capacity
Amp.Hrs

Current
Amps.

Capacity
Amp. Hrs.

0.5AH
0.8AH
1.0AH
1.3AH
2.3AH
3.0AH
3.2AH
4.5AH
5.0AH
6.5AH
7.0AH
8.0AH
9.0AH
10.0AH
12.0AH
18.0AH
20.0AH
26.0AH
28.0AH
33.0AH
40.0AH
55.0AH
60.0AH
75.0AH
80.0AH
100.0 AH

0.025
0.50
0.04
0.80
0.05
1.00
0.065
1.30
0.115
2.30
0.15
3.00
0.16
3.20
0.22
4.40
0.25
5.00
0.325
6.50
0.35
7.00
0.40
8.00
0.45
9.00
0.50
10.00
0.60
12.00
0.90
18.00
1.00
20.00
1.30
26.00
1.40
28.00
1.65
33.00
2.00
40.00
2.75
55.00
3.00
60.00
3.75
75.00
4.00
80.00
5.00 100.00

0.05
0.08
0.10
0.13
0.23
0.30
0.32
0.45
0.50
0.65
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.20
1.80
2.00
2.60
2.80
3.30
4.00
5.50
6.00
7.50
8.00
10.00

0.45
0.72
0.90
1.17
2.07
2.70
2.88
4.05
4.50
5.85
6.30
7.20
8.10
9.00
10.80
16.20
18.00
23.40
25.20
29.70
36.00
49.50
54.00
67.50
72.00
90.00

0.10
0.16
0.20
0.26
0.46
0.60
0.64
0.90
1.00
1.30
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
2.40
3.06
4.00
5.20
5.40
6.60
8.00
11.00
12.00
15.00
16.00
20.00

0.40
0.64
0.80
1.04
1.84
2.40
2.56
3.60
4.00
5.20
5.60
6.40
7.20
8.00
9.60
14.40
16.00
20.80
21.60
26.40
32.00
44.00
48.00
60.00
64.00
80.00

0.25
0.40
0.50
0.65
1.15
1.50
1.60
2.25
2.50
3.25
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
6.00
9.00
10.00
13.00
14.00
16.50
20.00
27.50
30.00
37.50
40.00
50.00

0.325
0.52
0.65
0.845
1.495
1.95
2.08
2.92
3.25
4.23
4.55
5.20
5.85
6.50
7.80
11.70
13.00
16.90
18.20
21.45
26.00
35.75
39.00
48.75
52.00
65.00

@1C rate
@2C rate
@3C rate
(33 Min. Rate) (12 Min. Rate) (7.2 Min. Rate)
Current
Amps.

0.50
0.80
1.00
1.30
2.30
3.00
3.20
4.5
5.00
6.50
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
18.00
20.00
26.00
28.00
33.00
40.00
55.00
60.00
75.00
80.00
100.00

Capacity
Amp. hrs.

0.28
0.44
0.56
0.715
1.288
1.65
1.76
2.47
2.80
3.64
3.85
4.48
5.04
5.60
6.72
9.90
11.20
14.30
15.40
18.15
22.40
30.25
33.60
41.25
44.80
55.00

Current
Amps.

1.00
1.60
2.00
2.60
4.60
6.00
6.40
9.00
10.00
13.00
14.00
16.00
18.00
20.00
24.00
36.00
40.00
52.00
54.00
66.00
80.00
110.00
120.00
150.00
160.00
200.00

Capacity
Amp. Hrs.

0.20
0.32
0.40
0.52
0.92
1.20
1.28
1.80
2.00
2.60
2.80
3.20
3.60
4.00
4.80
7.20
8.00
10.40
10.88
13.20
16.00
22.00
24.00
30.00
32.00
40.00

Current
Amps.

1.50
2.40
3.00
3.90
6.90
9.00
9.60
13.50
15.00
19.50
21.00
24.00
27.00
30.00
36.00
54.00
60.00
78.00
84.00
99.00
120.00
165.00
180.00
225.00
240.00
300.00

Capacity
Amp. Hrs.

0.18
0.29
0.36
0.47
0.83
1.08
1.15
1.62
1.80
2.34
2.52
2.88
3.24
3.60
4.32
6.48
7.20
9.36
10.08
11.88
14.40
19.80
21.60
27.00
28.80
36.00

Figure 2
Proper battery selection for a specific application can be
made from this graph if the required time and current are
known. For example, to determine the proper capacity of
a battery providing 3 amps for 20 minutes, locate the
intersection of these values on the graph. The curve
immediately above that point represents the battery
which will meet the requirement.

When a battery discharges at a constant rate, its capacity

changes according to the amperage load. Capacity
increases when the discharge current is less than the 20hour rate and decreases when the current is higher.
Figure 3 shows capacity curves for major Power-Sonic battery
models with different ampere-hour ratings. Amperage is on the
horizontal scale and the time elapsed is on the vertical scale; the
product of these values is the capacity.

3.
0

2.

1.

0.

5
AH AH
3
2.

AH

1.

AH

AH AH
8
0.

.02

.03

.05 .07

.1

AH .5 A
4

.15 .2

.3

.8

1.5

AH

AH

AH

AH

Discharge Current (Amps)

.4 .5 .6

AH AH
7

Ambient temp. 20C (68F)

AH AH
10

12

12

18

AH AH
18

Discharge time as a function

of discharge current

20

1
54
42
36
30
24

AH AH
26

33

5
40

10
9
7
6
5
4

AH

20

55

30

60
50
40

100
80

5 6

C A P A C I T Y VA R I A T I O N B Y C U R R E N T

AH

Discharge Time

75
60

hrs

0
80

min

10
AH

8 10

Figure 3

FINAL

1.75V/cell
1.75V/cell
1.75V/cell
1.67V/cell
1.50V/cell
1.50V/cell
1.37V/cell

VOLTAGE

15 20

30 40 50 60 80 100

C = Capacity of battery

0.05C
0.10C
0.20C
0.50C
1.00C
2.00C
3.00C

CURRENT

LOAD

Discharge times reflect cutoff voltages which vary

with the discharge current:

LOAD

P E R F O R M A N C E D ATA
pletely discharged.
As seen in Figure 4, under load, the battery can deliver useful energy at less than 1.94 V/cell, but after the load is
removed the open circuit voltage will bounce back to voltages shown in Figure 5, dependent upon residual capacity.

Discharge
During discharge the voltage will decrease. The graphs in
Figure 4 illustrate this for different discharge rates and ambient temperatures. C is the rated capacity of a battery: C
for Model PS-610 (6V - 1AH) is 1AH. By convention, rating
of nearly all sealed-lead acid batteries, including PowerSonic, is based on a 20-hour (0.05C) discharge rate .

Ambient Temperature 77F (25C)

Terminal Voltage

6.8

Battery Voltage (V)

An important feature of Power-Sonic batteries is shown in the

discharge curves; namely, the voltage tends to remain high
and almost constant for a relatively long period before declining to an end voltage.

6.6
13.0
6.4
12.5
6.2

6.5 13

6.0 12.0

6.0 12

5.8

11.5
0

5.5 11
5.0 10
4.5

4.0

10
min

20 30

60

2 3

5
h

10

Actual capacity is a function of ambient temperature and rate of

discharge. At 68F (20C) rated capacity is 100%. The capacity
increases slowly above this temperature and decreases as the
temperature falls. Even at -40F (-40C), however , the PowerSonic battery will still function at better than 30% of its rated
capacity when discharged at the 20-hour rate (0.05C). At any
ambient temperature, the higher the rate of discharge, the lower
the available capacity. This relationship is shown in Figure 6.

20 30

6.5 13
6.0 12

Power-Sonic batteries may be discharged at temperatures ranging from -40F to 140F (-40C to 60C) and charged at temperatures from -4F to 122F (-20C to 50C).

5.5 11
0.175C
0.1C0.05C
0.25C

5.0 10

100

Temperature
1C

Discharge Time @ 20C (68F)

4.0

80

60

Figure 5: Open-Circuit Voltage Characteristics

0.6C

40

Residual Capacity (%)

4.5

20

0.175C0.1C0.05C
0.25C

3C 2C

Battery Voltage (V)

13.5

0.6C

3C

2C

While raising ambient temperature increases capacity, it also

decreases useful service life. It is estimated that battery life is
halved for each 10C above normal room temperature.

1C

0
1

10
min

20 30

60

2 3

5
h

10

20 30
120

Capacity Ratio (%)

Discharge Time @ 0C (32F)

Figure 4: Characteristic Discharge Curves

Open-Circuit Voltage
Open circuit voltage varies according to ambient temperature
and the remaining capacity of the battery. Generally, open
circuit voltage is determined by the specific gravity of the
electrolyte. Discharging a battery lowers the specific gravity.
Consequently, it is possible to determine the approximate
remaining capacity of a battery from the terminal voltage.

0.05C
0.1C

100

0.25C
0.6C
1C

80
60

2C

40

20
0
-20

-10

10

20

30

40

50

60

Temperature (C)

Figure 6: Effect of Temperature on Capacity

The open circuit voltage of a Power-Sonic battery is

2.15 V/cell when fully charged and 1.94 V/cell when com-

P E R F O R M A N C E D ATA
Figure 7 shows the relationship between current and discharge time for different ambient temperatures.

Battery Life
Cyclic Use: The number of charge/discharge cycles depends
on the capacity taken from the battery (a function of discharge
rate and depth of discharge), operating temperature and the
charging method.

20
15

hrs

C = Rated Capacity

Final
Voltage
1.75V/Cell
1.70V/Cell

Figure 9 shows the relationship between depth of discharge and

number of cycles as well as increases of capacity during the
early cycles.

2
1
1.60V/Cell

30

120

min

1.50V/Cell

100
10

Capacity (%)

Discharge Time

10

1.35V/Cell 104F (40C)

68F (20C)
32F (
0C

5
0.05C0.1C 0.2C

0.5C

2C

1C

5C

Discharge Current (A)

Figure 7: Discharge Time vs. Discharge Current

60 Discharge Depth 100%

Discharge Depth 50%Discharge Depth 30%
1. Discharge Current 0.2C
(Final Voltage 1.7V/Cell)
2. Charge Current: 0.1C
3. Ambient Temperature: 20C to
( 68F to 77F

40

20

Shelf Life & Storage

Low internal resistance and special alloys in the electrodes

assure a low self discharge rate and, consequently, a long
shelf life. If kept at 68F (20C), about 60-70% of the nominal capacity remains after one year of storage. One recharge
per year is sufficient to maintain the original capacity of a
battery not in use.

200

400

600

800

1200

1000

Number of Cycles

Figure 9: Depth of Discharge vs. Number of Cycles

Standby Use: The float service life, or life expectancy under
continuous charge, depends on the frequency and depth of
discharge, the charge voltage, and the ambient temperature.
At a float voltage of 2.25V to 2.30V/cell and an ambient temperature of 60F to 77F (20C to 25C) Power-Sonic batteries should last four to five years before the capacity drops to
60% of its original rating.

The rate of self discharge varies with the ambient temperature. At room temperature it is about 3% per month. At low
temperatures it is nearly negligible, at higher ambient temperatures self discharge increases.
100
Charging is no
necessary unle
100% of capaci
required.

Figure 10 indicates how capacity changes over time.

80
5C
Charging before
(41F) is necessary to
recover full
capacity.

Retention Capacity (%

Capacity Retention Ratio

80

60
40C
(104F)

30C
(86F)

Charge may fai

restore full ca
Do not let bat
reach this sta

20C
(68F)

40
0
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

Storage Period (Months)

Ambient Temperature 20C (68F)

100
80
60
Float Charging Voltage
2.25 - 2.30V/Cell

40
20
0

Figure 8: Self Discharge Characteristics

Years

To obtain maximum battery life and performance, batteries

should be:

recharged as soon as possible after each use and

not stored in a discharged state;

stored at 68F (20C) or lower, if possible, and

recharged annually when not used.

Figure 10: Life Characteristics in Standby Use

P E R F O R M A N C E D ATA
The graph in Figure 11 shows life characteristics in float
(standby) service for ambient temperatures ranging from
15C to 55C

(Years)

20

Service Life

If prevailing ambient temperatures are well above 2025C the life expectancy of this type of battery in float
service depends greatly on temperature compensated
charging. The typical temperature coefficient is 2mV/cell/C. The graph shown along side is based on
temperature compensated charging.

Service Life at Various Ambient Temperatur

End of life defined as
60% of rated capacity

10
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3

Figure 11: Service Life at Various Ambient Temperatures

.2

20

30

50
40
Temperature (C)

60

OVER-DISCHARGE PROTECTo optimize battery life, it is recommended that the battery be disconnected from the load when the end voltage
a function of the discharge rate is reached. It is the
voltage point at which 100% of the usable capacity of the
battery has been consumed or continuation of the discharge is useless because of the voltage dropping below
useful levels. (see section on Deep Discharge on page 3)

NVR

RY

RY
BATT

VR

LOAD
Tr.
ZD

Discharging a sealed lead-acid battery below this voltage

or leaving a battery connected to a load will impair the
batterys ability to accept a charge. To prevent potential
over-discharge problems, voltage cut-off circuits as
shown in Figure 12 may be used.

NVR

RY
BATT
LOAD

Figure 12: Circuits of Over-Discharge Preventive Device

C

ZD
RY

CHARGING
Dependable performance and long service life depend
upon correct charging. Faulty procedures or inadequate
charging equipment result in decreased battery life
and/or unsatisfactory performance. The selection of suitable charging circuits and methods is as important as
choosing the right battery for the application.

Power-Sonic batteries may be charged by using any of

the conventional charging techniques. To obtain maximum service life and capacity, along with acceptable
recharge time and economy, constant voltage-current
limited charging is recommended.
During charge, the lead sulfate of the positive plate
becomes lead dioxide. As the battery reaches full charge,
the positive plate begins generating dioxide causing a
sudden rise in voltage. A constant voltage charge, therefore, allows detection of this voltage increase and thus
control of the charge amount.

General
To charge a Power-Sonic battery, a DC voltage higher than
the open-circuit voltage of 2.15 is applied to the terminals
of the battery. Depending on the state of charge, the cell
may temporarily be lower (after discharge) or higher (right
after charging) than 2.15 volts. After some time, however,
it should level off at about 2.15 volts per cell.

Undercharging: If too low a charge voltage is

applied, the current flow will essentially stop before the
battery is fully charged. This allows some of the lead sulfate to remain on the electrodes which will eventually
reduce capacity.

constant voltage or taper charging, the batterys

acceptance decreases as voltage and state of
increase. The battery is fully charged once the
stabilizes at a low level for a few hours.

Caution: Never charge or discharge a battery in a hermetically sealed enclosure. Batteries generate a mixture
of gases internally. Given the right set of circumstances,
such as extreme overcharging or shorting of the battery,
these gases might vent into the enclosure and create the
potential for an explosion when ignited by a spark.
If in doubt, or concepts of proper use and care are
unclear, contact Power-Sonics department for application engineering at 619-661-2020.
Please note that there are two criteria for determining
when a battery is fully charged: (1) the final current level
and (2) the peak charging voltage while this current
flows.
Figure 13 depicts an example of typical charge characteristics for cycle service where charging is non-continuous and peak voltage can, therefore, be higher.

40

Charge Current (A)

60

0.8
0.6
0.4

20

0.2

14
13
12
11
10

antity)ratio
discharge qu
y (to
t
i
t
n
ua
eq
1. Battery PS-1270
2. Discharge
100% (0.05C X 20h)
50%
(0.05C X 10h
3. Charge
Charge voltage 14.7 (2.
Charge current 0.1C
4. Temperature 20C (68F)

10

15

20

25

Charge Time (h)

Figure 13: Charge characteristics

for 14.7V Constant Voltage
Figure 14 illustrates typical characteristics for standby
service type charge. Here, charging is continuous and the
peak charge voltage must, therefore, be lower.
140
120
100
80
60
40

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4

20

0.2

15
14
13
12

During
current
charge
current

80

1.0

Battery Voltage (V)

Charging Characteristics

100

1.2

Battery Voltage

15

Charge current

Charge Quantity (%)

Batteries which are stored in a discharged state, or left on

the shelf for too long, may initially appear to be open
circuited or will accept far less current than normal.
This is caused by a phenomenon called sulfation.
When this occurs, leave the charger connected to the battery. Usually, the battery will start to accept increasing
amounts of current until a normal current level is
reached. If there is no response, even to charge voltages
above recommended levels, the battery may have been in
a discharged state for too long to recover.

120

1.4

Charge Current (A)

At high rates of overcharge a battery will progressively

heat up. As it gets hotter, it will accept more current,
heating up even further. This is called thermal runaway,
and can destroy a battery in as little as a few hours.

140
Charge Quantity (%)

age excessive current will flow into the battery after

reaching full charge causing decomposition of water in
the electrolyte and, hence, premature aging.

Ch
arg

Overcharging: As a result of too high a charge volt-

Battery Voltage (V)

CHARGING

11
10

Battery Voltage
uantity ratio
ischarge q
ty (to d
i
t
n
qua
rge
1. Battery PS-1270
ha
2. Discharge
100% (0.05C X 20h)
50%
(0.05C X 10h
3. Charge
Charge voltage 13.65 (2.2
Charge current 0.1C
4. Temperature 20C (68F)
Charge current

0
0

10

15

20

25

Charge Time (h)

Figure 14: Charge Characteristics

for 13.65V Constant Voltage

Charging Methods
Selecting the appropriate charging method depends on
the intended use (cyclic or float service), economic considerations, recharge time, anticipated frequency and
depth of discharge, and expected service life. The key
goal of any charging method is to control the charge current at the end of the charge.
Taper Charging: This is the simplest, least expensive
charging method. Either quasi-constant voltage or quasiconstant current characteristics can be built into the
charger through combination of transformer, diode and
resistance. Of the two, constant potential charging is
preferable.

CHARGING
however an expensive circuit is necessary to obtain a
highly accurate constant current. Monitoring of charge
voltage or limiting of charge time is necessary to avoid
excessive overcharge.

Typical taper chargers are comprised of small transformer-rectifier circuits wherein the transformer is so
designed that the current is limited to the maximum initial charge current for the battery. This current is held
constant until the terminal voltage and resultant current
demand reach a point at which the charge current begins
to fall. Although this type of charger can provide a relatively fast recharge, it is basically a constant current
device and the charge voltage may be driven too high.
Therefore, it must be disconnected, usually within 12-24
hours, or after 100-120% of the preceding discharge has
been returned. It is also sensitive to line voltage variations which can cause over- or under-charging.
Consequently, this charging method can only be used in
cyclic applications

While this charging method is very effective for recovering the capacity of a battery that has been stored for an
extended period of time, or for occasional overcharging
to equalize cell capacities, it lacks specific properties
required in todays electronic environment.
An example of a constant current charge circuit is shown
in Figure 17 and the charge characteristics for this type
of charger in Figure 18.
Figure 17: Constant Current Charging Circuit

Figure 15 shows an example of a typical diagram and

Figure 16 the resultant charge characteristics for this
type of basically unregulated charger.

TR1

R2

R1

D2

R3
TR2

R
C1
D1

Battery Voltage
Charger Current

Figure 15: Semi-Constant Current Charging Circuit

Battery Voltage
Charger Current

R5

ZD

R4

Charge Current

Battery Voltage

Charge Current

Battery Voltage

Charge Time

Figure 18: Constant Current Charge Characteristics

Constant Voltage Charging:
Constant current/constant voltage charging is the best method to charge
Power-Sonic batteries. Depending on the application,
batteries may be charged either on a continuous or noncontinuous basis. In applications where standby power is
required to operate when the AC power has been interrupted, continuous float charging is recommended. Noncontinuous cyclic charging is used primarily with
portable equipment where charging on an intermittent
basis is appropriate.

Charge Time

Figure 16: Semi-Constant Current Charge

Characteristics
Constant Current Charging: Constant current charging is suited for applications where discharged amperehours of the preceding discharge cycle are known.
Charge time and charge quantity can easily be calculated,

CHARGING
The constant current/constant voltage charge method
applies a constant voltage to the battery and limits the
initial charge current. It is necessary to set the charge
voltage according to specified charge and temperature
characteristics. Inaccurate voltage settings cause over- or
under-charge. This charging method can be used for both
cyclic and standby applications.

Charging for Standby Operation

Standby applications generally do not require that the
battery be charged as fast or as frequently as in cycle
operation. However, the battery must be kept constantly
charged to replace the energy that is expended due to
internal loss and deterioration of the battery itself.
Although these losses are very low in Power-Sonic batteries, they must be replaced at the rate the battery selfdischarges; at the same time the battery must not be
given more than these losses or it will be overcharged.
To accomplish this, a constant voltage method of charging called float charging is used.

Figures 19 and 20 illustrate examples of a constant current/constant voltage charging circuit and charging characteristics, respectively. The circuit diagram includes a
temperature compensation feature for charge voltage to
ensure optimum charging conditions regardless of
changes in ambient temperature.

LM317TB

U1
1

BR1+

C1
D2
1N4148

D5

V1 V0
A

R4

The recommended constant float voltage is 2.25-2.30

volts per cell. Maintaining this float voltage will allow
the battery to define its own current level and remain
fully charged without having to disconnect the charger
from the battery. The trickle current for a fully charged
battery floating at the recommended charge voltage will
typically hover around the 0.001C rate (10mA for a
10AH battery, for example.)

+
R1
240

1.2K

R5

2.275V/cell
DC to Battery
float application

390
R2

RS
Select

2.45V/cell
cyclic application

The float charger is basically a constant voltage power

supply. As in cycle chargers, however, care must be exercised not to exceed the initial charge current of
0.20
x C amperes.

Q1
PN2222

R3

Battery Voltage
Charger Current

Figure 19: Constant Current/Constant Voltage

Charge Circuit

Two-Step Constant Voltage Charging

This method uses two constant voltage devices. In the
initial charge phase the high voltage setting is used.
When charging is nearly complete and the charge voltage
has risen to a specified value (with the charge current
decreased), the charger switches the voltage to the lower
setting. This method allows rapid charging in cycle or
float service without the possibility of overcharging even
after extended charging periods.

Charge Current

Battery Voltage

The graph in Figure 21 shows charging characteristics,

and the diagram in Figure 22 an example of a charging
circuit for this type of charger.

Charge Time

Battery Voltage
Charger Current

Figure 20: Constant Current/Constant Voltage

Charge Characteristics

Charging for Cycle Operation

Cyclic applications generally require that recharging be
done in a relatively short time. The initial charge current,
however, must not exceed 0.20 x C amps. Just as battery
voltage drops during discharge, it slowly rises during
charge. Full charge is determined by voltage and inflowing current. When, at a charge voltage of 2.45 0.05
volts/cell, the current accepted by the battery drops to
less than 0.01 x C amps (1% of rated capacity), the battery is fully charged and the charger should be disconnected or switched to a float voltage of 2.25 to 2.30
volts/cell. The voltage should not be allowed to rise
above 2.45 0.05 volts/cell.

Charge Current

Battery Voltage

Charge Time

Figure 21: Two-Step Constant Voltage

Charge Characteristics

10

CHARGING
Q2
RISW 1 U1 LM317TB
V1 V0 3

BR1+

D1

R4

C1
D2
1N4148

Temperature compensated @ 2 mV/cell/C

2.275 V/cell
for float applications

R1
240

1.2K

D3

R5

R6

390
R2

Select Rs to give correct float voltage at

desired min. current: 0.6/R3= Imax.
Select Risw to turn on Q2 at
desired current Isw = Risw/0.6

RS
Select

Q1
PN2222

Figure 22: Dual Stage Current Limited Battery Charger

2.45 V/cell
for cyclic applications

R3

Temperature Compensation
Power-Sonic batteries perform well both at low and high
temperatures. At low temperatures, however, charge efficiency is reduced; at temperatures above 45C, charge
efficiency increases so rapidly that there is a danger of
thermal runaway if temperature compensation is not precise.

Charging in Series: Lead-acid batteries are strings of 2

volt cells connected in series, commonly 2, 3 ,4 or 6 cells
per battery. Strings of Power-Sonic batteries up to 48
volts and higher may be charged in series safely and efficiently. However, as the number of batteries in series
increases, so does the possibility of slight differences in
capacity. These differences can result from age, storage
history, temperature variations or abuse.

The effect of temperature on charge voltage is less critical in float applications, than in cyclic use where relatively high charge currents are applied for the purpose of
short recharge times.

When a single constant voltage charger is connected

across an entire high voltage string, the same current
flows through all cells in the string. Depending on the
characteristics of the individual batteries, some may
overcharge while others remain in a slightly undercharged condition. When charging high voltage strings
this way for extended periods it is generally recommended to use a low input voltage inverter to enhance service
life and simplify charging requirements.

Temperature effects should definitely be considered

when designing or selecting a charging system. As a rule
of thumb, temperature compensation is desirable in the
charging circuit when operating outside the range of
41F to 95F (5C to 35C) prevailing ambient. The temperature coefficient is -2mV/cell/C below 20C in
standby service and -6mV/cell/C below 20C in cyclic
use. For higher temperatures the charge voltage should
be correspondingly decreased.

If one cell is lower in capacity than the others when discharging a long string in series, it may actually reverse
polarity even though the total voltage of the string is at
or above the cut-off voltage.

The table in Figure 23 lists recommended charge voltages for different temperatures.

To minimize the effects of individual battery differences,

use batteries of the same age and history and, if possible,
charge in strings of no greater than 24 or 48 volts.

AMBIENT
TEMPERATURE

Charging in Parallel: Power-Sonic batteries may

be used in parallel with one or more batteries of equal
voltage.

-4F( -20C)
14F( -10C)
32F( 0C)
50F(+10C)
68F(+20C)
77F(+25C)
86F(+30C)
104F(+40C)
122F(+50C)

When connected in parallel, the current from a charger

will tend to divide almost equally between the batteries.
No special matching of batteries is required. If the batteries of unequal capacity are connected in parallel, the
current will tend to divide between the batteries in the
ratio of capacities (actually, internal resistances).
When charging batteries in parallel, where different
ratios of charge are to be expected, it is best to make provisions to assure that the currents will not vary too much
between batteries. Holding a small resistance in series
with each battery is all that is needed

CHARGE VOLTAGE PER CELL

Cyclic use
Float Use
2.67-2.77V
2.34-2.39V
2.61-2.71V
2.32-2.37V
2.55-2.65V
2.30-2.35V
2.49-2.59V
2.28-2.33V
2.43-2.53V
2.26-2.31V
2.40-2.50V
2.25-2.30V
2.37-2.47V
2.24-2.29V
2.31-2.41V
2.22-2.27V
2.25-2.35V
2.20-2.25V

Figure 23: Temperature Compensated Charge Voltage

11

A P P L I C AT I O N N O T E S
Power-Sonic rechargeable sealed lead-acid batteries
are designed to provide years of dependable service.
Adherence to the following guidelines in system
design will ensure that battery life is maximized and
operation is trouble-free.

When charging batteries in series (positive terminal of

one battery is connected to the negative terminal of
another), all batteries in the string will receive the same
amount of charge current, though individual battery voltages may vary.

Continuous over-or undercharging is the single worst

enemy of a lead-acid battery. Caution should be exercised to ensure that the charger is disconnected after
cycle charging, or that the float voltage is set correctly.

When charging batteries in parallel (positive terminals

are connected to the positive terminal and negative terminals to the negative), all batteries in the string will
receive the same charge voltage but the charge current
each battery receives will vary until equalization is
reached.

Batteries should not be stored in a discharged state or

at elevated temperatures. If a battery has been discharged
for some time or the load was left on indefinitely, it may
not readily take a charge. To overcome this, leave the
charger connected and the battery should eventually
begin to accept charge.

High voltage strings of batteries in series should be

limited to twenty 6 volt or ten 12 volt batteries when a
single constant voltage charger is connected across the
entire string . Differences in capacity can cause some
batteries to overcharge while others remain undercharged
thus causing premature aging of batteries. It is, therefore,
not advisable to mix batteries of different capacities,
make, or age in a series string.

Avoid exposing batteries to heat! Care should be taken

to place batteries away from heat-emitting components.
If close proximity is unavoidable, provide ventilation.
Service life is shortened considerably at ambients above
30C.

To minimize the effects of cell or battery differences,

charge the string in 24 volt battery groups through a constant current source with zener diode regulation across
individual batteries or battery groups.

Although Power-Sonic batteries have a low self-discharge rate which permits storage of a fully charged battery for up to a year, it is recommended that a battery be
charged 6-9 months after receipt to account for storage
from the date of manufacture to the date of purchase.
Otherwise, permanent loss of capacity might occur as a
result of sulfation. To prolong shelf life without charging, store batteries at 50F (10C) or less.

To prevent problems arising from heat exchange

between batteries connected in series or parallel, it is
advisable to provide air space of at least 0.4 (10mm)
between batteries.
Battery containers, made of ABS plastic or styrene,
can sustain damage if exposed to organic solvents or
adhesives.

Fasten batteries tightly and make provisions for shock

absorption if exposure to shock or vibration is likely.
Although it is possible to charge Power-Sonic batteries rapidly, i.e. in 6-7 hrs., it is not normally recommended. Unlimited current charging can cause increased
off-gassing and premature drying. It can also produce
internal heating and hot spots resulting in shortened service life. Too high a charge current will cause a battery
to get progressively hotter. This can lead to thermal runaway and can destroy a battery in as little as a few
hours.

Recharge time depends on the depth of the preceding

discharge and the output current of the charger. To determine the approximate recharge time of a fully discharged
battery, divide the batterys capacity (amp. hrs.) by the
rated output of the charger (amps.) and multiply the
resulting number of hours by a factor of 1.75 to compensate for the declining output current during charge. If
the amount of amp. hrs. discharged from the battery is
known, use it instead of the batterys capacity to make
the calculation.

Caution: Never charge or discharge a battery in an airtight enclosure. Batteries generate a mixture of gases
internally. Given the right set of circumstances such as
extreme overcharging or shorting of the battery, these
gases might vent into the enclosure and create the potential for an explosion when ignited by a spark. Generally,
ventilation inherent in most enclosures is sufficient to
avoid problems.

For best results and generally acceptable performance

and longevity, keep operating temperature range between
-20C and +40C.
Do not attempt to disassemble batteries. Contact with
sulfuric acid may cause harm. Should it occur, wash skin
or clothes with liberal amounts of water. Do not throw
batteries into fire; batteries so disposed may rupture or
explode. Disassembled batteries are hazardous waste and
must be treated accordingly. It is unlawful to dispose of
batteries except through a recycling center.

Do not place batteries in close proximity to objects

which can produce sparks or flames, and do not charge
batteries in an inverted position.

12

GLOSSARY
Ambient Temperature
The prevailing surface temperature to which a battery is
exposed.

Energy Density
Ratio of battery energy to volume or weight expressed in watthours per cubic inch or pound.

Ampere
Unit of measurement for electric current.

Gas Recombination
The process by which oxygen gas generated from the positive
plate during the final stage of charge is absorbed into the negative plate, preventing loss of water.

Ampere-Hour
The product of current (amperes) multiplied by time (hours).
Used to indicate the capacity of a battery. Also Amp.Hr. or A.H.
Battery
Two or more cells connected together, most typically in series.
Capacity
The electrical energy available from a cell or battery expressed
in ampere-hours.
Available capacity refers to ampere-hours that can be discharged from a battery based on its state of charge, rate of discharge, ambient temperature, and specified cut-off voltage.
Rated capacity (C) is the discharge capacity the manufacturer
says may be obtained at a given discharge rate and temperature.
Cell
The basic building block of a battery. The nominal voltage of a
lead-acid battery is 2 volts.
Cell reversal the act of driving a cell into reverse polarity by
excessive discharge.
Primary cell cell or battery that can be discharged only once.
Secondary cell the process is reversible so that charging and
discharging may be repeated over and over.
Charge
The conversion of electrical energy to chemical energy; the
process which restores electrical energy to a cell or battery.
Charge retention refers to a batterys ability to hold a charge. It
diminishes during storage.
Charge acceptance quantifies the amount of electric charge
which accumulates in a battery.
Float charge maintains the capacity of a cell or battery by
applying a constant voltage.
Trickle charge maintains the capacity of a cell or battery by
applying a small constant current.
Charge equalization brings all of the cells in a battery or string
to the same state of charge.
Discharge
The process of drawing current from a battery.
Deep Discharge the discharge of a cell or battery to between
80% and 100% of rated capacity.
Depth of Discharge the mount of capacity typically
expressed as a percentage removed during discharge.
Self Discharge the loss of capacity while stored or not in use.
Self Discharge Rate the percent of capacity lost on open circuit over a specified period of time.
Electrode
Positive or negative plate containing materials capable of reacting with electrolyte to produce or accept current.

Impedance
The resistive value of a battery to an AC current expressed in
ohms (). Generally measured at 1000 Hz at full charge.
Internal Resistance
The resistance inside a battery which creates a voltage drop in
proportion to the current draw.
Nominal Voltage / Nominal Capacity
The nominal value of rated voltage / the nominal value of rated
capacity. The nominal voltage of a lead-acid battery is 2 volts
per cell.
Open Circuit Voltage
The voltage of a battery or cell when measured in a no load condition.
Parallel Connection
Connecting a group of batteries or cells by linking all terminals
of the same polarity. This increases the capacity of the battery
group.
Series Connection
The connection of a group of cells or batteries by linking terminals of opposite polarity. This increases the voltage of the battery group.
Separator
Material isolating positive from negative plates. In sealed leadacid batteries it normally is absorbent glass fiber to hold the
electrolyte in suspension.
SLA Battery
Sealed lead-acid battery, generally having the following characteristics: Maintenance-free, leak-proof, position-insensitive.
Batteries of this type have a safety vent to release gas in case of
excessive internal pressure build-up. Hence also the term: Valve
regulated battery.
Gel Cells are SLA batteries whose dilute sulfuric acid electrolyte is immobilized by way of additives which turn the electrolyte into a gel.
Standby Service
An application in which the battery is maintained in a fully
charged condition by trickle of float charging.
State of Charge
The available capacity of a battery at a given time expressed as
a percentage of rated capacity.
Thermal Runaway
A condition in which a cell or battery on constant potential
charge can destroy itself through internal heat generation.

Primary Power

Portable Tools & Instruments

Hand-held Lights
Cordless & Portable Cellular Phones
Power Packs
Remote or Portable Data Gathering Devices
Medical Apparatus
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Engine Starting Devices
Robotics
Consumer Electronics
Hobby Craft

Standby Power
UPS Systems
Emergency Lighting
Fire & Burglar Alarm Systems
Access Control Devices
Telecommunications Equipment
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OPERATIONS & WAREHOUSE

POWER-SONIC CORPORATION
9163 Siempre Viva Road
San Diego, CA 92173
Telephone: (619) 661-2020
Fax: (619) 661-3650

SALES & MARKETING

EUROPE

POWER-SONIC CORPORATION

POWER-SONIC EUROPE LTD.

P.O. Box 5242

Redwood City, CA 94063 USA
Telephone: (650) 364-5001
Fax: (650) 366-3662

3 Buckingham Square, Hurricane way

Wickford, Essex SS11 8YQ, England
Telephone: (1268) 560686
Fax: (1268) 560902
http://www.power-sonic.com
E-mail: battery@power-sonic.com

PRINTED IN USA 25M 6/98